Book of Trajectory of the Mountains

Dr Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
VAASTU, ASTROLOGY Consultant, India

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 F O R E W O R D
Mountain 1
The Angkor is called a temple mountain because it is a large temple. Architecturally, it is built
as a Pyramid therefore the word Mountain- large at the base and narrow at the top; almost
pointed. The Khmer love for the mountains also has to do something with it. Just as the giant
ego of the Khmer Kings. Who wanted to build bigger and bigger temples in successive
generations to be remembered for “posterity.” It is therefore not surprising that the
TEMPLES that were built should resemble Mountains and the titles that the Kings took
should be on the verge of Blasphamy (In Hinduism). There was no concrete understanding of
Hinduism in Cambodia during the Khmer Era and though there was knowledge brought there
by Brhamin priests who taught and advised the Kings, a frivolous understanding of Hinduism
prompted a makeover to CAMBODIAN HINDUISM that embraced animistic ideas about
Mountains and Kings proclaimed themselves as Kings of Hindu Gods. This is proven by the
fact that overnight the empire started following Buddhism from Hinduism as if “changing a
shirt “.

So I start off with answering the question -Why were temples built? Why do we worship
idols and The science of Temple Construction. Then I discuss the first time someone called
out a large temple as a MOUNTAIN- the “Angkor WatMountain of Indra
.“ The same rules applies to the Temple Mountain of Baphuon . What, if any, is the
interconnect between the Mount Kulen and the structral efficacy of the khmer designs.
Temple Mountains of Cambodia and the Jain Hill temples of India are compared to discern
between temples built on mountains and temples that are “mountainous” and temple cities
which both Jain temple cities and the Angkor are.

Why no temple mountains in India? The only temple mountain in India is the
Masrur Temple – a puzzle standing majestically in the lap of Himalayas- By Authors Ms.
Jaishree and Mr. Manish Khamesra

We talk about the Mountain of INDRA or Mahendraparvata -The Lost Mountain City of God
Indra and how a temple Mountain may also be designed as a MANDALA.

Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Phnom Kulen plateau to the north-east of Angkor in
Cambodia was the location of Mahendraparvata—an early Angkorian capital city and one of
the first capitals of the Khmer Empire (ninth to fifteenth centuries AD). The temple mountain
form was meant to represent Mount Meru. The five towers are arrayed in quincunx form; four
at the corners and one in the center.

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Angkor Wat is a Hindu temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king
Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and part of his capital city. (The
Angkorian period dates 802-1432). As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one
to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation–first Hindu, dedicated to
the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple
architecture: the temple mountain and the later galleried temple, based on early South Indian
Hindu architecture. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu
mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular
galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west. A UNESCO World
Heritage Site.

The reason why these huge temples were called Mountains in the first place was because they
were designed as Stepped pyramid thus becoming a beacon to the populous of the land and
the devotees signifying a relationship with the Cosmos and behaving as a spiritual light –
house.

Mountain 2

Phnom Kulen is only some 25 miles north of a metropolis that reached its zenith three
centuries later—the greatest city of the Khmer Empire, and possibly the most glorious
religious center in the history of mankind: Angkor, derived from the Sanskrit word nagara, or
holy city, site of the famed temple Angkor Wat. But first there arose Phnom Kulen, the
birthplace of the great Khmer civilization that dominated most of Southeast Asia from the 9th
to the 15th centuries. The Khmer Empire would find its highest expression at Angkor. But the
defining elements of Kulen—sacred temples, reflecting the influence of Hinduism, decorated
with images of regional deities and the Hindu god Vishnu, and a brilliantly engineered water-
supply system to support this early Khmer capital—would later be mirrored and enlarged at
Angkor. By the 12th century, at Angkor, adherence to Buddhism would also put its own
stamp on the temples there.
Phnom Kulen (or Kulen Mountain; lit. 'Lychee Mountain', is a mountain range and a part
of Phnom Kulen National Park in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. Rather than a hill range,
Phnom Kulen is an isolated chain of small mountain plateaux of moderate height lying south
of the Dângrêk Mountains. The range stretches for about 40 kilometres (25 mi) in a WNW–
ESE direction and is located some 48 kilometres (30 mi) north of Siem Reap.Its highest point
is 487 metres (1,598 ft) and its height is quite regular, averaging 400 metres (1,300 ft) all
along the range.

The City and the Mountains

Today the 2 mountains provide economic succor to the city of Siem Riep by becoming tourist
destinations par excellence. Siem Reap is the second-largest city of Cambodia, as well as the
capital and largest city of Siem Reap Province in northwestern Cambodia. It has French
colonial and Chinese-style architecture in the Old French Quarter and around the Old Market.
In the city, there are museums, traditional Apsara dance performances, a Cambodian cultural
village, souvenir and handicraft shops, silk farms, rice paddies in the countryside, fishing
villages and a bird sanctuary near Tonlé Sap, and a cosmopolitan drinking and dining scene.
Cambodia’s Siem Reap city, home to the famous Angkor Wat temples, was crowned the

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ASEAN City of Culture for the period 2021–2022 at the 9th Meeting of the ASEAN
Ministers Responsible for Culture and Arts (AMCA) organised on Oct 22, 2020
Siem Reap today—being a popular tourist destination—has many hotels, resorts, and
restaurants. This owes much to its proximity to the Angkor Wat temples, Cambodia's most
popular tourist attraction.

Sisophon, Battambang, and Angkor returned to King Sisowath, 1907

The name "Siem Reap" can be translated to mean 'defeat of Siam' (siem in Khmer), and is
commonly taken as a reference to an incident in the centuries-old conflict between the
Siamese and Khmer kingdoms, although this is probably apocryphal. According to oral
tradition, King Ang Chan (1516–1566) had named the town "Siem Reap" after he repulsed an
army sent to invade Cambodia by the Thai king Maha Chakkraphat in 1549. Scholars such
as Michael Vickery consider this derivation to be simply a modern folk etymology, and
maintain that while the names Siem Reap and Chenla, the old Chinese name for Cambodia,
may perhaps be related, the actual origin of the name is unknown.

Visnuism in Khmer lands

These Southeast Asian seafaring peoples engaged in extensive trade with India and China.
Which attracted the attention of the Mongols, Chinese and Japanese, as well as Islamic
traders, who reached the Aceh area of Sumatra in the 12th century. Indian scholars wrote
about the Dwipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC.
"Yawadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief
of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. It
was hence referred to by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island).

Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe
much to the legacy of the Chola dynasty. For example, the great temple complex
at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian
architecture.According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca
sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire.Chola rule is
remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or
Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak. The Chola school of art also spread
to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Kalinga, as
well as from the kingdoms of South India. The Indianised Tarumanagara kingdom was
established in West Java around 400s, produced among the earliest inscriptions in Indonesian
history. There was a marked Buddhist influence starting about 425 in the region. Around the
6th century, Kalingga Indianized kingdom was established on the northern coast of Central
Java. The kingdom name was derived from Kalinga east coast of India.

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Some scholars have pointed out that the legends of Ikshvaku and Sumati may have their
origin in the Southeast-Asian myth of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd. The legend
of Sumati, the wife of King Sagar, tells that she produced offspring with the aid of a bitter
gourd.
Sometimes here and sometimes there, the Khmer Kings and their Brahmanical advisors seem
to have been unable to decide on wheter to go for worshipping Shiva or Vishnu or perhaps
they thought that both were the same- as is the grain of some Hindu thought or they were
equidistant from esch other and the consequent holiness?

The reclining sculpture of Bhagwan Vishnu at Undavalli caves is one of a kind. Sculpted
from a single block of granite around the 4th cen C.E, this sculpture is a testament to the
architectural prowess of our ancestors.

Bronze Reclining Vishnu – West Mebon- by Andy Brouwer

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The famous bronze statue of a reclining Vishnu Anantashayin at the National Museum in
Phnom Penh is due to travel to Paris, France in 2022 for restoration by experts at the Guimet
Museum. This dramatic sculptural masterpiece is currently on display at less than a third of
its original six-meter length. The makeover is expected to last nine months, after which the
statue will be a temporary exhibit at the museum before heading back to Phnom Penh.
It was in December 1936 that a farmer living in the Angkor region is said to have had a
dream in which the Buddha appeared to him asking to be 'released' from the soil. He led
École française d'Extrême-Orient’s conservator, Maurice Glaize, to the West Mebon temple –
in the middle of the largest reservoir of the Angkor area - where at the end of a causeway,
they unearthed not a Buddha, but this magnificent statue of the god Vishnu in bronze.
Following its excavation, it eventually made its way to the National Museum by the end of
1950 and has remained on permanent display ever since. The sculpture, among the museum's
most-prized, has toured the world appearing in exhibitions of Khmer art in the USA, Japan
and Australia.
When the statue was cast sometime in the second-half of the 11th century or early 12th, it
was installed in the center of the Western Baray reservoir, part of the impressive hydraulic
system that maintained Angkor for many centuries, as the main feature of the West Mebon
temple, which has also been the subject of renovations over the past decade. The deity
would’ve been reclining on a serpent on the ocean, and the hollows of its eyes, eyebrows and
above the lips would've been inlaid with precious stones. A new-look for the museum’s
reclining bronze Vishnu is eagerly awaited.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and
its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast Asia entered the
historical period by producing their earliest inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE. Today,
Hindus in Southeast Asia are mainly Overseas Indians and Balinese. There are
also Javanese (also other minorities of Indonesia) and Cham minority in Cambodia and southern
Vietnam who practices Hinduism.
Hindu civilization, which itself formed from various distinct cultures and peoples, including
also early Southeast Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence, was adopted and assimilated
into the indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity.
Through the formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by petty
chieftain were transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by
a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It gave birth to the former Champa civilisation in
southern parts of Central Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer
Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in the Malay Peninsula,
the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit
Empire based in Java, Bali and parts of the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India
influenced the languages, scripts, written tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and
artistic aspects of these peoples and nations. A reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and
religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian culture already some striking
similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be explained by earlier
Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer groups)
and Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence on local Indian peoples. Several
scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that
there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence
on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and
indigenous traditions. Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of
the Kingdom of Funan. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Angkor
Wat, the largest temple complex in the world (now Buddhist) was once a Hindu temple. The

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main religion adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism in
popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism as the main state
religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu
temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara
Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman
II as Vishnu. Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically
only remained among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class..

Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is one of the hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast
Asia.
The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where sophisticated culture, art, and
architecture flourish. The Khmer king and his officials were in charge of irrigation
management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics
infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays. Society was
arranged in a hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners - rice
farmers and fishermen — formed the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas -
royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors — formed a governing elite and authorities.
Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and
stonemasons, potters, metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the lowest
social level are slaves. The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could
support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult
of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on
earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as
the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on
massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat
and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.
The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada
Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in
the 13th century.[29] Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being
replaced by Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu
rituals continue to play an important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the

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ceremony of coronation is conducted mostly by royal brahmins, during which the sovereign
swears in front of the idols of gods Vishnu and Shiva to maintain the ancient national
traditions.

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to

the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a
polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god
with many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too
immense to be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all
of which focus on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu
he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death,
which then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat
reflects the course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as
the supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the
popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this
comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and
how one is to best live one's life.

The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers
and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of
his realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa.
The Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which
was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.

By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained
more adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion,
by decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme
creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the
divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.

One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple
of worship rather than a funerary site.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE, USING RELIGION, BY

DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.

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While Vaishnavites (followers of Vaishnavism) worship Lord Vishnu (or his two
reincarnations – Lord Rama and Lord Krishna) as the primary deity, Shaivites (followers of
Shaivism) consider Lord Shiva as the Supreme God and worship him the most. Well, the
division between Vaishnavism and Shaivism has been very old, maybe as old as Hinduism
becauae of egos of humans- my God is better and bigger than your God. It was also fuelled
by Kings ,one would consider Vishnu as his favourite nd the other Shiva

Claiming the hydraulic network of Angkor with Viṣṇu: A multidisciplinary approach including the
analysis of archaeological remains, digital modelling and radiocarbon dating: With evidence for a 12th
century renovation of the West Mebon, MarnieFeneleyaDanPennybRolandFletcherb,Journal of
Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 9, October 2016, Pages 275-292

“Flollowing quote from he relationship between cosmology, geography, hydraulics and

sovereignty has been important to the development of Southeast Asian societies' religious
practices and state formation. The hydraulic network of Angkor in Cambodia was developed
by the Khmer rulers to take both symbolic and physical control of this water, and to reinforce
their power. Sanctified water from the source on the Kulen Hills was fed into the channels of
the hydraulic network of Angkor and into the large reservoirs (baray) and moats of the
temples.

In addition to the profane work of supplying water and mitigating floods, the purpose of
creating hydraulic works was to substantiate the king's ability to control water and to signify
the magnitude of his authority.

Further, it was important to consolidate his alliances with the gods by establishing his divine
connection with the heavens. From the early history of Southeast Asia epigraphy indicates
when a king evokes Śiva or Viṣṇu they also undertake some impressive hydraulic works. To
that end, successive rulers in Angkor modified the water network over several hundred years,
creating a complex network of hydraulic infrastructure.

The key to understanding the hydraulic network of Angkor and the proposed alterations of
the early 12th century are the two phases evident in the archaeology of the West Mebon and
the installation of an enormous bronze Viṣṇu at its centre. It is significant that the Vaiṣṇavite
king Sūryavarman II (r. 113–1150 +) later added Angkor Wat into the network, south of the
West and East Baray, and approximately midway between them.

The West Mebon is unique in Khmer archaeology and its position within the hydraulic
landscape of Angkor makes it a very significant monument. The Mebon is located in the
middle of the vast Western Baray reservoir at Angkor. In the middle of this sanctuary is a
large basin, creating a pond approximately 100 m2. A causeway from the eastern gateway
leads to a central platform in this basin. The platform, which contains two shafts, was
excavated in the 1930s and 1940s by the École Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO).

In 1936 fragments of the exceptionally large bronze sculpture known as the West Mebon
Viṣṇu, and other artefacts, were found in the western shaft, seen here upon their discovery by
French archaeologists (Fig below ). This massive bronze sculpture may be that mentioned in
the late 13th century when a Chinese envoy to Angkor, Zhou Daguan recorded that there was
a large reclining sculpture of Buddha located in the ‘East’ Baray.

According to his report water issued from the sculpture's navel (Zhou Daguan, trans Harris,
2007: 48). In his journal, Zhou Daguan locates this sculpture in the Eastern Baray. No

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evidence has been found to indicate a large reclining Buddha in the Eastern or Western
Baray, and it has generally been assumed that the Chinese visitor was identifying the West
Mebon Viṣṇu.

The West Mebon Viṣṇu upon discovery in 1936 (left to right): Henri Marchal, Maurice
Glaize and an unidentified Khmer man (EFEO).

The traditional tale claims that King Ang Chan of Cambodia tried to assert greater
independence from Siam, which was then struggling internally. The Siamese
king Chairacha had been poisoned by his concubine, Lady Sri Sudachan, who had committed
adultery with a commoner, Worawongsathirat, while the king was away leading a campaign
against the Kingdom of Lan Na. Sudachan then placed her lover on the throne. The Thai
nobility lured them outside the city on a royal procession by barge to inspect a newly
discovered white elephant. After killing the usurper, along with Sudachan and their new-born
daughter, they invited Prince Thianracha to leave the monkhood and assume the throne as
King Maha Chakkraphat (1548–1569). With the Thais distracted by internal problems, King
Ang Chan attacked. He seized the Siamese city of Prachinburi in 1549, sacking the city and
making slaves of its inhabitants. Only then did he learn that the succession had been settled
and that Maha Chakkraphat was the new ruler. Ang Chan immediately retreated to
Cambodia, taking captives with him. King Maha Chakkraphat was furious over the
unprovoked attack, but Burma had also chosen to invade through Three Pagodas Pass. The
Burmese army posed a much more serious threat, as it
captured Kanchanaburi and Suphanburi. It then appeared before Ayutthaya itself.
The Thai army managed to defeat the Burmese, who quickly retreated through the pass. Maha
Chakkraphat's thoughts then turned to Cambodia. Not only had Ang Chan attacked and
looted Prachinburi, turning its people into slaves, but he also refused to give Maha
Chakkraphat a white elephant he had requested, rejecting even this token of submission to
Siam.[6] Maha Chakkraphat ordered Prince Ong, the governor of Sawankhalok, to lead an
expedition to punish Ang Chan and recover the Thai captives. The rival armies met, and Ang
Chan killed Prince Ong with a lucky musket shot from an elephant's back. The leaderless

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Thai army fled, and Ang Chan allegedly captured more than 10,000 Siamese soldiers. To
celebrate his great victory, King Ang Chan supposedly named the battleground "Siem Reap",
meaning 'the total defeat of Siam'.
In reality, surviving historic sources make this derivation appear unlikely, since they date the
decline of Angkor to more than a century before this, when a military expedition from
Ayutthaya captured and sacked Angkor Wat, which began a long period of vassal rule over
Cambodia. The 1431 capture coincided with the decline of Angkor, though the reasons
behind its abandonment are not clear. They may have included environmental changes and
failings of the Khmer infrastructure.
From the 16th to the 19th centuries, infighting among the Khmer nobility led to periodic
intervention and domination by both of Cambodia's more powerful neighbors, Vietnam and
Siam. Siem Reap, along with Battambang (Phra Tabong) and Sisophon, major cities in
northwest Cambodia, was under Siamese administration and the provinces were collectively
known as Inner Cambodia from 1795 until 1907, when they were ceded to French Indochina.
During the 18th century, under the rule of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, it was known as Nakhon
Siam ('Siam's city').

Mahandraparvata

The Khmer kingdom, whose capital was at Angkor from the 9 th to the 14th-15th century, was
founded in 802 by king Jayavarman II in a city called Mahandraparvata, on Phnom Kulen.
Virtually nothing more is known of Mahandraparvata from the epigraphic sources, but
systematic archaeological survey and excavation have identified an array of cultural features
that point to a more extensive and enduring settlement than the historical record indicates.
Recent remote sensing data have revolutionized our view, revealing the remains of a city with
a complex and spatially extensive network of urban infrastructure. Here, we present a record
of vegetation change and soil erosion from within that urban network, dating from the
8th century CE. Our findings indicate approximately 400 years of intensive land use,
punctuated by discrete periods of intense erosion beginning in the mid 9 th century and ending
in the late 11th century. A marked change in water management practices is apparent from the
12th century CE, with implications for water supply to Angkor itself. This is the first
indication that settlement on Mahendraparvata was not only extensive, but also intensive and
enduring, with a marked environmental impact.

Angkor was the vast low-density capital of the Khmer Kingdom, from the early 9 th to the
mid-14th/15th centuries of the Common Era (CE). At its peak, Angkor sprawled over nearly
1000 km2 [1] and may have housed more than three quarters of a million people .. The
primary administrative centre in a kingdom that dominated most of mainland Southeast Asia
by the 11th century CE, Angkor was the largest preindustrial city on Earth and remains the
world's largest archaeological site.

The Angkor period is commonly understood to start in 802 CE with the proclamation of
Jayavarman II as the chakravartin (universal-king) from a location in the Kulen mountains
(Phnom Kulen), overlooking the vast alluvial plain where Angkor would begin to emerge in
the following centuries In doing so, Jayavarman confirmed himself as the great unifier;
drawing Cambodia's disparate polities together under the first ‘god king’ and establishing the
Khmer state and the basis of its empire. Phnom Kulen was known as Mahendraparvata; “the
hill of the great Indra”.

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The extant history of Mahendraparvata is based on several inscriptions, the most well-known
being an 11th century CE inscription (K.235) found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple, in eastern
Thailand.. The inscription, dated to 1052 CE, outlines the lineage of a private family serving
successive Khmer Kings for two and a half centuries, the first mentioned being Jayavarman
II. Much attention has been given to the veracity of the data contained in the inscription, and
it is widely considered either questionable, or a fiction [5]. The urban form
of Mahendraparvata remains poorly understood, though the larger monuments, cave sites,
reservoirs and ceramic kilns in the Kulen have been known, if imperfectly, for many
years and recent work by one of us in recording and dating these features has made a
significant contribution.

A recent LiDAR mission over Phnom Kulen has revealed an extraordinary array of cultural
features beneath the forest canopy. The implications of this discovery are still under study,
but it seems certain that Phnom Kulen is part of a long and complex history of the Angkor
region, stretching back millennia In particular, the LiDAR indicates so much construction
that large areas of the central plateau of the Kulen would have been extensively or completely
deforested, just as they were on the Angkor plain to the south

This paper presents a sedimentological and palaeobotanical analysis of a sediment core from
one of the ancient reservoirs that make up the extensive archaeological landscape of the
Kulen. Our aim is to determine if evidence of intensive land-use exists in these sedimentary
archives, and to establish an independent, isotopically ( 14C) dated chronology for the
occupation and abandonment of Mahendraparvata. Citation: Penny D, Chevance J-B, Tang
D, De Greef S (2014) The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of
Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen). PLoS ONE 9(1): e84252.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084252

Phnom Kulen

Phnom Kulen is an elongated plateau measuring ∼15 km (SW-NE) to ∼25 km (NW-SE)

situated approximately 40 km to the northeast of central Angkor . Rivers have eroded the
Jurassic and Cretaceous-aged sandstone to form a ‘bowl’ or ‘amphitheatre’ plateau that opens
to the northwest, with the rim of the southeast part of the plateau rising abruptly to a
maximum of 490 m above the flat Angkorian plain. The margin of the plateau is marked on
all sides by a steep escarpment . Precipitation on the plateau is higher on average (1854
mm/yr) than the Tonle Sap floodplain (circa 1183 mm/yr) and on the high plain at Banteay
Srei 20 km to the north east of Angkor (932 mm/yr), with precipitation at the lakeshore line
and high plain only 64% and 50% of the mountain precipitation, respectively

However, apart from its significant but imperfectly understood early history, we are left with
few details about Mahendraparvata during the Angkor period. Indisputably, the foothill
region acted as the supply of sandstone to the temples in the Angkorian capitals, and several
quarries have been discovered in the southeast of the massif Additionally, more than 30 brick
temples have been discovered on the plateau itself, the first of which were recognised in
1883, as well as rock shelters, river bed sculptures, and rock paintings . Furthermore, Phnom
Kulen represents one of the most significant ceramic production centres within the Khmer
kingdom . Recent exploratory archaeological work on kilns located on top of Thnal Mrech,

12
near Anlong Thom village, place the operation of two different kilns from the 10 th to
11th centuries (ALK01) [31] and from the 11th to the 13th centuries CE (TMK 02)

Sivutha Boulevard downtown

TODAY

Siem Reap was little more than a village when French explorers such as Henri Mouhot "re-
discovered" Angkor in the 19th century. However, European visitors had visited the temple
ruins much earlier, including António da Madalena in 1586.[10] In 1901, the École française
d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) ('French School of the Far East') began a long association
with Angkor by funding an expedition into Siam to the Bayon. The EFEO took responsibility
for clearing and restoring the whole site. In the same year, the first Western tourists arrived in
Angkor, a total of about 200 in just three months. Angkor had been "rescued" from the jungle
and was assuming its place in the modern world.
With the acquisition of Angkor by the French in 1907 following a Franco-Siamese treaty,
Siem Reap began to grow. The Grand Hotel d'Angkor opened in 1929 and the temples of
Angkor became one of Asia's leading draws until the late-1960s, when civil war kept tourists
away. In 1975, the population of Siem Reap, like all other Cambodian cities and towns, was
driven into the countryside by the communist Khmer Rouge.
Siem Reap's recent history is colored by the horror of the brutal Khmer Rouge regime.
Since Pol Pot's death in 1998, however, relative stability and a rejuvenated tourist industry
have revived the city and province.

Grand Hotel d'Angkor, built in the mid-1920s./Royal Residence, Siem Reap

Siem Reap now serves as a small gateway town to the world heritage site of Angkor Wat. In
recent years, the city has regularly ranked in the top ten for "Best Destination" lists produced by
entities such as TripAdvisor, Wanderlust Magazine, and Travel+Leisure.[

Siem Reap is a cluster of small villages along the Siem Reap River. These villages were originally
developed around Buddhist pagodas (wats) which are almost evenly spaced along the river from Wat
Preah En Kau Sei in the north to Wat Phnom Krom in the south, where the Siem Reap River meets the
great Tonlé Sap Lake.

13
Town centre is concentrated around Sivutha Street and the Psar Chas area (Old Market area) where
there are old colonial buildings, shopping and commercial districts. The Wat Bo area is now full of
guesthouses and restaurants while the Psar Leu area is often crowded with jewelry and handicraft
shops, selling such items as rubies and woodcarving. Other fast developing areas are the airport road
and main road to Angkor where a number of large hotels and resorts can be found

II
The Concept of the Mountain of Mahendra

Where does the Angkorian Empire, which at one time ruled all of Southeast Asia, trace its
roots? . The answer is Mahendraparvata (now called Phnom Kulen) which rose to
prominence during the reign Jayavarman II, the first great King of Cambodia. He made the
mountain the capital city of his early empire. The site was expanded upon by
Udayadityavarman II, who famously constructed the 1000 Lingas in Kulen’s river. It became
a metropolis of temples and residences and was of the largest cities in the 11th-century world.
While it was later eclipsed by Angkor Wat, the largest religious site ever built, it will forever
be known as modern-day Cambodia’s place of origin. A trip to Phnom Kulen helps you
appreciate the historical and religious importance of this site to Cambodia’s people.
Phnom Kulen is designated a national park for a good reason. Its 37,000 hectares are home to
more than 800 species of plants, many native to the region. Approximately 40 species of
mammals coexist in Phnom Kulen, and an estimated 200 species of birds call the area
home. These numbers include eight critically endangered species.
Tourists visiting Phnom Kulen can learn more about the region’s ecology at the Angkor
Centre for the Conservation of Biodiversity, the first conservation centre in Cambodia.
ACCB heads the effort to educate locals about the importance of the area and their obligation
to protect it. They also direct wildlife rescues, conservation breeding, and the reintroduction
of endangered species to the park. ACCB offers a guided tour of their facility every morning
at 9:00 am.
Phnom Kulen has been an active religious site for over a millennium. As the original kings
believe in Hinduism, the area was dedicated to the god Shiva. Images of Shiva can be seen in
well-preserved sculptures and sandstone carvings throughout Phnom Kulen. Some of the best
are found at Kbal Spean, home to the River of Lingas, where over a 1000 lingas were
painstakingly carved into the riverbed.
The religion of the Empire would later become Buddhism which is seen at Wat Preah Ang
Thom, a Buddhist pagoda built in the 16th-century. It is located on a hill at Phnom Kulen and
overlooks most of the park. Monks still call this pagoda home, and pilgrims come from
throughout Cambodia to make offerings. At the very top, accessible by a narrow staircase, is
the pagoda’s namesake, Preah Ang Thom, the largest reclining Buddha in Cambodia.

14
Waterfall at Phnom Kulen National Park/ Phnom Kulen is home to the largest reclining
Buddha in Cambodia.

Waterfalls are the highlight of a visit to Phnom Kulen, especially in the hot and humid
Cambodian summers. Phnom Kulen National Park has two major waterfalls as well as many
smaller ones. A staircase at the top of the largest waterfall wraps around and leads guests to a
pool that forms at the base of the waterfall. There you will find changing rooms, bathing suits
and towels for rent, and even some inner tubes if you want to float around the pool.

Kulen water is amazingly fresh (in fact, its springs are now a source of premium, mineral
water in Siem Reap). It’s a great way to restore yourself after working up a sweat at the other
sites. If you get hungry, there are also restaurants at the top of the waterfall. They have great
views and are a good option for tourists who do not wish to swim.

P
hnom Kulen is home to eight critically endangered species./ A wooden bridge makes its way
through Phnom Kulen National Park.

Phnom Kulen National Park is an off the beaten path, outdoor paradise. There are thousands
of hectares of unexplored forests dotted with streams, hills, and over 30 caves, a few of which

15
are explorable and home to various species of endangered bats.. The trails are not marked
clearly, and the forest canopies can be disorienting. You need a resident, born in the area, to
help you navigate the forest, as well as permission from authorities who manage the park.
Contact us today if you need assistance planning or coordinating your trip.

Srah
Damrei, an ancient elephant statue in Phnom Kulen.

Following the collapse of the Khmer Empire in the 15th century, Phnom Kulen was largely
forgotten. It was not until the 20th century that French explorers became aware of
Udayadityavarman II’s massive metropolis. Forest expeditions found some of its ruins, but
research stopped as Cambodia plunged into a civil war in the early 1970’s. Phnom Kulen
would become a Khmer Rouge stronghold, preventing any archeological work for more than
20 years.
Efforts resumed when peace arrived in Cambodia, but the significance of Kulen was not
entirely revealed until 2012. State of the art LIDAR technology allowed cartographers to map
the entirety of the region. This revolutionary technique uncovered the extent of the
empire. Today, while touring the mountain, it is very common to pass by active excavation
sites.

16
 Farmers harvest rice by hand
in Siem Reap, Cambodia.
kilometers from Siem Reap city, getting to Kulen means traveling through the heart of the
Cambodian countryside. On the way one can see a lifestyle that has hardly changed for
centuries – farmers harvesting rice with hand sickles, fisherman casting nets or using
traditional, wood traps, elderly residents rolling incense for the pagoda, and students walking
or bicycling to class. If you join on a guided tour (or know what you are looking for) there are
ample opportunities to experience local Khmer treats – handmade white noodles, palm sugar,
fresh, organic mango and pineapple as well as traditional Khmer desserts.

