Faculty of Science

Unit 3:
Techniques of
Integration

MATH 1241
Calculus II

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Table of Contents
Unit 3: Techniques of Integration
Introduction ................................................................................................................. U3‐1
Section 7.1: Integration by Parts .............................................................................. U3‐2
Section 7.2: Trigonometric Integrals ....................................................................... U3‐5
Section 7.3: Trigonometric Substitution ................................................................ U3‐9
Section 7.4: Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions................ U3‐17
Section 7.5: Strategy for Integration ...................................................................... U3‐23
Section 7.7: Approximate Integration ................................................................... U3‐28
Section 7.8: Improper Integrals .............................................................................. U3‐36
MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-1

Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

7.1 Integration by Parts
7.2 Trigonometric Integrals
7.3 Trigonometric Substitution
7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
7.5 Strategy for Integration
7.6 Omitted
7.7 Approximate Integration
7.8 Improper Integrals

Introduction
In this unit, we will learn several techniques of integration that will enable us to find
the indefinite integrals of a variety of functions. Since it is difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to find the indefinite integrals of certain functions, we will also learn
three methods for finding the approximate value of the definite integrals of such
functions and how to evaluate improper integrals.

Note that no tables of integrals (or formulas in general) are provided or allowed in
the final exam. The integrals you will be required to do can be done using the
methods in the course.

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U3-2 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Section 7.1: Integration by Parts

Objective
When you finish this section, you should be able to:
 Evaluate indefinite and definite integrals of certain functions, using the
technique of integration by parts.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.1 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your text and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

The formula for integration by parts is derived on page 472 of SVC. We observe that
the derivation of the formula begins with the product rule for derivatives.
Integration by parts is used when the integrand is a product of two functions, f(x)
and gʹ(x). If we use the notation u = f(x) and v = g(x), then the formula for integration
by parts takes the simple form

 u dv  uv   v du .
Example 1

Find  x e x dx.

Solution:

In order to evaluate the integral, we need to rewrite the integrand as udv. If we let u
= x and dv = e –xdx, then du = dx and v = –e –x. We usually organize this information as
shown below.

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 MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-3

Let
= u x=dv e − x dx
∴ du =
dx −e − x .
v=

∫x e
−x
dx = (
− xe − x − ∫ −e − x dx )
− xe − x + ∫ e − x dx
=
− xe − x − e − x + C
=
=− e − x ( x + 1) + C

Example 2

Find ∫ x 2 ln x dx.

Solution:

Let u ln=
= x dv x 2 dx
1 x3
∴ du
= dx v
= .
x 3

Therefore,

x3 x3  1 
∫ x ln= ln x − ∫   dx
2
x dx
3 3 x
x3 x2
= ln x − ∫ dx
3 3
3 3
x x
= ln x − + C.
3 9

In Example 4 on page 474, we note that applying integration by parts (twice) to the
given integral results in an equation in which the unknown integral appears on both
sides of the equation. Then, the value of the integral is found by simply solving this
equation with the integral as the unknown quantity. We present a similar example
here.

Example 3

Find ∫ e x cos 2 x dx.

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U3-4 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Solution:

We have

Let u  cos 2 x dv  e x dx
 du  2sin 2 x dx v  ex .

Therefore,
 


ex cos 2x dx  ex cos2x   ex  2sin 2x dx 
 
 

 ex cos 2x  2 ex sin 2x dx.



We use integration by parts again on  e x sin 2 x dx .

Let u  sin 2 x dv  e x dx
du  2 cos 2 xdx v  ex

   


e x cos 2 xdx  e x cos 2 x  2 e x sin 2 x   2e x cos 2 x dx 
   

Now we observe that the integrals on the right‐hand and left‐hand sides of the

above equation can be combined to give


5 e x cos 2 x dx  e x cos 2 x  2e x sin 2x.



We now complete the solution by dividing both sides by 5 and adding the constant
of integration to the right‐hand side. So,
 1


e x cos 2 x dx  e x  cos 2 x  2sin 2 x   C .
 5

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-5

Section 7.2: Trigonometric Integrals

Objective
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Use trigonometric identities to evaluate certain trigonometric integrals.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.2 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your textbook and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

In this section, we use certain trigonometric identities, combined with the method of
substitution, to evaluate several different types of trigonometric integrals. Read all
the examples carefully.

On page 481 of SVC, we consider integrals of the type

 sin
m
x cosn x dx

and we learn that if the power of sine (or cosine) is odd, then we set aside one factor
and use the identity sin 2 x  1  cos2 x (or cos 2 x  1  sin 2 x ) to rewrite the integral
in a form that can be solved by the method of substitution.

Example 1

Find  sin 4 x cos5 x dx.

