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Chapter 8 Cognition and Language
Chapter 8
Cognition and Language
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SMARTBOOK
Students study more effectively with Smartbook.
• Make It Effective. Powered by Learnsmart, SmartBook™ creates a personalized reading experience by highlighting the
most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with
SmartBook™ is returned to the student as the most value-added minute possible.
• Make It Informed. Real-time reports quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual
students—or the entire class. SmartBook™ detects the content a student is most likely to forget and brings it back to
improve long-term knowledge retention. Students help inform the revision strategy.
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students who used Connect Psychology’s Learnsmart.
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which students had the most difficulty. Revising these concepts, then, can make them more accessible for students.
CONNECT
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Here is a sample of Interactivities that you can find in Connect. For a full list of assets, go to Connect!
Ch. Chapter Title Module Module Title Asset Type Asset title Connect Learning
Objective
08 Cognition 23 Thinking and Interactivity Heuristics Describe the processes

and Reasoning involved in reasoning,
Language forming judgments,
and making decisions.
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08 Cognition 24 Problem Concept Critical Describe the factors

and Solving Clip Thinking and that contribute to
Language Metacognition creativity, and the role
of creativity in problem
solving and critical
thinking.
08 Cognition 25 Language Interactivity Word Decoder List the basic

and components of
Language language and
grammar.
OPENING THEMES
The topic of cognition includes thought processes and ways to reason. A particularly important concept
in this unit is that of mental set or functional fixedness. Students can benefit from learning about this
topic because it will help them to tackle real-life, everyday problems that they face. The topic of
language gives students an appreciation for the complexity of thought processes and is also entertaining
in its own right, given the importance of language in the arts. Another facet of language is nonverbal
communication. Students can learn how to use both linguistic and nonverbal aspects of language to
their advantage as a way to influence the impressions they make on other people.
MODULE 23: THINKING AND REASONING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
23–1: What is thinking?
23–2: What processes underlie reasoning and decision making?
Psychologists define thinking as brain activity in which we purposefully manipulate mental

representations of information. A mental representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a
sound, or data in any other sensory modality that is stored in memory.
MENTAL IMAGES: EXAMINING THE MIND’S EYE
Mental images are representations in the mind of an object or event. They are not just visual
representations; our ability to “hear” a tune in our heads also relies on a mental image. Research has
found that our mental images have many of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent.
CONCEPTS: CATEGORIZING THE WORLD
Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people. Concepts enable us to organize
complex phenomena into simpler, and therefore more easily usable, cognitive categories. Concepts help
us classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experience. Ultimately, concepts
influence behavior.
When cognitive psychologists first studied concepts, they focused on those that were clearly defined by
a unique set of properties or features. Other concepts—often those with the most relevance to our
everyday lives—are more ambiguous and difficult to define. When we consider these more ambiguous
concepts, we usually think in terms of examples called prototypes. Prototypes are typical, highly
representative examples of a concept that correspond to our mental image or best example of the
concept.
REASONING: MAKING UP YOUR MIND
Reasoning is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions. It is only
relatively recently that cognitive psychologists have begun to investigate how people reason and make
decisions. Their efforts have contributed to our understanding of formal reasoning processes as well as
the cognitive shortcuts we routinely use—shortcuts that sometimes may lead our reasoning capabilities
astray.
Syllogistic Reasoning: The Formal Rules of Logic
Syllogistic reasoning is a kind of formal reasoning in which a person draws a conclusion from a set of
assumptions. In using syllogistic reasoning, we begin with a general assumption that we believe is true
and then derive specific implications from that assumption. If the assumption is true, the conclusions
must also be true. A major technique for studying syllogistic reasoning involves asking people to
evaluate a series of statements that present two assumptions, or premises, that are used to derive a
conclusion. Syllogistic reasoning is only as accurate as the premises and the validity of the logic applied
to the premises.
Algorithms and Heuristics
An algorithm is a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. A heuristic is a

thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may
sometimes lead to errors.
Heuristics increase the likelihood of success in coming to a solution, but, unlike algorithms, they cannot
ensure it. For example, we sometimes use the representativeness heuristic, a rule we apply when we
judge people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people. The
availability heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can
be recalled from memory. According to this heuristic, we assume that events we remember easily are
likely to have occurred more frequently in the past—and are more likely to occur in the future—than
events that are harder to remember. We also make use of a familiarity heuristic, in which familiar items
are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar.
COMPUTERS AND PROBLEM SOLVING: SEARCHING FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Computers are making significant inroads in terms of the ability to solve problems and carry out some
forms of intellectual activities. According to experts who study artificial intelligence, the field that
examines how to use technology to imitate the outcome of human thinking, problem solving, and
creative activities, computers can show rudiments of humanlike thinking because of their knowledge of
where to look—and where not to look—for an answer to a problem. They suggest that the capacity of
computer programs (such as those that play chess) to evaluate potential moves and to ignore
unimportant possibilities gives them thinking ability.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS:
CONNECT ASSIGNMENTS
There is an Interactivity Assignment covering topics related to cognition.
COGNITIVE MAPS
Have students complete the following assignment (as an alternative to the Cognitive Map Lecture,
below):
Draw a map of your campus. Now compare it to the official campus map. Did your cognitive map reveal
one or both of the cognitive map heuristics? Show where the heuristic applied to your map by labeling
it.
Now think about your cognitive map of a well-known location. Choose one of these (such as the main
street of your hometown, the layout of a local shopping mall, or the map of a museum or gallery). Draw
this map.
Which areas were smallest on this map? Which were largest? Why do you think this is?
Ask a friend to draw a map of the same area. Compare your maps. Where and how did they differ? Why
do you think this is?
CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES
Have students complete Handout 8–1, Concepts and Prototypes.
LECTURE IDEAS:
CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES
Compare answers among students from Handout 8–1, Concepts and Prototypes. Use this in lecture to
point out which concepts have clear, and which do not have clear, prototypes.
SYLLOGISTIC REASONING
Below is a “refresher course” in the rules of logic:
In a valid syllogism, if both premises are true, then the conclusion is also true.
These are the conditions of a valid syllogism:
There are no more than three terms.
There is one term common to both premises.
The terms should not change their meaning or application during the course of the argument.
Here is an example of a syllogism in which the conclusion is wrong because one of the premises is
wrong:
All fungi are edible:
this is a fungus:
therefore, this is edible.
All fungi are NOT edible; therefore, although the form of the syllogism is correct, the conclusion is
incorrect.
In contrast, this syllogism is correct:
Some fungi are edible:
this is a fungus:
therefore, this may be edible.
Although not helpful in determining whether this fungus is safe to eat or not, the result is that caution is
induced.
In this case, both statements are true, but the conclusion does not follow from the premises:
Augustus was a Roman emperor:
Julius Caesar was a Roman general:
therefore, Julius Caesar was the uncle of Augustus.
This argument adds additional conditions and therefore violates the terms of a valid syllogism:
Loss of liberty makes men slaves:
I am denied the liberty of buying a glass of beer outside licensing hours:
therefore, I am a slave.
Finally, here is a common mistaken argument:
All successful diplomats are noted for their tact:
Lord S. is noted for his tact:
Therefore, Lord S. is a successful diplomat.
It follows this form:
All X’s are Y:
S is Y:
therefore, S is X.
The conclusion may be true, but it does not follow from the premises.
You can find many examples of illogical reasoning in politician’s speeches, advertisements, and
interpersonal judgments.
THE WASON SELECTION TASK
Although not discussed in the text, this classic logic problem is a fascinating one that has been analyzed
in a number of psychological studies on reasoning.
The gist of the task is as follows:
Four cards are presented as follows:
The cards are labeled “D” or “K” on one side and “3” or “7” on the other.
A rule says that “if a card is D on one side then it is 3 on the other side.”
Which cards need to be turned over to know whether this sample of cards is consistent with the rule?
The answer is “D” and “7.”
If there is a 3 on the other side of D, this proves the rule of those 2 cards. If there is a D on the other side
of 7, this violates the rule.
Researchers have found that people have a great deal more difficulty handling this rule when presented
in the abstract than when presented in concrete terms.
http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/socex/wason.htm
For instance, if these are tickets purchased at a party where underage drinkers are not allowed to drink
alcohol, the four cards showing would be:
D = Beer
K = Soda
3 = Age 21
7 = Under 21
Therefore, all Beer tickets should have Age 21 on the back and no Under 21 tickets should have Beer on
the back. This problem is easier to solve than the D-K-3-7 problem.
LOGICAL REASONING: WORD PUZZLES
Here are some good word puzzles that will test the logical powers of your students.
A murderer is condemned to death. He has to choose between three rooms. The first is full of raging
fires, the second is full of assassins with loaded guns, and the third is full of lions that have not eaten in
three years. Which room is safest for him?
ANSWER: The third. Lions that have not eaten in three years are dead.
A woman shoots her husband. Then she holds him under water for over 10 minutes. Finally, she hangs
him. But 5 minutes later they both go out together and enjoy a wonderful dinner together. How can this
be?
ANSWER: The woman was a photographer. She shot a picture of her husband, developed it, and hung it
up to dry.
There are two plastic jugs filled with water. How could you put all of this water into a barrel, without
using the jugs or any dividers, and still tell which water came from which jug?
ANSWER: Freeze them first. Take them out of the jugs and put the ice in the barrel. You will be able to
tell which water came from which jug.
What is black when you buy it, red when you use it, and gray when you throw it away?
ANSWER: Charcoal.
Can you name three consecutive days without using the words Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday?
ANSWER: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow.
ALGORITHMS VERSUS HEURISTICS
Define the difference between algorithms and heuristics. Algorithms are slow but always generate the
correct solution; heuristics are quicker but may lead to the wrong answer.
Examples:
1. Buying a rug for a dorm room.
Heuristic: Jared and his roommate Doug are trying to decide what size rug they need to buy to cover the
floor of their dorm room. Jared looks at the floor and says, “This is about the size of my room at home.
Let’s buy a 9’ × 12’ rug.”
Algorithm: Doug says, “I want to measure the area. Let’s find a yardstick so that I can find out its exact
size.”
2. Baking cookies.
Heuristic: Allison decides to bake chocolate chip cookies to take to her boyfriend’s house for dinner. She
calls her mother to find out the “family” recipe. Allison’s mother tells her to take about a cup of butter, a
bit of baking soda, two eggs, about a cup of brown sugar, and about the same amount of flour. Finally,
add some chocolate chips.
Algorithm: Allison is nervous about making the cookies without having more exact amounts. She looks
up a recipe in a cookbook and decides to use that one, which specifies how much to use of sugar, flour,
butter, baking soda, and chocolate chips. The recipe also says exactly what order to add the ingredients.
Lecture demonstration:
What word can you form from this anagram?
ERET
The answer is TREE. Ask students if they tried all possible combinations before they reached the answer.
This would be using an algorithm. It is possible to do this with a four-letter word.
Now show this:
LSSTNEUIAMYOUL
The answer is SIMULTANEOUSLY. Find out how many students tried all possible combinations. Chances
are they did not, as this would be a much slower solution. Therefore, they had to use a heuristic.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR STUDENTS
An algorithm is the same every time, like the rhythm of music. A heuristic is also a “rule of thumb,” and
heuristic starts with the letter “h” (as in thumb).
HEURISTICS IN COGNITIVE MAPS
Illustrate the operation of heuristics in cognitive maps, which are mental representations of geographic
spaces:
Two days before this lecture, ask students to draw a map of their campus. Specify which buildings or
areas to include. On the day before the cognition lecture, collect the maps.
Choose one that will illustrate these heuristics:
1. Rotation heuristic—the tendency to think of geographic locations as more vertical or horizontal than
they are in reality, especially effective when looking at North-to-South directions. The rotation heuristic
is responsible for the common error that people make in assuming that Reno, Nevada, is further east
than San Diego, California. (Also, people think that California is by definition further west than Nevada.)
You can show this with a map (below):
2. Alignment heuristic—the tendency to think of arrangements of locations such as buildings as being