Geology of Phnom Kulen

Geologically Phnom Kulen is formed of sandstone. It was important as a quarry in Angkorian
times, the major quarries being located in the southeastern angle of the massif.There is a
sanctuary in the area, Phnom Kulen National Park, straddling the districts of Svay Leu and
Va Rin. Its purpose is recreational and scientific in order to preserve the natural scenic
features of Phnom Kulen mountain, like some famous waterfalls.
The park is located about 48 kilometres (30 mi) to the north of the provincial town of Siem
Reap.This site was added to Cambodia's national Tentative List for World Heritage on March
27, 2020 (originally proclaimed December 1, 1992), to be nominated under World Heritage
criteria (iii) (iv) and (v). The effort continued in 2016 when over 300 families were removed
from already crowded areas and existing facilities for tourists were upgraded. The Phnom
Kulen mountain range is located 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwards from Angkor Wat. Its
name means "mountain of the lychees".There is a sacred hilltop site on top of the range.

Phnom Kulen is considered a holy mountain in Cambodia, of special religious significance

to Hindus and Buddhists who come to the mountain in pilgrimage.
Near these mountains is Preah Ang Thom, a 16th-century Buddhist monastery notable for the
giant reclining Buddha, the country's largest
The Samré tribe was formerly living at the edge of Phnom Kulen, quarrying sandstone and
transporting it to the royal sites.[6]

17
Cliffs overlooking Phnom Kulen

Phnom Kulen has major symbolic importance for Cambodia as the birthplace of the
ancient Khmer Empire, for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed
independence from Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated the Devaraja cult of the king, a
linga cult, in what is dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from Java of whom the
Khmer had been a vassalage state (whether this is actually "Java", the Khmer chvea used to
describe Champa, or "Lava" (a Lao kingdom) is debated, as well as the legend that he was
earlier held as a ransom of the kingdom in Java. See Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for
more information about the debate). During the Angkorian era the relief was known
as Mahendraparvata (the mountain of Great Indra).

Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II, who made it the
capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as the 1000 Lingas
at Kbal Spean. At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than modern-day Phnom
Penh and one of the largest cities in the 11th-century world. It would later be eclipsed by
Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the entire region.
The Khmer Rouge used the location as a final stronghold as their regime came to an end in
1979 in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.

Waterfall at Phnom Kulen// Stairway to Preah Ang Thom

Phnom Kulen: Archeological Site/Ancient Site of Mahendraparvata

Phnom Kulen range is located 30 km northeast of Angkor archaeological site, Siem Reap
province, northwest Cambodia. It is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s
tentative list as a World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom
Kulen means the Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions
(and particularly Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata,
the mountain of the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries,

18
comprising several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire.
The capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is a
37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in
Siem Reap province.
The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as
well as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.
Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen
prehistoric sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the
10th century, including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga),
ceramic kilns dated from the 10 th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat
Krol Romeas located at the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and
very much venerated nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.
Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural
World Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is
also at the origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region
(Puok and Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining
most of the plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major
reservoir (baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in
the great Tonle Sap Lake.
In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire
as, according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence
from Java in 802 CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the
first Devaraja cult of the king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription (Michael and Evans,
2018: 118). Among local recent legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where
Buddha stepped a foot, when the entire country was flooded.
Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating
large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also
organizes settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to
Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid
temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed
from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels),
the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left
unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar
technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in
2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at
the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is
one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which extended from the 9 th to
15th centuries.
Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural
features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication.
For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau,
but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However,
the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the “first engineered landscapes
of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian
period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical

19
organization that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years”
(Chevance et al, 2019: 1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, “therefore, represents a
significant milestone in the development of urban from/in the region” (Chevance et al, 2019:
1317).
It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to
Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central
area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered
within the city blocks” (Chevance et al, ibid). Several evidences “suggest that the central grid
was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two
systems functioned contemporaneously” (Chevance et al, ibid).
The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive,
well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area was clearly of
parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre
(Chevance et al, 2019:1318).
Prior to the Mahendraparvata construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in
the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal
grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have developed organically without a coherent
plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for
instead, at the sixth to eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these
much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus,
Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first
large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a
design would be fully realized again in the Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of
Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental
core but, overall, evinces an organic layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’
(Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive
linear axes and internal frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher
2017), and not until the twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded
cities achieved on the same scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban
network revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably
early experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first developed on this
mountain plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight
away, would eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a
prototype for high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire” (Chevance et al,
2019: 1317, 1318).
Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in
its development of urban form (Chevance et al, 2019:1319).
Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a
unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-
angkorian styles to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.

20
After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of
the future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and
later archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence
indicated that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and
particular infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields
evidence an occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several
Phnom Kulen archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the
witnesses of an important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks
and modern hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous
legends, folktales, and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the
archaeological sites.
Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the
late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans,
2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex
network of stone exploitation.

1. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is a unique example of town-planning for an

ancient city, with related infrastructure, temples, monumental artistic remains, and
other archaeological sites. Mahendraparvata presents “a centrally planned urban area,
spanning ∼40-50 Km2” of the plateau. This comprises a network of major
thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of smaller-scale land
parceling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of small shrines,
mounds and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of dams and a
major, unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a royal
palace, state pyramid temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent
with and unique to all other known Khmer Empire capitals” (Chevance et al,
2019:1318).
2. The complex demonstrates a significant interchange of human values during the early
Khmer Empire, in 9th century. The site also indicated a masterpiece of human creative
genius in terms of architectural framework, iconography, and an early and unique city
planning from the Angkor period. The iconic architecture at Mahendraparvata on
Kulen is seen in O Paong, Neak Ta, Thma Dap or Damrei Krap temples, and Rong
Chen is the first pyramid temple in the angkorian world, built on a natural mountain.
3. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is an outstanding example of a type of a unique,
religious architecture, combined with a modified landscape to form one of the first
grid city in ancient Cambodia. The religious monuments (about 40 brick temples)
have been discovered on the plateau itself, in addition rock shelters, carved riverbed,
and prehistoric site with rock painting.
4. Furthermore, Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents various elements
characteristic of an urban form from an Angkorian capital. The important Rong Chen
mountain temple, with its distinctive pyramidal shape, is typical of other state temples
located at the heart of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. The Royal Palace
with it “rectangular shape, size, orientation and architectural remains indicate that it
was the center of power of a royal capital” (Chevance et al, 2019:1307), during the
reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770-835. The royal capital presents a grid of major
axes, which provides the overall framework upon in other patterns of habitation are

21
 based and elaborated. Therefore, “the network of Phnom Kulen mostly developed
according to an overall plan, and the major axes, including the largest earthen dams,
were the earliest and most fundamental elements of that design” (Chevance et al,
2019: 1316).
5. Another famous site, Preah Ang Thom is an eight meters long statue of the reclining
Buddha, estimated to be carved between the late angkorian period and the post-
angkorian period (12th to 16th centuries). Preah Ang Thom is the most sacred and
worshiped site for the Kulen Mountain after the angkorian period. Mahendraparvata
on Phnom Kulen continued to be a significant worship settlement during the
angkorian period, notably with the hermits in the rock shelters of Phnom Kulen.
Therefore, Phnom Kulen has a significant cultural, which is necessary to preserve as
an ancient city site and a cultural landscape.
6. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents a very large-scale and unique settlement
from the 8th-9th centuries. Archaeological survey found hundreds of ponds within the
central area and recovered some run along the ancient axis and dykes. Major dams
were raised to block valleys and create reservoirs. The data also suggest that
settlement on Mahendraparvata was not only spatially extensive but also temporally
enduring. For example, Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen plateau comprised 366
individual mounds attributed to the 10th century.
7. Moreover, sandstone quarries on the southeast foothill of Phnom Kulen indicate a
very large industry, illustrating another human interaction with its natural
environment from the 9th to 12th centuries. The quarries provided most of the
sandstone blocks used to build the Angkor temples and most of the statues to
represent the Khmer gods.

Kbal Spean is known for its carvings representing fertility and its waters which hold special
significance to Hindus. Just 5 centimetres (2.0 in) under the water's surface over 1000 small
linga carvings are etched into the sandstone riverbed. The waters are regarded as holy, given
that Jayavarman II chose to bathe in the river, and had the river diverted so that the stone bed
could be carved. Carvings include a stone representation of the Hindu god Vishnu lying on
his serpent Ananta, with his wife Lakshmi at his feet.[5] A lotus flower protrudes from his
navel bearing the god Brahma. The river then ends with a waterfall and a pool.

Preah Ang Thom houses a large statue of Buddha. It was built in the 16th century and is 8
metres (26 ft) high. Preah Ang Thom is the sacred and worshipping god for Kulen Mountain.
There are also two large Cham Pa trees nearby. Besides Preah Ang Thom, Chhok Ruot,
footprints of Preah Bat Choan Tuk, Peung Chhok, Peung Ey So and Peung Ey Sey, can also
be seen.

The Linga is along the river of Siem Reap and has a lot of figures of Yoni and Linga
spreading out at the bottom of the river.
The Terrace of Sdach Kum Ling has a small brick-built ruined temple in its centre. It was
covered by lava for hundreds of years.
Srah Damrei is a large, sandstone sculpture of an elephant. It is joined by several other
smaller sculptures which have been dated to the 8th or 9th centuries. It is accessible by motor
bike and take approximately one hour from the waterfall.
Peung Tbal is a large rock site which has carvings of the Hindu gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma,
and Ganesh. This site was made around the time of the 8th or 9th centuries. The site is near to
the village of Anlong Thom.

22
Peung Aysey is another site located inside of the jungle of Kulen and contains more rock
carvings of Hindu gods and is said to have been a meditation place for rishis.

III
Angkor Wat: Central temple mountain with quincunx of
Towers

The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract
and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a
colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway leading to the
center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries,
chambers, porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways.

The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower is
greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with three
rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively smaller and
higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of the temple.

23
Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second
levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners and one in
the middle and these is the most prominent architectural feature of Angkor
Wat. This arrangement is sometimes called a quincunx. Graduated tiers,
one rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and, near the top,
rows of lotuses taper to a point.

Lotus Bud Profile

The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines stand out
in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to the
horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height of the
towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all five
towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the
entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a cross.
The. Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become familiar with this
dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers and aisles is
a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks like a series of long
narrow ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof made of
gracefully arched stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of tiles is
capped with an end tile at right angles the ridge of the roof.

The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames.

Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who
visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness surpassed their
architectural purpose.

The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a halt at beauteous obstruction
that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere of sanctity, she wrote In
order to become familiar with the composition of Angkor Wat the visitor
should learn to recognize the repetitive elements in the architecture.
Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums, steps and the
cross-shaped plan occur again and again.

It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height was
achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of the monument to
another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height, length or dimension. A
smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at the limits of two
prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions. The long causeway at
the entrance reappears on the other side of the entry pavilion.

The quincunx at Angkor Main: This 1 km by 800 meter (3,330 by 2,600

feet) temple was dedicated to the Hindu God Vishnu, with whom it is
believed that Surayvarman merged with upon death. A deity incarnate,
Angkor Wat was apparently designed as a funery temple; it faces west,
catching the dying rays of the sun, symbolic of the end of man's earthly life.
Angkor Wat is a very elaborate temple, built on three levels, and it is very difficult to
envision from written descriptions. This tour takes you through the temple in the fashion you
are most likely to encounter it on a tour. Let us begin with a general description of the
complex Vertically speaking, Angkor Wat is built upon three levels, with the third level

24
leading to its famous five peaks. When viewed architecturally and functionally, the complex
can be divided into two areas:

 The outer courtyard: extending from the moat to the wall complex shown above,
including the cruciform platform (Figure 1 in the both the diagram above and below)

 The inner temple complex: the main area enclosed by the complex walls, divided into
two squares:
o a cruciform cloister and libraries near the western entrance on the second
level
o a larger cruciform terrace on the third level that includes offices and the
temple itself.

The numbers on the tour below correspond to the path most visitors take when visiting
Angkor Wat. Tours begin by turning right at the cruciform platform, following the terrace on
level one. Angkor Wat boasts the world's largest bas-relief, extending all the way around the
temple, protected by a covered walkway. Upon returning to the entrance, visitors can ascend
the stairs to the cruciform cloisters on the second terrace. Stairs from the cloisters lead to the
third terrace and the cruciform terrace that contains the main temple.

A quincunx is a geometric pattern of five points arranged on a cross. The

term comes from the Latin quinque + uncia, literally translating to “five
ounces”. It has applications in the sciences of botany, astronomy, and
modern computer science, not to mention the practices of architecture,
agriculture, horticulture, and a style of geometric decorative inlay stonework
called Cosmati, or Cosmatesque.

25
 Cosmatesque floor pattern to RIGHT
Sir Thomas Browne (above), a 17th century luminary, wrote a lengthy and
formidable essay on the Quincunx (The Garden of Cyrus also entitled The
Quincunciall, Lozenge, or Network Plantations of the Ancients, naturally,
artificially, mystically considered, 1658). In it he quotes Quintilian, a 1st
century Roman rhetorician who uses the term in his Institutio Oratoria, first
published c.95 AD:
“Quid [illo] quincunce speciosius, qui, in quamcumque partem spectaveris,
rectus est?"
which translates roughly,
"What is more beautiful than the quincunx, that, from whatever direction
you regard it, presents straight lines?"
In context, Quintilian is discussing beauty and utility and writes, “Shall not
beauty, then, it may be asked, be regarded in the planting of fruit trees?
Undoubtedly; I should arrange my trees in a certain order, and observe
regular intervals between them.” He recognizes that planting trees at regular
intervals is also advantageous to their growth and health “as each of them
then attracts an equal portion of the juices of the soil.”

26
Garden arrangement as well as BUD of a flower to RIGHT.

A recurring theme in Browne is the regularity created by the quincunx

pattern which in Roman times symbolized an orderly world, something
Romans were very keen on. The quincunx is still the basis for planting an
orchard today and in the Middle Ages, it was one of the patterns used for
planting medicinal or exotic plants. In Christianity it symbolized the five
wounds of Christ on the cross and a sanctified universe. The arrangement of
the cross-in-square used in church architecture from the early 9th to 13th
centuries was often expressed three dimensionally – a larger central bay
surmounted with a dome framed by four smaller bays likewise surmounted
by smaller domes. It's an arrangement that can be seen in 18th century
garden follies inspired by the Italian Renaissance, such as the Temple of
Four Winds at Castle Howard, with the central bay surrounded by four
porticoes.

DaVinci's sketch illustrating quincunx in branch arrangement. (LEFT

PIC)

27
Browne asserts that the term quincunx was “in use long before Varro”, a 1st
century BC Roman scholar. Varro was widely read by Quintilius and also by
Pliny the Elder, who wrote extensively on nature and the ideal arrangement
for gardens. Vitruvius read Varro and DaVinci read Vitruvius.
Students of art and architecture during the Italian Renaissance read them
all, and applied their theories to their creations. Through these early
scholars and down through history, the quincunx is still in use in garden
design today. When you see the rows of an orchard planted with military
precision, or a mass of bedding plants neatly laid out waiting to be installed,
you are most likely looking at a quincunx.

The layout of Angkor Wat closely resembles that of a mandala, although it

deviates from the conventional form of a mandala. Angkor Wat's layout
retains the core elements of a mandala, namely the presence of concentric
shapes, the T-shaped gates at the 4 cardinal points and also a "central
being", which is represented by a tower. The quincunx (the arrangement of 5
elements where 4 elements are placed as the corners of a square and the
5th in the centre) of towers in Angkor Wat is a symbolic representation of
the five peaks of Mount Meru. This sacred mountain is regarded in both
Hinduism and Buddhist cosmology to be the centre of all physical,
metaphysical and spiritual universes, and the abode of the gods. As such,
the quincunx represents enlightenment and ascension to a higher spiritual
level, which may be why as the closer you move to the centre of the mandala
in the picture as shown, the taller the towers are. This represents the idea of
ascension. The placement of towers also represent the mandala. They are
placed diagonally, such that it creates the visual impression of something
radiating outwards.

28
The quincunx at Phnom Bakheng (Khmer: ប្សាទភ្នំបាខែង)
at Angkor, Cambodia, is a Hindu and Buddhist temple in the form of
a temple mountain.[2] Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th
century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a hill,
it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much bigger
temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the
southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the
most threatened monuments of Angkor. Since 2004, World Monuments
Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership with APSARA.

Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom

Bakheng was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians
believe. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital,
Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the
capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast.
An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in
present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became
king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his
guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a
mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains." Scholars believe that
this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom Bakheng temple
approximately a century and a half earlier.
Phnom Bakheng is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are
attributed to Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the

29
south near the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East
Baray reservoir.
Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat.
Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A
causeway ran in a northwest–southeast orientation from the old capital area
to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an
east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple.
Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple.
A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier.
Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in
stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.
Symbolism:Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru,
home of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop
a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a
pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the top
level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in
a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the level's
square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple at
ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have collapsed.
Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading western authority on Indian
cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The
temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by
five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the
lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the
center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount
Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The
center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones
represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the
monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12
towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University
of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone."[

30
RIGHT-Angkor as seen from the top of Phnoem Bakeng
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th
century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's
historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that
the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the
edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work
identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later
than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as
King Yasovarman's state temple.
In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is the
plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular
ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these
domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted by barrel
vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat,
are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount
Meru.

This geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with

four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms
the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot
on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented
in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die
pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5.

31
Phnom Bakheng lays claim to being home to the first of the temple-
mountains built in the vicinity of Angkor. Yasovarman I chose Phnom
Bakheng over the Roluos area, where the earlier capital (and temple-
mountains) had been located. At the base are – or were – 44 towers. Each of
the five tiers had 12 towers. The summit of the temple has four towers at the
cardinal points of the compass as well as a central sanctuary. All of these
numbers are of symbolic significance. The seven levels represent the seven
Hindu heavens, while the total number of towers, excluding the central
sanctuary, is 108, a particularly auspicious number and one that correlates
to the lunar calendar. It is a favorite spot for visitors to watch the sunset.

32
Temple tower seen from inside looking up, Phnom Bakheng, Angkor Wat - Image ID:
KFG48E

The ancient and oriental origin of the religious architecture of 15th and
16th century Italy was the chief reason for the success of the Quincunx
plan in is generally of some of these monumental sacred buildings.

Some of Leonardo da Vinci’s studies on centralized temples, which are

collected in the Codex B at the Institute de France, in the Codex
Ashburnham 2037, and in the Codex Atlanticus, testify above all the value
of the Quincunx as a flexible geometric and compositional device with
great semantic and didactic potential, providing a medium for the
subsequent 16th century developments by Bramante and his Roman
followers. In fact the Quincunx scheme demonstrated an ability to adapt
to different sites and themes and to be contaminated by forms and types
coming from distant sources.

The Quincunx as Architectural Structure. Geometry and Digital Reconstructions

After Leonardo Da Vinci’s Centralized Plan
Temples,Marco Carpiceci,Fabio Colonnese- International Conference on Geometry
and Graphics-ICGG 2018: ICGG 2018 - Proceedings of the 18th International
Conference on Geometry and Graphics pp 1907-1918

The quincunx at Bayon: Bayon temple sits in the precise geographical

center of the walled city, and has an east facing entrance, shown here. On
either side of the stone entrance are the dry remnants of the pools that
previously existed there. Straight ahead is the outer wall of the temple and
the remains of the entryway arches. Above them is the central tower of Mt.
Meru, adorned with the Bodhisattva heads. This combination of Buddhism
(the Bodhisattva faces) and Hinduism (Mt. Meru at the geographical center
of the city) reflects the tumultuous history of this temple. Constructed
originally as a Buddhist temple, it was later converted into a Hindu temple
-- before being restored once again to a Buddhist temple. The first level
contains galleries similar to those at nearby Angkor Wat. The top level
contains the Avalokitesvara images as well as a Buddhist shrine under the
central tower, again mirroring the structure of Angkor Wat temple

33
Outline of the 3rd terrace

NON-ORTHOGONAL intersecting or lying at right angles In orthogonal

cutting, the cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of tool travel. b :.
POSITIONING OF THE FACE TOWERS BAYON (1181-1220)

Face towers (52)

Rings of towers (6)
Radii bisecting the 8 rectangular shrines and
8 triangular niches of the central tower

The Bayon is unique among Khmer monuments in taking the first steps
beyond axial symmetry. It not only reconciles its symmetrical western and
asymmetrical eastern sides in a mandala and places its central shrine at the
center of a double panchayatana or quincunx of towers, as does Angkor
Wat, it then begins to loosen this same symmetry by arraying its 52
cruciform face towers along radii and arcs ,perhaps, to syncretize the ideal
form of Buddhism, a circle, with that of Hinduism, a square. The tentative
(or simply haphazard) way it incorporates this opposing geometry into the
Bayon’s plan suggests that its intent may have been to de-center or dis-
place viewers rather than to impose a radial, but equally rigid, order around

34
them. From this admittedly post-modern perspective, the purpose of the
Bayon’s contradictions and anomalies may have been to resist any system
rather than to substitute another occult one.

Orthogonal and radial geometries were juxtaposed at the Bayon as soon as

the decision was made to convert the original cruciform shrine into a
circular tholos with the awkward shapes that resulted. This also posed a
more serious problem: how the conical tower with its sixteen radiating
sections, as well as, the faces and aedicular shrines in the tiers above them,
could be aligned across the cruciform 3rd terrace with its faces looking only
in the cardinal directions?* Any sthapaka would know, as the number of
projections of a square increases the more its outline resembles a diamond,
a star and circle.

The Bayon’s eccentric 3rd terrace also has elements which aedicularly
expand the basic, square, Khmer prasat module, first into a fully-
emerged triratha cross-on-square, (the underlying shape of the terrace,
removing the two inserts,) whose corners are then redented to make
it pancharatha on the west. If diagonals are drawn between the points
where the redented square intersects the north, west and south arms of the
superimposed cross, they form three sides of an equilateral octagon and
three isosceles triangular sections when connected with the axial crossing. If
these are then bisected, these lines will coincide with the walls of the
western cardinal and northwest and southwest intercardinal shrines and
two interstitial, triangular niches of the central tower. The parallel north and
south sides of this notional octagon will be elongated because of inserts (12a
and 12b,) but the facing, three, western sides would also be sides of an
equilateral octagon.
https://www.templemountains.org/circle-the-ideal-buddhist-form-at-the-bayon.html

35
The quincunx at Pre Rup, built during the reign of King Rajendravarman
and once the state temple of his capital has its five towers are arranged in
a quincunx, one at each corner of the square and one in the center, the top,
The site of Pre Rup was located at the south side of the East Baray, which
was already in existence in Rajendravarman's era. The temple may have
been founded on the site of a Shivaite ashrama, one of four ashramas built
by king Yasovarman I in the previous century. As the center of the capital,
Pre Rup was likely surrounded by a wall in the manner of Angkor Thom
several centuries later, though no traces of the wall survive today. Within
the temple proper, the outer 'walls' are actually a series of eight long
galleries (two on each side) with gaps in between. Pre Rup was the last of the
temples at Angkor with this feature, as all succeeding temples employed
continuous galleries forming unbroken corridors around the perimeter. he
four external gopuras are cross-shaped, having a central brick section
(consisting of three rooms flanked by two independent passageways) and a
sandstone vestibule on both sides. To either side inside the eastern gate is a
group of three towers aligned north to south. One of the towers appears to
have never been built or to have been dismantled later, however they are
later additions, probably by Jayavarman V. Further ahead, through another
gate, libraries lie to either side of the walkway on the second platform. Just
before the entrance there is a stone "cistern", but scholars believe it was a
basement for a Nandi bronze statue rather than being used for cremation
ceremonies
There is also a series of long distinct galleries running along each side, a
distinctive feature of 10th century architecture that would be substituted by
a continuous gallery from Ta Keo onward.
The final squared pyramid, measuring 50 m at its base, rises in three steep
tiers a dozen metres in height to a 35 m square platform at the summit. The
lowest tier is symmetrically surrounded by 12 small shrines. At the top, five
towers are arranged in a quincunx, one at each corner of the square and
one in the center. Deities carved as bas-reliefs stand guard at either side of
the central tower's eastern door; its other doors are false doors. The
southwest tower once contained a statue of Lakshmi, the northwest tower a
statue of Uma, the southeast tower a statue of Vishnu and the northeast
tower a statue of Shiva. The last one has an inscription on doorjambs that
dates from Jayavarman VI and is the only proof of his reign at Angkor

36
See Chapter-CAMBODIAN Temple designs-and Hindu Cosmology,- In our book: The
Hindu Temples of Cambodia, Bharat and Indonesia,Publisher: Indo Swedish Author's
Collective, STOCKHOLM,Uday Vasant Dokras,Srishti Dokras, Deepa Dokras

37
Bapuon : Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies Bapuon elevated on a 200-
meter sandstone built as a temple to Shiva in the 11th Century. It is said to
have been the most imposing structure of the ancient city -- renowned for its
bronze tower that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold.”

The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5 levels

of equal size, giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case, the
sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of the tower held a Shiva linga. In the
15th century, the tower was disassembled, with many of the stones used to
begin construction of an unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of
the rectangular structure.
Quincunx Everywhere
This quincunx or spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center is seen
everywhere at Angkor temples some of which we have discussed.
The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and
Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic
identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-
century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the
shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the
Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Kbal Spean( 'Bridge Head') is an Angkorian-era archaeological site on the southwest
slopes of the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor in Banteay Srei District, Siem
Reap Province, Cambodia. It is situated along a 150m stretch of the Stung Kbal Spean

38
River, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the main Angkor group of monuments, which lie
downstream.
The site consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone formations of
the river bed and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or
"The River of a Thousand Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads
of lingams (phallic symbol of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps
that cover the surface of a sandstone bed rock, and lingam-yoni designs. There are
also various Hindu mythological motifs, including depictions of the
gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman, as well as animals
(cows and frogs).
Kbal Spean is described as "a spectacularly carved riverbed, set deep in the jungle to
the northeast of Angkor".] The river over which the bridge head exists is also known
as Stung Kbal Spean, a tributary of the Siem Reap River that rises in the Kulein
mountains north of Banteay Srei. The river bed cuts through sandstone formations,
and the many architectural sculptures of Hindu mythology have been carved within
the sandstone. The archaeological site occurs in a stretch of the river starting from 150
metres (490 ft) upstream north of the bridge head to the falls downstream. The river,
being sanctified by flowing over the religious sculptures, flows downstream,
bifurcating into the Siem Reap River and Puok River, which eventually flows into
the Tonlé Sap Lake after passing through the plains and the Angkor temple complex.
The archaeological site is in the western part of the Kulein mountains within
the Phnom Kulen National Park. Approach is from the Banteay Srei temple by a road
which is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from an army camp. Thereafter, it is a 40-minute
walk through the forest for about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) uphill along a path before
reaching the first site, a water fall, where the carved sculptures start appearing in the
river bed.
The carving of vestiges began with the reign of King Suryavarman I and ended with
the reign of King Udayadityavarman II; these two kings ruled between the 11th and
12th centuries. The 1,000 lingas, but not other sculptures, are attributed to a minister
of Suryavarman I during the 11th century, and these were carved by hermits who lived
in the area. Inscriptions at the site testify to the fact that most of the sculpting was
done during the reign of Udayadityavarman II. It is also mentioned that King
Udayadityavarman II consecrated a golden ling here in 1059 AD. It is believed that
the Siem Reap River flowing into Angkor is blessed by the sacred lingas over which it
flows.[
The archaeological site was discovered in 1969 by Jean Boulbet, an ethnologist, but
further exploration was cut off due to the Cambodian Civil War. The site regained
prominence for safe visits from 1989.

39
Left: Sahasralingas or 1000 lingas in the rocky bed of Kbal Spean River. Right: A grid pattern
layout with the channel flowing out representing Yoni
The bridge is a natural sandstone arch 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Siem Reap
River. Just after the monsoon season, when the water level in the river starts dropping,
the carvings are visible in a 150 metres (490 ft) stretch upstream of the bridge and
from the bridge downstream up to the falls.[1][5] The 11th century carvings in this
stretch of the river are a galaxy of gods,
the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva or Maheswara and celestial beings; several
carvings of Vishnu with Lakshmi reclining on the serpent Ananta, Shiva with consort
Uma, known as Umamaheswar Brahma on a lotus petal over a plant stem rising from
the navel of Vishnu, Rama and Hanuman are the sculptures seen not only in the river
bed but also on the river banks.
Sequentially, while walking along a path which skirts the eroded channel of the river-
formed natural stone bridge, one can see a pair of Vishnu sculptures with Lakshmi
seated at his feet in a reclining pose. Upstream of the bridge, there is a sculpture of
Shiva and Uma mounted on the bull. Approximately 30 metres (98 ft) downstream of
the bridge, there are additional Vishnu sculptures. Further downstream up to the water
fall and till the water pool are the Sahasra lingas in Sanskrit
language with English equivalent name of "Thousand Lingas". The sculpted lingams
[1]

in the coarse sandstone river bed outcrops are seen from about 6 metres (20 ft)
downstream of the bridge. According to the journalist Teppo Tukki of Phnom Penh
Post who visited the site in 1995, the lingams, some of which date back to the 9th
century, are about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) square and 10 centimetres (3.9 in) deep and
lined in a perfect grid pattern. The river runs over them, covering them with 5
centimetres (2.0 in) of pristine water. The holy objects are designed to create a "power
path for the Khmer Kings".
After the carvings, the river falls by 15 centimetres (5.9 in) to a clear water pool. As it
flows over the holy lingams, the river attains a sanctified status and passes through the
temples that are downstream. The visible lingams are in a rectangular enclosure with a
channel flowing out, which is interpreted to represent the yoni as the "female
principle". Beyond these lingams, the river stretch of about 40–50 metres (130–160 ft)
includes a small rocky island and ends over a fall into a pool. In this stretch of the

40
river, there are bas reliefs on the rock faces. It has been inferred that one of the bas
reliefs in this stretch, the central figure, unrecognizably damaged, could be that of
Shiva as an ascetic, similar to the bas relief seen in Angkor Wat temple. The meaning
of the crocodile carving seen here has not been ascertained. Near to this location, a
boulder has been carved as a frog. The pond, in a rectangular shape, filled with water
at all times, has many "Reclining Vishnu" carvings on the walls, and here again, a pair
of crocodiles are carved but with their tail held by women. The small island formed in
this stretch of the river has carvings of Shiva and Uma mounted on a bull.