Solution:

We write cos 5 x  cos x  cos 4 x

 
2
 cos x 1  sin 2 x
 cos x  1  2 sin x  sin x  ,
2 4
so

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U3-6 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

 sin
4

x cos5 x dx  cos x sin 4 x  2 sin6 x  sin8 x dx. 
Setting u  sin x, du  cos x dx, we have

 sin x cos x dx    u 
 2u6  u8 du
4 4

1 2 1
 u5  u7  u9  C
5 7 9
1 2 1
 sin 5 x  sin 7 x  sin 9 x  C.
5 7 9

If the powers of both sine and cosine in the integral are even, then we use a different
strategy (see page 481). Here, we use one or both of the half‐angle identities:

sin 2 x 
1
2
 1  cos 2 x  and cos 2 x   1  cos 2 x  .
1
2

Example 2

Find  cos4 x dx.

Solution:

Using the half‐angle identity cos 2 x 

1
2
1  cos 2 x  we can write

 
2
 cos x dx   cos x dx
4 2


1
 1  cos 2 x  dx
2

4

1
4

1  2 cos 2 x  cos 2 2 x dx 
1  1 1 
   1  2 cos 2 x   cos 4 x  dx using the identity again.
4  2 2 
1 3 1 
  
4 2
 2 cos 2 x  cos 4 x  dx
2 
13 1 
  x  sin 2 x  sin 4 x   C
42 8 

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-7

The next type of trigonometric integral we consider in this section is the type in
which integrands contain powers of secant and tangent (see page 481). The only
integrals we consider here are those with even powers of secant (using the identity
sec 2 x  1  tan2 x ) and/or odd powers of tangent (using the identity
tan2 x  sec2 x  1 ). We give an example of each type.

Example 3

Find  tan4 x sec6 xdx.

Solution:

Since the integral has an even power of secant, we factor sec 2 x from the expression
and write

sec 6 x  sec 2 x sec 4 x

 
2
 sec 2 x 1  tan 2 x
 sec 2 x  1  2 tan x  tan x  .
2 4


4 6 2 4

6

So, tan x sec x dx  sec x tan x  2 tan x  tan x dx.
8

We now use the substitution u  tan x , du  sec 2 xdx to get

 tan
4

x sec6 x dx   u4  2u6  u8 du 
1 2 1
 u5  u7  u9  C
5 7 9
1 2 1
 tan 5 x  tan7 x  tan9 x  C.
5 7 9

Example 4

Evaluate  tan 3 x sec 5 x dx.

Solution:

Since the integrand has an odd power of tangent, we factor sec x tan x from the
expression and write

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U3-8 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

tan 3 x sec 5 x  tan 2 x sec 4 x  sec x tan x 

 
 sec 2 x  1 sec 4 x  sec x tan x 
  sec 6

x  sec 4 x  sec x tan x  ,

 
so 


tan3 x sec5 x dx  

 sec 6

x  sec4 x sec x tan x dx.
 

Using the substitution u  sec x, du  sec x tan xdx, we have

 tan x sec x dx   tan x sec x  sec x tan x  dx

3 5 2 4

  sec  sec x  1  sec x tan x  dx

4 2

   u  u  du 6 4

1 1
 u7  u5  C
7 5
1 1
 sec7 x  sec 5 x  C.
7 5

Note the derivation of tan and sec on page 482 for tan and page 483
for sec .

Read Example 8 on page 483 of the textbook. In this example, note that both the
method of integration by parts and the method of this section are used to show that

1
 sec x dx  (sec x tan x  ln sec x  tan x )+C.
3

You may read Example 9 on page 484, but we do not require you to know the
formulas for writing trigonometric products as sums and differences.

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-9

Section 7.3: Trigonometric Substitution

Objective
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Use three different trigonometric substitutions to evaluate integrals containing

certain types of radical expressions.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.3 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your text and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

In this section, we learn how to evaluate integrals whose integrands contain radicals
of the form √ 2 2, 2 2 , or √ 2 2. Each form of the radical requires a
different trigonometric substitution.

The three substitutions are given in the Table of Trigonometric Substitutions on page
486 of SVC. Note from the examples in this section that a right triangle is used to
assist in the trigonometric substitution (see the figures in the examples below). The
triangle is very useful in writing the expressions from x to  and back.

Example 1
 x2
Find  dx.

 4  x2

Solution:

We use the substitution, x = 2 sin , (see the table on page 486).

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U3-10 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Diagram 7.3.1

Then

dx  2cos  d and
4  x2  4  4 sin 2 


 4 1  sin 2  
 4 cos2 
 2 cos  .