more in alignment than they really are:
Make a slide of the map that you choose to show. Lay it over the actual campus map, and these
cognitive map distortions will be clearly revealed.
STATISTICAL HEURISTICS
Give students these problems in class:
Availability Heuristic:
People judge events that they can remember easily as more common than events that they cannot
remember.
1. Which is more common—deaths from homicides or deaths from suicides?
ANSWER: Deaths from suicides. Newspapers place much more emphasis on deaths from homicides and
therefore people can remember these deaths more readily and hence judge them as more frequent.
Another similar example is deaths from drowning versus deaths from fires. Drowning deaths are more
frequent, but they do not get as much media attention.
2. Which is more common in the English language: Words that begin with the letter “r” or words that
have the letter “r” as the third letter?
ANSWER: Words that have the letter “r” as the third letter. People can remember words that begin with
a letter more readily than they can remember words that have an embedded letter.
Vividness and distinctiveness also play a role. You are more likely to believe a friend who tells you a
dramatic story about the problems he had with his Camry than all the positive ratings you read in
consumer reports. Similarly, people are more likely to buy flood insurance after reading about floods
than at any other time, even though the probability of a flood is no different than it was before the
flood.
Representativeness Heuristic:
People tend to ignore base rates, and fail to seek out base rates when base rate information is needed
to make reliable probabilistic judgments.
For example, people believe that coincidences are unlikely. Out of 30 people, there is a 70 percent
probability that two will share the same birthday, but people think it is a coincidence when that occurs.
People will also believe that a sequence of the same six numbers is less likely to win in a lottery than a
sequence of six different numbers even though they are equally likely.
1. When flipping coins, which is the most likely sequence?
HHHTTT
HHHHHH
TTTTTT
HTHTHT
HHTTHH
ANSWER: They are all equally probable; each coin toss is a separate event and each has a 50–50 chance
of occurring.
2. Imagine you just met a man named Steve. Steve is very shy and withdrawn, invariably helpful, but
with little interest in people or in the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul, he has a need for order and
structure, and a passion for detail. Is Steve more likely to be a librarian or a salesperson?
ANSWER: A salesperson. Statistically, there are far more salespeople than librarians in the workforce.
Therefore, although Steve may seem to have the attributes of a librarian, the odds are far more likely
that he is a salesperson.
Effect of Question Wording
This is not covered in the text, but it provides a fascinating classroom demonstration:
Tell the students that you know what they are going to say and have it written on the next slide. It will
be the number 7.
Guess the number I am thinking of.
Add
2+2
4+4
8+8
16+16
Pick a number between 12 and 5.
People who were doing the addition problems before the final question were induced into an addition
set. This led them, when later asked to pick a number between 5 and 12, to ADD 5+12 = 17. Then,
because 17 could not be chosen, they chose 7 as the most salient substitute.
When members of a class were asked to pick a number between 5 and 12 without the preamble, only 30
percent chose 7s compared to 67 percent who did when given the preamble.
WHAT’S MY HEURISTIC?
You can also demonstrate the above heuristics in a game show format called “What’s My Heuristic?”
Students have to get the right answer and state what type of heuristic it is.
MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS:
POPULAR MOVIES OR TELEVISION SHOWS: PROBLEM SOLVING
Show a segment from a television sitcom in which a character struggles with solving an interpersonal
problem. Alternatively, show a segment from a movie or television crime drama in which the main
character must use logic to find or catch a criminal. You could also show a humorous example of this
from a Saturday Night Live segment of MacGruber (here is an example of the 2009 Pepsi commercial
that aired during the Super Bowl: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejVs7I5y4QQ).
MODULE 24: PROBLEM SOLVING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
24–1: How do people approach and solve problems?
24–2: What are the major obstacles to problem solving?
24-3: What is creativity?
PREPARATION: UNDERSTANDING AND DIAGNOSING PROBLEMS
When approaching a problem, most people begin by trying to understand the problem thoroughly. If the
problem is a novel one, they probably will pay particular attention to any restrictions placed on coming
up with a solution. If, by contrast, the problem is a familiar one, they are apt to spend considerably less
time in this preparation stage. In a well-defined problem, both the nature of the problem itself and the
information needed to solve it are available and clear. With an ill-defined problem, not only may the
specific nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem may be even
less obvious.
Kinds of Problems
Typically, a problem falls into one of three categories: arrangement, inducing structure, and
transformation. Arrangement problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements
in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion. In problems of inducing structure, a person must identify the
existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among
them. The third kind of problem—transformation problems—consist of an initial state, a goal state, and
a method for changing the initial state into the goal state. The preparation stage of understanding and
diagnosing is critical in problem solving because it allows us to develop our own cognitive representation
of the problem and to place it within a personal framework. Winnowing out nonessential information is
often a critical step in the preparation stage of problem solving.
Representing and Organizing the Problem
A crucial aspect of the initial encounter with a problem is the way in which we represent it to ourselves
and organize the information presented to us. Our ability to represent a problem—and the solution we
eventually come to—depends on the way a problem is phrased, or framed.
PRODUCTION: GENERATING SOLUTIONS
After preparation, the next stage in problem solving is the production of possible solutions. If a problem
is relatively simple, we may already have a direct solution stored in long-term memory, and all we need
to do is retrieve the appropriate information. If we cannot retrieve or do not know the solution, we
must generate possible solutions and compare them with information in long- and short-term memory.
At the most basic level, we can solve problems through trial and error.
In place of trial and error, complex problem solving often involves the use of heuristics, cognitive
shortcuts that can generate solutions. Probably the most frequently applied heuristic in problem solving
is a means-ends analysis, which involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome
and what currently exists. Although this approach is often effective, if the problem requires indirect
steps that temporarily increase the discrepancy between a current state and the solution, means-ends
analysis can be counterproductive. For other problems, the best approach is to work backward by
focusing on the goal, rather than the starting point, of the problem.
Forming Subgoals: Dividing Problems into their Parts
Another heuristic commonly used to generate solutions is to divide a problem into intermediate steps,
or subgoals, and solve each of those steps. If solving a subgoal is a step toward the ultimate solution to a
problem, identifying subgoals is an appropriate strategy.
Insight: Sudden Awareness
In a classic study, the German psychologist Wolfgang Köhler examined learning and problem-solving
processes in chimpanzees. Köhler noticed the chimps exhibiting new behavior and called the cognitive
process underlying the behavior insight, which refers to a sudden awareness of the relationships among
various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
JUDGMENT: EVALUATING SOLUTIONS
The final stage in problem solving is judging the adequacy of a solution. Often this is a simple matter: If
the solution is clear, we will know immediately whether we have been successful. If the solution is less