Lord Vishnu in a reclining repose lying on the serpent god Ananta, with Goddess Lakshmi at his
feet and Lord Brahma on a lotus petal, in Kbal Spean River bank
The sculptures carved in the river bed and banks depict many Hindu mythological
scenes and symbols. There are also inscriptions which get exposed as the water level
in the river decreases. The common theme of these sculptures emphasizes creation as
defined in Hindu mythology in the form of Lord Vishnu lying on a serpent in a
reclining repose on the ocean of milk in meditation, the lotus flower emerging from
Vishnu’s navel which bears god Brahma, the creator. Following these sculptures seen
carved on the banks of the river, the river flows through several sculpted reliefs of
Shiva the destroyer shown in the universal symbol of the Linga; 1000 such lingas have
been carved in the bed of the river which gives the name to the river valley formed by
the river as "valley of 1000 lingas". Vishnu is also carved to match the contours of the
river bed and banks. A carving of Shiva with his consort Uma is also visible.
Though the sculptures have been vandalized and damaged, the carved idols still retain
their original grandeur. Under the supervision of archaeologists, the graduates
of Artisans d'Angkor have been able to reproduce some portions of Kbal
Spean's missing bas-relief carvings.
Kbal Spean is a series of carvings worked into the very stone of a river. It’s
considered one of the more minor sights but is quite unique. The first carving
you see is the same face that appears on the Bayon – Jayavaraman VII smiling
out from the riverbank itself. There is the frog statue, the crocodile carving, the
apsaras (dancers), the Bramha and Vishnu figures and also the thousand lingi –
phallic symbols carved into the riverbed for the water to pass over.

There is also a large square spout motif, or quincunx, that can be seen under the
water too that echoes the 3D versions of the same design to be found in some of
Angkor’s temples – it represents the “female principle”.

41
The setting of Kbal Spean is quite beautiful, with a small, picturesque waterfall
sending the water from the lingi down over the quincunx.

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean.

42
 IV
Trajectory of Kulen Mountain and the Ancient Capital city of Mahendraparvata

Phnom Kulen has major symbolic importance for Cambodia as the birthplace of the
ancient Khmer Empire, for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed
independence from Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated the Devaraja cult of the king, a
linga cult, in what is dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from Java of whom the
Khmer had been a vassalage state (whether this is actually "Java", the Khmer chvea used to
describe Champa, or "Lava" (a Lao kingdom) is debated, as well as the legend that he was
earlier held as a ransom of the kingdom in Java. See Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for
more information about the debate). During the Angkorian era the relief was known
as Mahendraparvata (the mountain of Great Indra).
Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II, who made it the
capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as the 1000 Lingas
at Kbal Spean. At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than modern-day Phnom
Penh and one of the largest cities in the 11th-century world. [10] It would later be eclipsed by
Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the entire region.
The Khmer Rouge used the location as a final stronghold as their regime came to an end in
1979 in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.
Mahendraparvata, believed to have been the first capital of the Khmer Empire, a powerful
Southeast Asian state that existed during the Angkor period from the 9th to 15th centuries,
had long-eluded archeologists, who knew of its existence but were unable to map it out
because of the difficult terrain. Studies of the city were further hampered by landmines
leftover fron Khemer Rouge.

The name Mahendraparvata means "Mountain of the Great Indra". It is derived from
the Sanskrit words महेन्द्र (Great Indra, a title of the Hindu god Indra) and पर्वत
(mountain) and is a reference to the sacred hill top site commonly known as "Phnom Kulen"
today where Jayavarman II was consecrated as the first king of the Khmer Empire in 802.
The name is attested in inscriptions on the Angkor-area Ak Yum temple.
Mahendraparvata is located 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Angkor Wat complex, 45
kilometres (28 mi) north of Siem Reap, on the slopes of Phnom Kulen mountain in Siem
Reap Province.

43
Despite its importance as the location of one of the Angkor period's earliest capitals, the
mountainous region of Phnom Kulen has, to date, received strikingly little attention. It is
almost entirely missing from archaeological maps, except as a scatter of points denoting the
remains of some brick temples. The history and geography of the area has amplified many of
the problems of conducting archaeological survey and mapping in Cambodia: until recently,
the site was remote, difficult to access and covered with dense vegetation. Furthermore, it
was among the last bastions of the Khmer Rouge, who occupied the area from the early
1970s until the late 1990s. Dangerous remnants of war, such as land mines, remain a serious
problem. For these reasons—as well as the absence of monumental remains on the scale of
Angkor—Phnom Kulen has mostly escaped the attention of researchers.

Nonetheless, the area is crucial for understanding the historical trajectory of Angkor and the
Khmer Empire, which dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia between the ninth and
fifteenth centuries AD. It is the source of much of the water that flows into the vast hydraulic
network of Angkor on the plain below, and Angkorian inscriptions suggest that the mountain
plateau was the site of one of the capitals of Jayavarman II, whose eighth- to early ninth-
century AD reign marks the beginning of the Angkor period. This would place the site among
the first engineered landscapes of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the
pre-Angkorian period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and
sociopolitical organisation that would shape the course of the region's history for the next 500
years.

The Range is registered since 1992 on the Government of Cambodia’s tentative list as a
World Heritage potential cultural site, with the criteria V and VI. Phnom Kulen means the
Mountain of Leeches in Khmer. According to the old Khmer inscriptions (and particularly
Sdok Kak Thom inscription), the mountain is known as Mahendraparvata, the mountain of
the Great Indra, an ancient city established at the late 8 th-early 9th-centuries, comprising
several temples, the religious remains of this former capital of the Khmer Empire. The
capital was settled on the plateau, located 70 Km to the south of the Dangrek Mountains,
and 30 Km away from the great Tonle Sap Lake. Today, the Phnom Kulen national Park is
a 37,375-hectares protected area, located in Banteay Srey, Svay Leu and Varin districts, in
Siem Reap province.

Layout and Infrastructure of Phnom Kulen

According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is a
unique example of town-planning for an ancient city, with related infrastructure, temples,
monumental artistic remains, and other archaeological sites. Mahendraparvata presents “a
centrally planned urban area, spanning ∼40-50 Km2” of the plateau. This comprises a
network of major thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of
smaller-scale land parceling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of
small shrines, mounds and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of
dams and a major, unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a
royal palace, state pyramid temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent
with and unique to all other known Khmer Empire capitals” (Chevance et al, 2019:1318).
[Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO]
The LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples,
and the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and

44
creating large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km2), it
also organizes settlement plots.
Archaeological survey found hundreds of ponds within the central area and recovered
some run along the ancient axis and dykes. Major dams were raised to block valleys and
create reservoirs. The data also suggest that settlement on Mahendraparvata was not only
spatially extensive but also temporally enduring. For example, Mahendraparvata on
Phnom Kulen plateau comprised 366 individual mounds attributed to the 10th century. It
is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According
to Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the
central area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are
scattered within the city blocks” (Chevance et al, ibid). Several evidences “suggest that
the central grid was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of the habitation network,
and that the two systems functioned contemporaneously” (Chevance et al, ibid).
Recently, the LiDAR mission identified an additional main piece of hydrological
infrastructure in this area. The East-West orientated Thnal Srae Thbong dike and the 1
Km long Thnal Mrech dike (Pepper Dyke), with several 10th to 11th centuries ceramic
kiln sites, are part of a very large unfinished reservoir of baray. This last feature
completes, together with the mountain-temple and the Royal Palace, the main markers of
an Angkorian capital. They are integrated in the urban network and the whole indicates a
significant evidence for the early Angkorian period to setup infrastructure and city.
Moreover, sandstone quarries on the southeast foothill of Phnom Kulen indicate a very
large industry, illustrating another human interaction with its natural environment from
the 9th to 12th centuries. The quarries provided most of the sandstone blocks used to build
the Angkor temples and most of the statues to represent the Khmer gods. Phnom Kulen is
known to have hosted the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks were extracted.
From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel raised
earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from
the late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar
(Evans, 2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a
complex network of stone exploitation.
Temples, Pyramid and Royal Palace at Phnom Kulen
According to the report submitted to UNESCO: Most of the temples are single brick
towers, attributed to Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the
five-tiered pyramid temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau.
Partially constructed from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite
blocks (last three levels), the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of
a construction left unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced
thanks to the Lidar technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital
(Banteay) was identified in 2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king
and his court on the plateau, at the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is,
therefore, very significant as it is one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which
extended from the 9th to 15th centuries. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom
of Cambodia to UNESCO]
Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural
features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record
indication. For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital
on the plateau, but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in
Phnom Kulen. However, the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the

45
“first engineered landscapes of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the
pre-Angkorian to Angkorian period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic
engineering and sociopolitical organization that would shape the course of the region’s
history for the next 500 years” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1305). Mahendraparvata on Phnom
Kulen, “therefore, represents a significant milestone in the development of urban from/in
the region” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317).
The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a
royal court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an
extensive, well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area
was clearly of parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant
ceremonial centre (Chevance et al, 2019:1318).
Impact of Phnom Kulen on Angkor Settlement Patterns and Urbanization
According to the report submitted to UNESCO: Prior to the Mahendraparvata
construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised
small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries
and appear to have developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor
region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for instead, at the sixth to
eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these much smaller in
scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus, Mahendraparvata
marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first large-scale ‘grid
city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a design would be
fully realized again in the Angkor region. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom
of Cambodia to UNESCO]
The ninth-century AD city of Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following
Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental core but, overall, evinces an organic layout
typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’ (Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the
tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive linear axes and internal frameworks of
cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher 2017), and not until the twelfth century
that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities achieved on the same scale as
Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and described
here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early experiment in formal urban
planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain plateau, although
sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would eventually be
adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for high-density
urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1317, 1318).
“Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian
urbanism. It combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans,
2016), while missing many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any
attempt to define a central area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to
have been densely inhabited; and there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity
or a broader network of low-density occupation revolving around fields and ponds.
Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately recognizable as Angkorian, and
identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in its development of urban
form (Chevance et al, 2019:1319). [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of
Cambodia to UNESCO]
The complex demonstrates a significant interchange of human values during the early
Khmer Empire, in 9th century. The site also indicated a masterpiece of human creative
genius in terms of architectural framework, iconography, and an early and unique city
planning from the Angkor period. The iconic architecture at Mahendraparvata on Kulen is

46
 seen in O Paong, Neak Ta, Thma Dap or Damrei Krap temples, and Rong Chen is the first
pyramid temple in the Angkorian world, built on a natural mountain.
Furthermore, Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen presents various elements characteristic
of an urban form from an Angkorian capital. The important Rong Chen mountain temple,
with its distinctive pyramidal shape, is typical of other state temples located at the heart of
pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. The Royal Palace with it “rectangular shape,
size, orientation and architectural remains indicate that it was the center of power of a
royal capital” (Chevance et al, 2019:1307), during the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770-
835. The royal capital presents a grid of major axes, which provides the overall
framework upon in other patterns of habitation are based and elaborated. Therefore, “the
network of Phnom Kulen mostly developed according to an overall plan, and the major
axes, including the largest earthen dams, were the earliest and most fundamental elements
of that design” (Chevance et al, 2019: 1316).
Art and Architecture at Phnom Kulen
According to a report submitted to UNESCO: “The architecture and art of Phnom Kulen,
indicate the development of a unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of
the 8th century. The sandstones decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels)
and the sculptures progressed to a unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a
transition from the previous pre-Angkorian styles to the future Angkorian and post-
Angkorian styles. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom of Cambodia to
UNESCO]
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen is an outstanding example of a type of a unique,
religious architecture, combined with a modified landscape to form one of the first grid
city in ancient Cambodia. The religious monuments (about 40 brick temples) have been
discovered on the plateau itself, in addition rock shelters, carved riverbed, and prehistoric
site with rock painting.
At Preah Ang Thom is an eight meters long statue of the reclining Buddha, estimated to
be carved between the late Angkorian period and the post-Angkorian period (12th to 16th
centuries). Preah Ang Thom is the most sacred and worshiped site for the Kulen Mountain
after the Angkorian period. Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen continued to be a
significant worship settlement during the Angkorian period, notably with the hermits in
the rock shelters of Phnom Kulen. Therefore, Phnom Kulen has a significant cultural,
which is necessary to preserve as an ancient city site and a cultural landscape.
The ancient Mahendraparvata (late 8th-early 9th centuries) on Phnom Kulen is today a partially
forested site containing about 40 brick temples, including one pyramid mountain-temple, as
well as ancient reservoirs, dykes with spillway, channels, ponds, plots, platforms, and earthen
mounds, all part of an ancient urban system.
Other later archaeological remains are also located on Phnom Kulen such as dozen
prehistoric sites with rock paintings, more than 40 rock shelters occupied by hermits from the
10th century, including 2 sculpted riverbed (Kbal Spean and the One Thousand Linga),
ceramic kilns dated from the 10 th to 11th centuries, a late Angkorian temples such as Prasat
Krol Romeas located at the large natural waterfall (end of the 12 th century), and the large and
very much venerated nowadays Preah Ang Thom reclining Buddha.
Phnom Kulen is located in Northwest Cambodia, such as the others Cambodian Cultural
World Heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambor Prei Kuk. The mountain range is
also at the origin of the Siem Reap River, as well as the other main rivers of Angkor region
(Puok and Roluos). It has a major role for the local aquifer and for the surface water, draining
most of the plateau before reaching Angkor, nourishing its entire hydraulic system, the major
reservoir (baray) and the temples or city moats through a network of channels, and ending in
the great Tonle Sap Lake.

47
In addition, Phnom Kulen holds a major symbolic significance for the ancient Khmer Empire
as, according to ancient inscription, King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence
from Java in 802 CE from the city of Mahendraparvata. There also, this king initiated the
first Devaraja cult of the king, as stated in Sdok Kak Thom inscription (Michael and Evans,
2018: 118). Among local recent legends, one identifies the mountain with the place where
Buddha stepped a foot, when the entire country was flooded.
Recently, the LiDAR technology has revealed a very large and formally planned network of
oriented earthen dikes forming axis. This urban grid connects previously known, temples, and
the water infrastructures, such as the dams blocking the valleys of the plateau and creating
large reservoirs. Organizing the landscape on a large scale (more than 40 km 2), it also
organizes settlement plots. Most of the temples are single brick towers, attributed to
Jayavarman II reign. One of them stands out, Prasat Rong Chen, the five-tiered pyramid
temple built on the highest point of the southern part of the plateau. Partially constructed
from leveling or soils embankments (first two levels) and laterite blocks (last three levels),
the temple’s top level is accessible by ramps, unique remains of a construction left
unfinished. An unfinished large reservoir, or baray, was also evidenced thanks to the Lidar
technology. Additionally, the Royal Palace of the ancient capital (Banteay) was identified in
2009 (Chevance, 2014) and confirms the presence of the king and his court on the plateau, at
the early 9th century. Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen) is, therefore, very significant as it is
one of the earliest capitals of the Angkor period, which extended from the 9 th to
15th centuries.
Systematic archaeological survey and excavations have identified an array of cultural
features. There are more extensive of a large settlement than the historical record indication.
For instance, later Angkorian inscriptions often refer to Jayavarman’s capital on the plateau,
but no inscriptions dating from that period have been found so far in Phnom Kulen. However,
the significant infrastructures in Phnom Kulen demonstrated the first engineered landscapes
of the era, offering key insights into the transition from the pre-Angkorian to Angkorian
period, including innovations in urban planning, hydraulic engineering and sociopolitical
organization that would shape the course of the region’s history for the next 500 years.
Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen, therefore, represents a significant milestone in the
development of urban from/in the region.

It is believed that “the grid of major axes provides the overall framework upon which other
patterns of habitation are based and elaborated” (Chevance et al, 2019:1316). According to
Lidar and following field verification researchers “found hundreds of ponds within the central
area, only two of them interrupt the course of the major axes, the other ponds are scattered
within the city blocks” (Chevance et al, ibid). Several evidences “suggest that the central grid
was laid out before, or during, the elaboration of the habitation network, and that the two
systems functioned contemporaneously.”

The existence of a royal palace, numerous temples and neighbourhoods, indicate that a royal
court was located on the Kulen plateau. A substantial population living in “an extensive,
well-defined, built-up area” supports it (Chevance et al, 2019:1318). “This area was clearly of
parceled neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre.
.
Prior to the Mahendraparvata construction, “the evidence shows that settlement patterns in
the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured urban areas that lacked any formal
grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have developed organically without a coherent
plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of centres show evidence of enclosing walls, for

48
instead, at the sixth to eight centuries AD site of Sambor Prei Kuk. On the other hand, these
much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata and contain no internal grids. Thus,
Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent the first
large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. It would be some time before such a
design would be fully realized again in the Angkor region. The ninth-century AD city of
Hariharalaya, the capital immediately following Mahendraparvata, contains a monumental
core but, overall, evinces an organic layout typical of the early Angkorian ‘open cities’
(Evans 2010; Pottier 2012). It is only in the tenth and eleventh centuries AD that the massive
linear axes and internal frameworks of cities appear again in the Angkor region (Gaucher
2017), and not until the twelfth century that we have unambiguous evidence for gridded cities
achieved on the same scale as Mahendraparvata (Evans 2016). Hence, the urban network
revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous and remarkably early
experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first developed on this mountain
plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely adopted straight away, would
eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor, and become a prototype for
high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire”

Mahendraparvata map bring new insights regarding the history of the Angkorian urbanism. It
combines the two previously identified forms (Evans et al, 2013; Evans, 2016), while missing
many other elements. It has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central
area with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. Hence, while Mahendraparvata is immediately
recognizable as Angkorian, and identifiably ‘urban’, it is totally unique in the Khmer world in
its development of urban form

Moreover, the architecture and art of Phnom Kulen, moreover, indicate the development of a
unique style during the reign of Jayavarman II, at the end of the 8 th century. The sandstones
decorative architectural elements (columns and lintels) and the sculptures progressed to a
unique and a new “Kulen style”. This style illustrates a transition from the previous pre-
angkorian styles to the future angkorian and post-angkorian styles.

After this early capital of the Khmer Empire was abandoned as the siege of power, the court
moved from Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen to (Hariharalaya in Rolous, 15 Km east of
the future Angkor). Phnom Kulen site continued to be considered as a sacred mountain and
later archaeological sites show, it was never completely abandoned. Epigraphic evidence
indicated that Kings consecrated sculpture riverbed (Kbal Spean) and later temples and
particular infrastructures such as channels, stairways, ceramic kilns or mounds fields
evidence an occupation of the Phnom Kulen during the angkorian period. Nowadays, several
Phnom Kulen archaeological sites still hold a sacred value for Cambodians and are the
witnesses of an important worship by Khmer people, coming from the entire country. Monks
and modern hermits often reused hermit’s sites, insuring a sacred continuity, and numerous
legends, folktales, and narratives continue to be associated by the local communities to the
archaeological sites.

Finally, Phnom Kulen is also known to host the ancient quarries, where the sandstone blocks
were extracted. From Phnom Kulen site, a complex and long network of channels and parallel
raised earthen road allowed their transportation to Angkor, to build the prestigious religious
monument, from the 10th century. Phnom Kulen ancient quarrying industry, known from the
late 19th century, was developed on a very large scale, recently revealed by the Lidar (Evans,

49
2017). It has left numerous localized pits with high stepped surfaces forming a complex
network of stone exploitation.
To address this lacuna in the archaeology of Angkor, first an extensive survey was
undertaken on Phnom Kulen in order to understand the spatial and chronological dimensions
of Angkor-period occupation. The development of archaeological maps has been enhanced
considerably by the application of airborne laser scanning (lidar) techniques in two separate
campaigns: the first in 2012, by the Khmer Archaeology LiDAR Consortium, and another in
2015, by the Cambodian Archaeological Lidar Initiative.
.
Background
The principal massif of the Kulen range, located 30km from major temples such as Angkor
Wat, is an elongated plateau oriented north-west to south-east. Measuring 25km along its
main axis and 15km at its widest point, the plateau rises abruptly to an average of 300–400m
asl above the surrounding flat plain, with margins marked on all sides by steep escarpments
(Figure 2). Its forest and permeable stone play an important role in the area's watershed: it is
the source of all three of Angkor's main water-courses . The marked seasonality of the
monsoon is attenuated somewhat by permanent water flows, forest cover and the relative
altitude of the mountain. Together, these create a consistently humid microclimate. Soils are
shallow, marginal and unsuited to intensive rice agriculture. Traditionally, slash-and-burn
rice agriculture is practised here among the semi-evergreen Dipterocarp forest, an ecosystem
that is rapidly disappearing despite the region's designation as a National Park.

The link between this massif and an Angkorian city referred to in Angkorian inscriptions as
Mahendrâdri or Mahendraparvata (‘mountain of great Indra’) was initially proposed at the
beginning of the twentieth century , but proved difficult to confirm due to confusion about
royal lineages and the construction sequences of the monuments. Eventually, Stern identified
the temples of Phnom Kulen as dating to the ninth-century reign of Jayavarman II, and
proposed that the royal city of Mahendraparvata would also be found on the massif. Although
Stern) surveyed the area, evidence for Mahendraparvata remained elusive. Nonetheless, his
mission generated the first archaeological map of the massif, including the locations of
numerous newly documented temples. Stern's map—comprising, essentially, a scatter of
points in the jungle—would remain the definitive image of the area for decades to come.

The 1960s saw renewed interest in the region. Hansen (1969) and Boulbet (Boulbet &
Dagens 1973; Boulbet 1979) added various elements to Stern's archaeological map, in
particular water-control structures, dykes and other linear features, without necessarily adding
support to the notion of an urban network. Aerial mapping campaigns of the Angkor region
throughout the 1990s extended northward to the mountains, but with limited success. While
radar imaging provided additional detail around the base of the mountain range, the dense
foliage could not be penetrated, and Phnom Kulen remained a lacuna on archaeological maps
(Evans et al. 2007).

More recently, major advances have been made following ground investigations (Chevance
2011, 2013, 2014, 2015), which have identified certain elements characteristic of urban form,
and, specifically, of an Angkorian capital city. Notable among them is the temple of Rong
Chen, the distinctive pyramidal shape of which is typical of other state temples located at the
heart of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian urban areas. Further compelling evidence is the
identification of a royal palace site close to Rong Chen, at the site of Banteay (Chevance
2015). Its distinctive rectangular shape, size, orientation and architectural remains indicate
that it was the centre of power of a royal capital. This was confirmed through excavation,

50
which also provided radiocarbon dates consistent with the reign of Jayavarman II in AD 770–
835. Simultaneously, however, this work further underscored the limitations of conventional
survey and mapping techniques in areas of tropical forest, and a coherent vision of the city
itself remained elusive. It was in this context that airborne laser scanning was deployed in
order to exploit its unique ability to ‘see through’ vegetation and provide high-resolution
models of the forest floor (Evans et al. 2013). Here, we confirm the hypothesis, based on this
accumulated body of evidence, that Mahendraparvata—the eighth- to ninth-century AD
capital of the Khmer Empire—was located on the Phnom Kulen massif.

Archaeologists had to harness laser technology to locate the mysterious city, which is nestled
in the Phnom Kulen mountains of Northern Cambodia, according to a paper published in the
journal Antiquity. Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Phnom Kulen plateau to the north-
east of Angkor in Cambodia was the location of Mahendraparvata—an early Angkorian
capital city and one of the first capitals of the Khmer Empire (ninth to fifteenth centuries
AD). To date, however, archaeological evidence has been limited to a scatter of small and
apparently isolated shrines. Here, the authors combine airborne laser scanning with ground-
based survey to define an extended urban network dating from the ninth century AD, which
they identify as Mahendraparvata. This research yields new and important insights into the
emergence of Angkorian urban areas.

But now, an ancient settlement, known has the ‘lost city’ of Cambodia, has been rediscovered
by scientists using aerial mapping after remaining hidden in dense jungle for centuries.
“Despite knowing that the Phnom Kulen mountains likely hid traces of a Khmer capital city,
archaeologists have had difficulty accessing the region,” the researchers explain in a
statement accompanying the paper. “The mountains are covered in dense vegetation and they
were one of the last strongholds of Khmer Rouge guerillas until the 1990s – land mines and
unexploded ordnance continue to pose a threat to communities living and working in the
mountains, and complicate archaeological research.”

Combining airborne laser scans and ground surveys: By combining airborne laser scans
and ground surveys, researchers were able to locate the city. Previously, the only evidence of
Mahendraparvata was a small number of isolated shrines. Experts harnessed LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging) technology, which uses a laser to measure distances to the Earth’s
surface and can prove extremely valuable to study what is hidden in areas with thick
vegetation. LiDAR is also used extensively in other applications, including autonomous cars
where it allows vehicles to have a continuous 360 degrees view.

Laid out on a grid basis, the researchers believe that they have found a number of the city’s
blocks. LiDAR also indicates that an “ambitious” hydraulic engineering project was started at
Mahendraparvata, but never finished. “This meant that the water management system was not
sufficient to support irrigated rice agriculture, which may suggest the city did not last long as
a Khmer power center,” the researchers said, in the statement. “Even though the reservoir at
Mahendraparvata was not functional, it predated and may have inspired the vast artificial
lakes that would become a defining feature of Angkor.” In a collaboration between the
EFEO, the Archeology and Development Foundation in the U.K., and the APSARA National
Authority (a government agency responsible for protecting the Angkor region in Cambodia),
researchers combined airborne laser scanning with ground surveys and excavations to weave
a narrative of the development and demise of this ancient city. The technology, known as
light detection and ranging, or lidar, creates maps of an area by having a plane shoot lasers at
the ground and measure how much light is reflected back. From that information, researchers

51
can figure out the distance from the lasers on the plane to solid objects between the
vegetation on the ground. (For instance, a temple would measure as a shorter distance to the
airborne laser than a road would.)

Evans' team combined lidar data it had gathered in 2012 and 2015 with digitized survey and
excavation data gathered earlier. The researchers also combined this data with the nearly 600
newly documented features that archeologists found on the ground. Those features included
ceramic material, as well as bricks and sandstone pedestals that typically indicate temple
sites.
The researchers used light detection and ranging, or lidar, to create maps of
Mahendraparvata.

The fields consist of 366 mysteriousl mounds

in geometric patterns and 15 groups. Ceramics and evidence of 10th-century A.D.
construction were found at the mounds. “Although the purpose of the mounds remains
unknown, it is likely that, whatever they were, the mounds were built later than the majority
of Mahendraparvata,” they explained, in the statement. The multi-year archaeological
expedition to find Mahendraparvata was co-led by Damian Evans of University of Sydney
and Jean-Baptiste Chevance of London's Archaeology and Development Foundation. The
team announced their initial findings in June 2013. A key feature of the expedition was its
use of helicopter-mounted Lidar technology to scan the Phnom Kulen area and then map the
city layout. The scanning phase involved seven days of helicopter operations. The Lidar
results confirmed ground-based research by previous archaeologists. But, according to
Chevance, before this they "didn't know how all the dots fitted, exactly how it all came
together".

The ground phase of the expedition traversed goat tracks and watery bogs, the team having
got to their starting point by motorbike. Hazards included landmines. They initially
uncovered five new temples. Eventually, using the Lidar data, thirty previously unidentified
temples were discovered. In addition to the temples, their research showed the existence of an
elaborate grid-like network of roads, dykes and ponds forming the city. Dr. Evans also noted
that expedition imagery shows that the area became deforested, and he theorises that the
impact of this, and water management issues, led to the civilisation's decline. ( From
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/mahendraparvata-an-early-angkorperiod-
capital-defined-through-airborne-laser-scanning-at-phnom-kulen/
CAC3E93D6046CC27D862C1E333FD0713/core-reader)

Surrounded by dense jungle, the vast city was once the thriving capital of the ancient Khmer
Empire. At one point, the population of Angkor may have been over 1 million people,
according to LiveScience.The circumstances surrounding Angkor’s demise have been
debated for years. One theory suggested that aggression from neighboring states forced the
city’s abandonment in 1431.The expedition team have dated Mahendraparvata's origins to
802 AD. Thus the city predates Angkor Wat by about 350 years.

Ak Yum is an ancient temple that dates to the 8th century, and is the oldest known example
of "temple mountain" in Southeast Asia located here. Ancient stone inscriptions tell tales of a
city called Mahendraparvata. The once-mighty metropolis was one of the first capitals of the
Khmer empire, which ruled in Southeast Asia between the ninth and 15th centuries. It was
long believed that the ancient city was hidden beneath thick vegetation on a Cambodian
mountain, not far from the temple of Angkor Wat.