Therefore,
2 4sin2 2cos
2
= 2cos
= 4sin2 = 21 cos2 = 2[ sin2 .
4

We must now write the result in terms of the variable x. To do this, we look at our
triangle (Diagram 7.3.1):

x x 4  x2
  sin 1   , sin   , and cos  
2 2 2
sin 2  2 sin  cos 
 x  4  x2
 2 
2 2
1
 x 4  x2 .
2

Hence
2 1
1 2
2
= 2[ sin 2 4
4 + C.
4

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-11

Example 2
 x2
Find  dx.
 3

x 2
9  2

Solution:

We use the substitution, x = 3 tan  (see the table on page 486).

Diagram 7.3.2

Then

dx  3 sec 2  d and
3 3

x 2
9    9 tan   9 
2 2 2

3 3
 9  tan   1
2 2 2

3
 27  sec   2 2

 27 sec 3 

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U3-12 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

So

 x2  (3tan  )2 3sec 2  d


dx  
 3  27sec3 

 x2  9 2 

 sin 2 
  d

 cos 
 1  cos 2 
 

 cos 

 1 
    cos   d
  cos  


 

 sec   cos   d

 ln | sec   tan  |  sin   C.

We now write these functions in terms of the variable x. From the triangle, we see
that

x x2  9 x
tan   , sec  , sin   ,
3 3 x2  9

so we have

 x2 x2  9  x x


dx  ln   C.
 3

x  x2  9
 3
2
9 2

Example 3
 16 x 2  9
Evaluate  dx.
 x


Solution:

First, we make the substitution u  4 x , then du  4dx , and we have

16 x 2  9  u2  9.

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-13

So the integral becomes

 16 x 2  9
I   dx
 x
 u2  9  1 
 
u  4 
du

4
 u2  9
  du.
 u

Now setting u  3 sec  , u2  9  3 tan  and du  3 sec  tan  d .

Diagram 7.3.3

 u2  9
 I   du
 u

 3 tan   3sec  tan  d 
 

 3sec 

 3  tan 2  d



 3

 sec   1 d
2


 3  tan      C

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U3-14 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

From the triangle, we have

u2  9 16 x2  9 u  4x 
tan    and   sec 1    sec 1   ,
3 3 3  3 
 16 x 2  9  4x 
so 

dx  16 x 2  9  3 sec 1    C.

 x  3 

Note that we could have shortened this by making the single substitution
4 x  3 sec  .

Note: You may want to read both solutions to Example 5 on page 489 of SVC.
However, it is not necessary for you to learn the hyperbolic substitution, as
you can always integrate using the appropriate trigonometric substitution.

Finally, when the integrand contains the square root of a quadratic that is not of the
form a2  x2 , a2  x2 , or x2  a2 , we can complete the square of the quadratic
term under the square root sign and then use the appropriate trigonometric
substitution.

Example 4

Find  x 8  2x  x2 dx.



Solution:

I   x 8  2 x  x 2 dx

  x 8   x  1  1 dx
2

  x 9   x  1 dx
2

Let u  x  1, then du  dx and x  u  1, so

I    u  1 9  u2 du

  u 9  u2 du   9  u2 du
 I1  I 2 .

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-15

Now

 1 2
1

I1  

u 9  u du    w dw where w  9  u2 , dw  2udu.
2
 2 


1  2  23
 I1     w  C1
23
3
1

  8  2x  x2
3
 2
 C1 .


To find I 2   9  u2 du we set



u  3 sin  , du  3 cos  d and 9  u2  3 cos  .

Diagram 7.3.4

Hence,


I 2   9  u2 du



  3 cos  3 cos  d



 9 cos 2  d



 9

1
2
1  cos 2  d

9 1 
    sin 2   C2 .
2 2 

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U3-16 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Now

u 1
  sin 1   and sin 2  sin  cos 
3 2
u 9  u2
 , so
3 3

9  1  u  u 
I2  sin    9  u2   C 2 .
2  3 9 

We have, setting C  C1  C2 ,


 x 8  2 x  x 2 dx  I 1  I 2



9  1  x  1   x  1  
3
1

  8  2x  x2  2

2
 sin   
 3   9 
 8  2 x  x2   C.
3 

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-17

Section 7.4: Integration of Rational Functions by Partial

Fractions
Objective
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Integrate any rational function using a combination of polynomial long division

and partial fractions.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.4 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your textbook and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

In this section, we will learn how to integrate rational functions; that is, those
functions of the form
P( x)
f ( x)  where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials. Some examples of rational
Q( x)
functions are

x3  1 x3  3x2  2 x  1
f x  , g  x   
x
, and h x  .
 x  1 x  2  x3  x x2  2x  3

Looking closely at these three rational functions, we observe that for f(x) we have
deg( P)  deg(Q), for g(x) we have deg( P)  deg(Q), and for h(x) we have
deg( P)  deg(Q). The function f(x) is called a proper rational function, while g(x)
and h(x) are improper rational functions. In the case of improper rational functions,
we must use long division to divide Q into P before we can use the method of
partial fractions. This is because the method of partial fractions requires that the
degree of the polynomial in the numerator is strictly less than the degree of the
polynomial in the denominator. We illustrate with g(x) and h(x), above. Using
long division, we have