concrete or if there is no single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult. In such
instances, we must decide which alternative solution is best. Unfortunately, we often quite inaccurately
estimate the quality of our own ideas. Theoretically, if we rely on appropriate heuristics and valid
information to make decisions, we can make accurate choices among alternative solutions.
IMPEDIMENTS TO SOLUTIONS: WHY IS PROBLEM SOLVING SUCH A PROBLEM?
Significant obstacles to problem solving can exist at each of the three major stages. Although cognitive
approaches to problem solving suggest that thinking proceeds along fairly rational, logical lines as a
person confronts a problem and considers various solutions, several factors can hinder the development
of creative, appropriate, and accurate solutions.
Functional Fixedness and Mental Set
The difficulty most people experience with the candle problem is caused by functional fixedness, the
tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use. Functional fixedness is an example of a
broader phenomenon known as mental set, the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist.
Mental set can affect perceptions as well as patterns of problem solving. It can prevent you from seeing
beyond the apparent constraints of a problem.
Inaccurate Evaluation of Solutions
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one’s
initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or
solutions.
CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Despite obstacles to problem solving, many people adeptly discover creative solutions to problems.
Creativity is the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways. Several characteristics
are associated with creativity. For one thing, highly creative individuals show divergent thinking,
thinking that generates unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions. This type of
thinking contrasts with convergent thinking, which is thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a
single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic. Another
aspect of creativity is its cognitive complexity, or preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli
and thinking patterns. One factor that is not closely related to creativity is intelligence.
Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology
Thinking Critically and Creatively
Research suggests that critical and creative thinkers are made, not born. Consider, for instance, the
following suggestions for increasing critical thinking and creativity: Redefine problems, use subgoals,
adopt a critical perspective, consider the opposite, use analogies, think divergently, use heuristics, and
experiment with various solutions.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS:
CONNECT ASSIGNMENTS
There is a Concept Clip covering topics related to problem solving.
EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM-SOLVING TERMS
Have students complete Handout 8–2, in which they provide examples from daily life of problem
solving.
STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING
Have students complete Handout 8-3, in which they analyze a recent problem they have faced in terms
of the steps involved in solving problems.
CREATIVITY
Ask students the following questions:
What factors do you think lead to creativity? Why are these important?
Provide an example of a person who you think is highly creative along with a rationale for having chosen
this person.
What do you regard as your most creative accomplishment? Why?
LECTURE IDEAS:
APPROACHES TO SOLVING PROBLEMS:
Four ways to obtain solutions:
Trial and error—most primitive and time-consuming. For example, if you do not know how to use a
remote control, you push every button until what you want happens.
Means-ends analysis—most frequently used. Involves heuristics.
Example: Planning route to center of town around beltway.
Subgoals—divide problem into steps if possible—making a meal involves going through a set of
subroutines so that everything is finished on time.
Insight—burst of comprehension (“aha” experience). For some reason, the word “aha” always draws a
laugh.
Example: Kohler’s chimp, Sultan.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS:
Anagrams (Arrangement problem):
Here are some humorous anagrams. For an “anagram maker” Web site, go to
http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/
Listen = Silent
Dormitory = Dirty Room
Schoolmaster = The classroom
Elvis = Lives
Slot Machines = Cash Lost in ’em
Conversation = Voices Rant On
The Hilton = Hint: Hotel
Snooze Alarms = Alas! No More Z’s
Presbyterian = Best In Prayer
Eleven plus two = Twelve plus one
Debit card = Bad Credit
George Bush = He bugs Gore (maybe not this one!)
Psychology = Cop go shyly (not very funny, but relevant)
TRANSFORMATION PROBLEM
Go to this “Tower of Hanoi” Web site:
http://www.cut-the-knot.org/recurrence/hanoi.shtml
INDUCING STRUCTURE PROBLEM
Give students this puzzle:
This is an unusual paragraph. I am curious how quickly you can find out what is so unusual about it? It
looks so plain you would think nothing was wrong with it! In fact, nothing is wrong with it. Study it, and
think about it, but you still may not find anything odd. But if you work at it a bit, you might find out. Try
to do so without any coaching.
Write your answer here: _____
Answer: The letter “e,” which is the most common letter in the English language, does not appear even
once in the paragraph.
FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS
In addition to the Luchins’ water jars, which are an excellent example of functional fixedness or mental
set, present these examples:
A construction detour leads you to take the long way around to get to your psychology class. After the
construction is finished and the detour removed, you continue to go the long way around.
Overcoming functional fixedness can save your life: Jan Demczur, a window cleaner who was stuck on an
elevator in the World Trade Center attack, was able to rescue himself and a group of other people with
him on the elevator by using his “squeegee” to open a hole in the wall.
A failure in logic also was involved in the World Trade Center construction. Although explicitly designed
to withstand an airplane’s impact, the engineers had not taken into account the effect of a full load of
jet fuel.
CREATIVITY DEMONSTRATION: DIVERGENT THINKING
Guilford developed tests of creativity as part of his structure of intellect model. In the “Alternative Uses
Task,” the respondent answers questions such as “Name all the uses for a brick.” Scoring is based on
originality, fluency, flexibility, and elaboration. Ask students to provide answers to this question. Have
them share their answers either by switching papers or contributing their answers while you write them
down. Then have other students rate the uses along these four dimensions.
See this Web site:
http://www.indiana.edu/~bobweb/Handout/d1.uses.htm
CONVERGENT THINKING
Traditional problems that have one correct solution provide examples of convergent thinking. An
entertaining example of such a problem is: “I have two coins in my pocket that add up to $.30 in value.
One of the coins is not a nickel. What is the other coin?” The answer is—a nickel! One of the coins is not
a nickel, but the other one is.
IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM-SOLVING
Mental set
A very silly example of this was suggested by my colleague, Tammy Rahhal. Have the class repeat after
you:
Coast
Coast
Coast
Then say: What do you put in a toaster?
The class will all shout out “Toast!”
Of course, that is ridiculous because you would put bread in a toaster, not toast.
MEDIA PRESENTATION IDEAS:
POPULAR MOVIE OR TELEVISION SHOW: PROBLEM SOLVING
Show a scene from a movie such as Cast Away, in which Tom Hanks demonstrates the ability to avoid
functional fixedness in escaping from the island where his airplane crashed. Alternatively, show a scene
from Survivor, in which the contestants find novel ways to use familiar objects. The ABC show Lost also
involves similar situations, especially in Season 1 when the survivors were challenged to make use of
their crashed airplane to fashion living quarters for themselves.
POPULAR MOVIE: CREATIVITY
Provide an example from a movie in which a creative artist was featured. A good example is Amadeus.
Ask students what elements of creativity were shown in this movie.
MODULE 25: LANGUAGE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
23–1: How do people use language?
23–2: How does language develop?
The use of language—the communication of information through symbols arranged according to