52
GRID: One of the most remarkable revelations was that this city was nicely aligned in a
massive grid that stretches across tens of square kilometers, Evans told Live Science. The city
is a place "that someone sat down and planned and elaborated on a massive scale on top of
this mountain," he said. It "is not something that we necessarily would expect from this
period."In the 8 th Century Urban development was typically "organic," without much state-
level control or central planning. The city-dwellers used a unique and intricate water-
management system. "Instead of building this reservoir with urban walls, as they did for
famous reservoirs at Angkor, they tried to carve this one out of the natural bedrock," Evans
said. These ancient inhabitants carved an enormous basin out of stone but left it half-
complete for unknown reasons. (See our chapter on Angkor a Hydraulic city in our Book
DEVRAJA Part II,Second volume of our Trilogy. A corresponding research paper is also
loaded on academia.edu and researchgate.net.)

The ambitious project's unseen scale and layout provide a kind of prototype for projects of
infrastructural development and water management that would later become very typical of
the Khmer empire and Angkor in particular. Surprisingly, there's no evidence that this
massive cistern was connected to an irrigation system. That likely means one of two things:
The city was left incomplete before the residents could figure out how to provide water for
agriculture, or the lack of irrigation is one reason the city was never finished.But since
Mahendraparvata was not located at an especially advantageous place for rice agriculture it
wasn't the capital for long. It shows that bthere was erroneous town and Site Planning at those
times.Khmer Kings have had many Capitals built by the poor people undr circumstances
difficult to imagine of the cruelty and exploitation. From 1990s a number of studies have
confirmed that interpretation of microtopographic variations is a practical method for
identifying and mapping remnant traces of the built environment, such as mounds, ponds,
fields, walls, roads and canals. One earlier acquisition of Phnom Kulen lidar data took place
in 2012. The most striking result of the lidar survey is the discovery of a framework of linear
axes, oriented roughly to cardinal directions and spanning much of the southern area of the
plateau which consist of one, two or sometimes three parallel linear topographic anomalies,
which are subtle and difficult to observe on the ground. Most of the elements we mapped in
Phnom Kulen are aligned with the major axes, although it is difficult to read too much into
this, given the general preference for cardinal orientation in the Angkorian world. On the
other hand, Angkorian temples conventionally face towards the east, and the newly
discovered axes help to explain the anomalous westward orientation of several Phnom Kulen
temples. These actually open towards the axes and, in the case of westward-facing Prasat
Chup Crei, the temple is even linked directly to an axis by a causeway.

The grid on Phnom Kulen does not appear to be directly connected to broader, regional
transportation or communication networks. The well-known stone stairway of Denh Cho (or
Phleu Cèrè) that scales the Phnom Kulen escarpment is considered to be the main access
point between Jayavarman II's capital and the Angkor plains below. The lidar imagery,
however, reveals that this stairway is located to the north-west of the Mahendraparvata urban
framework. Instead, Phleu Cèrè leads to the tenth- to twelfth-century AD Preah Ang Thom
group on Phnom Kulen which is substantially later than the main Mahendraparvata complex.
The lidar data therefore offer new insights into the spatio-temporal complexity of Phnom
Kulen, to which we return below.

Hydraulic infrastructure
Exploration and mapping by Stern in the 1930s revealed the existence of Tamnup Srae
Thbong and Thnal Mrech—two massive earthen dykes on Phnom Kulen (Figure 6), which

53
join to form an L-shape. Additionally, surveys in the 1960s identified and mapped a system
of smaller earthen dams built across river valleys. These hydraulic features are clearly
recognisable in the lidar imagery, and we were able to revise existing maps to increase clarity
and precision.

The main natural feature in the southern part of the plateau is a broad, flat, north–south
valley. Here, we see evidence of an ambitious project formalising the natural valley into a
rectangular water-storage feature. The lidar data show that the L-shaped configuration of
Tamnup Srae Thbong and Thnal Mrech form part of a huge, unfinished north–south
reservoir, that would have covered an area of 1050 × 330m . The two earthen dykes form its
southern and eastern walls, and there is evidence for the removal of bedrock to deepen the
reservoir and straighten its western and northern walls. The lidar data reveal a very distinctive
pattern of striations in the valley, where soil was dug out of the ground systematically, and
then piled up to form the dykes of the reservoir. Had it been finished, the reservoir would
have retained water flowing through the valley, forming a rectangular body of water
inundating over 35ha. This reservoir would have been precisely integrated into the
engineered landscape of Phnom Kulen. Its eastern wall is built into one of the major north–
south axes; the temple of Rong Chen sits exactly on its east–west centre line; and to the east
of the reservoir, a series of westward-facing temples also sit on that centre line (Stern 1936).
This arrangement recalls the pyramid-reservoir-temple configuration at the tenth-century
Angkorian capital at Koh Ker .

The lidar elevation data have also clarified the structure and function of a channel located at
the southernmost point of the valley. Here, the natural direction of flow is to the north, but
this 1km-long structure instead channels water to the south. We also found evidence here for
water-control mechanisms, such as sluice gates, carved into the stone. These structures divert
water over the escarpment and down into the area between Phnom Kulen and Beng Mealea,
from where sandstone blocks were quarried and transported down canals to build the temples
of Angkor (Figure 1). Lidar imaging has revealed the full extent of quarries in this area, along
with dykes for controlling the water required for moving the stones (Evans 2016). We can
now see evidence that engineering works on top of the plateau also played a role in this
sophisticated hydraulic system.

Habitation
Although they found little evidence for the type of mound-and-pond-based habitation patterns
typical of Angkorian urbanism, nonetheless identified a distinctive topographic spatial
patterning associated with the main axes—and in particular with the central grid—that we
interpret as evidence for habitation. Of particular significance are the presence of numerous
earthen enclosures that align roughly with, and often abut, the main axes. These small
embankments, of decimetre scale in height and in cross-section, subdivide what we interpret
as square ‘city blocks’ with sides of 1.5km in length into an intricate and extensive network
of smaller plots with areas normally in the range of 1–4ha .These plots are somewhat
haphazard in their layout, with inconsistent sizes and orientations. This may represent more
organic developments that emerged alongside, and out of, the more formal axes of the central
grid, without reaching very far into the interior of the ‘city blocks’. A few ponds, mounds and
temple sites are scattered throughout. Archaeological excavations undertaken in 2014 and
2016 by the Archaeology and Development Foundation (ADF) confirmed habitation,
including organic layers containing eighth- to ninth-century AD ceramics.
Mound fields

54
Importantly, two temples in Phnom Kulen that have long been thought to pre-date the reign
of Jayavarman II—Prasat Damrei Krap and Prasat O Top are conspicuously out of alignment
with the urban grid (Figure 6). Notable among the other misaligned features are the ‘mound
fields’ or gridded arrays of mounds, which we believe probably date from the tenth century
AD. This suggests a long and complex history for Mahendraparvata following its late eighth-
to early ninth-century tenure as a capital, involving periods of renovation and transformation.
These, in turn, accord with inscriptions that attest to the continued use of Phnom Kulen as a
site of worship and pilgrimage throughout the Angkor period, and also with local
palaeobotanical records suggesting extensive and intensive human land use from the eighth to
twelfth centuries AD .

Grid City: Mahendraparvata marks an important point of departure, and appears to represent
the first large-scale ‘grid city’ elaborated in the Khmer world. For a number of reasons,
Mahendraparvata therefore represents an important milestone in the development of urban
form in the region. Prior to the site's construction in the eighth century AD, the evidence
shows that settlement patterns in the Angkor region comprised small, loosely structured
urban areas that lacked any formal grid, had no clear boundaries and appear to have
developed organically without a coherent plan. Beyond the Angkor region, a handful of
centres show evidence of enclosing walls; for example, at the sixth- to eighth-century AD site
of Sambor Prei Kuk. But these are much smaller in scale than at Mahendraparvata, and
contain no internal grids.

Hence, the urban network revealed by lidar and described here seems to form an enormous
and remarkably early experiment in formal urban planning. The urban model that first
developed on this mountain plateau, although sparsely inhabited at the time and not widely
adopted straight away, would eventually be adapted to the low-lying floodplains of Angkor,
and become a prototype for high-density urban centres at the height of the Khmer Empire.

55
Conclusions
The eighth- to ninth-century AD capital of the Khmer Empire was located on the Phnom
Kulen massif, the lidar data, supported by additional evidence from archaeological survey
and excavation, are consistent with this interpretation. There is evidence of a centrally
planned urban area, spanning ~40–50km2 of the plateau. This comprises a network of major
thoroughfares that divide a central zone into a city grid; a system of smaller-scale land
parcelling that subdivides city blocks within that grid; a distribution of small shrines, mounds
and ponds; a large-scale water-management system, consisting of dams and a major,
unfinished reservoir; and finally, a distinctive spatial arrangement of a royal palace, state
pyramid-temple and other infrastructural elements that are consistent with—and unique to—
all other known Khmer Empire capitals.

Mahendraparvata was the location from which Jayavarman II ruled over the early ninth-
century lands of the Khmer, and is consistent with the definition of a ‘capital’. The existence
of a palace precinct, a network of thoroughfares and local shrines and neighbourhoods
indicate that a royal court was located here and supported by a substantial population of
specialised ritual, administrative and other staff drawn from a broader community inhabiting
an extensive, well-defined, built-up area. This area was clearly not rural in character, as it has
no identifiable agricultural systems; furthermore, its extensive system of parcelled
neighbourhoods indicate that it was not merely a vacant ceremonial centre. There is evidence
of a large urban area with an elaborate system of hydraulic infrastructure, which, ontrary to
the prevailing ‘hydraulic city’ theory concerning the rise of Angkor—seems not to be
designed for irrigated rice agriculture. As at Koh Ker, however, the inadequacy of the water-
management system for intensive rice agriculture at Mahendraparvata could either be seen as
an argument against the ‘hydraulic city’ hypothesis, or, alternatively, as an explanation for
the ephemeral nature of Mahendraparvata as the seat of power. The new map of
Mahendraparvata is also relevant to debates about the development of urban form in the
Khmer context. Previous work on urbanism at Angkor has noted two distinct forms: formally
planned, densely inhabited urban centres, characterised by city grids with spaces constrained
by walls and enclosures; and beyond that, low-density, mixed urban-agrarian landscapes with
occasional nodes of high-density occupation.

Mahendraparvata has an extended city grid, but without any attempt to define a central area
with a wall or moat; the central grid does not appear to have been densely inhabited; and
there is little evidence for intensive agricultural activity or a broader network of low-density
occupation revolving around fields and ponds. It is clear that Mahendraparvata is the last
component of that vast settlement complex to emerge from beneath the canopy. The work
described here effectively draws to a close 150 years of archaeological mapping work in the
Greater Angkor region and sets the stage for more sophisticated spatio-temporal modelling of
urban form. By incorporating new data from Angkorian household archaeology a finer-
grained demographic models could be constructed by the researchers and finally resolve basic
questions concerning the extent and population of Angkor, and how that changed over the
centuries.

The West Baray/ Baray Teuk Thla "clear water reservoir" is a baray, or reservoir,
at Angkor, Cambodia, oriented east-west and located just west of the walled city Angkor
Thom. Rectangular in shape and measuring approximately 7.8 by 2.1 kilometers, the West
Baray is the largest baray at Angkor and one of the largest handcut water reservoirs on Earth,
[1]
possessing a current maximum capacity of 12 to 14 billion gallons of water (53 million

56
m3). Its waters are contained by tall earthen dikes measuring 39 feet in height. In the center of
the baray is the West Mebon, a Hindu temple built on an artificial island.

Construction of the baray probably began in the 11th Century during the reign of
King Suryavarman I and was finished later under King Udayadityavarman II.

The Angkorian engineers who created the West Baray appear to have in places incorporated
earlier construction. The east dike, for instance, appears to be largely a section of a dike that
enclosed the capital city of King Yasovarman, which had the Phnom Bakheng temple at its
center. In other places, the baray obliterated or submerged earlier human-made sites. The
south dike, for instance, partially buried a brick pyramid temple, Ak Yum. And the western
floor of the baray appears to have once been inha bited—archeological work has found wall bases,
steps, and pottery shards there. An inscription stele discovered in the area, dating from 713 A.D.,
offers further evidence of earlier settlement, defining rice fields that were offered to a queen Jayadevi.
Early French experts believed the West Baray to have functioned as a vast holding tank for water that
fed irrigation canals in dry times, allowing multiple crops of rice each year. Many later studies,
however, theorize that the baray had mainly symbolic functions, serving as a vast earthly depiction of
the Hindu Sea of Creation, with the West Mebon temple at its center.
In modern times, an irrigation lock was built in the baray's southern dike, raising the water level and
allowing provision of water to fields to the south. Today the baray retains water in its western end
year-round. In the rainy season, water advances to the eastern dike.
With clear, still waters, the baray today is a popular place for swimming and boat rides by local
residents. It has occasionally served as a landing site for seaplanes.

The West Baray (8 × 2 km) is the largest of the four baray constructed at Angkor, and the only one
that holds water today. The barays were constructed by building embankments around the intended
perimeter using earth acquired by digging trenches inside the perimeter of the baray. The primary
(65%) source of water and sediment to the West Baray is the Siem Reap River; the remaining 35% of
the hydrologic input derives from direct precipitation.

The Siem Reap River, one of three river catchments in the greater Angkor area today, drains an area
that includes the Kulen Hills. This, however, was not always the case. In pre-Angkorian times, only
the Puok River and Roluos River catchments existed .

The Puok River originally emerged from the Kulen Hills but was cut off when the third catchment
was formed with the construction of the Siem Reap Channel in the 10th century (prior to the creation
of the West Baray). The West Baray received water from rainfall and feeder channels that diverted
water from the rivers into central Angkor. A series of canals channelled water to the northeast corner

57
of the baray, where a 25-m wide channel carried water and sediment into the reservoir. A grid of
channels off the southwest corner of the West Baray, along with two other channels, directed water
toward Tonle Sap Lake. One canal flowed southwest on a direct route to the lake and the other flowed
southeast. The various channels were likely used to disperse water from the reservoir to the paddy
fields south of the West Baray and the main temple area. Sediments that accumulated in the West
Baray since its construction record variations in natural hydrologic conditions and Khmer water
management practices. Research shows that changes in water and sediment input to the West Baray
varied through time and illustrates how the ecology of the system responded to these shifts.
.----------------------------------------------
Paleoenvironmental history of the West Baray, Angkor (Cambodia)
Mary Beth Day 2012 | 109 (4) 1046-1051 | https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1111282109

The East Baray or Yashodharatataka, is a now-dry baray, or artificial body of water,

at Angkor, Cambodia, oriented east-west and located just east of the walled city Angkor
Thom. It was built around the year 900 AD during the reign of King Yasovarman. Fed by
the Siem Reap River flowing down from the Kulen Hills, it was the second-largest baray in
the Angkor region (after the West Baray) and one of the largest handcut water reservoirs on
Earth,[2] measuring roughly 7.5 by 1.8 kilometers and holding over 50 million cubic meters of
water. Stones bearing inscriptions that mark the construction of the baray have been found at
all four of its corners. The labour and organization necessary for its construction were
staggering: Its dikes contain roughly 8 million cubic meters of fill.

Scholars are divided on the purpose of this and other barays. By some theories, they held
water for irrigation, but no inscription has been found mentioning such a function. Other
theories say that barays served primarily a symbolic purpose in Khmer religious life,
representing the seas of creation that surround Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods.

The East Baray today contains no water; farmers till crops on its bed. But its outlines remain
clearly visible in satellite photographs. In the middle of the baray is the East Mebon temple,
located on elevated ground that was an island in the days when the baray contained water.

Tonlé Sap "Great Lake"; is a seasonally inundated freshwater lake and an attached river, the
120 km (75 mi) long Tonlé Sap River, that connects the lake to the Mekong River. They form
the central part of a complex hydrological system, in the
2
12,876 km (4,971 sq mi) Cambodian floodplain covered with a mosaic of natural and
agricultural habitats that the Mekong replenishes with water and sediments annually. The
central plain formation is the result of millions of years of Mekong alluvial deposition . It has
been of central importance for Cambodia's food supply. It proved capable of largely
maintaining the Angkorian civilization, the largest pre-industrial settlement complex in world
history. Directly and indirectly it affects the livelihood of large numbers of a predominantly
rural population.
Battle of Tonlé Sap was a battle
between Panduranga (Champa) and Khmer Empire in
1177The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power
struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150)
the Khmer kingdom united internally and the largest temple
of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat,
dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the east, his campaigns
against Champa, and Annam, were unsuccessful, though he
did sack Vijaya in 1145 and depose Jaya Indravarman III. The
Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven

58
 out by Jaya Harivarman I. Suryavarman II sent a mission to
the Chola dynasty of south India and presented a precious
stone to the Chola Emperor Kulothunga Chola I in
1114.Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly
and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally in
1177 the Angkor capital was raided and looted in a naval
battle on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Panduranga fleet under Po
Klong Garai king of Panduranga.
Then Tribhuvanadityavarman king of Angkor was killed.

Connection of Mekong River with the Tonel Sap

Greater Mekong
Subregion

Mekong River
Basin

Upper
Lower
Mekong
Mekong
Basin
Basin (LMB)
(UMB)

Cambodian
Northern Southern Khorat Floodplain –
Annamite Range
Highlands Uplands Plateau Great Lake
Ecosystem

Tonle
Cultivated Deciduous Tonle
Wetlands Sap
Lands Forests Sap Lake
River

59
 Swamps
Aquatic
and
Habitats
Marshes
Connection
of Tonel
DSap with
Mekong
River

Back in the days of the glittering Angkor era, the Tonlé Sap lake and river, which branches
off the Mekong river in today’s Cambodia, was to the Khmer empire what the Nile river was
to the Egyptians.
Enriched by the freshwater flowing down from the Tibetan plateau, the Tonle Sap lake
assured the Khmer people that they never had to worry about running out of food and water,
even though their numbers had amounted to 0.1 percent of the world population at the time!

With their sustenance fulfilled, the people of the ancient Khmer metropolis were free — in
both mind and body — to pursue and develop artistic pursuits that included silk weaving and
silversmithing, finessing a flavorsome local cuisine, as well as planning and building grand
monuments like the Angkor Wat. The Angkor Wat in Cambodia
Today, many from far and wide flock to present-day Siem Reap to witness the astonishing
level of culture forged by the Khmer people, but only a few realise there is more to the Tonle
Sap itself than first meets the eye. In fact, locals often claim that a Cambodia trip would be
incomplete without being on the Tonlé Sap, for Cambodia and her cultural treasures would
never have existed without it.

THE LAKE THAT BREATHES

An endless giver of life, the Tonle Sap Lake is also a spectacle of nature. To better
understand it geologically, it’s easier to liken the lake to a giant bathtub. For the majority of
the year, the Mekong River flows 2,700-mile (4,350 km) southwards from the Tibetan
highlands to the South China Sea, and the Tonle Sap’s water empties into the Mekong.

60
Tonle Sap in the Low Water Season
But as monsoon winds from the southwest bring higher rainfall to other parts of Southeast
Asia between May and October, the Mekong River begins to swell. By around June, the
Mekong would have risen to a level that forces the Tonle Sap river to flow backwards into its
own lake.

In fact, the Tonle Sap is the only river in the world that flows both ways seasonally, reversing
direction twice a year. As the river flow flips from a downstream to an upstream direction,
the Tonle Sap lake starts to fill up at an instant, bringing along millions of fish from the
Mekong and allowing river ships to enter. Suddenly, the thousands of amazingly tall stilted
houses that perch on what resembles a swamp make perfect sense. By September, the water
level of the Tonle Sap lake would have increased to more than 4 times its original depth.
Since the Tonle Sap lake has no other outlet, the inflow from the river also expands the lake
to more than four times its normal area, from approximately 1,050 square miles to 4,500
square miles at its peak! For about five months every year, the Tonle Sap Lake can lay claim
to the title of the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia.

61
HYDRAULIC ZONES The Greater Angkor area can be divided hydrologically into
watersheds and sub-watersheds. However, in the case of there are three main hydraulic zones:
upper, middle and lower. Two of the zones can be divided into two sub-zones: the upper
comprising of upper plain and mountain areas and the lower comprising of floodplain and
upper drainage zone.
Each zone has its typical natural hydrological and cultural hydraulic characters which are
irrespective of the watershed borders. The characteristics for each zone will be described
briefly later on in this chapter. In the upper zone (also known as Collector zone), the water
was taken from natural rivers which ran from the Kulen Mountains and then spread to the
North-South aligned channels. In the middle zone (also known as Temple zone), the water
was collected mainly in large barays, water reservoirs, which were most probably built for
multifunctional purposes.
The lower zone (also known as Drainage zone) operated as a drainage system for the temple
area and dispersed the water down into the Tonle Sap Lake The ancient Siem Reap Channel
(present river) and Angkor Wat Channel are the main structures for transporting the water to
the lake from the Temple Area. Angkor Wat was one temple within the civic-ceremonial
center (kind of like the downtown) of the urban Angkorian complex that we call Greater
Angkor. Angkor Wat was built in the early 12th century during the reign of King
Suryavarman II. It would have been a bustling place. Constructing this temple itself was a
massive undertaking – the temple complex covered nearly 2 square kilometers. However, our
Lidar survey* data indicate that a much larger area around the temple was modified,
including an area to the east of the moat that includes a mound and pond grid system that
seems to be an occupation area and a series of square spirals to the south of the temple. The
lotus spires could have been covered in gold leaf. A visitor to Angkor in the late 13th century,
Zhou Daguan, describes temples being covered in gold leaf. As suggested by Ground
Penetrating Radar survey by Till Sonnemann and colleagues suggest that the landscape
beneath Angkor Wat was not empty, although it doesn’t seem to have been heavily occupied
either. Burials dating to about 3,000 years ago were found in the area of the West Baray (a
large water storage tank), so people have been living in the area that would become Angkor
for a long time!

A recreation of Angkor Wat by Bruno

Levy.--------------------------------------------------------------- The Natural Environment and
Historical Water Management of Angkor, Cambodia Matti Kummu Department of Water
Resources, Helsinki University of Technology,Espoo Finland
Lessons from the Climate-Change Induced Collapse of Angkor Wat

62
63
Overview from Sonneman and colleagues of the location of the very ancient buried towers
(yellow, at left) of Angkor Wat relative to the slightly less ancient temple (tan/golden, at
right) of Angkor Wat (built in the mid-twelfth century CE).

While Angkorian Khmers built Angkor Wat, people were clearing ground, planning out the
grid for the temple complex and surrounding mounds, bringing in stone, dirt, and sand for the
temple construction, and carving the decorations throughout the area. Angkor Wat’s size and
construction requirements were a radical new experiment in state power. We’re not quite
sure what was there before and to get an accurate idea would need more excavation. Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey shows that there might have been a smaller temple near what
would become Angkor Wat and our excavations suggest some kind of activity (i.e. we don’t
find sterile soil) prior to Angkor Wat’s construction. The people living here do seem to have
been massively re-working the landscape. Once Angkor Wat was completed, we believe that
occupation mounds, with homes, surrounded the temple itself. We’re not sure who these
people were, but suspect that they likely worked at the temple. Inscriptions describe many
different types of people who worked at a temple to keep it running, from ritual specialists
and temple dancers, to people who did more mundane jobs. Hindu temples were busy places,
with near-continuous ritual activities within the Angkor Wat temple; some days each month
and year had even larger and more elaborate public celebrations.

64
 “Death of Angkor”
by Maurice Fievet (1960).
Thai chronicles describe Angkor having been sacked in 1431 and these events were
colorfully illustrated by Maurice Fievet in National Geographic in 1960, but we lack clear
archaeological evidence for widespread violence or destruction at Angkor

65
 V
2 MOUNTAINS that REPRESENT MOUNT
MERU
Dr Uday Dokras

How Hinduism reached S.E. Asian countries is a mystery that is speculated upon. Be as it
may, the Funan and Champa and then later on Khmer kingdoms from the time of
Jayavarman II were all steeped deep into Hinduism.

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating
literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This
concept also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
Scholars believe that placing the temple on an island in the middle of a body of water or
nearby served to identify it symbolically with Mount Meru, home of the gods, which
in Hindu mythology is surrounded by the world oceans.
Yasovarman I (889 - 910 A.D.): After succeeding the throne in 889 A.D, Yasovarman I
built a new Angkor capital called Yasodharapura, located not far away from Roluos on the
vast plain of Siemreap and about eight kilometers north of the the Great Lake Tonle Sap. At
the center of this capital was the Phnom Bakeng Hill on top of which a temple was built with
its galleries branching out in four directions to represent the heavenly residence of Hindu
gods with the central Mount Meru and the other four sacred peaks. One of the earliest of the
Temple Mountains and-quincunx
The Mountains that Reflet Mount Meru

Mount Mandara (Sanskrit: मन्दर, मन्दार; mandara, mandāra) is the name of the mountain that
appears in the Samudra manthan episode in the Hindu Puranas, where it was used as a
churning rod to churn the ocean of milk. Mahadev's serpent, Vasuki, offered to serve as the
rope pulled on one side by a team of asuras, and on the other, by a team of devas.
The Puranas refer to various sacred places on the hill that are also believed to be the abode of
god Krishna as Madhusudana or the destroyer of the demon called Madhu who was killed by
Krishna and then covered by the Mount Mandara.
Some legends identify Mandar Parvat, a hill in Banka district (near Bhagalpur district) in
Bihar with Mount Mandara. The Mandar Parvat has the sculpture of what is believed to be of
Demon Madhu.
Kalidasa's Kumarasambhava refers to foot marks of Lord Vishnu on the slopes of
Mandara. The hill is replete with relics of bygone ages. Besides inscriptions and statues there
are numerous rock cut sculptures depicting various Brahmanical images. The hill is equally
revered by the Jains who believe that their
12th Tirthankara Shri Vasupujya attained nirvana here on the summit of the hill.

66
Mandar Parvat
The depiction of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk became very popular in Khmer art,
perhaps because their creation myth involved a Nāga ancestor. It is a popular motif in both
Khmer and Thai art; one of the most dramatic depictions is one of the eight friezes that can be
seen around the inner wall of Angkor Wat--the others being the Battle
of Kurukshetra, Suryavarman's Military Review, scenes from Heaven and Hell, the battle
between Vishnu and the asuras, the Battle between Krishna and Banasura, a battle between
the gods and asuras, and the Battle of Lanka.The Mount Olympus of the Hindu gods and
goddesses, Mount Meru, or sometimes Mandara, is, according to the Mahabharata, a golden
mass of intense energy. It is the axis mundi, the world center .
THE STORY OF SHRI KRISHNA LIFTING GOVARDHAN HILL

There is an interesting story in the Bhagwata and other Puranas about Shri Krishna lifting the
‘Govardhan Parvat’ or Govardhan Hill when he was only a small child. The story goes like
this:

Once, when the elder people of Braj including Nanda Maharaj were planning for the Puja of
Lord Indra, Shri Krishna, a child then, questioned them as to why they were doing so. Nanda
Maharaj explained to Krishna that this was done every year to please Lord Indra so that he
continued to grace the people of Braj by providing rain as and when required. But little

67
Krishna debated that they were farmers and they should only do their duty or ‘Karma’ to the
best of their abilities, by concentrating on farming and protecting their cattle, rather than
performing pujas or conduct sacrifices like this for any natural phenomenon. Finally
convinced by Krishna, the villagers did not perform with the puja.

Furious with the inhabitants of Braj for listening to the little child Krishna and worshipping
the Govardhan Hill instead of him, lndra, the King of Heaven, decided to punish them by
sending terrible rain clouds to flood the land of Vrindavan. Calling the Samavartaka clouds of
devastation, lndra ordered them to lash upon Vrindavan with torrents of rain and
thunderstorms and cause extensive floods that would destroy the livelihood of the inhabitants.

As terrible rains and thunderstorms ravaged the land and submerged it under water, the
frightened and helpless inhabitants of Vrindavan approached Lord Krishna for help. Krishna,
who understood the situation perfectly well, lifted up the entire Govardhan Hill at once with
His left hand, and held it up like an umbrella. One by one all the inhabitants of Vrindavan,
along with their cows and other household possessions, took shelter under Govardhan Hill.
For seven days they stayed under the hill, safe from the terrible rains and surprisingly
undisturbed by hunger or thirst. They were also astounded to see the huge Govardhan Hill
resting perfectly balanced on Krishna’s little finger.

Stunned and mystified with the order of events, King Indra called back the clouds of
devastation, thus stopping the thunderstorms and the rains. The sky became clear again and
the sun shone brightly over Vrindavan. Little Krishna asked the inhabitants to return home
without any fear, and gently placed the Govardhan Hill back to exactly where it was. All the
inhabitants of Braj including Nanda Maharaj, Yasoda and Balarama hailed Krishna and
embraced Him with happiness.

This was how the false pride of King Indra was shattered to pieces. He came to Lord Krishna
with folded hands and prayed to Him for forgiveness. Shri Krishna, being the Supreme
Personality of Godhead, bestowed his grace on Indra and also enlightened him about his
‘Dharma’ and duties.

Sonya Rhie Mace and Bertrand Porte in their book Revealing Krishna: Essays on the
History, Context, and Conservation of Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan from Phnom Da
2021 talk about an over life-size sculpture of Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, in one of
the earliest sculptural representations from Cambodia. The sculpture depicts him lifting
Mount Govardhan. Dating from c 600 CE, it is a depictions of the story of Krishna and the
mountain in the art of India and Southeast Asia. It is a reference to images of the ideal ruler,
protector of the realm, and clan hero. It has been installed in the cave sanctuary of Angkor
Borei amid the delta floodplains, and its connections with the nearby royal center .