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U3-18 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

1
x3  x x3  1
,
x3  x
x 1

x3  1 x  1
so g  x    1 3 .
x x
3
x x

Now we factor the denominator Q(x) into linear and (irreducible) quadratic factors:

x  1
g x  1  .

x x2  1 
Similarly, we can use long division to get
x  2
h( x)  x  1  .
( x  3)( x  1)

We write the fractional part of h(x) as a sum of partial fractions in the form

x  2 A B
  , where A and B are constants to be determined.
( x  3)( x  1) x  3 x  1

To find the values of A and B, we note that A  x  1  B  x  3   x  2.

Equating coefficients, we get

A  B  1 and  A  3B  2,
5 1
so A   and B  .
4 4

Therefore

5 1

x  2
 4  4 ,
 x  3  x  1 x  3 x  1
5 1

 2
3

so h  x  
x 3x 2 x 1
 x 1 4  4 .
x  2x  3
2
x  3 x 1

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-19

Note that we may also find A and B, using the following method.

We have A  x  1  B  x  3    x  2.
1
Setting x  1 gives 4B  1 or B  .
4
5
Setting x  3 gives  4 A  5 or A   .
4

Example 1

Find  x  3x  2 x 1 dx.
 3 2



 x2  2x  3

Solution:

The integrand is the function h(x), which we have rewritten above, using long
division and the method of partial fractions, so
 5 1 
   
 x3  3x 2  2 x  1


dx    x  1  4  4  dx

 x  2x  3
2 
  x  3 x 1 
 
1 5 1
 x 2  x  ln x  3  ln x  1  C.
2 4 4

Example 2

 x3
Find  dx.

 x( x  1)2

Solution:

Here we have an expression in which the denominator is a product of linear factors,

some of them repeated. So we follow the method of Case II, page 496, and write

x3 A B C
   ,
x( x  1)  x  1 x x  1  x  12

x  3  A  x  1  Bx  x  1  Cx
2
so
  A  B x2   2 A  B  C  x  A.

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U3-20 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Equating coefficients and solving, we get A  3, B  3, and C  4, so

 

 x3  3 3 4 
 dx       dx

 x( x  1) 2 
 x x  1 ( x  1)2 
4
 3 ln| x | 3 ln| x  1|   C.
x1

x3  1
For our next example, we return to the function g( x)  . We already
x3  x
determined that

x3  1
g( x )  3
x x
x  1
 1 .
x( x 2  1)

Example 3

   
Find x3  1   x  1

dx  1  dx.


 x x
3 
 

 
x x2  1  


Solution:

We need to use partial fractions to rewrite the fractional part of the integrand,
x  1
, in order to perform the integration. Since the quadratic factor, x2 + 1, is
x( x  1)
2

irreducible (i.e., cannot be factored into two linear factors), we use the method of
irreducible quadratic factors (see Case III, page 497).

x  1
  2 

A Bx  C A x  1   Bx  C  x
2

.


x x2  1 x x 1 x x2  1  
so ‐ x  1  Ax2  A  Bx 2  Cx   A  B  x 2  Cx  A.

Equating coefficients and solving, we get A  1, B  C  1, so

x  1 1 x  1 1 x  1
    .

x x 1 2
 x x2  1 x x2  1

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-21

Hence
 x3  1   1 x1 
 dx  
 
1  2 dx


 x x
3 
  x x  1 
 x  1
 x  ln x   2 dx   2 dx
 x 1  x 1
 
1
 
 x  ln x  ln x 2  1  tan 1 x  C .
2

We give one final example of the method of integration by partial fractions, which
contains both a repeated linear factor and an irreducible quadratic factor.

Example 4

 4 x 2  3x  2
Find dx.
 x  2  x 

 2

2
4

Solution:

First, we rewrite the integrand using partial fractions.