systematic rules—is a central cognitive ability, one that is indispensable for us to communicate with one
another.
GRAMMAR: LANGUAGE’S LANGUAGE
The basic structure of language rests on grammar, the system of rules that determine how our thoughts
can be expressed. Grammar deals with three major components of language: phonology, syntax, and
semantics. Phonology is the study of phonemes, the smallest basic units of speech that affect meaning,
and of the way we use those sounds to form words and produce meaning. For instance, the “a” sound in
fat and the “a” sound in fate represent two different phonemes in English. Syntax refers to the rules
that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences. Every language has intricate
rules that guide the order in which words may be strung together to communicate meaning. The third
major component of language is semantics, the meanings of words and sentences. Semantic rules allow
us to use words to convey the subtle nuances in meaning.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPING A WAY WITH WORDS
Babbling
Children babble—make speech-like but meaningless sounds—from around the age of 3 months through
1 year. An infant’s babbling increasingly reflects the specific language being spoken in the infant’s
environment, initially in terms of pitch and tone and eventually in terms of specific sounds.
Production of Language
By the time children are approximately 1 year old, they stop producing sounds that are not in the
language to which they have been exposed. It is then a short step to the production of actual words. In
English, these are typically short words that start with a consonant sound such as b, d, m, p, and t.
After the age of 1 year, children begin to learn more complicated forms of language. By age 2, the
average child has a vocabulary of more than 50 words. They produce two-word combinations, the
building blocks of sentences, and sharply increase the number of different words they are able to use.
Just 6 months later, that vocabulary has grown to several hundred words. At that time, children can
produce short sentences, although they use telegraphic speech—sentences that sound as if they were
part of a telegram, in which words not critical to the message are left out. Rather than saying, “I showed
you the book,” a child using telegraphic speech may say, “I show book.”
Overgeneralization is the phenomenon by which children apply language rules even when the
application results in an error.
Understanding Language Acquisition: Identifying the Roots of Language
Learning Theory Approaches: Language as a Learned Skill
The learning-theory approach suggests that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement
and conditioning discovered by psychologists who study learning. This view suggests that children first
learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech.
Nativist Approaches: Language as an Innate Skill
The linguist Noam Chomsky argued that humans are born with an innate linguistic capability that
emerges primarily as a function of maturation. According to his nativist approach to language, all the
world’s languages share a common underlying structure that is pre-wired, biologically determined, and
universal. Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us
understand the structure language provides—a kind of universal grammar.
Interactionist Approaches
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22. Howe’s Victory of June 1, 1794[66]
[Prior to the engagement, the French fleet had met and was
convoying to port 180 vessels from America with food-stuffs of which
France was then in dire need. The British fleet encountered the
French 400 miles west of Ushant on May 28, and in the four days of
maneuvering and pursuit which followed, Howe displayed marked
energy and tactical skill. Though the French fleet was defeated in the
ensuing battle, it covered the escape of the convoy.—Editor.]
The French admiral on the evening of the 29th saw that he now
must fight, and at a disadvantage; consequently, he could not hope to
protect the convoy. As to save this was his prime object, the next best
thing was to entice the British out of its path. With this view he stood
away to the north-west; while a dense fog coming on both favored his
design and prevented further encounter during the two ensuing days,
throughout which Howe continued to pursue. In the evening of May
31 the weather cleared, and at daybreak the next morning the
enemies were in position, ready for battle, two long columns of ships,
heading west, the British twenty-five, the French again twenty-six
through the junction of the four vessels mentioned. Howe now had
cause to regret his absent six, and to ponder Nelson’s wise saying,
“Only numbers can annihilate.”
This time for maneuvering was past. Able tactician as he
personally was, and admirable as had been the direction of his efforts
in the two days’ fighting, Howe had been forced in them to realize
two things, namely, that his captains were, singly, superior in
seamanship, and their crews in gunnery, to the French; and again,
that in the ability to work together as a fleet the British were so
deficient as to promise very imperfect results, if he attempted any
but the simplest formation. To such, therefore, he resorted; falling
back upon the old, unskillful, sledge-hammer fashion of the British
navy. Arranging his ships in one long line, three miles from the
enemy, he made them all go down together, each to attack a specified
opponent, coming into action as nearly as might be at the same
instant. Thus the French, from the individual inferiority of the units
of their fleet, would be at all points over-powered. The issue justified
the forecast; but the manner of performance was curiously and
happily marked by Howe’s own peculiar phlegm. There was a long
summer day ahead for fighting, and no need for hurry. The order was
first accurately formed, and canvas reduced to proper proportions.
Then the crews went to breakfast. After breakfast, the ships all
headed for the hostile line, under short sail, the admiral keeping
them in hand during the approach as an infantry officer dresses his
company. Hence the shock from end to end was so nearly
simultaneous as to induce success unequalled in any engagement
conducted on the same primitive plan.
Picturesque as well as sublime, animating as well as solemn, on
that bright Sunday morning, was this prelude to the stern game of
war about to be played: the quiet summer sea stirred only by a breeze
sufficient to cap with white the little waves that ruffled its surface;
the dark hulls gently rippling the water aside in their slow advance, a
ridge of foam curling on either side of the furrow ploughed by them
in their onward way; their massive sides broken by two, or at times
three, rows of ports, whence, the tompions drawn, yawned the sullen
lines of guns, behind which, unseen, but easily realized by the
instructed eye, clustered the groups of ready seamen who served
each piece. Aloft swung leisurely to and fro the tall spars, which
ordinarily, in so light a wind, would be clad in canvas from deck to
truck, but whose naked trimness now proclaimed the deadly purpose
of that still approach. Upon the high poops, where floated the
standard of either nation, gathered round each chief the little knot of
officers through whom commands were issued and reports received,
the nerves along which thrilled the impulses of the great organism,
from its head, the admiral, through every member to the dark lowest
decks, nearly awash, where, as farthest from the captain’s own
oversight, the senior lieutenants controlled the action of the ships’
heaviest batteries.
On board the Queen Charlotte, Lord Howe, whose burden of sixty-
eight years had for four days found no rest save what he could snatch
in an arm-chair, now, at the prospect of battle, “displayed an
animation,” writes an eye-witness, “of which, at his age, and after
such fatigue of body and mind, I had not thought him capable. He
seemed to contemplate the result as one of unbounded satisfaction.”
By his side stood his fleet-captain, Curtis, of whose service among
the floating batteries, and during the siege of Gibraltar, the governor
of the fortress had said, “He is the man to whom the king is chiefly
indebted for its security;” and Codrington, then a lieutenant, who
afterwards commanded the allied fleets at Navarino. Five ships to the
left, Collingwood, in the Barfleur, was making to the admiral whose
flag she bore the remark that stirred Thackeray: “Our wives are now
about going to church, but we will ring about these Frenchmen’s ears
a peal which will drown their bells.” The French officers, both
admirals and captains, were mainly unknown men, alike then and
thereafter. The fierce flames of the Revolution had swept away the
men of the old school, mostly aristocrats, and time had not yet
brought forward the very few who during the Napoleonic period
showed marked capacity. The commander-in-chief, Villaret-Joyeuse,
had three years before been a lieutenant. He had a high record for
gallantry, but was without antecedents as a general officer. With him,
on the poop of the Montagne, which took her name from
Robespierre’s political supporters, stood that anomalous companion
of the generals and admirals of the day, the Revolutionary
commissioner, Jean Bon Saint-André, about to learn by experience
the practical working of the system he had advocated, to disregard all
tests of ability save patriotism and courage, depreciating practice and
skill as unnecessary to the valor of the true Frenchman.
As the British line drew near the French, Howe said to Curtis,
“Prepare the signal for close action.” “There is no such signal,”
replied Curtis. “No,” said the admiral, “but there is one for closer
action, and I only want that to be made in case of captains not doing
their duty.” Then closing a little signal book he always carried, he
continued to those around him, “Now, gentlemen, no more book, no
more signals. I look to you to do the duty of the Queen Charlotte in
engaging the flagship. I don’t want the ships to be bilge to bilge, but
if you can lock the yardarms, so much the better; the battle will be
the quicker decided.” His purpose was to go through the French line,
and fight the Montagne on the far side. Some doubted their
succeeding, but Howe overbore them. “That’s right, my lord!” cried
Bowen, the sailing-master, who looked to the ship’s steering. “The
Charlotte will make room for herself.” She pushed close under the
French ship’s stern, grazing her ensign, and raking her from stern to
stem with a withering fire, beneath which fell three hundred men. A
length or two beyond lay the French Jacobin. Howe ordered the
Charlotte to luff, and place herself between the two. “If we do,” said
Bowen, “we shall be on board one of them.” “What is that to you,
sir?” asked Howe quickly. “Oh!” muttered the master, not inaudibly.
“D—n my eyes if I care, if you don’t. I’ll go near enough to singe some
of our whiskers.” And then, seeing by the Jacobin’s rudder that she
was going off, he brought the Charlotte sharp round, her jib boom
grazing the second Frenchman as her side had grazed the flag of the
first.
From this moment the battle raged furiously from end to end of
the field for nearly an hour,—a wild scene of smoke and confusion,
under cover of which many a fierce ship duel was fought, while here
and there men wandered, lost, in a maze of bewilderment that
neutralized their better judgment. An English naval captain tells a
service tradition of one who was so busy watching the compass, to
keep his position in the ranks, that he lost sight of his antagonist, and
never again found him. Many a quaint incident passed, recorded or
unrecorded, under that sulphurous canopy. A British ship, wholly
dismasted, lay between two enemies, her captain desperately
wounded. A murmur of surrender was somewhere heard; but as the
first lieutenant checked it with firm authority, a cock flew upon the
stump of a mast and crowed lustily. The exultant note found quick
response in hearts not given to despair, and a burst of merriment,
accompanied with three cheers, replied to the bird’s triumphant
scream. On board the Brunswick, in her struggle with the Vengeur,
one of the longest and fiercest fights the sea has ever seen, the cocked
hat was shot off the effigy of the Duke of Brunswick, which she bore
as a figure-head. A deputation from the crew gravely requested the
captain to allow the use of his spare chapeau, which was securely
nailed on, and protected his grace’s wig during the rest of the action.
After this battle with the ships of the new republic, the partisans of
monarchy noted with satisfaction that, among the many royal figures
that surmounted the stems of the British fleet, not one lost his
crown. Of a harum-scarum Irish captain are told two droll stories.
After being hotly engaged for some time with a French ship, the fire
of the latter slackened, and then ceased. He called to know if she had
surrendered. The reply was, “No.” “Then,” shouted he, “d—n you,
why don’t you fire?” Having disposed of his special antagonist
without losing his own spars, the same man kept along in search of
new adventures, until he came to a British ship totally dismasted and
otherwise badly damaged. She was commanded by a captain of
rigidly devout piety. “Well, Jemmy,” hailed the Irishman, “you are
pretty well mauled; but never mind, Jemmy, whom the Lord loveth
he chasteneth.”
The French have transmitted to us less of anecdote, nor is it easy
to connect the thought of humor with those grimly earnest
republicans and the days of the Terror. There is, indeed, something
unintentionally funny in the remark of the commander of one of the
captured ships to his captors. They had, it was true, dismasted half
the French fleet, and had taken over a fourth; yet he assured them it
could not be considered a victory, “but merely a butchery, in which
the British had shown neither science nor tactics.” The one story,
noble and enduring, that will ever be associated with the French on
the 1st of June is in full keeping with the temper of the times and the
enthusiasm of the nation. The seventy-four-gun ship Vengeur, after a
three hours’ fight, yardarm to yardarm, with the British Brunswick,
was left in a sinking state by her antagonist, who was herself in no
condition to help. In the confusion, the Vengeur’s peril was for some
time not observed; and when it was, the British ships that came to
her aid had time only to remove part of her survivors. In their report
of the event the latter said: “Scarcely had the boats pulled clear of the
sides, when the most frightful spectacle was offered to our gaze.
Those of our comrades who remained on board the Vengeur du
Peuple, with hands raised to heaven, implored, with lamentable
cries, the help for which they could no longer hope. Soon
disappeared the ship and the unhappy victims it contained. In the
midst of the horror with which this scene inspired us all, we could
not avoid a feeling of admiration mingled with our grief. As we drew
away, we heard some of our comrades still offering prayers for the
welfare of their country. The last cries of these unfortunates were,
‘Vive la République!’ They died uttering them.” Over a hundred
Frenchmen thus went down.
Seven French ships were captured, including the sunk Vengeur.
Five more were wholly dismasted, but escaped,—a good fortune
mainly to be attributed to Howe’s utter physical prostration, due to
his advanced years and the continuous strain of the past five days.
He now went to bed, completely worn out. “We all got round him,”
wrote an officer, Lieutenant Codrington, who was present; “indeed, I
saved him from a tumble, he was so weak that from a roll of the ship
he was nearly falling into the waist. ‘Why, you hold me up as if I were
a child,’ he said good-humoredly.” Had he been younger, there can
be little doubt that the fruits of victory would have been gathered
with an ardor which his assistant, Curtis, failed to show.
23. Nelson’s Strategy at Copenhagen[67]
[In 1800 Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, under the manipulation