68
In 1973, the Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) acquired a fragmentary masterpiece of pre-
Angkorian Khmer sculpture of Krishna Govardhana. Carved from a monolithic block of
sandstone about 1,500 years ago, it depicts the young Hindu god Krishna in the superhuman
act of holding aloft a low mountain. It comes from a cave at the top of a small granite
outcrop, Phnom Da (Stone Mountain), in southern Cambodia near the ancient capital of
Angkor Borei.

The Sanctuaries of Phnom Da

The sanctuaries of Phnom Da are recorded as the earliest monumental Hindu temple complex
in Cambodia from surviving Khmer and Sanskrit inscriptions during the reign of King
Rudravarman (514-539). The site also houses the earliest surviving Khmer stone temple
dating to the 6th century. The caves on Phnom Da seem to have been first visited in the 1880s
by a French civil servant. The next record comes from the archaeologist Henri Parmentier
(1871-1949) of the École française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in the report of his visit in June
1911.

The extensive sculptural finds from Angkor Borei and the nearby sacred sites of
Phnom Da depict a wide range of Hindu and Buddhist imagery, probably based on
descriptions in texts brought from India with Hindu priests and Buddhist monks.
Sandstone as a medium for sculpture rose to prominence in the 500s, and within a
century, Cambodian artists in Angkor Borei developed exceptional stone-carving
skills and a local style widely celebrated for its power and sensitivity.

Adolphe Stoclet and Khmer Art

However, this particular story begins in 1920 with Adolphe Stoclet (1871-1949) and
his wife Suzanne. They purchased many Khmer fragments, including the limbless
head and torso section of a Krishna Govardhana sculpture from Phnom Da, as part of
the frenzy of collecting to fill their new grand residence in Brussels, designed by Josef
Hoffman and the Wiener Werkstatte. By 1937, many more Khmer fragments entered
the Stoclet Collection via a French architect and conservator, Henri Mauger, who was

69
then working in Cambodia, including what has become CMA’s Krishna Lifting Mount
Govardhan.

Installed in their mansion, the Stoclet Palace, it achieved renown throughout the art
world as a masterpiece of early Cambodian art. In 1935, Henri Mauger (1903-?) of
the (EFEO) found 14 further sandstone fragments of arms, legs, feet, and a hand near
the caves on Phnom Da. Believing that they included the pieces to complete their
statue, the Stoclets arranged for the fragments to be shipped to Brussels. Dissatisfied
with the appearance after multiple attempts to attach limb fragments to the torso at
the home of their neighbour, sculptor Marcel Wolfers (1886-1976), the Stoclets
abandoned the project. When new owners moved into the Wolfers’s villa, they used
the stone fragments to support a new underground cistern and to edge the flower
bed, where they remained unnoticed until the 1970s.

The Cleveland Krishna

Back in the US, in 1973, the Cleveland Museum of Art purchased the head and torso
section of the Krishna Govardhana sculpture from the Stoclet estate. The Cleveland
Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, is believed to be from a cave temple halfway up
the northern slope of Phnom Da and is one of the five two-armed heroic figures of
Phnom Da and one of two depicting his elevation of Mount Govardhan

Four years later, CMA curator Stanislaw Czuma managed to locate the buried
fragments and transfer them to Cleveland. Conservators used eight of the pieces to
create as complete a figure of the Krishna Govardhana as possible, and this elegantly
restored sculpture was a centrepiece in the CMA galleries for nearly 40 years. In
2005, the Cleveland Museum of Art transferred the nine unused pieces to the
National Museum of Cambodia in Phnom Penh. Conservators there attached six of
the pieces to another limbless Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan figure that was
brought from Phnom Da in 1944.

From 2014 to 2018, following increased communications between curators and

conservators in Cleveland and Phnom Penh, Bertrand Porte with the EFEO and SOK
Soda of the National Museum of Cambodia recognised that the disposition of the
fragments required further adjustments. Using 3-D modelling, CT scanning, and
extensive analysis of stone samples, a team of scholars and specialists from
Cambodia, France, and the US worked cooperatively to determine which fragments
belonged with which sculpture.

This latest exhibition aims to reveal the context, history, and myth of the Cleveland
Krishna Govardhana as understood today. Four digital galleries present the riverine
landscape where it was made, its global travels and restorations – and life-size three-
dimensional projections of all eight monumental stone sculptures from Phnom Da,
and the role of geopolitics and museums in their discovery and conservation are in
the show. In two sculpture galleries, the Cleveland Krishna is reunited with
contemporaneous works from the same region for the first time in centuries (there
are eight main sculptures and main sanctuaries at Phnom Da).

As revealed in these many years of examination, two of the pieces that were in
Phnom Penh actually belonged with the Cleveland Krishna, and six of the pieces that

70
were in Cleveland belonged to the Phnom Penh Krishna. Cleveland conservators then
completed the arduous, delicate process of disassembling the 1978/79 restoration.

In 2020, the unprecedented exchange of sculptural fragments between the US and

the Cambodia led to the latest reconstruction of both Krishna Lifting Mount
Govardhan sculptures in 2021. Though neither sculpture is complete, they are now
reunited with their correct fragments.

Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, circa 600, after 2020 restoration,

Southern Cambodia, Takeo Province, Phnom Da, sandstone, overall 203.1 x
68 x 55.5 cm, The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L Severance Fund 1973

71
Krishna of Cambodia in the Cleaveland Museum of Art before its relocation to Cambodia
HTTPS://ASIANARTNEWSPAPER.COM/KRISHNA-GOVARDHANA-JOURNEY-TO-
CAMBODIA/

The above discoveries show that the concept of Mountains as vehicles to

represent the Hindu Gods, Vishnu and his incarnation KRISHNA was well
entranched in the domain of Hinduism as practiced in the Khmer Empire
and its antecedents.
Phnom Bakheng or Prasat Phnum Bakhêng as Mount Mandara and
Govardhan

Phnom Bakheng or Prasat Phnum Bakhêng, is a Hindu and Buddhist

temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem Reap
Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th
century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a hill,
it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much bigger
temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the
southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the
most threatened monuments of Angkor. Since 2004, World Monuments
Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership with APSARA.
Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng
was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe.
It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that
Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in
the Roluos area located to the southeast.
An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in
present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became
king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his

72
guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a
mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains.”
Scholars believe that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom
Bakheng temple approximately a century and a half earlier.Phnom Bakheng
is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are attributed to
Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the south near
the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East Baray reservoir.
Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat.
Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A
causeway ran in a northwest–southeast orientation from the old capital area
to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an
east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple.
Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of
the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep
hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form
of seven levels, representing the seven heavens.
At the top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand
in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the
level's square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple
at ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have collapsed.
A quincunx (/ˈkwɪn.kʌŋks/) is a geometric pattern consisting of five points
arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a
fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern
corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards,
and dominoes. It is represented in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT
PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------https://
www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/article/pdfs/Phnom_Bakheng_Conservation_Master_Plan_Vol_1.pdf

ORIGIN

73
A quincunx coin////Portuguese shield

The quincunx was originally a coin issued by the Roman Republic c. 211–
200 BC, whose value was five twelfths (quinque and uncia) of an as, the
Roman standard bronze coin. On the Roman quincunx coins, the value was
sometimes indicated by a pattern of five dots or pellets. However, these dots
were not always arranged in a quincunx pattern.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the first appearances of the Latin
word in English as 1545 and 1574 ("in the sense 'five-twelfths of a pound or
as'"; i.e. 100 old pence). The first citation for a geometric meaning, as "a
pattern used for planting trees", dates from 1606. The OED also cites a 1647
reference to the German astronomer Kepler for an astronomical/astrological
meaning, an angle of 5/12 of a whole circle. Jackson (1821) states that the
word refers to the pattern of trees in an orchard, but then uses it more
abstractly for a version of the orchard-planting problem involving patterns of
points and lines in the plane (for which the quincunx pattern provides the
optimal solution for five points).

Quincunx patterns occur in many contexts:

74
The flag of the Solomon Islands features a quincunx of stars./A quincuncial
map/12th-century Cosmatesque mosaic in the Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Sicily

Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.of thr
Bakeng

Phnom Bakheng as a quincunx

 In heraldry, groups of five elements (charges) are often arranged in a

quincunx pattern, called in saltire in heraldic terminology. The flag of
the Solomon Islands features this pattern, with its five stars representing
the five main island groups in the Solomon Islands. Another instance of
this pattern occurred in the flag of the 19th-century Republic of Yucatán,
where it signified the five departments into which the republic was
divided.
 Quincunxes are used in modern computer graphics as a pattern
for multisample anti-aliasing. Quincunx antialiasing samples scenes at

75
 the corners and centers of each pixel. These five sample points, in the
shape of a quincunx, are combined to produce each displayed pixel.
However, samples at the corner points are shared with adjacent pixels,
so the number of samples needed is only twice the number of displayed
pixels.
 In numerical analysis, the quincunx pattern describes the two-
dimensional five-point stencil, a sampling pattern used to derive finite
difference approximations to derivatives.
 In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is
the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four
angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern
of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted
by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such
as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the
five peaks of Mount Meru
 A quincunx is one of the quintessential designs of Cosmatesque inlay
stonework.
 A quincuncial map is a conformal map projection that maps the poles of
the sphere to the centre and four corners of a square, thus forming a
quincunx.
 The points on each face of a unit cell of a face-centred cubic lattice form
a quincunx.
 The quincunx as a tattoo is known as the five dots tattoo. It has been
variously interpreted as a fertility symbol, a reminder of sayings on how
to treat women or police, a recognition symbol among the Romani people,
a group of close friends, standing alone in the world, or time spent in
prison (with the outer four dots representing the prison walls and the
inner dot representing the prisoner). Thomas Edison, whose many
inventions included an electric pen which later became the basis of a
tattooing machine created by Samuel O'Reilly, had this pattern tattooed
on his forearm.
 The first two stages of the Saturn V super heavy-lift rocket had engines
in a quincunx arrangement.
 A baseball diamond forms a quincunx with the four bases and the
pitcher's mound.
 Early African American scientist Benjamin Banneker describes a dream
in which he is asked to measure the shape of the soul after death. The
answer is "quincunx". Research locates his ancestry in Senegal, where
the quincunx is a common religious symbol.
 Place des Quinconces in Bordeaux, France, one of the largest public
squares in Europe, is named for its trees, which were formerly arranged
in quincunx patterns.
Various literary works use or refer to the quincunx pattern for its symbolic
value:
 The English physician Sir Thomas Browne in his philosophical
discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) elaborates upon evidence of the
quincunx pattern in art, nature and mystically as evidence of "the
wisdom of God". Although Browne wrote about quincunx in its geometric

76
 meaning, he may have been influenced by English astrology, as
the astrological meaning of "quincunx" (unrelated to the pattern) was
introduced by the astronomer Kepler in 1604.

 James Joyce uses the term in "Grace", a short story in Dubliners of 1914,
to describe the seating arrangement of five men in a church service.
Lobnerargues that in this context the pattern serves as a symbol both of
the wounds of Christ and of the Greek cross.

 Lawrence Durrell's novel sequence The Avignon Quintet is arranged in

the form of a quincunx, according to the author; the final novel in the
sequence is called Quinx, the plot of which includes the discovery of a
quincunx of stones.

 The Quincunx is the title of a lengthy and elaborate novel by Charles

Palliser set in 19th-century England, published in 1989; the pattern
appears in the text as a heraldic device, and is also reflected in the
structure of the book.

 In the first chapter of The Rings of Saturn, W. G. Sebald's narrator cites

Browne's writing on the quincunx. The quincunx in turn becomes a
model for the way in which the rest of the novel unfolds.

 Séamus Heaney describes Ireland's historical provinces as together

forming a quincunx, as the Irish word for province cúige (literally: "fifth
part") also explicates. The five provinces of Ireland
were Ulster (north), Leinster (east), Connacht (west), Munster (south)
and Meath (center, and now a county within Leinster). More specifically,
in his essay Frontiers of Writing, Heaney creates an image of five towers
forming a quincunx pattern within Ireland, one tower for each of the five
provinces, each having literary significance.

 The Polish historian Feliks Koneczny used the term 'quincunx' to

describe five categories of human life which define civilisations, these
categories including truth and good on the spiritual side, well-
being and health on the physical side and beauty encompassing both
sides.

77
Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th
century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan//The MahaBodhi Temple, a
famous Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya, India, representing Mount Meru

Mount Meru : मेरु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is

the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all
the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.
Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as
symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座
xūmízuò style base is a common feature[citation needed] of Chinese pagodas. The
highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered
roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to
which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning
"excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central
bead in a mālā.
In other languages, Mount Meru is pronounced:

1. Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃ ])

2. Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān)
3. Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen)
4. Javanese: ꦱꦼꦩꦺꦫꦸ (Semeru)
5. Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪರ್ವತ
6. Khmer: ភ្នំព្សុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah Somae)
7. Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan)
8. Malayalam: മഹാമേരു പർവ്വതം (Mahameru Parvatham)
9. Pāli: Sineru
10. Tamil: மகா மேரு மலை
11. Telugu: మేరు పర్వతం

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 12. Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་
13. Thai:เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen)
14. Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di

GEOGRAPHY; The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru — which all refer

to it as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, along with several other statements that
describe it in geographically vague terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all the
planets circle the mountain") — make the determination of its location most
difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs,
northwest of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the
Earth ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad
(Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based
on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions:
"Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu"
(Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there).
Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In one
of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being
surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to
the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south

Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru

as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus.

According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre

of the world, and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and
80,000 yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000
yojanas high according to the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its
peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount
Meru, and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain
has four faces — each one made of a different material; the northern face is

79
made of gold, the eastern one is made of crystal, the southern one is made
of lapis lazuli, and the western one is made of ruby.
According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical
writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is
uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately
4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It also descends
beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas,
being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a
simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of
80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of
40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and
mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like
ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of
mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width
and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven
surrounding mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which
forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are
merely small islands. The known world, which is on the continent
of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the
table below:

Name Width Height/Depth

Sumeru (Sineru) mountain 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas

Sea 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas

Yugandhara mountains 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas

Sea 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas

Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas

Sea 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas

Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas

80
Sea 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas

Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Sea 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Sea 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Sea 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Nimindhara (Nemindhara) mountains 625 yojanas 625 yojanas

Outer Sea 32,000 yojanas relatively shallow

Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains

312.5 yojanas 312.5 yojanas
(circular edge of the world)

The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes

the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct
physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven
consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is
20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges,
each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven"
of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing north, south,
east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great Kings, who
faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru
in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and
night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast
over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the same time it

81
is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the
eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of
Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is
noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and
midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and
broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great
Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and kumbhāṇḍas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru
are given below:

Height above the Length (on one

Name Breadth
sea side)

Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas 2,000 yojanas 24,000 yojanas

Sadāmada 30,000 yojanas 4,000 yojanas 32,000 yojanas

Mālādhara 20,000 yojanas 8,000 yojanas 48,000 yojanas

16,000
Karoṭapāni 10,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
yojanas

Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at
war with the Trāyastriṃśa gods.
Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are incompatible with
modern science and have been abandoned by numerous modern Buddhists.
One of the most well known of these ideas is Mount Meru. According
to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "the human realm that Buddhist texts describe is a
flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters contained by a
ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central mountain,
surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents."
As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars
like Tominaga Nakamoto (1715–1746) began to question this classical
Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha from
Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the heart of
Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend the
traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued that
it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of Indian
mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further and
argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original Buddhism.

82
In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part
represent the entire universe.It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home
of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara

Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the

centre. / Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount
Sumeru.

Hindu cosmology

83
 The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru

Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about

1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter.
The Sun, along with all the planets in the Solar System, revolve around Mt.
Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its
magnitude seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's
circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly less
so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the
Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana, along with
some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to
Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in
antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru.
One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four
faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.[23] It is a pillar of the
world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.
[23]

Javanese Legends: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in

the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-
century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of
the island of Java, as well as the legendary movement of portions of Mount
Meru to Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered
the gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at
that time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and
shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the
Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching
it to Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain
on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.

84
The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist temple
in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru.

Architectural Element of Mount Meru

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was

incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE
in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also continued outside India,
such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest
example of the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples
took on this form, such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume
Pagoda in Myanmar.

85
 1. Prang of Wat Phutthaisawan, a Buddhist temple in Samphao Lom,
Thailand, representing Mount Meru
2. A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru
3. Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount
Sumeru
4. The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his
consort Parvathi

Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar

Pradesh

Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading western authority on Indian

cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The
temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by
five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the
lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the
center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount
Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The
center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones
represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the
monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12

86
towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University
of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone."[
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th
century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's
historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that
the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the
edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work
identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later
than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as
King Yasovarman's state temple
Sun set of Phnom Bakheng
The view of the Angkor Wat from the top of Phnom Bakheng is featured in
the movie Tomb Raider (when Lara Croft looks through the binoculars upon
arriving in Cambodia).

Phnom Bakheng/Angkor Wat seen from Phnom Bakheng at sunset

1. General view
2. Upper terrace
3. Stone tower and Angkor Wat far afield

87
 Bas-relief in Phnom Bakheng
What was Phnom bakheng used for?

Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of

the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep
hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form
of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. Who built bakheng?

King Yasovarman
It is possible to see: the five towers of Angkor Wat in the west, Phnom Krom
to the southwest near the Grand Lake, Phnom Bok in the northeast, Phnom
Kulen in the east, and the West Baray. Phnom Bakheng was built in late
ninth to early tenth century by King Yasovarman dedicated to Siva
(Hindi). Why is Prasat kravan unusual?

Kravan is an unusual arrangement of five towers in a row on one

terrace. They are built of brick; the lintels and columns are of sandstone.
This is the only tower with recessed tiers intact, which are visible on the

88
interior. The columns are octagonal, with four bare sides and sandstone
rings.

Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ)

These sources of the inscriptions have indicated the place name vakoṅ,
which is located around the Siem Reap province, and possibly make sense
with regard to the origin of the modern name Bakong. On the other hand,
the old Khmer place name vakoṅ is now still the name of the village near the
Bakong temple, namely “Phum Vakong.” This temple, which not long ago
was called by the local inhabitants “Bayon,” has the same name as the
Bayon located at the center of Angkor Thom.

In sum, the modern name of Phnom Bakheng used to be Vnaṃ Kanṭāl

(Phnom Kandal, Central Mountain) in the ancient period, which mountain
was located in the center of Yaśodharapura (the city of Yaśovarman). It was
also called Yaśodharagiri (the mountain of Yaśovarman) wherein was
installed the linga on the top of the mountain, named Yaśodhareśvara (the
lord of king Yaśovarman).
Hence, the meaning of the modern name Bakheng has the same sense as
installing the Royal Linga,and it means “force, power, or the male
reproductive organ.” It was also a symbol of the king’s power at that time.
This temple is located on the top of the natural mountain ‘Phnom Bakheng,’
along the road between Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. It was built in the
beginning of the 10th century, during the reign of king Yashovarman I, who
accepted Brahmanism under the posthumous name Paramaśivaloka.
The present name of Bakheng is a Khmer word meaning “force, or power,”
and it also means the “male reproductive organ that is effective.” Perhaps
this word indicates the Shiva Linga, which was adapted by the local people
in memory of the 10th century royal Linga of Yaśodharapura, namely
Yaśodhareśvara (the lord of Yaśovarman).

The word “Kheng, or Khaeṅ” has rarely been used in the Khmer language,
but it is currently used in the Thai language. However, the word Kheng is
found in the Khmer Rāmakerti, in the scene of the giant Kūkhan, “ri
Kūkhan khaeṅ mohhimā rūp rū pabbatā”, “Kūkhan force, colossal, form
similar to a mountain…” and “khluon khloh khlām ṅ khe ṅ beñ bāl, “youthful,

89
force, power.” Bakheng could be equivalent to the old Khmer vraḥ kheṅ, if
the two particles braḥ and pā are interchanged for writing as place names.
We can say that braḥ which is equivalent to pā, indicates a sacred
vocabulary, and it could be equal to the word “khaeṅ”, or it may have the
meaning of the Linga.

There are several names of Phnom Bakheng in the ancient period, which are
found in the inscriptions. In the inscription of Sdok Kak Thom, it is clearly
affirmed that Yaśodharapura (the name of the ancient city of Angkor) was
established on the top of Phnom Bakheng by the king Yashovarman I (889-
910 AD). The name of this mountain was also Yaśodharagiri (mountain
ofYaśovarman), Indrādri, and Madhyādri in the 12th century, and it was
also called by the old Khmer name Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (central mountain).

The inscription of Sdok Kak Thom mentioned the following: “ … vra ḥ pāda
paramaśivaloka oy vraḥ liṅga dvihasta saṃnal=ti sthāpanā āy vnaṃ kanṭāl gi
[t]i sthāpanā āy bhadrapattana… which mean “The majesty king-
Paramashivaloka gives (him) two cubits high of unused (stone) from
construction at Vnaṃ Kanṭāl for establishing royal Linga at Bhadrapattana.”
Paramashivaloka established the royal city of Śri Yaśodharapura, and took
the Devarāja from Hariharālaya to this city, and he subsequently
established the Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) and installed a Linga in the
center.56 The Phnom Bakheng inscription, K. 684,57 informs us of the
purchase of a piece of land for two people (loñ) who were the devotees
(pādamūla) of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl: “ (8) loñ prāṇa pādamūla kamrateṅ (9) jagat
vnaṃ kanṭāl ti vraḥ kamrateṅ” The name of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain)
moreover clearly indicates the representative Mount Meru, if we study the
Sanskrit text. The temple itself that was built on the top of the mountain
(Phnom), presents the symbol of the mountain in the center of the world,
Meru or Sumeru of Indian cosmology.

The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist

intellectuals like Gendun Chopel and the 14th Dalai Lama. According to
Choepel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching taught in accord with
the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for the modern era. Similarly,
the 14th Dalai Lama writes that "my own view is that Buddhism must
abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees
the falsehood of this traditional cosmology as not affecting the core of
Buddhism (the teaching of the four noble truths and liberation) since it is
"secondary to the account of the nature and origins of sentient beings

90
 BAUPHON as MOUNT MERU

Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies an elevated platform connected to a

walkway leading to the Baphuon Temple. The platform sits next to the
Elephant Terrace and both the Temple and its elevated 200-meter sandstone

91
causeway lie just outside the royal enclosure of Angkor Thom. Baphuon
Temple was located on the cardinal axis of the ancient city of
Yasodharapura, sacked by the Chams in 1177. When Angkor Thom was
rebuilt, Baphuon was located just south of the Royal Enclosure, as can be
seen on the map. Originally built as a temple to Shiva in the 11th Century,
it was the most imposing structure of the ancient city -- renowned for its bronze tower
that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold. At 120 metres long, 100 metres wide and
34 metres tall, the main temple structure is roughly the same size as its famous
neighbour, but in a worse state of repair, which may partially explain the
comparative lack of popularity. Being at the end of a 225-metre-long elevated
walkway – entirely exposed to the hot Cambodian sun – may also be a factor, putting
off temple explorers who have already been worn out by The Bayon.

Baphuon Temple - one of the highlights of 5 Great Angkor Temples in 3

Days and 10 Must-See Temples in Siem Reap (Read all about Siem Reap here)

”The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5 levels of equal size,
giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case, the sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of
the tower held a Shiva linga. In the 15th century, it was converted into a Buddhist temple,
and the tower was disassembled, with many of the stones used to begin construction of an
unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of the rectangular structure. History of
Baphuon Temple
3 tier of BAPUON
The triple-tiered temple mountain of the Baphuon Temple was the state temple of
King Udayadityavarman II. Its pyramid shape represents the mythical Hindu Mount
Meru and marks the centre of the city that was here before Angkor Thom.
It is immediately to the south of the royal palace of Phimeanakas, and the old walls
of the palace can be seen in the shade of the trees north of the temple, making for a
pleasant route to walk back towards the main road along.

Contemporary sources say that a striking 8-metre-tall tower once stood on top of the
temple, probably made of wood gilded with bronze. This is thought to have been
demolished in the late-15th century when the temple was converted from being
dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva to Buddha.
A reclining Buddha statue – 9 metres tall and 70 metres long – was added to the
second tier on the west-facing side. Sadly, even by this time, it is thought that much
of the temple’s structure had already collapsed, due to the fact that it was hastily
built on land filled with sand.

You can find Baphuon Temple slightly northwest of Bayon Temple. Photographing it
in the morning will give you the best light on the temple.

92
93
Ta Keo called 'Hemasringagiri' or 'the mountain with golden peaks,'
meaning Mount Meru—is enormous, rising over 21.6 meters, making it one
of the tallest buildings at Angkor with a base of 122 by 106 meters, while
the outer moat stretched 255 by 195 meters. It was the state temple of
Jayavarman V, who ruled from 968 to 1001. Around the year 975, work was
begun on Ta Keo temple in the center of the new capital. Where the kinghad
taken up residence on the east side of the East Baray. It is unfinished as the
king was subjugated in year 1001.

Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple.
A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier.
Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in
stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.

94
 The Temple Mountain of Prasat Lolei
The picturesque island temple, Prasat Lolei, situated in the centre of the baray, was completed by the king's
son and successor, Yasovarman I.Once an island temple, Lolei was located on an island slightly north of centre
in the now dry Indratataka baray, construction of which had nearly been completed under Yasovarman's
father and predecessor Indravarman I. It is the northernmost temple of the Roluos group of three late 9th
century Hindu temples at Angkor, Cambodia, the others members of which are Preah Ko and the Bakong.
Lolei was the last of the three temples to be built as part of the city of Hariharalaya that once flourished at
Roluos, and in 893 the Khmer king Yasovarman I dedicated it to Shiva and to members of the royal family.
The name "Lolei" is thought to be a modern corruption of the ancient name "Hariharalaya," which means "the
city of Harihara." Scholars believe that placing the temple on an island in the middle of a body of water
served to identify it symbolically with Mount Meru, home of the gods, which in Hindu mythology is
surrounded by the world oceans.

Lolei consists of four brick temple towers grouped together on a terrace. The king
build Lolei for his ancestors. The front two towers are for the males while the two
towers at the back are for the females . One for his grandfather, one for his
grandmother, one for his father, and one for his mother. The two taller towers are for
his grandparents while the two shorter towers are for his parents. Originally, the
towers were enclosed by an outer wall access through which was through a gopura,
but neither wall nor gopura have survived to the present. Today, the temple is next to
a monastery, just as in the 9th century it was next to an ashrama.
The temple towers are known for their decorative elements, including their false
doors, their carved lintels, and their carved devatas and dvarapalas who flank both

95
real and false doors. Some of the motifs represented in the lintels and other
sandstone carvings are the sky-god Indra mounted on the elephant Airavata,
serpent-like monsters called makaras, and multi-headed nagas.

This sandstone carving at Lolei shows a fanged dvarapala armed with a trident standing in an
arched doorway. At the level of his elbows, two makara heads face outward.

96
Angkor Site Index
Monument Date (A.D.) Ruler

Preah Ko, Roluos 879 Indravarman I

Bakong, Roluos 881 Indravarman I

Lolei, Roluos 893 Yashovarman I

Prasat Kravan 921 Harshavarman I

East Mebon 953 Rajendravarman

Pre Rup 961 Rajendravarman

Ta Keo late 10th c. Jayavarman V

Angkor Wat first half of 12th c. Suryavarman II

Ta Prohm 1186 Jayavarman VII

Preah Khan 1191 Jayavarman VII

Ta Som late 12th c. Jayavarman VII

Hospital Chapel late 12th c. Jayavarman VII

early 11th - late Suryavarman I -

Angkor Thom
12th c. Jayavarman VII

Spean Thma 16th c. Unknown

VI

97
 The Archaeoastronomy of the Temple Mountain of
Phnom Bakheng

Phnom Bakheng is a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem Reap
Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th century, during the
reign of King Yasovarman (889–910). It lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the southeast of
Angkor. Phnom Bakheng, built more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, was once the
main temple in the Angkor region. It was the central architectural feature of a new capital
called Yasodharapura, established by Yasovarman when he moved the court from the old
capital, Hariharalaya, in the southeast Roluos area.

An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in present-
day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became king under the name of
Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga
on Sri Yasodharagiri, a mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains." Scholars believe
that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom Bakheng temple approximately a
century and a half earlier. Phnom Bakheng is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region
that are attributed to Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the south near
the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East Baray reservoir.

Workers built a protective outer moat around the mountain and temple. There were avenues
extending in the north, south, east, and west directions from the mountain. A raised pathway,
first going northwest to southeast from the old capital to the new capital's outer moat, and
then turning to go east to west, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple.

Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple. A monumental
Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier. Across its west side, a Reclining
Buddha of similar scale was crafted in stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.

Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a
status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain.
The temple is built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the
top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in a quincunx pattern—
one in the center and one at each corner of the level's square. Originally, 108 small towers
were arrayed around the temple at ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have
collapsed.

symbolism of the temple- The temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is
crowned by five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the lower
four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the center of any side.
Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total
number of towers is also significant. The center one represents the axis of the world and the
108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the
monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12 towers which represent
the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is
"an astronomical calendar in stone."

98
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th century, decades passed
before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's historical significance. For many years,
scholars' consensus view was that the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor
Thom city, was the edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work
identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later than originally
thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as King Yasovarman's state temple.