4 x2  3x  2 A B Cx  D
   2
( x  2) ( x  4) x  2 ( x  2)
2 2 2
x 4

   
So 4 x 2  3  2  A  x  2  x 2  4  B x 2  4   Cx  D  x  2 
2


 A x3  2x2  4 x  8   Bx  4 B   Cx  D   x
2 2
 4x  4 
  A  C  x   2 A  B  4C  D  x   4 A  4C  4 D  x  8 A  4 B  4 D.
3 2

Equating coefficients, we obtain a system of linear equations:

A  C 0
2 A  B  4C  D  4
4A  4C  4 D   3
8 A  4B  4D  2

Solving the above system, we get

7 7 3
A , B  3, C  , and D   , so
8 8 4

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U3-22 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

 7 7 3 
 x
4  dx
 
 4 x  3x  2
2
 8  3 8
 dx
      
( x  2)2 ( x 2  4)  x  2 ( x  2) x2  4 x2  4 
  2
 
 
x
7
  ln| x  2| 
8
3
7
 3
 ln x 2  4  tan 1    C.
x  2 16 8 2

We omit the case of repeated quadratic factors (see Case IV and Examples 7 and 8 on
pages 499–500). You are encouraged to read these examples, but you will not be
examined on this type of integration involving repeated quadratic factors.

Rationalizing Substitutions (page 500)

Note:
You are encouraged to read Example 9 on page 500, but problems of this type
will not be included on Assignment 3 or on the final exam.

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-23

Section 7.5: Strategy for Integration

Objectives
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Use basic integration formulas to perform integrations.

 Apply a four‐step strategy (pages 504–505 of SVC) to evaluate more difficult

integrals.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.5 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your textbook and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

When we are given an integral, it is not always obvious which of the methods we
have learned should be used to perform the integration. In Section 7.5, the author of
your textbook outlines a four‐step strategy for finding an integration method that
will work. Before doing this, however, we need to check to see if our integral can be
evaluated, using the basic integration formulas in the table on page 503. If we are not
successful with the basic integration formulas, we can now turn to the four‐step
strategy outlined on pages 504–505.

The four steps are:

1. Simplify the integrand, if possible.
2. Look for an obvious substitution.
3. Classify the integrand according to its form.
4. Try again.

It will be helpful for you to refer to the four‐step strategy as you work through the
exercises in this section.

Here we present several examples illustrating the use of the four‐step strategy.

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U3-24 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Example 1

 3x  1
Evaluate the integral  dx.

 x3

Solution:

The integrand is a rational function with the degree of the numerator and
denominator both equal to 1. Therefore, we use long division to rewrite the
integrand as

3x  1 10
 3 .
x3 x3

So we have
 
 3x  1 10
 dx   3  dx

 x3 
 x3
 3x  10 ln x  3  C.

Example 2

 5
x 1
Evaluate the definite integral  dx.

 3 x3

Solution:

First, we set u  x  1. Then we have du  dx and x  3  u  4, so

1
 5 
x 1
4
 u2
I  dx   du.

 3 x3  u4
 2

Note that the limits of integration have changed:

when x  3, u  2
x  5, u  4.

 
2
Now we recognize that u  u and we write

TRU Open Learning

MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-25

 u
u  4  4 1  
 4
  2

 u  u
 4 1   and let w  .
  2   2
 

1
Hence dw  du, so 4 u dw  du, and
4 u

u du  u (4 u ) dw
 4u dw
 4 (4 w 2 ) dw
 16 w 2 dw.

Note that we also used u  4 w 2 .

Therefore,

1
 4
 u2
I  du

 2 u4
1 16w 2
 dw .
2 4[1  w 2 ]
2

1 w2
 4 dw.
2 1  w2
2

Note again that the limits of integration have changed:

2
when u  2, w
2
4
u  4, w  1.
2

w2 1
Since  1 , (from long division), we have
1 w 2
1  w2

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U3-26 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

1 w2 1  1 
I  4 dw  4  1  dw
2 1 w 1  w2 
2
2 
2
2
1
 4  w  tan 1 w
2
2

    2  2  
 4  1      tan 1    
 4   2  2   
 0.49.

Example 3

Evaluate  sin x dx.



Solution:

1
First, we let u  x . Then du  dx , so dx  2u du.
2 x
  


sin x dx   sin u (2u du )  2  u sin u du.
  

Now we can apply integration by parts to get


2  u sin u du  2u cos u  2 sin u  C



 2 x cos x  2 sin x  C .

Example 4

 
3
Evaluate  x7 1  x4 dx.



Solution:

If we let u  1  x 4 , then du  4 x3dx , x4  u  1, and we can write

TRU Open Learning

MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-27

 
     x  dx
3 3


x7 1+x 4 dx   x 4 1+x 4 3
 
 
 1 
 

 u  1 u 3
 4 du 
  
1 

4 
u 4
 u3 du 
1  u5 u4 
    C
4 5 4 
1
 1
  
5 4
 1  x4  1  x4  C.
20 16

For our final example, we choose another rational function.