of Napoleon, formed a “League of Armed Neutrality” to resist British
restrictions on their trade with France. To reinforce diplomatic
pressure, Great Britain sent against the league a fleet of twenty ships,
of which Nelson was second in command under Sir Hyde Parker.
Throughout the campaign, writes Mahan, Nelson “lifted and carried
on his shoulders the dead weight of his superior.”—Editor.]
The fleet sailed from Yarmouth on the 12th of March, 1801; and on
the 19th, although there had been some scattering in a heavy gale,
nearly all were collected off the Skaw, the northern point of Jutland
at the entrance of the Kattegat. The wind being north-west was fair
for going to Copenhagen, and Nelson, if in command, would have
advanced at once with the ambassador on board. “While the
negotiation is going on,” he said, “the Dane should see our flag
waving every moment he lifted his head.” As it was, the envoy went
forward with a frigate alone and the fleet waited. On the 12th it was
off Elsineur, where the envoy rejoined, Denmark having rejected the
British terms.
This amounted to an acceptance of hostilities, and it only
remained to the commander-in-chief to act at once; for the wind was
favorable, an advantage which at any moment might be lost. On this
day Nelson addressed Parker a letter, summing up in a luminous
manner the features of the situation and the different methods of
action. “Not a moment should be lost in attacking,” he said; “we shall
never be so good a match for them as at this moment.” He next
hinted, what he had probably already said, that the fleet ought to
have been off Copenhagen, and not at Elsineur, when the negotiation
failed. “Then you might instantly attack and there would be scarcely
a doubt but the Danish fleet would be destroyed, and the capital
made so hot that Denmark would listen to reason and its true
interest.” Since, however, the mistake of losing so much time had
been made, he seeks to stir his superior to lose no more. “Almost the
safety, certainly the honor, of England is more entrusted to you than
ever yet fell to the lot of any British officer; ... never did our country
depend so much on the success of any fleet as of this.”
Having thus shown the necessity for celerity, Nelson next
discussed the plan of operations. Copenhagen is on the east side of
the island of Zealand, fronting the coast of Sweden, from which it is
separated by the passage called the Sound. On the west the island is
divided from the other parts of Denmark by the Great Belt. The
navigation of the latter being much the more difficult, the
preparations of the Danes had been made on the side of the Sound,
and chiefly about Copenhagen itself. For half a mile from the shore in
front of the city, flats extend, and in the Sound itself, at a distance of
little over a mile, is a long shoal called the Middle Ground. Between
these two bodies of shallow water is a channel, called the King’s,
through which a fleet of heavy ships could sail, and from whose
northern end a deep pocket stretches toward Copenhagen, forming
the harbor proper. The natural point of attack therefore appears to
be at the north; and there the Danes had erected powerful works,
rising on piles out of the shoal water off the harbor’s mouth and
known as the Three-Crown Batteries. Nelson, however, pointed out
that not only was this head of the line exceedingly strong, but that
the wind that was fair to attack would be foul to return; therefore a
disabled ship would have no escape but by passing through the
King’s Channel. Doing so she would have to run the gantlet of a line
of armed hulks, which the Danes had established as floating batteries
along the inner edge of the channel—covering the front of
Copenhagen—and would also be separated from her fleet. Nor was
this difficulty, which may be called tactical, the only objection to a
plan that he disparaged as “taking the bull by the horns.” He
remarked that so long as the British fleet remained in the Sound,
without entering the Baltic, the way was left open for both the
Swedes and the Russians, if released by the ice, to make a junction
with the Danes. Consequently, he advised that a sufficiently strong
force of the lighter ships-of-theline should pass outside the Middle
Ground, despite the difficulties of navigation, which were not
insuperable, and come up in rear of the city. There they would
interpose between the Danes and their allies, and be in position to
assail the weaker part of the hostile order. He offered himself to lead
this detachment.
This whole letter of March 24, 1801,[68] possesses peculiar interest;
for it shows with a rare particularity, elicited by the need he felt of
arousing and convincing his superior, Nelson’s clear discernment of
the decisive features of a military situation. The fame of this great
admiral has depended less upon his conduct of campaigns than upon
the renowned victories he won in the actual collision of fleet with
fleet; and even then has been mutilated by the obstinacy with which,
despite the perfectly evident facts, men have persisted in seeing in
them nothing but dash,—heart, not head. Throughout his
correspondence, it is true, there are frequent traces of the activity of
his mental faculties and of the general accuracy of his military
conclusions; but ordinarily it is from his actions that his reasonings
and principles must be deduced. In the present case we have the
views he held and the course he evidently would have pursued clearly
formulated by himself; and it cannot but be a subject of regret that
the naval world should have lost so fine an illustration as he would
there have given of the principles and conduct of naval warfare. He
concluded his letter with a suggestion worthy of Napoleon himself,
and which, if adopted, would have brought down the Baltic
Confederacy with a crash that would have resounded throughout
Europe. “Supposing us through the Belt with the wind first westerly,
would it not be possible to go with the fleet, or detach ten ships of
three and two decks, with one bomb and two fireships, to Revel, to
destroy the Russian squadron at that place? I do not see the great
risk of such a detachment, and with the remainder to attempt the
business at Copenhagen. The measure may be thought bold, but I am
of opinion the boldest are the safest; and our country demands a
most vigorous exertion of her force, directed with judgment.”
Committed as the Danes were to a stationary defense, this
recommendation to strike at the soul of the confederacy evinced the
clearest perception of the key to the situation, which Nelson himself
summed up in the following words: “I look upon the Northern
League to be like a tree, of which Paul was the trunk and Sweden and
Denmark the branches. If I can get at the trunk and hew it down, the
branches fall of course; but I may lop the branches and yet not be
able to fell the tree, and my power must be weaker when its greatest
strength is required”[69]—that is, the Russians should have been
attacked before the fleet was weakened, as it inevitably must be, by
the battle with the Danes. “If we could have cut up the Russian fleet,”
he said again, “that was my object.” Whatever Denmark’s wishes
about fighting, she was by her continental possessions tied to the
policy of Russia and Prussia, either of whom could overwhelm her by
land. She dared not disregard them. The course of both depended
upon the czar; for the temporizing policy of Prussia would at once
embrace his withdrawal from the league as an excuse for doing the
same. At Revel were twelve Russian ships-of-the-line, fully half their
Baltic fleet, whose destruction would have paralyzed the remainder
and the naval power of the empire. To persuade Parker to such a step
was, however, hopeless. “Our fleet would never have acted against
Russia and Sweden,” wrote Nelson afterwards, “although
Copenhagen would have been burned; for Sir Hyde Parker was
determined not to leave Denmark hostile in his rear;”[70] a reason
whose technical accuracy under all the circumstances was nothing
short of pedantic, and illustrates the immense distance between a
good and accomplished officer, which Parker was, and a genius
whose comprehension of rules serves only to guide, not to fetter, his
judgment.
Although unable to rise equal to the great opportunity indicated by
Nelson, Sir Hyde Parker adopted his suggestion as to the method and
direction of the principal attack upon the defenses of Copenhagen.
For this, Nelson asked ten ships-of-the-line and a number of smaller
vessels, with which he undertook to destroy the floating batteries
covering the front of the city. These being reduced, the bomb vessels
could be placed so as to play with effect upon the dockyard, arsenals,
and the town, in case further resistance was made.
[The fleet entered the Sound and anchored off Copenhagen on
March 26. On April 2 Nelson attacked from the southward as he had
suggested, and after a hard-fought battle forced a fourteen weeks’
armistice which practically secured the British aims, since it gave
opportunity to proceed against Sweden and Russia. Nelson was given
chief command on May 5, and two days later sailed for Revel, but the
death of the Czar Paul had already brought a favorable change in
Russia’s policy and made further action unnecessary.—Editor.]
24. England’s First Line of Defense[71]
[After the Copenhagen campaign, for a brief period in 1801,