The study of the astronomical practices, celestial lore, mythologies, religions and world-
views of all ancient cultures we call archaeoastronomy. You may already know that many
of the great monuments and ceremonial constructions of early civilizations were
astronomically aligned. The accurate cardinal orientation of the Great Pyramid at Giza in
Egypt or the Venus alignment of the magnificent Maya Palace of the Governor at Uxmal in
Yucatan are outstanding examples. We learn much about the development of science and
cosmological thought from the study of both the ancient astronomies and surviving
indigenous traditions around the world.Some define it as-
‘The contemporary scientific study and theorization of surviving memorials
constructed prior to telescopes by students of the night skies planet-wide.
Such memorials might include writings and symbols engraved in stone or
primitive megalithic alignments for observing and celebrating Mother Earth's
seasonal rhythms. Intercontinentally, ancient seamen and expert
navigators curated databases aware of equinox, solstice and cross-quarter
moments. This field interprets how ancients grasped:
A— the Sun, stars and constellations with the placement or carving of
paired gnomon and target alignments,
B— comets, rhythms of the 5 visible planets, lunar eclipses, phases and
standstills,
or C— an anomaly such as a localized total solar eclipse, a planetary
occlusion by the Moon, a planetary conjunction, a supernova, an asteroid,
a meteor or an unidentifiable object. ‘

In An introductory view on archaeoastronomy, Daniel Brown,(Journal of

Physics: Conference Series-Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Volume
685, Modern Archaeoastronomy: From Material Culture to Cosmology 23
June 2014, Portsmouth, UK considers the subject still a marginalised
topic in academia and described by the Sophia Centre, the only UK
institution offering a broader MA containing this field, as 'the study of the
incorporation of celestial orientation, alignments or symbolism in human
monuments and architecture'.
The history of Indian astronomy begins with the Vedic period, Lagadha and
composition of Vedanga Jyotisha (1400 BCE - 1200 BCE). Astronomical
knowledge in India reached an early peak in the 5th century CE, with
the Āryabhaṭīya. Its author, Aryabhata, mentions that when he turned 23
years of age, 3600 years had passed since the beginning of Kali Yuga. This
date has become traditional and is still widely cited in Hindu literature to
suggest the date of Kurukshetra War.
Modern authors attempted to date the Vedic period based on
archaeoastronomical calculations. In the 18th century William Jones who
tried to show, based on information gathered from Varaha Mihira,

99
that Parashara muni lived at 1181 BCE.[1] Hermann Jacobi has argued that
in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda the sun was in Phalguni, and in the
Sankhayana and Gobhila Grhyasutra the Full moon was in Bhadrapada
during the summer solstice, which would have occurred at 4500-2500 BCE.
Jacobi and Tilak have both argued that the names of
the nakṣatras: Mūla (root), Viśṛtau (two dividers) and Jyeṣṭha (oldest)
suggest that these names originated from a time when Mula marked the
beginning of the year, i.e. about 4500-2500 BCE. [3] Tilak has also noted that
the two week long pitrs period after the full moon in Bhadrapada occurred
at the beginning of the pitryana, which would have been true at about 4500-
2500 BC
The traditional Hindu system of astrology, also known as Hindu
astrology, Indian astrology and more recently Vedic
astrologyJyotisha or Jyotishya- "light, heavenly body". The term Hindu
astrology has been in use as the English equivalent of Jyotiṣa since the early
19th century, whereas Vedic astrology is a relatively recent term, entering
common usage in the 1970s with self-help publications
on Āyurveda or yoga. Jyotisha developed independently although it may
have interacted with Greek astrology.
Following a judgement of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in 2001 which
favoured astrology, some Indian universities now offer advanced degrees in
Hindu astrology. The scientific consensus is that astrology is
a pseudoscience

Be as it may, in my 2 papers-THE STORY OF ASTROLOGY IN ANGKOR

WAT & OTHER KHEMER TEMPLES & The Role of Astronomy at Angkor
Wat, I habe shown the great influence yielded by thse 2 Hindu ‘sciences’ on
the architecture and kingship of the Angkor creations

The golden age of Khemer architecture began with Jayavarman II. In his long reign
of 67 years he built 3 capitals. Probably( and I think definitely so) he got inspiration
from his Javanese ancestors who had built the magnificent Prambanan temples.

1. Indrapura the Capital already exited when he came, it was followed by

building of
2. Hariharalaya. The next capital was amarendrapura 100 miles to North –
West of Angkor Thom.Shiva and Buddha were combined in the architecture
of bantey Chamar which he built.The 3 rd and last work of jayavarman II
was.
3. Mahendraparavata or Phnom Kueon.2

Hindu traditions dominated Angkor civilization up to the 13th century even if

some sovereigns of this period had Buddhist leanings, or were even devout
Buddhists. At the time of the monumental construction there was the
problem of finding a suitable site vast enough to enable the construction of
an edifice worthy of his greatness and living up to his aspirations. Whatever
the layout of the city of Angkor was at this time, including the area of

100
ancient Yasodharapura and of the future Angkor Thom, the constructions of
the 10th and 11th century occupied a considerable part of the available land.
Some of the earliest astrological works uncovered include Jataka Parijata
and Sarvartha Chintamani, both remnants of young Hindu astrology.
Astrology that ascended from Indian roots is still widely-received, respected,
and referred to today in Hindu culture. The earliest and most ancient
scriptures are still able to produce accurate predictions and subsequently,
have managed to evolve with the modern age. Today’s Western astrology is a
diverse combination of the eerie science’s origins; elements from Indian,
Chinese, Mayan, and Greek astrology have come together to form the
contemporary wheel that sections of the Gregorian calendar into the zodiac
signs most mentioned currently.
As a result, Suryavarman chose the southeast corner of Yasodhapura, a
space evidently free of buildings of durable materials, yet one where he
could take advantage of the network of canals laid out by Yasovarman for
his capital.
King Suryavarman II (1113-1150), the builder of Angkor Wat was a devotee
of Lord Vishnu. The philosophical understanding behind cremation in
Hinduism is that the body made of five basic elements- Earth, Water, Air,
Space and Fire, returns to those elements after the migration of the
soul.Which means they are to be cast into a river( at least most of them). In
the Hindu tradition, no one ever builds a funerary temple or mausoleum –
so there is more to the site than that.Either, that it is a mausoleum but
more so- a construction that cried out for an appropriate site to fit into.
No, the answer to understanding the Angkor is ancient Astronomy, Angkor
Wat, City built with astronomic measurements to mimic the Gods in the
Universe. It is plainly evident that the most appropriate access route to the
site of Angkor Wat temple was from the west. Attributing unsubstantiated
explanations or meaning to a fact of purely physical constraint is
unwarranted. 1 Instead of calling the region where the temples of Angkor Wat
are located as South East Asia, which is an American term, Lawrence
Palmer Briggs suggests we call it Indo China for the people living there were
neither Hindus nor Buddhists but autochtshonous . I don’t know what auto
auto it is but definitely they were Hindus and the Buddhist period lasted
hardly a few centuries more after the Hindu one .2 In his erudite paper-Time,
Space, and Astronomy in Angkor Wat,Subhash Kak 3 elucidates:
___________________________________________________________________________
______________
1.Monuments of Civilization: Ancient Cambodia,Donatella Mazzeo,Chiara
Silvi Antonini, Han Suyin (Contributor), 1983 , Smithmark Publishers (first
published October 1st 1978)

2..Sarton, G. (1951). [Review of The Ancient Khmer Empire, by L. P.

Briggs]. Isis, 42(3), 263–265. http://www.jstor.org/stable/226582

3.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
2889330_Time_Space_and_Astronomy_in_Angkor_Wat

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These according to him, correspond to the periods of 432,000; 864,000;
1,296,000; 1,728,000 years for the Kali, Dvapara, Treta, and Krta yuga,
respectively.

“ The most impressive aspect of this representation is that it occurs both at

the level of the part as well as the whole in a recursive fashion, mirroring the
Vedic idea of the microcosm symbolizes the macrocosm at various levels of
expressions. This is done not only in the domain of numbers and directions,
but also using appropriate mythological themes, and historical incidents.

In fact the entire stretch of South East Asia from Indonesia to Cambodia
is strewn with remains of Indian influence. Travelers would not have
missed that Bangkok’s airport is called Suvarnabhoomi and the entrance
of the airport depicts Amrit Manthan, the churning of the sea
by devas to extract the elixir of life. The Indian influence in Indonesia –
whose tourist haven of Bali is a Hindu majority province, is something
that is fairly well know.

The mythological scenes skillfully use the oppositions and

complementarities
between the gods, goddesses, asuras, and humans dened over ordinary and
sacred time and space.

Furthermore he points out that the various lengths and circumferences of

units
representing the motion of the moon may equal ;
1. 27, 28, 29 (naksatras or daysof the month) ,
2. 354 (days of the lunar year), or
3. 360 (tithis of the lunar year).
4. Other lengths represent the solar year (360, 365, or 366) or larger
time cycles.
According to him the west-east axis represents the periods of the yugas.
1. The width of the moat is 439.78 cubit;
2. the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to
balustrade wall at the end of causeway is 867.03 cubit;
3. the distance from the first step of the western entrance gateway to the
4. first step of the central tower is 1,296.07 cubit; and
5. the distance from the first step of bridge to the geographic center of
the temple is 1,734.41 cubit.

In the central tower, the topmost elevation has external axial dimensions of
189.00 cubit east-west, and 176.37 cubit north-south, with the sum of
365.37. This division of the almost exact length of the solar year into
unequal halves remained a mystery for some time until it was found to be
connected with the Satapatha Brahman.-a numbers for the asymmetric
motion of the sun.

102
All these are, however, astrological terms also which underlines the fact that
astrological advanvces were so great that they linked this knowledge to
astronomy. To understand this let us study the connection between the two.

2 picture composition: Aspara in Moon light/ To RIGHT Central tower of

Angkor Wat, Cambodia with full Moon. Credit: Astronomy club
Toutatis/S. Lamoureux

The Wat was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th
century in Yasodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer
Empire, as his state.temple.

Breaking from the Shaivism tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was
instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is
the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its
foundation. The Khmer's adhered to the Indian belief that a temple must be
built according to a mathematical system in order for it to function in
harmony with the universe. Distances between certain architectural
elements of the temple reflect numbers related to Indian mythology and
cosmology.

The scale of Angkor Wat enabled the Khmer to give full expression to
religious symbolism. The sheer size of the place leaves visitors in awe and
the complex designs illustrate the skills of long gone priest architects. Every
spare inch has been carved with intricate works of art. It is, above all else, a
microcosm of the Hindu universe. As a brilliant example of the synthesis of
astronomy and architecture at Angkor Wat, the solar axes of the temple lead
directly to the central sanctuary, a sanctum sanctorum devoted to the
supreme solar god, Lord Vishnu. Vishnu manifests as one of the solar
months, and the sun itself is thought to be his emanation.
Although the Sun gains stature through its conjunction with the center of
Angkor Wat, Vishnu, and the king, it is worth noting that lunar alignments
are also recorded along the western and eastern axis of the temple. As the

103
measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred
space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to
consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power
and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above.
The solar and lunar alignments at Angkor Wat were alignments with the
gods, alignments that tied the nation to the heavens above, and alignments
that imbued the king with the power to rule by divine association.

Here are concrete astronomical observations you can see at Angkor Wat:

1. The rising sun aligning on equinox days with the western entrance of the
state temple, Angkor Wat.
2. The movements of the moon can be observed from a variety of positions
within the temple, and lunar cycles may have been recorded in the three
sets of libraries in the interior court.
3. The bas reliefs of the third gallery can be understood in relation to the
movements of the sun, which establish their counterclockwise direction.
4. The measurements of the temple appear proportional to calendric and
cosmological time cycles.

These temples are inshort an Observatory.When you settle your feet at a

specific location, the Universe, in a sense revolves around you. With some
patience and time you can start to notice patterns and Recursions that you
can calculate and even predict.

“In conclusion for me, the most amazing aspects of the ancient Khmer
Civilization was their understanding of their place in the cosmos, and how
the placement of the temples mirrored so many of the celestial movements.
A real ancient observatory with it's knowledge embedded on it's self.
Through stone and art, they kept it all to be discovered again and again. “ 1

Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the

centre of the universe and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods,
and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the south of which extends
Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of Bharata”), the ancient name for India.
The roof tower crowning the shrine in a Hindu temple represents Meru. As
the world axis, Mount Meru reaches down below the ground, into the nether
regions, as far as it extends into the heavens. All of the principal deities have
their own celestial kingdoms on or near it, where their devotees reside with
them after death, while awaiting their next reincarnation.
The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and
the International Astronomical Union (IAU) jointly published a thematic
study on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy to be used as a
guide to UNESCO in its evaluation of the cultural importance of
archaeoastronomical sites around the world, which discussed sample sites
and provided categories for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites.

The editors, Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte, proposed that

archaeoastronomical sites be considered in four categories: 1) Generally

104
accepted; 2) Debated among specialists; 3) Unproven; and 4) Completely
refuted.In Cambodia there are only 2:
1. Angkor Wat
2. Phnom Bakheng, According to Jean Filliozat of the École Française,
the center tower represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller
ones represent the 4 lunar phases each with 27 days.

1. http://linksthroughspace.blogspot.com/2014/02/cambodia-2014-
ancient-astronomy-angkor.html.. Angkor wat procession and scene
of battles.

Overview of Context and Significance The Bakheng temple-complex,

constructed on the summit of a phnom (hill) in the center of the Angkor site,
is one of the most important and symbolic 10th century monuments at
Angkor. Consecrated in 907 AD Bakheng is part of an unparalleled
architectural and religious legacy of a group of monuments spanning five
hundred years from the 10th to the 14th century. It is a dramatic expression
of the genius of the Khmer people and their king Yasovarman, with its
integration of a symbolic form with the natural landscape to create a
physical manifestation of a Hindu cosmological template of a perfect
universe. Yasovarman named his new city Yasodharapura, which remained
the official name of the capital until the end of the Angkor period.
Yasovarman built the Eastern Baray soon after establishing his capital
Yasodharapura. The Eastern Baray (1.8 x 7 km) was part of the cosmic
vision of the Khmer religion. The waters of the river coming down from the
Phnom Kulen once gathered in this enormous reservoir, replenishing the

105
city. Although the water harvesting system has a functional aspect, not to be
underestimated is the religious significance in the context of setting and
ultimately spatial planning, which is balanced masterfully through building
masses, landscape elements and open space.

Overview of Issues Phnom Bakheng is one of the most threatened temple

complexes in Angkor and the last of the key monuments to benefit from
international aid. It is under many pressures, all interconnected and very
challenging: water infiltration, hydraulic erosion, structural instability, stone degradation,
tourist pressures and poor interpretation and visitor orientation. The disappearance of many
of Bakheng s towers was caused in part by 16th century efforts to use the towers sandstone to
build a large seated Buddha. The encroachment of the forest followed, significantly
destabilizing the temple-complex structures before being cleared completely in the 1920s. In
the 1970s, during Cambodia s prolonged civil conflict, the site was commandeered by the
military and used as a heavy-gun emplacement and a military encampment, and the
surrounding area was extensively landmined. The current infrastructure to welcome visitors
compromises the overall historic setting of the phnom. The present parking and market
facilities are located over the central axis of the historic eastern plaza. The temporary
vehicular pull off and parking areas impinge on the historical and natural heritage landscape

Phnom Bakheng was the first significant temple built at Yasodharapura, the
city which came be known as Angkor. It was constructed in the late 9th,
early tenth centuries as the state temple of King Yasovarman I, who moved
the capital here from Roluos, about 13 kilometers to the southeast. The site
was selected because the hill upon which the temple stands towers 70
meters above the otherwise flat countryside. From here, Yasovarman could
gaze upon his capital city which covered at least four square kilometers,
bounded by earthen walls.

The layout of the temple strongly resembles Bakong temple in Roluos,

employing the same temple-mountain motif with five ascending terraces.
One significant innovation is that the uppermost towers are arranged in a
quincunx arrangement (like the five dots on a dice)--the first time this
design was employed by the Khmers. It would later be reused in numerous
temples including Angkor Wat. As at Bakong, Phnom Bakheng included a
number of subsidiary shrines spaced around it, although they were much
more numerous at Bakheng (109 in all). Most of these have succumbed to
the elements and today only a handful of the larger subsidiary shrines
remain in relatively good condition.
The chief deity worshipped at the temple was Yasodharesvara, the "Lord of
the One Who Bears Glory", in the form of a linga image. It was dedicated in
907 before the temple was fully completed. Although the temple was
abandoned relatively soon--in 928--it was briefly reoccupied by Jayavarman
V in 968. In the following millennium the temple suffered significant
damage, including the dismantling of the uppermost towers by Buddhist
converts and the more recent trepidations of warring parties in the
Cambodian civil war who found the hilltop temple an excellent position from
which to launch artillery.

106
From 2009 to the present (2014 at the time of this writing) the temple has been
.1
undergoing restoration
Phnom Bakheng , Prasat Phnum Bakhêng, pronounced [pʰnum baːkʰaeŋ]) is
a Hindu and Buddhist temple in the form of a temple mountain in Siem
Reap Province, Cambodia. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the
9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a
hill, it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much
bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the
southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the
most threatened monuments of Angkor. [3] Since 2004, World Monuments
Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership with APSARA.
Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng
was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe.
It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that
Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in
the Roluos area located to the southeast.
An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in
present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became
king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his
guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a
mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains.”
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------https://
www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/article/pdfs/Phnom_Bakheng_Conservation_Master_Plan_Vol_1.pdf
Scholars believe that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom
Bakheng temple approximately a century and a half earlier.Phnom Bakheng
is one of 3 hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are attributed to
Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the south near
the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East Baray reservoir.
Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat.
Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A
causeway ran in a northwest–southeast orientation from the old capital area
to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an
east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple.
Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple.
A monumental Sitting Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier.
Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar scale was crafted in
stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.
Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of
the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep
hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form
of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the top level, five
sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in
a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the level's
square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple at
ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have collapsed.
A quincunx (/ˈkwɪn.kʌŋks/) is a geometric pattern consisting of five points
107
arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a
fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern
corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards,
and dominoes. It is represented in Unicode as U+2059 ⁙ FIVE DOT
PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-5.

ORIGIN

A quincunx coin////Portuguese shield

The quincunx was originally a coin issued by the Roman Republic c. 211–
200 BC, whose value was five twelfths (quinque and uncia) of an as, the
Roman standard bronze coin. On the Roman quincunx coins, the value was
sometimes indicated by a pattern of five dots or pellets. However, these dots
were not always arranged in a quincunx pattern.
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the first appearances of the Latin
word in English as 1545 and 1574 ("in the sense 'five-twelfths of a pound or
as'"; i.e. 100 old pence). The first citation for a geometric meaning, as "a
pattern used for planting trees", dates from 1606. The OED also cites a 1647
reference to the German astronomer Kepler for an astronomical/astrological
meaning, an angle of 5/12 of a whole circle. Jackson (1821) states that the
word refers to the pattern of trees in an orchard, but then uses it more
abstractly for a version of the orchard-planting problem involving patterns of
points and lines in the plane (for which the quincunx pattern provides the
optimal solution for five points).
Quincunx patterns occur in many contexts:

108
The flag of the Solomon Islands features a quincunx of stars./A quincuncial
map/12th-century Cosmatesque mosaic in the Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Sicily

Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.of thr
Bakeng

Phnom Bakheng as a quincunx

 In heraldry, groups of five elements (charges) are often arranged in a
quincunx pattern, called in saltire in heraldic terminology. The flag of
the Solomon Islands features this pattern, with its five stars representing
the five main island groups in the Solomon Islands. Another instance of
this pattern occurred in the flag of the 19th-century Republic of Yucatán,
where it signified the five departments into which the republic was
divided.
 Quincunxes are used in modern computer graphics as a pattern
for multisample anti-aliasing. Quincunx antialiasing samples scenes at
the corners and centers of each pixel. These five sample points, in the
shape of a quincunx, are combined to produce each displayed pixel.
However, samples at the corner points are shared with adjacent pixels,
so the number of samples needed is only twice the number of displayed
pixels.
 In numerical analysis, the quincunx pattern describes the two-
dimensional five-point stencil, a sampling pattern used to derive finite
difference approximations to derivatives.
 In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is
the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four
angular ones are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern
of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted
by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such
as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the
five peaks of Mount Meru
 A quincunx is one of the quintessential designs of Cosmatesque inlay
stonework.

109
 A quincuncial map is a conformal map projection that maps the poles of
the sphere to the centre and four corners of a square, thus forming a
quincunx.
 The points on each face of a unit cell of a face-centred cubic lattice form
a quincunx.
 The quincunx as a tattoo is known as the five dots tattoo. It has been
variously interpreted as a fertility symbol, a reminder of sayings on how
to treat women or police, a recognition symbol among the Romani people,
a group of close friends, standing alone in the world, or time spent in
prison (with the outer four dots representing the prison walls and the
inner dot representing the prisoner). Thomas Edison, whose many
inventions included an electric pen which later became the basis of a
tattooing machine created by Samuel O'Reilly, had this pattern tattooed
on his forearm.
 The first two stages of the Saturn V super heavy-lift rocket had engines
in a quincunx arrangement.
 A baseball diamond forms a quincunx with the four bases and the
pitcher's mound.
 Early African American scientist Benjamin Banneker describes a dream
in which he is asked to measure the shape of the soul after death. The
answer is "quincunx". Research locates his ancestry in Senegal, where
the quincunx is a common religious symbol.[16]
 Place des Quinconces in Bordeaux, France, one of the largest public
squares in Europe, is named for its trees, which were formerly arranged
in quincunx patterns.
Various literary works use or refer to the quincunx pattern for its symbolic
value:
 The English physician Sir Thomas Browne in his philosophical
discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) elaborates upon evidence of the
quincunx pattern in art, nature and mystically as evidence of "the
wisdom of God". Although Browne wrote about quincunx in its geometric
meaning, he may have been influenced by English astrology, as
the astrological meaning of "quincunx" (unrelated to the pattern) was
introduced by the astronomer Kepler in 1604.

 James Joyce uses the term in "Grace", a short story in Dubliners of 1914,
to describe the seating arrangement of five men in a church service.
Lobnerargues that in this context the pattern serves as a symbol both of
the wounds of Christ and of the Greek cross.

 Lawrence Durrell's novel sequence The Avignon Quintet is arranged in

the form of a quincunx, according to the author; the final novel in the
sequence is called Quinx, the plot of which includes the discovery of a
quincunx of stones.

 The Quincunx is the title of a lengthy and elaborate novel by Charles

Palliser set in 19th-century England, published in 1989; the pattern

110
 appears in the text as a heraldic device, and is also reflected in the
structure of the book.

 In the first chapter of The Rings of Saturn, W. G. Sebald's narrator cites

Browne's writing on the quincunx. The quincunx in turn becomes a
model for the way in which the rest of the novel unfolds.

 Séamus Heaney describes Ireland's historical provinces as together

forming a quincunx, as the Irish word for province cúige (literally: "fifth
part") also explicates. The five provinces of Ireland
were Ulster (north), Leinster (east), Connacht (west), Munster (south)
and Meath (center, and now a county within Leinster). More specifically,
in his essay Frontiers of Writing, Heaney creates an image of five towers
forming a quincunx pattern within Ireland, one tower for each of the five
provinces, each having literary significance.

 The Polish historian Feliks Koneczny used the term 'quincunx' to

describe five categories of human life which define civilisations, these
categories including truth and good on the spiritual side, well-
being and health on the physical side and beauty encompassing both
sides.

Bhutanese thangka of Mount Meru and the Buddhist universe, 19th

century, Trongsa Dzong, Trongsa, Bhutan//The MahaBodhi Temple, a
famous Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya, India, representing Mount Meru

111
Mount Meru : मेरु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is
the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all
the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.
Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as
symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座
xūmízuò style base is a common feature[citation needed] of Chinese pagodas. The
highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-tiered
roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to
which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning
"excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of the central
bead in a mālā.
In other languages, Mount Meru is pronounced:

15. Burmese: ([mjɪ̰ ɴ mò tàʊɰ̃ ])

16. Chinese: 須彌山 (Xūmíshān)
17. Japanese: 須弥山 (Shumisen)
18. Javanese: ꦱꦼꦩꦺꦫꦸ (Semeru)
19. Kannada: ಮೇರು ಪರ್ವತ
20. Khmer: ភ្នំព្សុមេរុ (Phnom Preah Someru) or (Phnom Preah Somae)
21. Korean: 수미산 (Sumisan)
22. Malayalam: മഹാമേരു പർവ്വതം (Mahameru Parvatham)
23. Pāli: Sineru
24. Tamil: மகா மேரு மலை
25. Telugu: మేరు పర్వతం
26. Tibetan: ཪི་རྒྱལ་པོ་རི་རབ་
27. Thai:เขาพระสุเมรุ (Khao phra sumen)
28. Vietnamese: Núi Tu-di

GEOGRAPHY; The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru — which all refer

to it as a part of the Cosmic Ocean, along with several other statements that
describe it in geographically vague terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all the
planets circle the mountain") — make the determination of its location most
difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs,
northwest of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the
Earth ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad
(Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya, a ninth-century text, based
on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions:
"Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu"
(Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen
there).

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Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In
one of them, cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described
as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east,
Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north
and Kailasa to the south
Main articles: Buddhist cosmology and Mount Meru (Buddhism)

Yuan dynasty 1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru

as an inverted pyramid topped by a lotus.

According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the

centre of the world, and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is
80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to
the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to
the Long Āgama Sutra. Trāyastriṃśa is on its peak,
where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount
Meru, and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The
mountain has four faces — each one made of a different material; the
northern face is made of gold, the eastern one is made of crystal, the
southern one is made of lapis lazuli, and the western one is made
of ruby
In Vajrayāna, maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in
part represent the entire universe.It is also believed that Mount Meru
is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara

Tibetan Cakrasaṃvara sand mandala with Mount Meru in the

centre. / Tibetan Buddhist embroidery representing Mount
Sumeru.

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Hindu cosmology

The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru

Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high,

about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the
Earth's diameter. The Sun, along with all the planets in the Solar
System, revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its
magnitude seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's
circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and
slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas
in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana,
along with some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of
84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles
or 1,082,000 kilometers.

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Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in
antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount
Meru. One description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states
that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.
[23]
It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain
ranges symbolizing a lotus.[23]

Painting of Mount Meru from Jain cosmology from

the Samghayanarayana

Jain cosmology
According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre
of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a
diameter of 100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and
stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other
set rests behind Mount Meru.
Every Tirthankara is taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly
after his birth, after putting the Tirthankara child's mother into deep
slumber. There, he was bathed and anointed with precious unctions.
Indra and other Devas celebrated his birth.
Javanese Legends: This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned
in the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the
15th-century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the
mythical origin of the island of Java, as well as the legendary
movement of portions of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript
explains that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the
gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at
that time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always
tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods
decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru
in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to Java. The resulting
mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the
mount.

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 The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist
temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru.

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was

incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to
"mountain peak." Early examples of this style can be found at
the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th
century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also continued
outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the
earliest example of the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other
Buddhist temples took on this form, such as the Wat
Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar.

5. Prang of Wat Phutthaisawan, a Buddhist temple in Samphao Lom,

Thailand, representing Mount Meru
6. A Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru
7. Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount
Sumeru
8. The meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his
consort Parvathi

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 Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, a Jain temple in Uttar
Pradesh

Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading western authority on Indian

cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The
temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by
five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the
lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the
center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount
Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The
center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones
represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the
monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12
towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University
of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone."[
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th
century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's
historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that
the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the
edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work
identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later
than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as
King Yasovarman's state temple
Sun set of Phnom Bakheng
The view of the Angkor Wat from the top of Phnom Bakheng is featured in
the movie Tomb Raider (when Lara Croft looks through the binoculars upon
arriving in Cambodia).

Phnom Bakheng/Angkor Wat seen from Phnom Bakheng at sunset

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 4. General view
5. Upper terrace
6. Stone tower and Angkor Wat far afield

Bas-relief in Phnom Bakheng

What was Phnom bakheng used for?

Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of

the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep
hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is built in a pyramid form
of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. Who built bakheng?

King Yasovarman
It is possible to see: the five towers of Angkor Wat in the west, Phnom Krom
to the southwest near the Grand Lake, Phnom Bok in the northeast, Phnom
Kulen in the east, and the West Baray. Phnom Bakheng was built in late
ninth to early tenth century by King Yasovarman dedicated to Siva
(Hindi). Why is Prasat kravan unusual?

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Kravan is an unusual arrangement of five towers in a row on one
terrace. They are built of brick; the lintels and columns are of sandstone.
This is the only tower with recessed tiers intact, which are visible on the
interior. The columns are octagonal, with four bare sides and sandstone
rings.

Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ):

These sources of the inscriptions have indicated the place name vakoṅ,
which is located around the Siem Reap province, and possibly make sense
with regard to the origin of the modern name Bakong. On the other hand,
the old Khmer place name vakoṅ is now still the name of the village near the
Bakong temple, namely “Phum Vakong.” This temple, which not long ago
was called by the local inhabitants “Bayon,” has the same name as the
Bayon located at the center of Angkor Thom.

Phnom Bakheng (Bhnaṃ Pākhaeṅ):

In sum, the modern name of Phnom Bakheng used to be Vnaṃ Kanṭāl
(Phnom Kandal, Central Mountain) in the ancient period, which mountain
was located in the center of Yaśodharapura (the city of Yaśovarman). It was
also called Yaśodharagiri (the mountain of Yaśovarman) wherein was
installed the linga on the top of the mountain, named Yaśodhareśvara (the
lord of king Yaśovarman).
Hence, the meaning of the modern name Bakheng has the same sense as
installing the Royal Linga,and it means “force, power, or the male
reproductive organ.” It was also a symbol of the king’s power at that time.
This temple is located on the top of the natural mountain ‘Phnom Bakheng,’
along the road between Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. It was built in the

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beginning of the 10th century, during the reign of king Yashovarman I, who
accepted Brahmanism under the posthumous name Paramaśivaloka.
The present name of Bakheng is a Khmer word meaning “force, or power,”
and it also means the “male reproductive organ that is effective.” Perhaps
this word indicates the Shiva Linga, which was adapted by the local people
in memory of the 10th century royal Linga of Yaśodharapura, namely
Yaśodhareśvara (the lord of Yaśovarman).