Example 5

 x  10
Evaluate  dx.

 x 2  25

Solution:

We note that if we let u  x2  25, then du  2 xdx. This suggests that the integrand be
rewritten as
 x  10  x  10


dx  

dx  

dx.

 x  25
2
 x  25
 2
 x  25
 2

Each integral on the right‐hand side can be evaluated by methods known to us. The
first one is a substitution and the second integral is an arctangent. Therefore, we
have
 
x 10 1 x 

 dx  
 dx  ln x 2  25  2 tan 1    C .

 x  25
2
 x  25
 2
2 5

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U3-28 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Section 7.7: Approximate Integration

Objectives
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Use Simpson’s Rule, the Midpoint Rule, and the Trapezoidal Rule to find the
approximate values of definite integrals.

 Estimate the error of approximation when using these rules.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.7 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your textbook and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

Although we are now able to find the antiderivatives of many functions, there are
functions which have no known antiderivative or whose antiderivative is difficult to
evaluate. Two examples are given at the top of page 515. In these cases where we are
unable to evaluate a definite integral, using its antiderivative, we can turn to one of
several methods of finding an approximate value. Remember that the Riemann sum
(for any value of n) can be used as an approximation to the definite integral (see
Section 5.2, page 378); that is,

 b n

 f ( x)dx   f ( xi  )xi where xi is any point in the subinterval  xi 1 , xi  and
 i 1
 a
ba
x  .
n

If we take xi to be the midpoint of the subinterval [xi – 1, xi], then we get an

approximation of the definite integral called the Midpoint Rule (page 515).

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-29

Midpoint Rule
 b

 f  x  dx  M n  x  f  x1   ...  f  xn  

 a

ba 1
where x  and xi   xi 1  xi 
n 2

An example of a midpoint approximation is given in Figure 1(c) on page 515. We

give another example of a midpoint approximation in Diagram 7.8.1.

Diagram 7.8.1

A second approximation can be found by replacing each of the rectangles in the

approximating scheme by a trapezoid. The top of the th trapezoid is formed by
joining the points (xi – 1, f(xi ‐ 1 )) and (xi, f(xi )) by a straight line. An example of
trapezoidal approximations is shown in Figure 2 on page 516. Another example is
shown in Diagram 7.8.2 below.

Diagram 7.8.2

The area of the th trapezoid (assuming f(x)  0) is

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U3-30 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

 f  xi 1   f  xi   x
x    f  xi 1   f  xi   .
 2  2

Summing the area of each trapezoid from i = 1 to i = n, we get the Trapezoidal Rule
(see page 516).

Trapezoidal Rule
x
 f  x  dx  T  f  x0   2 f  x1   2 f  x2   ...  2 f  xn1   f  xn  
b

a n
2 
ba
where x  and xi  a  ix
n

Example 1

Use (a) the Midpoint Rule and (b) the Trapezoidal Rule, both with n  4 , to
1

approximate the integral  1  x 2 dx.

 0

Solution:
1
a. Setting f ( x)  1  x 2 , n  4, a  0, and b  1, we have x 
, and so we will use
4
1 3 5 7
the midpoints of the four subintervals, which are , , and .
8 8 8 8
1 1 3 5  7 
M4  f  f   f   f  
4   8  8 8  8 
 2 2 2 2 
1 1 3 5 7 
 
1    
1    
1    
1  
4 8 8 8 8 
 
1
 1.007782  1.068000  1.179248  1.328768 
4
1
  4.583798 
4
 1.145950 (to six decimal places)

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-31

1  1 1 3 

b. T4   f  0   2 f    2 f    2 f    f  1 
4 2  4 2 4 
1  2  1.030776   2  1.118034   2  1.250000   1.414214 
1

8
1
  9.21118340 
8
 1.151479 (to six decimal places)
1

Note that we may evaluate 

1  x 2 dx exactly, using the Table of Integrals (Form

0
21 of Reference page 6) at the back of SVC. Setting a = 1, we have
1 1
x 1

 1  x2 dx  1  x2  ln  x  1  x2 

0 2 2   0


1
2

2  ln 1  2 
 
 1.147794 (to six decimal places).

If we wish to obtain a better approximation of a definite integral (i.e., accurate to

more decimal places), then we need to increase the value of n chosen to compute Mn
or Tn. For example, if we choose n = 10 in Example 1 and compute M10 and T10, we
get
1

a. 

1  x 2 dx  M10  1.148342 (to 6 decimal places)

0

1

b. 

1  x 2 dx  T10  1.148709 (to 6 decimal places)
0

We note that both M10 and T10 are better approximations to the exact value of the
integral than M4 and T4, respectively. If we want to obtain even better
approximations, we can take even larger values of n. Error bounds for the Midpoint
and Trapezoidal Rules are given on page 518.

The third rule we will learn for finding the approximate value of a definite integral is
called Simpson’s Rule. The development of the formula for Simpson’s Rule is given
on pages 519–520.