Nelson commanded the naval defense forces in the Channel. When,
after two years of peace, hostilities were renewed in 1803, he sailed
in the Victory to take command in the Mediterranean. During the
following years of the war, “The British squadrons, hugging the
French coasts and blocking the French arsenals, were the first line of
defense, covering British interests from the Baltic to Egypt, the
British colonies in the four quarters of the globe, and the British
merchantmen which whitened every sea.”[72]—Editor.]
Meanwhile that period of waiting from May, 1803, to August,
1805, when the tangled net of naval and military movements began
to unravel, was a striking and wonderful pause in the world’s history.
On the heights above Boulogne, and along the narrow strip of beach
from Étaples to Vimereux, were encamped one hundred and thirty
thousand of the most brilliant soldiery of all time, the soldiers who
had fought in Germany, Italy, and Egypt, soldiers who were yet to
win, from Austria, Ulm and Austerlitz, and from Prussia, Auerstadt
and Jena, to hold their own, though barely, at Eylau against the army
of Russia, and to overthrow it also, a few months later, on the bloody
field of Friedland. Growing daily more vigorous in the bracing sea air
and the hardy life laid out for them, they could on fine days, as they
practised the varied maneuvers which were to perfect the vast host in
embarking and disembarking with order and rapidity, see the white
cliffs fringing the only country that to the last defied their arms. Far
away, Cornwallis off Brest, Collingwood off Rochefort, Pellew off
Ferrol, were battling the wild gales of the Bay of Biscay, in that
tremendous and sustained vigilance which reached its utmost
tension in the years preceding Trafalgar, concerning which
Collingwood wrote that admirals need to be made of iron, but which
was forced upon them by the unquestionable and imminent danger
of the country. Farther distant still, severed apparently from all
connection with the busy scene at Boulogne, Nelson before Toulon
was wearing away the last two years of his glorious but suffering life,
fighting the fierce north-westers of the Gulf of Lyon and questioning,
questioning continually with feverish anxiety, whether Napoleon’s
object was Egypt again or Great Britain really. They were dull, weary,
eventless months, those months of watching and waiting of the big
ships before the French arsenals. Purposeless they surely seemed to
many, but they saved England. The world has never seen a more
impressive demonstration of the influence of sea power upon its
history. Those far distant, storm-beaten ships, upon which the Grand
Army never looked, stood between it and the dominion of the world.
Holding the interior positions they did, before—and therefore
between—the chief dockyards and detachments of the French navy,
the latter could unite only by a concurrence of successful evasions, of
which the failure of any one nullified the result. Linked together as
the various British fleets were by chains of smaller vessels, chance
alone could secure Bonaparte’s great combination, which depended
upon the covert concentration of several detachments upon a point
practically within the enemy’s lines. Thus, while bodily present
before Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon, strategically the British
squadrons lay in the Straits of Dover barring the way against the
Army of Invasion.
The Straits themselves, of course, were not without their own
special protection. Both they and their approaches, in the broadest
sense of the term, from the Texel to the Channel Islands, were
patrolled by numerous frigates and smaller vessels, from one
hundred to a hundred and fifty in all. These not only watched
diligently all that happened in the hostile harbors and sought to
impede the movements of the flat-boats, but also kept touch with
and maintained communication between the detachments of ships-
of-the-line. Of the latter, five off the Texel watched the Dutch navy,
while others were anchored off points of the English coast with
reference to probable movements of the enemy. Lord St. Vincent,
whose ideas on naval strategy were clear and sound, though he did
not use the technical terms of the art, discerned and provided against
the very purpose entertained by Bonaparte, of a concentration before
Boulogne by ships drawn from the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The
best security, the most advantageous strategic positions, were
doubtless those before the enemy’s ports; and never in the history of
blockades has there been excelled, if ever equalled, the close locking
of Brest by Admiral Cornwallis, both winter and summer, between
the outbreak of war and the battle of Trafalgar. It excited not only the
admiration but the wonder of contemporaries.[73] In case, however,
the French at Brest got out, so the prime minister of the day
informed the speaker of the House, Cornwallis’s rendezvous was off
the Lizard (due north of Brest), so as to go for Ireland, or follow the
French up Channel, if they took either direction. Should the French
run for the Downs, the five sail of the line at Spithead would also
follow them; and Lord Keith (in the Downs) would in addition to his
six, and six block ships, have also the North Sea fleet at his
command.[74] Thus provision was made, in case of danger, for the
outlying detachments to fall back on the strategic center, gradually
accumulating strength, till they formed a body of from twenty-five to
thirty heavy and disciplined ships-of-the-line, sufficient to meet all
probable contingencies.
Hence, neither the Admiralty nor British naval officers in general
shared the fears of the country concerning the peril from the flotilla.
“Our first defense,” wrote Nelson in 1801, “is close to the enemy’s
ports; and the Admiralty have taken such precautions, by having
such a respectable force under my orders, that I venture to express a
well-grounded hope that the enemy would be annihilated before they
get ten miles from their own shores.”[75]
25. The Battle of Trafalgar[76]
[While Napoleon’s plans for control of the Channel underwent