The word “Kheng, or Khaeṅ” has rarely been used in the Khmer language,
but it is currently used in the Thai language. However, the word Kheng is
found in the Khmer Rāmakerti, in the scene of the giant Kūkhan, “ri
Kūkhan khaeṅ mohhimā rūp rū pabbatā”, “Kūkhan force, colossal, form
similar to a mountain…” and “khluon khloh khlām ṅ khe ṅ beñ bāl, “youthful,
force, power.” Bakheng could be equivalent to the old Khmer vraḥ kheṅ, if
the two particles braḥ and pā are interchanged for writing as place names.
We can say that braḥ which is equivalent to pā, indicates a sacred
vocabulary, and it could be equal to the word “khaeṅ”, or it may have the
meaning of the Linga.

There are several names of Phnom Bakheng in the ancient period, which are
found in the inscriptions. In the inscription of Sdok Kak Thom, it is clearly
affirmed that Yaśodharapura (the name of the ancient city of Angkor) was
established on the top of Phnom Bakheng by the king Yashovarman I (889-
910 AD). The name of this mountain was also Yaśodharagiri (mountain
ofYaśovarman), Indrādri, and Madhyādri in the 12th century, and it was
also called by the old Khmer name Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (central mountain).

The inscription of Sdok Kak Thom mentioned the following: “ … vra ḥ pāda
paramaśivaloka oy vraḥ liṅga dvihasta saṃnal=ti sthāpanā āy vnaṃ kanṭāl gi
[t]i sthāpanā āy bhadrapattana… which mean “The majesty king-
Paramashivaloka gives (him) two cubits high of unused (stone) from
construction at Vnaṃ Kanṭāl for establishing royal Linga at Bhadrapattana.”
Paramashivaloka established the royal city of Śri Yaśodharapura, and took
the Devarāja from Hariharālaya to this city, and he subsequently
established the Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain) and installed a Linga in the
center.56 The Phnom Bakheng inscription, K. 684,57 informs us of the
purchase of a piece of land for two people (loñ) who were the devotees
(pādamūla) of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl: “ (8) loñ prāṇa pādamūla kamrateṅ (9) jagat
vnaṃ kanṭāl ti vraḥ kamrateṅ” The name of Vnaṃ Kanṭāl (Central Mountain)
moreover clearly indicates the representative Mount Meru, if we study the
Sanskrit text. The temple itself that was built on the top of the mountain
(Phnom), presents the symbol of the mountain in the center of the world,
Meru or Sumeru of Indian cosmology.
IN BUDDHISM Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli)
or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the central world-mountain in Buddhist
cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain
is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting
in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".

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The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of
Hindu cosmology, but it differs from the Hindu concept in several
particulars.

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) Chinese mandala depicting Mount Meru as an inverted

pyramid topped by a lotus.

According to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (philosophical

writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is
uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately
4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It also descends
beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas,
being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a
simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of
80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of
40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and
mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like
ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of
mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width
and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven
surrounding mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which
forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are
merely small islands. The known world, which is on the continent
of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The dimensions stated in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam are shown in the
table below:

Name Width Height/Depth

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Sumeru (Sineru) mountain 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas

Sea 80,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas

Yugandhara mountains 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas

Sea 40,000 yojanas 40,000 yojanas

Iṣadhara (Isadhara) mountains 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas

Sea 20,000 yojanas 20,000 yojanas

Khadiraka (Karavīka) mountains 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas

Sea 10,000 yojanas 10,000 yojanas

Sudarśana (Sudassana) mountains 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Sea 5,000 yojanas 5,000 yojanas

Aśvakarṇa (Assakaṇṇa) mountains 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Sea 2,500 yojanas 2,500 yojanas

Vinadhara (Vinataka) mountains 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Sea 1,250 yojanas 1,250 yojanas

Nimindhara (Nemindhara) mountains 625 yojanas 625 yojanas

Outer Sea 32,000 yojanas relatively shallow

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Cakravāḍa (Cakkavāḷa) mountains
312.5 yojanas 312.5 yojanas
(circular edge of the world)

The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes

the Trāyastriṃśa "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct
physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven
consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is
20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges,
each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven"
of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing north, south,
east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great Kings, who
faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru
in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and
night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast
over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the same time it
is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the
eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of
Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is
noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and
midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and
broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great
Kings, namely nāgas, yakṣas, gandharvas, and kumbhāṇḍas.
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru
are given below:

Height above the Length (on one

Name Breadth
sea side)

Cāturmahārājika 40,000 yojanas 2,000 yojanas 24,000 yojanas

Sadāmada 30,000 yojanas 4,000 yojanas 32,000 yojanas

Mālādhara 20,000 yojanas 8,000 yojanas 48,000 yojanas

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 16,000
Karoṭapāni 10,000 yojanas 80,000 yojanas
yojanas

Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at
war with the Trāyastriṃśa gods.
Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are incompatible with
modern science and have been abandoned by numerous modern Buddhists.
One of the most well known of these ideas is Mount Meru. According
to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "the human realm that Buddhist texts describe is a
flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters contained by a
ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central mountain,
surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents."
As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars
like Tominaga Nakamoto (1715–1746) began to question this classical
Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha from
Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the heart of
Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend the
traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued that
it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of Indian
mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further and
argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original Buddhism.
The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist
intellectuals like Gendun Chopel and the 14th Dalai Lama. According to
Choepel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching taught in accord with
the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for the modern era. Similarly,
the 14th Dalai Lama writes that "my own view is that Buddhism must
abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees
the falsehood of this traditional cosmology as not affecting the core of
Buddhism (the teaching of the four noble truths and liberation) since it is
"secondary to the account of the nature and origins of sentient beings

124
BAUPHON as MOUNT MERU

125
Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies an elevated platform connected to a
walkway leading to the Baphuon Temple. The platform sits next to the
Elephant Terrace and both the Temple and its elevated 200-meter sandstone
causeway lie just outside the royal enclosure of Angkor Thom. Baphuon
Temple was located on the cardinal axis of the ancient city of
Yasodharapura, sacked by the Chams in 1177. When Angkor Thom was
rebuilt, Baphuon was located just south of the Royal Enclosure, as can be
seen on the map. Originally built as a temple to Shiva in the 11th Century,
it was the most imposing structure of the ancient city -- renowned for its
bronze tower that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold. At 120 metres
long, 100 metres wide and 34 metres tall, the main temple structure is
roughly the same size as its famous neighbour, but in a worse state of
repair, which may partially explain the comparative lack of popularity.
Being at the end of a 225-metre-long elevated walkway – entirely
exposed to the hot Cambodian sun – may also be a factor, putting off
temple explorers who have already been worn out by The Bayon.
Baphuon Temple - one of the highlights of 5 Great Angkor Temples in
3 Days and 10 Must-See Temples in Siem Reap (Read all about Siem
Reap here)

126
.”The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5
levels of equal size, giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case,
the sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of the tower held a Shiva linga. In the
15th century, it was converted into a Buddhist temple, and the tower was
disassembled, with many of the stones used to begin construction of an
unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of the rectangular structure.
History of Baphuon Temple
The triple-tiered temple mountain of the Baphuon Temple was the
state temple of King Udayadityavarman II. Its pyramid shape
represents the mythical Hindu Mount Meru and marks the centre of
the city that was here before Angkor Thom.
It is immediately to the south of the royal palace of Phimeanakas, and
the old walls of the palace can be seen in the shade of the trees north
of the temple, making for a pleasant route to walk back towards the
main road along.

Contemporary sources say that a striking 8-metre-tall tower once

stood on top of the temple, probably made of wood gilded with bronze.
This is thought to have been demolished in the late-15th century when
the temple was converted from being dedicated to the Hindu God
Shiva to Buddha.
A reclining Buddha statue – 9 metres tall and 70 metres long – was
added to the second tier on the west-facing side. Sadly, even by this
time, it is thought that much of the temple’s structure had already
collapsed, due to the fact that it was hastily built on land filled with
sand.
You can find Baphuon Temple slightly northwest of Bayon Temple.
Photographing it in the morning will give you the best light on the
temple.

127
Ta Keo called 'Hemasringagiri' or 'the mountain with golden peaks,'
meaning Mount Meru—is enormous, rising over 21.6 meters, making it one
of the tallest buildings at Angkor with a base of 122 by 106 meters, while
the outer moat stretched 255 by 195 meters. It was the state temple of
Jayavarman V, who ruled from 968 to 1001. Around the year 975, work was
begun on Ta Keo temple in the center of the new capital. Where the kinghad
taken up residence on the east side of the East Baray. It is unfinished as the
king was subjugated in year 1001.

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 The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’)

The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’) has been a prominent geographic

feature in several Hindu, Buddhist and Jain mythologies. The ‘Meru Parvat’
is considered to be the centre of ‘Jambu dwipa’(peninsula) and abode of
Brahma and other Gods. Ancient Indian texts described to be about 84,000
‘yojana’ high or so. However, if you examine the geography or atlas of India
you will not find any ‘Meru’ mountain in the present Indian subcontinent!.
Meru Peak is a mountain that lies in the Garwhal Himalayas , in the
Uttarakhand region of India . It lies between Thalay Sagar and Shivling , and
has some highly challenging routes. It is 6,660 metres (21,850 ft) high. It
was the site of the world's highest.

[1] Let’s look for Meru upon the pages of Mahabharata and let’s see what
this great epic has to say about this topographical entity. It may be noted
that we have already, though cursorily, proposed the Bhubaneswar Model of
Meru Parvata in the Article “Scenario : The Sida River of Buddha Era”, one
of the series “Easternization and The Brown Arya”. So, our findings on Meru
upon the pages of Mahabharata would have to be seen with reference to this
Meru Model as well.

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Firstly, we shall lay down the actual Mahabharata-Meru findings one by one
along with some collateral classical and/or plausibly-historical information,
and short remarks, if necessary, which will be later reflected upon and
analyzed in steps, in order to elicit surer historical implications and
inferences.

[2] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-17 / Sloka-5-6,

Ugrashrava replies Saunaka’s certain question thus :

“There is a radiant mountain, named Meru, shining uniquely, reflecting

sun’s rays upon own bright golden peaks. This mountain, that thus looks to
be adorned with golden ornaments, is inhabited by Devas and Gandharvas.
Its extents are immeasurable and happens to be a region where no impious
person can really stay on.”

In Sloka-7-8, he further tells Saunaka about this mountain :

“Snakes and divine medicinal plants are plentiful in this region. The latter
adds to its beauty. The Meru Mountain covers (includes) Svarga. It remains
unthinkable (unreachable) for common men. This tract is crossed by several
rivers and endowed with thick plantations. Its natural beauty includes great
flocks of twittering birds of numerous species.”

In Sloka-9 he further adds :

“Its peaks are ingrained with jewels.”

[3] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-62 / Sloka-48,

Mahabharata is being extolled as the receptacle of gem-like matters through
analogies which describe Ocean and Meru as great sources of gems. It is a
revelation about Meru’s status with respect to wealth.

[4] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-85 / Sloka-7-10, King

Yayati is seen romancing with Visvachi, an Apsaras (race). The Alaka Puri
(palace) and the mount on the northern part of Meru were their favorite
meeting places. It may be noted that Yayati was an ancestor of the
Pandavas.

[5] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-99 / Sloka-5-7, Ganga

tells Santanu, her husband that Vasistha, aka Apava, son of Varuna had his
Ashram upon Meru, the Mountain King. She also describes the attractive
characteristics of the Ashram. These were abundance of deers, variegated
birds, all-season flowers, fruits, roots and water.

It may be noted that Vasistha “is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic
rishis. He is one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis) of Ancient India.
Vasishtha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vasishtha
and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4 and in other
Rigvedic mandalas and in many Vedic texts. … Yoga Vasishtha, Vasishtha

130
Samhita, as well as some versions of the Agni Purana and Vishnu Purana
are attributed to him” [wikipedia].

[6] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-175 / Sloka-45,

Vasishtha is seen jumping off the peak of Meru in a suicidal bid, though the
rocky fall-point turns as soft as cotton for him. Vasishtha had acceded to
such a severe mental state following death of his sons at the hand of King
Visvamitra.

It may be noted that “Brahmarshi Vishvamitra is one of the most venerated

rishis or sages of ancient India. He is also credited as the author of most of
Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, including Gayatri Mantra. … Vishvamitra was
originally a king, also called Kaushika (descendant of Kusha) and belonged
to Amavasu Dynasty. He was the Chandravanshi (Somavanshi) King of
Kanyakubja. He was a valiant warrior and the great-grandson of a great king
named Kusha (a brainchild of Brahma, father of Kushabhadra and
grandfather of Gaadhi.” [wikipedia]

[7] In Mahabharata Khanda-3 / Vana Parva / Adhyaya-82 / Sloka-111,

Pulastya tells Bhishma about Vinasana Tirtha, where River Sarasvati flows
upon the breast/ surface of Meru (Meru-Prishtha) “latently”.

This fact about this great river contradicts and undoes the rumor that
“Sarasvati dried up in a desert”.

In Sloka-112, the narration on Sarasvati is extended to include the facts

that the Tirthas of Chamasodveda, Shivodveda and Nagodveda are situated
upon this river. In Sloka-113, Nagodveda Tirtha has been connected to
Nagaloka insofar as ablution at his site situated upon Sarasvati would
facilitate a believer’s accession to Naga-Loka.

Consideration of this possible connection is important in view of the fact

that Naga-Loka is likely to emerge through further discussion as a real
geographical site of historical importance.

The other mentions about Sarasvati in the same Parva need to be noted as
these are too important clues to Meru’s topology. Sloka-60-61 of the same
Parva talks about the Tirtha incident at the confluence of Sarasvati and
Sagara (Ocean). This Tirtha has been connected to Svarga-Loka.

Like Naga-Loka, Svarga-Loka too is likely to emerge through further

discussion as a geographical locality of great historical importance.

Slokas-114-116 describe the Shashayana Tirtha on Sarasvati which gathers

special importance on Kartika Purnima (Kartika Fullmoon Day). The story of
Puskara Tirtha is interlaced with this one inasmuch as the believers tend to
be reminded of the outline of Puskara by the marks on the full moon they
witness at Shashayana on Karika Purnima.

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Sloka-126 returns to Sarasvati Samgama, the confluence of Sarasvati and
Sagar (Ocean), a Tirtha, which is connected to special worship of Kesava
(Krishna) in general and is related to a special Tithi (calendar day), viz.
Chaitra Sukla Chaturdashi (the 14th day of Bright Fortnight of the month of
Chaitra).

We are noting down these bits of information for possible future use in
settling Meru-Sarasvati topology with respect to Bhubaneswar Model of
Meru Parvata (Meru Mountain).

The following excerpts represent short classical descriptions of these two

giant topological elements of the ancient-most part of Modern India.

“Sarasvati River was one of the rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda and later
Vedic and post-Vedic texts. The Sarasvati River played an important role in
Hinduism since Vedic Sanskrit. The first part of the Rig Veda is believed to
have originated when the Vedic people lived on its banks.” [wikipedia]

“Mount Meru is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and

Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical,
metaphysical and spiritual universes.” [wikipedia]

Coming back to the Parva-82, the sequence of the numerous Tirthas that
Pulastya reckons one by one and narrates before Bhishma couldn’t include
ones separated by very great distances. The style of narration implies that
these Tirthas could belong to one geographical domain of a diameter not
exceeding a hundred miles or so.

We may take this opportunity to note down these Pulastya-enumerated

Tirthas for future reference. These are : Puskara, Jambumarga, Tandulika-
ashram, Agastya Sarovara, Kanva-ashram, Dharmaranya, Yayati-patana,
Mahakala-tirtha, Koti-tirtha, Bhadra-vata, Narmada River, Dakshina
Samudra, Charmanvati River, Arbuda aka Himalaya-putra, Vasishtha-
ashram, Pinga-tirtha, Prabhasa-tirtha, Sarasvati Samgama aka Varuna-
tirtha (Samudra/Ocean), Varadana-tirtha, Dvaraka, Pindaraka-tirtha,
Sindhu Samgama aka Varuna-tirtha, Dami-tirtha, Vasudhara-tirtha,
Sindhuttama-tirtha, Bhadratunga-tirtha, Shakra-Kumarika-tirtha, Renuka-
tirtha, Pancha-Nada-tirtha, Yoni-tirtha, Vimala-tirtha, Vitasta-tirtha,
Vadava-tirtha aka Sapta-Charu-tirtha, Maniman-tirtha, Devika-tirtha,
Kama-tirtha, Dirgha-Satra-tirtha, Vinasana-tirtha, Chamasodveda,
Shivodveda, Nagodveda, Shashayana, Kumarakoti-tirtha, Rudrakoti-tirtha.

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Tracking down geographical locations of these Tirthas individually would
help us improve accuracy of positioning of erstwhile Meru upon Indian
topography.

Out of this cluster of Tirthas, as many as six Tirthas, viz. Vinasan,

Chamasodveda, Shivodveda, Nagodveda, Shashayana and Sarasvati
Samgama, fall along the length of Sarasvati intercepted by Meru.
Multilateral interlacing of the other Tirthas lurks in the finer details, when
available. Could the whole lot form a single cluster superposing Meru
locality?

The two Tithis (calendar days of ceremonial observance), viz. Kartika

Purnima (Fullmoon of the month of Kartika) and Chaitra Sukla Chaturdasi
(14th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Chaitra), that we came
across in the narrations about the various Tirthas are too noteworthy. These
could serve as clues in our endeavor to finetune the identity of Meru.

The Bhunaneswar Meru Model is heavily supported by at least the Kartika

Purnima legacy.

The features of Meru that have surfaced in this section of our discussion
invites Kuakhai-Daya River of Bhubaneswar, a distributary of Mahanadi-
Kathajodi River of Modern Odisha, to be the erstwhile Sarasvati in the
Bhubaneswar Model of Mount Meru. We are not in a haste to conclude
anything now. We shall continue to gather evidences.

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Figure https://rgdn.info/en/mirovaya_gora._v_mifah_i_legandah_mira

134
135
136
137
 VII
“Ten Phases of Bodhisattva”.
The New Concept of Borobudur Behind its Name

Sacred landscapes in Asia have generally been studied in terms of thearchitecture and
imagery of the monuments or with regard to chronology and patronage and more recently
within debates of generation of colonial knowledge. Colonial rule after centuries in South
and Southeast Asia, not only altered the nature of linkages that had existed across Asia from
at least the middle of thef irst millennium BC onwards, but more significantly redefined our
understanding of monuments such as Borobudur which were considered as essentially
religious structures have traversed to objects of artistic and aesthetic appreciation. This had
far-reaching implications for their study and understanding of the nature of Indic religions.

Paul Mus (1902–1969) was a French writer and scholar. His studies focused on Viet
Nam and other South-East Asian cultures. He was born in Bourges to an academic family,
and grew up in northern Viet Nam (Tonkin). In 1907 his father opened the College de
Protectorate in Hanoi and he would graduate from the college some 12 years later. His work
Barabuḍur: sketch of a history of Buddhism based on archaeological criticism of the texts
represents a profound and far-reaching analysis of the ideas, religious aspirations and
building techniques which contrbuted to the creation of one of the largest Buddhist edifices in
the world. Published at Hanoi in french in 1935, it is a survey of the Buddhist religious and
philosophical concepts in the background of earlier religious and metaphysical traditon in
India, as revealed in the Vedic and Upanishads texts.In his study of Borobudur published in
1935, Paul Mus emphasised the role of architecture as a material representation of religious
doctrines of Buddhism.

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Borobudur temple holds a mystery that raises questions for the people who see through.
Researchers, archaeologists, to visitors brought deeper into the mystery and the various
questions contained in it when climbing this monument.One simple question that has not
been answered until now is: whether the name Borobudur is the real name or not. It
seems that the name Borobudur is indeed the real name, but this statement has no solid
evidence that can be used to support it.

Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are

guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform
represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to
symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors,
illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the
purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that
the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed,
according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.
Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and
meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.

Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from
neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to
the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints
between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed
in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's
high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each
with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures
built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural
hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner
spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a
temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as
devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a
temple.

The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of
a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of
the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around

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the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of
the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the
designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that
the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.The main structure can be divided
into three components: base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in
size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of
diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base.
Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the
top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level.
Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of
arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on
top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly
found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location
of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the
low-lying plain. This is a basic description of the temple. The Stugas and the reliefs on the
walls are subject matter of successive papers.
Much effort has been made to investigate this question, but no single interpretation has
been proven. So far, the way to find out the real name of Borobudur is to look at the two
parts that make up his name, Boro and Budur. This theory was initiated by Poerbatjaraka.
He revealed that “boro” can be interpreted as a monastery, which today can be regarded
as a vihara. While “budur” itself is the name of a place. Thus, Borobudur can be
interpreted as “Vihara in Budur”.

A bit of a relic from a monastery was discovered in 1952 when excavations were made in
the western courtyard of Borobudur. Found an ancient manuscript named
Nagarakrtagama from 1365 which contains the name Budur in it. In the manuscript,
budur is a sacred place of.Mahayana.Buddhism.

Dutch orientalist and indologist Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis (31 May 1916, – 19 June 2002)
succeeded in describing the obsolete portion of the stone charter found in 842 in his
seminal book Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th century A.D., (1956) as
readings as “bhumisambharabhudura”, meaning “The Mountain of Virtue from the Ten
Phases of Bodhisattva”.

The word “Bharabhudura” was taken and converted into Borobudur. The changes used
are simplifications that occur due to the pronunciation of the lisa language. On the other
hand, the first part of the word sounds similar to “Bumisegoro”, which is the name of the
village south of Borobudur.

It is interesting to note that before the word is found, there is another word found, that is
“kamulan”. This word means “The Holy Place of the Patriarch”. Therefore, it is clearly
seen the connection of Borobudur and the temple for ancestor worship.
Another simple but difficult question to answer is: how long Borobudur temple is
actively used? When did it stop functioning as a monument to glorify the ruling dynasty,
or as a Buddhist pilgrimage center?

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The general assumption is that this temple began not to be used when people converted
to Islam in the fifteenth century. Borobudur Temple may have been abandoned when the
center of political and cultural activities moved to East Java in the 10th century.

It is also spelled Barabuḍur or Baraboedoer and combines the 3 symbolic forms of

1. the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics),
2. the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and
3. the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and
the circle as heaven).

The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art. The monument
was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991.

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 Enigmatic Construction

Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 CE, under the Shailendra dynasty. :

A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916—1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday

Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. But there is no written record of who built it
or of its intended purpose. The construction time has been estimated by comparison between
carved reliefs on the temple’s hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal
charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. This corresponds to the period between 760 and
830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under the influence of
the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been
completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The
Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at
Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and
Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The
Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu
Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a
Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.

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Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya’s immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of
Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This
has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning
religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a
Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is likely that there
were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite
Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka
plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan
complex, which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya
dynasty’s reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful
coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Discovery: It was buried under volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with
vegetation until discovered by the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in
1814. A team of Dutch archaeologists restored the site in 1907–11. A second restoration was
completed by 1983.

Borobudur, Indonesia© Ramon Abasolo/Fotolia

Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone,
Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels
—a square base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular
terraces—totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections (the number nine is mystic in Buddhism).
The centre, 115 feet (35 metres) above the base, consists of a large individual stupa.

© simon gurney/Fotolia

Stupas at Borobudur

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Each of the monument’s three main levels represents a stage on the way to
the bodhisattva ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at
the eastern stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument’s nine levels before
reaching the top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is
partially hidden, are hundreds of reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu (“the realm
of feeling”), the lowest sphere of the Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series
of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the middle sphere and “the realm of form”) through events in the
life of the Gautama Buddha and scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The
upper level illustrates arupa-dhatu, “the realm of formlessness,” or detachment from the
physical world; there is little decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas,
many still containing a statue of the Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework.
During the Waicak ceremony, which occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of
saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the
Buddha’s birth,death, and enlightenment.

Borobudur- STUPA BIG BUDDHA- as a complete exposition of doctrine

Scholars disagree about the nature of Candi Borobudur, for instance, whether it is a symbolic
mountain of the Sailendra kingdom, a stupa or a mandala . At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt
burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the
Buddha's ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha.
Adding the Buddha's ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha
himself. Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the
form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist
cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118
metres (387 ft) on each side. Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar,
India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.
A stupa, Buddhist commemorative monument usually housing sacred relics associated
with the Buddha or other saintly persons. The hemispherical form of the stupa appears to
have derived from pre-Buddhist burial mounds in India. Many stupas are Pooja Pradakshina
on all levels? What does that mean and how to explain to non- hindus? Puja is paying
obeisance to God and pradakshina is circumambulation of the Godly image. Puja involves a
ritual= whether in Buddhism or Hinduism. Lighting Candles, Ringing bells, turning prayer
wheelsall are rituals. One such ritual kis circumambulation. In Borobudur as well as many
other Stupas some discussed below this ritual is and that Stupa are presented.One pays ones

144
respect by circumambulation to the stupa.

Kesariya Stupa seen in the above picture, is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district
of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Kesariya
Stupa has a circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet
(32 m).
The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were
mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of
the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic
chambers.

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 SIMILARITIES WITH BOROBUDUR

It has been noted that the Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the
Buddhist temple located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections
between east India and South East Asia. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with
terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built
atop of a hill. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues
in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side, whereas
Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on the four sides of
the monument.

In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur
Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for
example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and
Budur for Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history.
Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting
the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy
Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar
of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have
been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese
word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive
from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha. However, another
archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese
term bhudhara ("mountain").
Vihara Buddha Uhr: Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers
suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara
Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city
of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still
survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem
word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a
high place or on a hill. As far as I understand, Vihara Buddha means the Abode of Buddha and
not the city…

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Inscriptions: The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a
reference to Borobudur was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in
Kedu, Temanggung Regency.
1. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building
named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached
enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga.
2. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands
awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance
of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the
place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of
the Sailendras.
Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra: Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which
in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was
the original name of Borobudur.That is however incorrect, even a schoolchild in India will tell
you that Bhumi means land.See the pujsa bhoomipoojan or the actress of Bollywood- Bhumi
Pednekar.
Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a
complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with
only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains
at Angkor, and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth
(the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The
plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace
stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the
centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face
is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines, and
the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense.

Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the
whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other
levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha
figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped
stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha
figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as
it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It
consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the
designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been
uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which
began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated
above.

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Borobudur: Buddha sculpture and stupas

VIII
Temple Mountains of Merapi & Mahendraparvat
Bayon temple, temple of King Jayavarman VII. It is a
mountain temple built to represent Mount Meru, the
center of the universe in Hindu and Buddhist

cosmology.

Mt. Meru and the ‘three worlds’ of Hindu

cosmology

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Introduction; The entire landscape of temples in the area once ruled by the Khemer kings in
what is now called Cambodia were inspired by the Hindu concept of Mount Meru and
fittingly so since they were to be the representatives of the greatness of the Emperors during
their lifetime and beyond(not to mention their crypt). What could be more majestic than the
great HINDU MYTHOLOGICAL MOUNTAIN. Were the architects ordered to capture that
mythical design? Likely so.

Herein this paper I shall illustrate some architectural designs of the Khemer architecture that
represent the Mountain and later we shall discuss the Hindu ideas regarding this.

Most guidebooks report that Angkor Wat as being a replica of mount Meru the mythical
Hindu mountain. It was "discovered" in 1860 by the French explorer Henri Mouhot.
However, after its abandonment by the Cambodian kings the temples at Angkor Wat did not
entirely fade from memory. They were actively used as pilgrimage sites for centuries, the
dense jungle undergrowth preserving them from conquerors and opportunistic plunderers.
With the "discovery" by the west came large-scale archeological studies and selective
reconstruction, offering a much more accessible site to visitors. Indeed, the temples in the
Angkor Wat complex come in every stage of reconstruction, from ruins heavily surrounded
by jungle growth to those restored to much of their former glory.

Trying to capture both the grandeur and the exquisite detail of Angkor Wat in words is a a
formidable task just as it is in images. Angkor Wat, or those of you who enjoy touring the
world from your desktop! Angkor Wat's sheer verticality presents a tremendous challenge to
camera positioning.

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Angkor Wat’s central sanctuary stands at 55 meters high. And it was here where the temple’s
original Vishnu statue once stood. Interestingly, there’s also a pit beneath the prasat that
descends all the way down to the ground. This was likely constructed as a symbolic
representation of Mt. Meru and the ‘three worlds’ of Hindu cosmology. This 1 km by 800
meter (3,330 by 2,600 feet) temple was dedicated to the Hindu God Vishnu, with whom it is
believed that Surayvarman merged with upon death.

A deity incarnate, Angkor Wat by itself, was apparently designed as a funery temple; it
faces west, catching the dying rays of the sun, symbolic of the end of man's earthly life. The
photo above captures the western main entrance to Angkor Wat in the fading light of
the afternoon, when the composition of the stone seems to turn from grey to a rosy brown.
The full magnificence of Angkor Wat is only hinted at when one crosses the 200 meter moat,
as three of its towers and the main outline of the temple remain obscured behind its outer
walls. Once one passes through the main gate, Angor Wat opens up into a grand courtyard,
shown in the photo at the upper right and left. The 5 towers of the main temple at Angkor
Wat represent the five peaks of Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods. It is accessed via a
long walkway; Access to the temple is gained via a raised cruciform platform.