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U3-32 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

For Simpson’s Rule, we must choose n to be an even integer. We then proceed as

ba
before, setting x  and partitioning the interval [a, b] into n subintervals, each
n
of length x.

Simpson’s Rule

 x
 f ( x)dx  Sn   f ( x0 )  4 f ( x1 )  2 f ( x2 )  4 f ( x3 )    2 f ( xn  2 )  4 f ( xn 1 )  f ( xn ) 
 3


ba
where x  and n is even.
n

Example 2
1
Use Simpson’s Rule to approximate  1  x 2 dx

 0

a. using n = 4.
b. using n = 10.

Solution:
1
a. We set f ( x)  1  x 2 , n  4, a  0, b  1, and x  to get
4
1
 1
 1  x 2 dx  S4   f (0)  4 f ( 41 )  2 f ( 21 )  4 f ( 43 )  f (1) 


0 4(3) 
1
 1  4(1.030776)  2(1.118034)  4(1.250000)  1.414214 
12 
1
 13.773386   1.147782 (to 6 decimal places).
12 

Note that the exact value of the integral is 1.147794 (to six decimal places), so
Simpson’s Rule gives a better approximation (for n = 4) to the exact value of the
integral than either the Midpoint Rule or the Trapezoidal Rule for the same n.

b. We set f ( x)  1  x2 , a  0, b  1, and x  0.1 , to get

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-33

1
 1
1  x 2 dx   f (0)  4 f (0.1)  2 f (0.2)    2 f (0.8)  4 f (0.9)  f (1) 


0 10(3) 
1
 [34.43379842]
30
 1.417793281.

Now comparing S10 with the exact value of the integral, we have five decimal places
of accuracy with this approximation.

It turns out that Simpson’s Rule is a weighted average of the Midpoint Rule and the
Trapezoidal Rule. That is,

2 1
S2 n  M n  Tn .
3 3

Note in general that we work to six decimal places.

We now give the error bound for Simpson’s Rule (see Box 4 on page 522).

Error Bound for Simpson’s Rule

If f    x   K for a  x  b , and Es is the error in using Simpsonʹs Rule,

4

K b  a
5

then Es  .
180n4

Example 3

Estimate the error in using Simpson’s Rule with n = 10 to approximate the value of
1
the integral  1  x2 dx. .

0

Solution:

Here we have f ( x)  1  x2 , a  0, b  1, and n  10. Using the inequality for the error
bound for Es , we need to calculate the fourth derivative of f ( x)  1  x2 . After
some calculation, we get

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U3-34 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

15x 4 3
f ( 4) ( x)   7
 3
.
1  x  1  x 
2 2 2 2

Since

1 1
3
 1 and 7
 1 on 0,1
1  x  2 2
1  x  2 2

f ( 4)  x   15 x4  3
 15  3
 18 on  0,1 .

Taking K = 18, we have

K b  a
5

Es 
180n4
18  1
5


180  10 
4

1
  0.00001.
10 5

Comparing this error bound with the actual error in Simpson’s Rule  n  10  , we
have
1



1  x 2 dx  S10  1.14779358  1.14779328  0.0000003.

0

We observe that the actual error in using Simpson’s Rule to approximate the integral
3
is much less (only the size) than the error bound provided by the inequality.
100

Example 4

How large should we take n in order to guarantee that the error in the Simpson’s
1
 3
Rule approximation to  e x dx is less than 0.00001?


0

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-35

Solution:

f  x   e x , a  0, b  1. Then, after the calculation,

3

 
f    x   180x2  324x5  81x8 e x , so f (4) ( x)  (180  324  81) e  585 e on [0, 1].
4 3

So taking K =1590.2, we require n such that

1590.2(1)5
0.00001 
180n4
1590.2
n4   883 444.4 ,
180(0.00001)

so n  30.65 .

We need to take n to be the smallest even integer larger than 30.65; that is, n = 32.

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U3-36 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Section 7.8: Improper Integrals

Objectives
When you finish this section, you should be able to:

 Determine whether an improper integral is convergent or divergent.

 Evaluate two types of convergent improper integrals.

Study Plan
1. Read Section 7.8 of SVC. Take the time to do this carefully.
2. Read the Study Hints and Discussion.
3. Do as many odd‐numbered problems as you need to do in order to meet the
objectives of this section. The answers to the odd‐numbered problems are given
at the back of your textbook and complete solutions are provided in the Student
Solutions Manual.

Study Hints and Discussion

In this section, we extend the notion of a definite integral in two directions: first,
where the interval of integration is infinite; that is, f(x) is defined on [a, ), (–, a],
or (–,); and second, where the interval is finite, but the integrand f contains an
infinite discontinuity in the interval [a, b]. We shall consider each of these types of
improper integrals separately.