many changes, the movements actually carried out were as follows:
On March 27, Villeneuve with eighteen ships left Toulon and sailed
for the West Indies, arriving at Martinique May 12, where he was to
be joined by the Brest fleet. Baffled at first by head winds and
uncertainty as to the enemy’s destination, Nelson reached Barbados
twenty-three days later.
Learning of his arrival, Villeneuve at once sailed for Europe, on
June 9, again followed, four days later by Nelson. The brig Curieux,
despatched by Nelson to England on the 12th, sighted the enemy
fleet and reported its approach to the Admiralty, thus enabling
Calder to meet Villeneuve in an indecisive action on July 22 off
Ferrol, Spain. Nelson steered for Gibraltar, and thence, having
learned that Villeneuve was to the northward, for the Channel, where
on August 15 he left his ships with the Channel fleet under
Cornwallis.
The French now had twenty-one ships at Brest and twenty-nine

under Villeneuve at Ferrol, while Cornwallis stood between with
thirty-four or thirty-five. An effective French combination was still
possible, especially as Cornwallis made the cardinal error of dividing
his fleet. Accordingly, Villeneuve, under an imperative summons
from Napoleon, left Ferrol on August 13; but, with his ships
demoralized by their long cruise, with head winds, and disturbed by
false reports from a Danish merchantman regarding the British
strength, the French admiral two days later turned for Cadiz. Here he
was watched by Collingwood; and on September 28 Nelson, after
three weeks in England, took command of the blockading fleet.
“Thus ended, and forever,” writes Mahan, “Napoleon’s profoundly
conceived and laboriously planned scheme for the invasion of
England. If it be sought to fix a definite moment which marked the
final failure of so vast a plan, that one may well be chosen when
Villeneuve made signal to bear up for Cadiz.”[77] On August 25 the
Boulogne army broke camp and marched against the Austrian forces
advancing toward the Rhine.—Editor.]
The importance attached by the emperor to his project was not
exaggerated. He might, or he might not, succeed; but, if he failed
against Great Britain, he failed everywhere. This he, with the
intuition of genius, felt; and to this the record of his after history now
bears witness. To the strife of arms with the great Sea Power
succeeded the strife of endurance. Amid all the pomp and
circumstance of the war which for ten years to come desolated the
Continent, amid all the tramping to and fro over Europe of the
French armies and their auxiliary legions, there went on unceasingly
that noiseless pressure upon the vitals of France, that compulsion,
whose silence, when once noted, becomes to the observer the most
striking and awful mark of the working of Sea Power. Under it the
resources of the Continent wasted more and more with each
succeeding year; and Napoleon, amid all the splendor of his imperial
position, was ever needy. To this, and to the immense expenditures
required to enforce the Continental System, are to be attributed most
of those arbitrary acts which made him the hated of the peoples, for
whose enfranchisement he did so much. Lack of revenue and lack of
credit, such was the price paid by Napoleon for the Continental
System, through which alone, after Trafalgar, he hoped to crush the
Power of the Sea. It may be doubted whether, amid all his glory, he
ever felt secure after the failure of the invasion of England. To
borrow his own vigorous words, in the address to the nation issued
before he joined the army, “To live without commerce, without
shipping, without colonies, subjected to the unjust will of our
enemies, is to live as Frenchmen should not.” Yet so had France to
live throughout his reign, by the will of the one enemy never
conquered.
On the 14th of September, before quitting Paris, Napoleon sent
Villeneuve orders to take the first favorable opportunity to leave
Cadiz, to enter the Mediterranean, join the ships at Cartagena, and
with this combined force move upon southern Italy. There, at any
suitable point, he was to land the troops embarked in the fleet to
reinforce General St. Cyr, who already had instructions to be ready to
attack Naples at a moment’s notice.[78] The next day these orders
were reiterated to Decrès, enforcing the importance to the general
campaign of so powerful a diversion as the presence of this great fleet
in the Mediterranean; but, as “Villeneuve’s excessive pusillanimity
will prevent him from undertaking this, you will send to replace him
Admiral Rosily, who will bear letters directing Villeneuve to return to
France and give an account of his conduct.”[79] The emperor had
already formulated his complaints against the admiral under seven
distinct heads.[80] On the 15th of September, the same day the orders
to relieve Villeneuve were issued, Nelson, having spent at home only
twenty-five days, left England for the last time. On the 28th, when he
joined the fleet off Cadiz, he found under his command twenty-nine
ships-of-the-line, which successive arrivals raised to thirty-three by
the day of the battle; but, water running short, it became necessary to
send the ships, by divisions of six, to fill up at Gibraltar. To this cause
was due that only twenty-seven British vessels were present in the
action,—an unfortunate circumstance; for, as Nelson said, what the
country wanted was not merely a splendid victory, but annihilation;
“numbers only can annihilate.”[81] The force under his command was
thus disposed: the main body about fifty miles west-south-west of
Cadiz, seven lookout frigates close in with the port, and between
these extremes, two small detachments of ships-of-the-line,—the one
twenty miles from the harbor, the other about thirty-five. “By this
chain,” he wrote, “I hope to have constant communication with the
frigates.”
“The Nelson Touch”[82]

At 6 P.M. of Saturday, September 28, the Victory reached the fleet,
then numbering twenty-nine of the line; the main body being fifteen
to twenty miles west of Cadiz, with six ships close in with the port.
The next day was Nelson’s birthday—forty-seven years old. The
junior admirals and the captains visited the commander-in-chief, as
customary, but with demonstrations of gladness and confidence that
few leaders have elicited in equal measure from their followers. “The
reception I met with on joining the fleet caused the sweetest
sensation of my life. The officers who came on board to welcome my
return, forgot my rank as commander-in-chief in the enthusiasm
with which they greeted me. As soon as these emotions were past, I
laid before them the plan I had previously arranged for attacking the
enemy; and it was not only my pleasure to find it generally approved,
but clearly perceived and understood.” To Lady Hamilton he gave an
account of this scene which differs little from the above, except in its
greater vividness. “I believe my arrival was most welcome, not only
to the commander of the fleet, but also to every individual in it; and,
when I came to explain to them the ‘Nelson touch,’ it was like an
electric shock. Some shed tears, all approved—‘It was new—it was
singular—it was simple!’ and, from admirals downwards, it was
repeated—‘It must succeed, if ever they will allow us to get at them!
You are, my Lord, surrounded by friends whom you inspire with
confidence.’ Some may be Judas’s; but the majority are certainly
much pleased with my commanding them.” No more joyful birthday
levee was ever held than that of this little naval court. Besides the
adoration for Nelson personally, which they shared with their
countrymen in general, there mingled with the delight of the captains
the sentiment of professional appreciation and confidence, and a
certain relief, noticed by Codrington, from the dry, unsympathetic
rule of Collingwood, a man just, conscientious, highly trained, and
efficient, but self-centered, rigid, uncommunicative; one who
fostered, if he did not impose, restrictions upon the intercourse
between the ships, against which he had inveighed bitterly when
himself one of St. Vincent’s captains. Nelson, on the contrary, at once
invited cordial social relations with the commanding officers. Half of
the thirty-odd were summoned to dine on board the flagship the first
day, and half the second. Not till the third did he permit himself the
luxury of a quiet dinner chat with his old chum, the second in
command, whose sterling merits, under a crusty exterior, he knew
and appreciated. Codrington mentions also an incident, trivial in
itself, but illustrative of that outward graciousness of manner, which,
in a man of Nelson’s temperament and position, is rarely the result of
careful cultivation, but bespeaks rather the inner graciousness of the
heart that he abundantly possessed. They had never met before, and
the admiral, greeting him with his usual easy courtesy, handed him a
letter from his wife, saying that being entrusted with it by a lady, he
made a point of delivering it himself, instead of sending it by
another.
The “Nelson Touch,” or Plan of Attack, expounded to his captains
at the first meeting, was afterwards formulated in an Order, copies of
which were issued to the fleet on the 9th of October. In this
“Memorandum,” which was doubtless sufficient for those who had
listened to the vivid oral explanation of its framer, the writer finds
the simplicity, but not the absolute clearness, that they recognized. It
embodies, however, the essential ideas, though not the precise
method of execution, actually followed at Trafalgar, under conditions
considerably different from those which Nelson probably
anticipated; and it is not the least of its merits as a military
conception that it could thus, with few signals and without
confusion, adapt itself at a moment’s notice to diverse circumstances.
This great order not only reflects the ripened experience of its
author, but contains also the proof of constant mental activity and
development in his thought; for it differs materially in detail from
the one issued a few months before to the fleet, when in pursuit of
Villeneuve to the West Indies.
MEMORANDUM
(Secret)
Victory, off Cadiz, 9th October, 1805.
Thinking it almost impossible to bring a Fleet of forty Sail of the

Line into a Line of Battle in variable winds, thick weather, and other
circumstances which must occur, without such a loss of time that the
opportunity would probably be lost of bringing the Enemy to Battle
in such a manner as to make the business decisive, I have therefore
made up my mind to keep the Fleet in that position of sailing (with
the exception of the First and Second in Command) that the Order of
Sailing is to be the Order of Battle, placing the Fleet in two Lines of
sixteen Ships each, with an Advanced Squadron of eight of the fastest
sailing Two-decked Ships, which will always make, if wanted, a Line
of twenty-four Sail, on whichever Line the Commander-in-Chief may
direct.
The Second in Command will, after my intentions are made known
to him, have the entire direction of his Line to make the attack upon
the Enemy, and to follow up the blow until they are captured or
destroyed.
If the Enemy’s Fleet should be seen to windward in Line of Battle,
and that the two Lines and the Advanced Squadron can fetch them,
they will probably be so extended that their Van could not succor
their Rear.
I should therefore probably make the Second in Command’s signal
to lead through, about their twelfth Ship from their Rear, (or
wherever he could fetch, if not able to get so far advanced); my Line
would lead through about their Center, and the Advanced Squadron
to cut two or three or four Ships ahead of their Center, so as to
ensure getting at their Commander-in-Chief, on whom every effort
must be made to capture.
The whole impression of the British Fleet must be to overpower
from two or three Ships ahead of their Commander-in-Chief,
supposed to be in the Center, to the Rear of their Fleet. I will suppose
twenty Sail of the Enemy’s Line to be untouched, it must be some
time before they could perform a maneuver to bring their force
compact to attack any part of the British Fleet engaged, or to succor
their own Ships, which indeed would be impossible without mixing
with the Ships engaged.
Something must be left to chance; nothing is sure in a Sea Fight
beyond all others. Shot will carry away the masts and yards of friends
as well as foes; but I look with confidence to a Victory before the Van
of the Enemy could succor their Rear, and then that the British Fleet
would most of them be ready to receive their twenty Sail of the Line,
or to pursue them, should they endeavor to make off.
If the Van of the Enemy tacks, the Captured Ships must run to
leeward of the British Fleet; if the Enemy wears, the British must

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Students study more effectively with Smartbook.

08 Cognition 23 Thinking and Interactivity Heuristics Describe the processes

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08 Cognition 24 Problem Concept Critical Describe the factors

08 Cognition 25 Language Interactivity Word Decoder List the basic

MODULE 23: THINKING AND REASONING

23–1: What is thinking?

23–2: What processes underlie reasoning and decision making?

Psychologists define thinking as brain activity in which we purposefully manipulate mental

MENTAL IMAGES: EXAMINING THE MIND’S EYE

CONCEPTS: CATEGORIZING THE WORLD

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REASONING: MAKING UP YOUR MIND

Syllogistic Reasoning: The Formal Rules of Logic

Algorithms and Heuristics

An algorithm is a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem. A heuristic is a

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COMPUTERS AND PROBLEM SOLVING: SEARCHING FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

There is an Interactivity Assignment covering topics related to cognition.

CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES

Have students complete Handout 8–1, Concepts and Prototypes.

CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES

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Below is a “refresher course” in the rules of logic:

These are the conditions of a valid syllogism:

There are no more than three terms.

There is one term common to both premises.

All fungi are edible:

therefore, this is edible.

In contrast, this syllogism is correct:

Some fungi are edible:

therefore, this may be edible.

Augustus was a Roman emperor:

Julius Caesar was a Roman general:

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therefore, Julius Caesar was the uncle of Augustus.

Loss of liberty makes men slaves:

I am denied the liberty of buying a glass of beer outside licensing hours:

Finally, here is a common mistaken argument:

All successful diplomats are noted for their tact:

Lord S. is noted for his tact:

Therefore, Lord S. is a successful diplomat.

It follows this form:

All X’s are Y:

THE WASON SELECTION TASK

The gist of the task is as follows:

Four cards are presented as follows:

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The answer is “D” and “7.”

LOGICAL REASONING: WORD PUZZLES

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ANSWER: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow.

ALGORITHMS VERSUS HEURISTICS

1. Buying a rug for a dorm room.