Type 1: Infinite Intervals

The definition of an improper integral of Type 1 is given on page 527 of SVC. Note
that there are three different types of improper integrals of Type 1. Forms (a) and (b)
are evaluated by taking the limit of the value of a proper integral as t  or t  –.
If the limit exists, then we say that the improper integral is convergent; if not, it is
divergent. Form (c) is just the sum of an improper integral of form (a) and an
improper integral of form (b).

Example 1


 1
Determine whether the improper integral  3
is convergent or divergent.

2
( x  1) 2

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-37

Solution:
 
3

1
 x  1
2


dx   dx
 3 
2  x  1 2 2

3
t 

 x  1
2
 lim  dx
t  
2
t
 
1
 lim 2  x  1 2 
t 
2
 2 
1


 lim 2 1   t  1 
t 
 
 1 
 lim 2 1  
t 
 t 1 
 2 1  0 
 2.
Therefore, the improper integral is convergent and has the value 2. Note that ∞ and ‐

∞ are not numbers and that we must use the notion of a limit to evaluate improper

integrals.

Example 2

 ln x 
2
 
Evaluate if possible:  dx.


1 x

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U3-38 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Solution:

1
We set u  ln x , then du  dx and we get
x

 ln x 
2
   

 dx   u2 du
 x 1
 1 
 t
 lim  u 2 du (Note: as x   , t   as well)
t  
 1
t
u3 
 lim 
t  3
1
 t3 1 
 lim     .
t 
 3 3

So this integral diverges.

Example 3

 
 dx
Evaluate, if possible:  .

  x 9
2

Solution:
1
Using the symmetry of the function, f ( x )  , we get
x 9
2

   
 dx  dx
  2 

  x 9
2
 0 x 9
 2

t
dx
 2 lim 
t  
 0 x 9
2

t
1  x 
 2 lim  tan 1   
t  3
  3 0
1 t 
 2 lim  tan 1    tan 1  0  
t  3
 3 
2  
   0
32 

 .
3

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-39

Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands

The definition of an improper integral of Type 2 is given on page 531. Again, there are
three different possible forms. Forms (a) and (b) have the discontinuity of the
integrand at the right‐hand and left‐hand endpoints, respectively. As in Type 1, these
integrals are defined as the limit of a proper integral. Convergence or divergence of
the improper integral is again determined by the limit of the values of the improper
integral.

In Form (c), the discontinuity occurs at a point other than one of the endpoints, so its
value is determined by the sum of two improper integrals, each of Type 2.

Example 4

 0
 dx
Determine whether the improper integral  is convergent or divergent.

 5 x5

Solution:

The integrand has a discontinuity at x = –5, so we write

0 0
 dx  dx


 lim 
 5 x  5 t 5 t x5
 lim ln  x  5   t
0

t 5

 lim  ln 5  ln  t  5  
t 5

Now lim ln  t  5    , so the improper integral diverges.

t  5

Example 5
10
 dx
Evaluate if possible: 
 3
1
10  x  4

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 U3-40 Unit 3: Techniques of Integration

Solution:

The integrand has a discontinuity at x = 10, so we write

10 t
⌠ dx ⌠ 3
(10 − x )
−


= 3
lim−  4 dx
(10 − x ) 4
t →10
⌡1 ⌡1

t
 1

= lim−  −4 (10 − x ) 4 
t →10  1
 1 1
= lim− 4 (9) 4 − (10 − t ) 4 
t →10
 
= 4 3.

Example 6
3
⌠ 2
Evaluate if possible: 
 1
dx
⌡−1 3
x

Solution:

The integrand has a discontinuity at x = 0, so we write

3 t 3
⌠ 2 ⌠ −
1 ⌠ −
1
=


dx lim  2 x 3
dx + lim  2 x 3 dx
t → 0−  t → 0+ 
1
⌡−1 3 ⌡−1 ⌡t
x
t 3
3  3 
2 2
= lim− 2   x 3  + lim+ 2   x 3 
t →0  2   −1 t →0  2   t
 2 3   23 23 
2

= lim− 3 t − ( −1)  + lim+ 3 3 − t 

3

 
t →0 t →0
 
 23 
= 3 [ 0 − 1] + 3 3 − 0 
 
2
=−3 + 3 3 .

2
Therefore, the improper integral converges and has the value, −3 + 3 . 3

Note that we cannot just apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus because the
FTC requires that the integrand be continuous over the interval. We get the same
answer, though, only because both limits exist.

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MATH 1241: Calculus II U3-41

A Note on Assignment 3
You should now complete Assignment 3. Submit the assignment to your
Open Learning Faculty Member. Keep a copy of your assignment—it will be
useful if you wish to discuss your work with her or him.

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