Angkor Wat is a very elaborate temple, built on three levels, and it is very difficult to
envision from written descriptions. This tour takes you through the temple in the fashion you
are most likely to encounter it on a tour. Let us begin with a general description of the
complex Vertically speaking, Angkor Wat is built upon three levels, with the third level
leading to its famous five peaks. When viewed architecturally and functionally, the complex
can be divided into two areas:

 The outer courtyard: extending from the moat to the wall complex shown above,
including the cruciform platform
 The inner temple complex: the main area enclosed by the complex walls, divided into two
squares:
o a cruciform cloister and libraries near the western entrance on the second level

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 o a larger cruciform terrace on the third level that includes offices and the temple
itself.
 The numbers on the tour below correspond to the path most visitors take when visiting
Angkor Wat. Tours begin by turning right at the cruciform platform, following the terrace
on level one. Angkor Wat boasts the world's largest bas-relief, extending all the way
around the temple, protected by a covered walkway. Upon returning to the entrance,
visitors can ascend the stairs to the cruciform cloisters on the second terrace. Stairs from
the cloisters lead to the third terrace and the cruciform terrace that contains the main
temple.

BAYON as MOUNT MERU

Bayon temple sits in the precise geographical center of the walled city, and has an east
facing entrance, shown here. On either side of the stone entrance are the dry remnants of the
pools that previously existed there. Straight ahead is the outer wall of the temple and the
remains of the entryway arches. Above them is the central tower of Mt. Meru, adorned with
the Bodhisattva heads. This combination of Buddhism (the Bodhisattva faces) and Hinduism
(Mt. Meru at the geographical center of the city) reflects the tumultuous history of this
temple. Constructed originally as a Buddhist temple, it was later converted into a Hindu
temple -- before being restored once again to a Buddhist temple. The first level contains
galleries similar to those at nearby Angkor Wat. The top level contains the Avalokitesvara
images as well as a Buddhist shrine under the central tower, again mirroring the structure of
Angkor Wat temple

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152
Phnom Bakheng as MOUNT MERU

It lays claim to being home to the first of the temple-mountains built in the vicinity of
Angkor. Yasovarman I chose Phnom Bakheng over the Roluos area, where the earlier capital
(and temple-mountains) had been located. At the base are – or were – 44 towers. Each of the
five tiers had 12 towers. The summit of the temple has four towers at the cardinal points of
the compass as well as a central sanctuary. All of these numbers are of symbolic significance.
The seven levels represent the seven Hindu heavens, while the total number of towers,
excluding the central sanctuary, is 108, a particularly auspicious number and one that
correlates to the lunar calendar. It is a favorite spot for visitors to watch the sunset.

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1. Angkor Wat 7. Terrace of the Leper Kings 13. Neak Pean 19. Prasat Krava

2. Phom Bakheng 8. Preah Khan 14. Ta Som 20. Banteay Kde

3. South Gate of Angkor 9. Banteay Prei 15. Banteay Srei 21. Ta Prohm
Thom

4. Bayon 10. Thommanon 16. East Mebon 22. Victory Gate

5. Bauphon 11. Choasay Tevada 17. Pre Rup

6. Terrace of the Elephants 12. Ta Keo 18. Sras Srang

Bayon temple sits in the precise geographical center of the walled city, and has an east facing
entrance, shown here. On either side of the stone entrance are the dry remnants of the pools
that previously existed there. Straight ahead is the outer wall of the temple and the remains of
the entryway arches. Above them is the central tower of Mt. Meru, adorned with the
Bodhisattva heads. This combination of Buddhism (the Bodhisattva faces) and Hinduism

154
(Mt. Meru at the geographical center of the city) reflects the tumultuous history of this
temple. Constructed originally as a Buddhist temple, it was later converted into a Hindu
temple -- before being restored once again to a Buddhist temple. The first level contains
galleries similar to those at nearby Angkor Wat. The top level contains the Avalokitesvara
images as well as a Buddhist shrine under the central tower, again mirroring the structure of
Angkor Wat temple

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BAUPHON as MOUNT MERU

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Just northwest of Bayon Temple lies an elevated platform connected to a walkway leading to
the Baphuon Temple. The platform sits next to the Elephant Terrace and both the Temple and
its elevated 200-meter sandstone causeway lie just outside the royal enclosure of Angkor
Thom. Baphuon Temple was located on the cardinal axis of the ancient city of
Yasodharapura, sacked by the Chams in 1177. When Angkor Thom was rebuilt, Baphuon
was located just south of the Royal Enclosure, as can be seen on the map. Originally built as a
temple to Shiva in the 11th Century, it was the most imposing structure of the ancient city --
renowned for its bronze tower that earned it the title of the “Tower of Gold. At 120 metres
long, 100 metres wide and 34 metres tall, the main temple structure is roughly the
same size as its famous neighbour, but in a worse state of repair, which may partially
explain the comparative lack of popularity. Being at the end of a 225-metre-long
elevated walkway – entirely exposed to the hot Cambodian sun – may also be a
factor, putting off temple explorers who have already been worn out by The Bayon.
Baphuon Temple - one of the highlights of 5 Great Angkor Temples in 3
Days and 10 Must-See Temples in Siem Reap (Read all about Siem Reap here)

.”The temple sits within 3 successive enclosures and is constructed of 5 levels of equal size,
giving it the appearance of a mountain -- in this case, the sacred Hindu Mt. Meru. This top of
the tower held a Shiva linga. In the 15th century, it was converted into a Buddhist temple,
and the tower was disassembled, with many of the stones used to begin construction of an
unfinished, reclining Buddha on the west side of the rectangular structure. History of
Baphuon Temple
The triple-tiered temple mountain of the Baphuon Temple was the state temple of
King Udayadityavarman II. Its pyramid shape represents the mythical Hindu Mount
Meru and marks the centre of the city that was here before Angkor Thom.

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It is immediately to the south of the royal palace of Phimeanakas, and the old walls
of the palace can be seen in the shade of the trees north of the temple, making for a
pleasant route to walk back towards the main road along.

Contemporary sources say that a striking 8-metre-tall tower once stood on top of the
temple, probably made of wood gilded with bronze. This is thought to have been
demolished in the late-15th century when the temple was converted from being
dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva to Buddha.
A reclining Buddha statue – 9 metres tall and 70 metres long – was added to the
second tier on the west-facing side. Sadly, even by this time, it is thought that much
of the temple’s structure had already collapsed, due to the fact that it was hastily
built on land filled with sand.
You can find Baphuon Temple slightly northwest of Bayon Temple. Photographing it
in the morning will give you the best light on the temple.

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Ta Keo called 'Hemasringagiri' or 'the mountain with golden peaks,' meaning Mount Meru
—is enormous, rising over 21.6 meters, making it one of the tallest buildings at Angkor with
a base of 122 by 106 meters, while the outer moat stretched 255 by 195 meters. It was the
state temple of Jayavarman V, who ruled from 968 to 1001. Around the year 975, work was
begun on Ta Keo temple in the center of the new capital. Where the kinghad taken up
residence on the east side of the East Baray. It is unfinished as the king was subjugated in
year 1001.

The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’)

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The mountain of Meru (or ‘Sumeru’) has been a prominent geographic feature in several
Hindu, Buddhist and Jain mythologies. The ‘Meru Parvat’ is considered to be the centre of
‘Jambu dwipa’(peninsula) and abode of Brahma and other Gods. Ancient Indian texts
described to be about 84,000 ‘yojana’ high or so. However, if you examine the geography or
atlas of India you will not find any ‘Meru’ mountain in the present Indian subcontinent!.
Meru Peak is a mountain that lies in the Garwhal Himalayas , in the Uttarakhand region of
India . It lies between Thalay Sagar and Shivling , and has some highly challenging routes. It
is 6,660 metres (21,850 ft) high. It was the site of the world's highest.

The Meru of Mahabharata Era – 1 written by(Bhanu Padmo / Oct 7, 2018)in QUORA
https://www.quora.com/Where-is-Mount-Meru-located

[1] Let’s look for Meru upon the pages of Mahabharata and let’s see what this great epic has
to say about this topographical entity. It may be noted that we have already, though cursorily,
proposed the Bhubaneswar Model of Meru Parvata in the Article “Scenario : The Sida River
of Buddha Era”, one of the series “Easternization and The Brown Arya”. So, our findings on
Meru upon the pages of Mahabharata would have to be seen with reference to this Meru
Model as well.

Firstly, we shall lay down the actual Mahabharata-Meru findings one by one along with some
collateral classical and/or plausibly-historical information, and short remarks, if necessary,
which will be later reflected upon and analyzed in steps, in order to elicit surer historical
implications and inferences.

[2] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-17 / Sloka-5-6, Ugrashrava replies

Saunaka’s certain question thus :

“There is a radiant mountain, named Meru, shining uniquely, reflecting sun’s rays upon own
bright golden peaks. This mountain, that thus looks to be adorned with golden ornaments, is
inhabited by Devas and Gandharvas. Its extents are immeasurable and happens to be a region
where no impious person can really stay on.”

In Sloka-7-8, he further tells Saunaka about this mountain :

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“Snakes and divine medicinal plants are plentiful in this region. The latter adds to its beauty.
The Meru Mountain covers (includes) Svarga. It remains unthinkable (unreachable) for
common men. This tract is crossed by several rivers and endowed with thick plantations. Its
natural beauty includes great flocks of twittering birds of numerous species.”

In Sloka-9 he further adds :

“Its peaks are ingrained with jewels.”

[3] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-62 / Sloka-48, Mahabharata is being

extolled as the receptacle of gem-like matters through analogies which describe Ocean and
Meru as great sources of gems. It is a revelation about Meru’s status with respect to wealth.

[4] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-85 / Sloka-7-10, King Yayati is seen
romancing with Visvachi, an Apsaras (race). The Alaka Puri (palace) and the mount on the
northern part of Meru were their favorite meeting places. It may be noted that Yayati was an
ancestor of the Pandavas.

[5] In Mahabharata Khanda-1 / Adi Parva / Adhyaya-99 / Sloka-5-7, Ganga tells Santanu, her
husband that Vasistha, aka Apava, son of Varuna had his Ashram upon Meru, the Mountain
King. She also describes the attractive characteristics of the Ashram. These were abundance
of deers, variegated birds, all-season flowers, fruits, roots and water.

The Bayon, built in the centre of Angkor Thom about 1200 A.D., is the second most popular
monument in Angkor, after Angkor Wat. It is the temple with those numerous enigmatic
"stone faces" Angkor is famous for. As it is not clear who or what is symbolized by those
gigantic Buddhas, the smiling faces of Angkor Thom became an emblem of the mysteries of
Angkor. The original total number of face towers is still a matter of debate. However,
originally there must have been about 50 towers and 200 colossal faces at the Bayon. Now,
there are 37 standing towers, most of them with four Buddha faces oriented toward the
cardinal points. Most of them are raised on the cruciform terrace surrounding the central
tower, which is, rarely enough in Angkor, a circular structure. The central tower rises 43
metres above the ground. Apart from those face-towers, there is a second exciting attraction
at the Bayon, the large-scale carvings at the gallery walls, both overwhelming and delightful,
because of its abundance in delicious details.

The Bayon was the state temple of King Jayavarman VII (1181- ca. 1218), who introduced
Buddhism as the new state cult. (But it was Mahayana Buddhism. In contrast to conjectures
of many Angkor visitors, Jayavarman VII's reform is not the reason why Cambodia became a
Theravada Buddhist country.) The Bayon in many ways represents the pinnacle of this king's
massive building campaign. Jayavarman VII was the most prolific temple founder in
Cambodia's history. But the Bayon was built in such a hurry that stone was piled upon stone
not at all with that precision the Angkor Wat is famous for.

Jayavarman VII was born as early as 1125, during the reign of Angkor Wat founder
Suryavarman II. Jayavarman was the son of the later Angkor king Dharanindravarman II.
After Suryavarman's death (about 1150) there were factions fighting for power in the Khmer
empire. The foreign Cham were involved, too, and in 1171 Cham invaders attacked Angkor.
In 1177 or 1178 they seized the Khmer capital and could occupy it and could install Cham
rulers for several years to come. In 1181 Jayavarman VII, who in the meantime was a kind of
warlord collecting troops, managed to repulse them and to establish his own rule. He soon

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launched a massive building campaign. His first major projects where Banteay Kdei, Ta
Prohm and Preah Khan. Finally he founded the new capital Angkor Thom at the end of the
century. Four straight avenues, starting at four of Angkor Thom's five city gates located at the
cardinal points, lead to the Bayon in the centre of the city. It became the last state temple to
be built in Angkor, it is the only Buddhist state temple of the Angorian era.

The layout of the Bayon was labyrinthic and confusing, right from the beginning. But the the
confusion is also due to several modifications in the last three centuries of the medieval
Khmer empire. The terrace to the east, the library buildings, the square corner buildings of
the inner gallery and parts of the upper terrace are later additions. Temporarily the temple
was even was Hindu. The original huge central statue, Buddha meditating protected by
serpent king Muchalinda, was destroyed during the iconoclasm of Jayavarman VIII in the
second half of the 13th century. The statue was recently restored and is now in Vihear
Prampil Loveng

(Buddha-terrace behind the southern Khleang in Angkor Thom).

The temple itself has no exterior wall, it can be considered as being replaced by the city walls
of Angkor Thom itself. Therefore, as Angkor Wat was a temple with a city included, Angkor
Thom could be called the city of the Bayon. The temple-plus-city arrangement Angkor
Thom, covering an area of nine square kilometres, is the second-largest historical temple
compound of the world, only Preah Khan of Kampong Svay (Preah Vihear Province) covers
a larger area.

Within the Bayon temple itself, there are two galleried enclosures (counted the third and
second enclosures) and an upper terrace (called the first enclosure). The outer gallery of the
Bayon temple (third enclosure) measures 156 m by 141 m. Originally it was accentuated by
a full vault and a preceding half vault. Only the inner wall and pillars have remained.

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This wall of the outer gallery features a series of bas-reliefs depicting historical events,
marching and fighting troops, and scenes from the everyday life as well. The bas-reliefs are
not accompanied by epigraphic explanations, this is why some uncertainty remains which
historical events are portrayed. The most intrinsic carvings are those at the southern and
eastern galleries, the northern and western reliefs are uncompleted. Some carvings are
detailed enough to identify fish species, or music instruments still in use in Southeast Asia
today.

The most famous scene is on the eastern section of the southern gallery. It depicts a naval
battle, most probably the invasion of the Cham in 1177/78 when they surprisingly arrived on
boats on the "Great Lake" Tonle Sap and, rowing upstream, attacked Angkor. The Cham
warriors can be easily identified, as at Bayon era reliefs they usually wear lotus hats. Dead
Khmer fighters are depicted in the water. But in some scenes the Khmer dominate the
combat. And finally the Khmer king and his subjects celebrate a victory feast.

In the lower register of that naval battle scene with many boats of enormous size, there are
the Bayon's most celebrated carvings depicting a kaleidoscope of daily-life activities, some of
them still common in rural Cambodia today. They are of modest size. You can discover
market scenes such as the weighing of goods, buying and selling, open air cooking, men
drinking brandy, a cockfight and spectators making bets. Furthermore there are some palace
scenes with princesses and servants, a woman giving birth to a child, people engaged in
conversations, and board games, wrestlers, hunters, a wild boar fight. The western part of the
southern gallery, of lower sculptural quality, shows a military procession including both
Khmer and Cham soldiers.

In the south-east corner pavilion there is a depiction of an unfinished temple with towers,
Apsaras, and a Lingam.

The southern part of the eastern gallery depicts the marching Khmer army, including some
Chinese soldiers, King Jayavarman VII is portrayed on a horse. Generals are mounted on
elephants. They are surrounded by soldiers, wagons of provisions, musicians and even
women with children. A procession of sacred fire is accompanied by bearded Brahmins.
Some domestic scenes on the lefthand side, beside the southern door of this wall, depict
Angkorian houses, some of the occupants appear to be Chinese merchants, Gurus are
depicted teaching small assemblies of pupils.

The northern half of the eastern gallery shows a land battle, Chinese soldiers with
characteristic costumes support the Khmer army's fight against the Cham.

In the unfinished western part of the northern gallery there is a remarkable scene of
entertainment at the royal court, including jugglers and acrobats.

In the western gallery, unfinished reliefs show an army marching through the forest, and
arguments and fighting between different groups of Khmers. A noticeable detail is a gigantic
fish swallowing a small deer.

The outer gallery encloses a courtyard in which there are two libraries at the east entrance.
They are later additions, originally the courtyard contained 16 chapels.

The inner gallery of 80 m by 70 m, raised 1.3 m above the ground level, shows some more

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scenes of daily life, but is focused on religious motifs. Remarkably, most of them are Hindu.
Some of the figures depicted are Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, the members of the so-called
Hindu Trinity. The themes of some panels could not be identified. The Hindu carvings are
believed to originate from the period of Jayavarman VIII, when the Bayon was transformed
into a Hindu sanctuary. In the west wing of the southern gallery there is a bearded Shiva and
a four-armed Vishnu. The eastern wing represents the legend of a young boy saved from
drowning. The eastern gallery has Shiva among hermits. Its northern wing illustrates two
Khmer legends, the liberation of a girl imprisoned in a rock and a king suffering from leprosy
after a snake bite. In the east wing of the northern gallery you can seee Shiva with Uma on
Nandi, and Vishnu with Lakshmi. Its west wing has the Trimurti and Kama, god of love,
struck by Shiva's arrow. The north wing of the western gallery shows a common subject, the
Churning of the Milk Ocean. To the south of the western Gopura, there is an informative
depiction of construction work for a temple building.

The upper terrace (first enclosure) is home to the Bayon's famous face towers. The number of
towers changed in the course of time, maybe there were 48 or even 54. As already mentioned,
37 face towers remain. Who the faces represent is a matter of debate, too. Probably, they
depict Avalokiteshvara, the most venerated compassionate Bodhisattva in Mahayana
Buddhism, depicted as Lokeshvara Samantamukha, the ubiquitous Lord of the World facing
all directions. An alternative interpretation is that the monumental faces represent a
combination of Buddha and King Jayavarman VII. It is a similarity of the gigantic faces on
the Bayon's towers to other statues of the king, that has led some scholars to the conclusion
that the face carvings represent Jayavarman VII himself. The two hypotheses are not
neccessarily contradictory. Angkor scholar George Coedès has theorized that Jayavarman
stood in the tradition of the Khmer monarchs venerated as god-kings, so-called Devarajas.
Whereas most of his predecessors regarded themselves as associated with Shiva, or, in case
of Suryavarman II, with Vishnu, the Buddhist Jayavarman VII could correspondingly have
identified himself with a Buddha or Bodhisattva.

To start with the Khandariya Mahadev Temple was built around r. c. 1003-1035 CE
during the reign of Vidyadhara. It wasa built in 1050 according to Tanisha Dutta and V. S.
Adane in Trends in Fractal Dimension in Laxman and Kandariya Mahadev Temples,
Khajuraho.1

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At various periods of the reign of this dynasty many famous temples dedicated to Vishnu,
Shiva, Surya, Shakti of the Hindu religion and also for the Thirthankaras of Jain religion were
built in that area. Phnom Bakheng was completed around CE 910. The concept of a holy
mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple
architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple from the 8th century CE built as a Panchayatana style. Hindu temples are built in
the Panchayatana layout: the main shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines The origin
of the name are the Sanskrit words Pancha (five) et ayatana (containing). Though scholars
claim that the Harsh mata mandir is a mount meru type, its ruins have obliterated, and
subsequent rebuilding, any original design idea that 100% corroborates the Mount meru. It is
however a curvilinear type of roof temple much like the khandariya mahadev and the Phnom
Bakheng

8 th Century debut: In India, the temples with curvilinear roof (shikhara) appeared towards
the 8th century reprtesenting the Mount Meru (e.g. the brick sanctuary of Lakshmana in
Sarpur (Rajasthan) and the temples of Papanatha and Jambulinga).

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The main temple tower with 84 mini spires// A section of the detailed sculptural
decoration carved in the exterior walls of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

__________________________________________________________________________

International Journal of Applied Engineering Research 13(3):1728-1741

The first temple Mountain of Yashodharpura Phnom Bakheng

Built more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng lays claim as the first of
the mountain temples constructed in the Angkor region. It was once the architectural centre-
piece of Yasodharapura, the second capital city of the Khmer Empire, and is testimony to the
power of symmetry. Phnom Bakheng is located 1.30 meters (4265 feet) north of Angkor Wat
and 400 meters (1312 feet) south of Angkor Thom. It was built 222 years before the
construction of Angkor started. So, as I have mentioned in my previous paper Sandarshana at
ANGKOR- https://www.academia.edu/83777877/Sandarshana_at_ANGKOR, many models,
ideas, possibilities and design concepts must have been brought forward before the King in
order for him to assess which best design to latch on to! Phnom Bakheng is therefore easily
said the platform of ideas on which Angkor is built.

In this paper we shall discuss the idea of a Temple Mountain or Mount Meru design as
illustrated by the Indian khamdariya Mahadev Temple in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India
and build our idea of the |Hindu temple mountain of Phnom Bakheng.

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The Phnom Bakaheng Mount view of the inner roof of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

Khajuraho temples schematized in the Kandariya Mahadeva temple.

The Angkor as Mount Meru

This type architecturally translates the traditional theme of the divine residence: the Mount
Meru, the “axis of the World”, endowed with five peaks; a theme that was transmitted to the

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countries of the South Seas (the countries of the Indochina Peninsula, Philippines and
Indonesia) where it gave rise to great constructions, among which the most notable is
undoubtedly the temple of Angkor Wat, in the Khmer empire (the predecessor state of
modern Cambodia, first half of the 12th century).

Angkor
View of the Angkor Wat (meaning “Capital Temple”) temple complex in Cambodia and one
of the largest religious monuments in the world, on a site measuring 162.6 hectares. It was
originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire,
gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th century. The
temple has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country’s prime attraction for visitors.

The construction of Angkor Wat took place over a period of 28 years from 1122 – 1150 CE
during the reign of King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150). The brahmin by the name of
Divākarapaṇḍita (1040 – c. 1120) was responsible for urging Suryavarman II to construct the
temple. All of the original religious motifs at Angkor Wat derived from Hinduism. Breaking
from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. It
was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any
contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is
unknown, but it may have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work
seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration

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unfinished..The term Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka literally means "The king who has
gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and
intend to venerate his glory and memory. The temple faces east and is built in a pyramid form
of six tiers. Upon its completion it boasted 108 small towers around the temple at ground
level and on several tiers. Only a few of the towers now remain. Located on top of a hill, the
temple is a very popular tourist spot for the magnificent sunset views.

Fantasy landscape of Angkor as mount meru

Phnom Bakheng

Dedicated to Shiva, Phnom Bakheng is a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain. It
was constructed at the end of the 9th century, more than two centuries before Angkor Wat ,
during the reign of King Yasovarman. Phnom Bakheng was the architectural centerpiece of a
new capital, Yasodharapura. Sandstones, clay in the form of bricks and laterite are the
building materials used by the Khmer to construct the imposing and magnificent temples in
Southeast Asia.

Yasodharapura यशोधरपुर, also known as Angkor, is a city that was the second capital of
the Khmer Empire (after Amarendrapura), established by King Yasovarman I in the late 9th
century and centred on the temple of Phnom Bakheng.
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Yasodharapura was referred to in the inscriptions as Phnom Kandal (Central Mountain).
Phnom Bakheng was constructed just before the foundation of Yasodharapura due to
Yasovarman's belief that the mountain was among the holiest of places to worship
the Hindu deities. Yashodharapura was linked to an earlier capital, Hariharalaya, by
a causeway. The urban complex included the Yashodharatataka- 222 years approximately
before Angkor construction started.
Phnom Bakheng

Type Khmer (Bakheng style)

Creator Yasovarman I

Completed 889-910 AD

Mount Meru: The sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and
is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many
famous Hindu and similar Jain as well as Buddhist temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain.1

The temples feature five tiers with seven levels in all when you include the base and the
summit. Four towers stand at the cardinal points on the summit of the temple with a central
sanctuary to create a layout that represents Mt. Meru, a portrayal given further weight by the
temples location atop a 65m-high hill that rises steeply from the surrounding plain.

Many visitors time their visit to Phnom Bakheng with sunset for the remarkable views out
over Angkor Wat. Despite a distance of 1.3km, it's possible to see the five towers of Angkor
Wat as they fall into the gloom of the jungle as the light fades. It's one of the most popular
vantage points for sunset, for good reason, and attracts large groups of visitors.

1. https://arsartisticadventureofmankind.wordpress.com/tag/mount-meru/

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Stepped Pyramid

Today we see that there is damage to the sandstones at the Phnom Bakheng Temple.
Based on the traces, watermarks and soil residues from dams identified during archeological
digs and investigations, researchers have concluded that Yasodharapura city spread
approximately five kilometers from the mountain on each of its four sides, making it bigger
than the Angkor Thom city that would be built in the late 12th century.
Historically, it was said that King Yasovarman I had this mountain temple built after he had
inaugurated the Lolei temple at Roluos. Also referred to as Mount Kandal (the Middle
Temple) or Mount Yasothor, it is now known as the Bakheng mountain. This Hindu
Mountain temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva in the form of the Shiva Lingam which goes by
the name Yasothresvara.

The temple has one very distinct feature. Unlike other temples, the mountain surface was
directly sculpted to form the five tiers of the temple. Then, larger sandstones were brought in
and put in to form the external skin of the tiers.
King Yasovarman had a fondness for mountain temples and had temples dedicated to Shiva,
Lord Narayana, and Lord Brahma of the Hindu religion built on mountains such as Mount
Bok and Mount Kraom in today’s Siem Reap Province.
Phnom Bakheng Temple, which consists of a ground level, five tiers and an upper terrace,
had 108 towers on its five tiers. Setting aside the main tower, these towers may have been
linked to beliefs regarding the universe whereas the number 108 itself is sacred in Hinduism.
Throughout history, Cambodia has gone from embracing the Hindu religion such as during
the reign of King Yasovarman to adhering to Buddhism as was the case during the reign of
King Ang Chan I during the 16th century when Theravada Buddhism was blossoming
significantly.

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Although bricked sanctuaries were not as frequently seen as during the Angkorian period, it
is evident that temple-building styles were inspired by the Hindu temples of that era. Other
regions beside Yaśodharapura city incorporated tiers in wooden temples and also used Hindu
sanctuaries as geographical points of reference. After the religious shift from Hinduism to
Buddhism in the country, certain regional temples were transformed into Buddhist shrines. At
Phnom Bakheng temple as at other Hindu temples, statues of the Buddha were set up. For
instance, on the highest tier, there is a giant-size statue of the Buddha sitting in a lotus
position, which covers the entire mid-tower and certain parts of the four primary-direction
towers.

In 1922, because a Buddha statue had been affected by severe fragmentation, researchers
removed what was left of that statue in order to examine the original state of the Bakheng
temple. Today, we can still see statues of the Buddha at the monument. Meticulously cared
for, they can be seen in the southeast tower and along the eastern entrance.Since 2004, the
World Monument Fund and APSARA Authority have conducted projects to handle
restoration issues at the temple. They have also developed long-term initiatives to handle
long-term preservation of the monument and the flow to tourists who come to visit. There
also are projects for archeological studies and research on the buildings surrounding the site
of the temple. https://cambodianess.com/article/phnom-bakheng-an-angkor-period-heaven-
on-earth

Yasodharesvara, the "Lord of the One Who Bears Glory",

Phnom Bakheng was the first significant temple built at Yasodharapura, the city which came be known as
Angkor. It was constructed in the late 9th, early tenth centuries as the state temple of King Yasovarman I, who
moved the capital here from Roluos, about 13 kilometers to the southeast. The site was selected because the hill
upon which the temple stands towers 70 meters above the otherwise flat countryside. From here, Yasovarman
could gaze upon his capital city which covered at least four square kilometers, bounded by earthen walls.
The layout of the temple strongly resembles Bakong temple in Roluos, employing the same temple-mountain
motif with five ascending terraces. One significant innovation is that the uppermost towers are arranged in a
quincunx arrangement (like the five dots on a dice)--the first time this design was employed by the Khmers. It
would later be reused in numerous temples including Angkor Wat. As at Bakong, Phnom Bakheng included a
number of subsidiary shrines spaced around it, although they were much more numerous at Bakheng (109 in
all). Most of these have succumbed to the elements and today only a handful of the larger subsidiary shrines
remain in relatively good condition.
The chief deity worshipped at the temple was Yasodharesvara, the "Lord of the One Who Bears Glory", in the
form of a linga image. It was dedicated in 907 before the temple was fully completed. Although the temple was
abandoned relatively soon--in 928--it was briefly reoccupied by Jayavarman V in 968. In the following
millennium the temple suffered significant damage, including the dismantling of the uppermost towers by
Buddhist converts and the more recent trepidations of warring parties in the Cambodian civil war who found the
hilltop temple an excellent position from which to launch artillery.
From 2009 to the present (2014 at the time of this writing) the temple has been undergoing restoration.
Plan of Phnom Bakheng Temple

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Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.

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 IX
Bayon as Jayagiri

The original name for the Bayon is Jayagiri or "Victory Mountain" or “Mountain of
Brahma” ; “Jaya” - another name of Brahma and “giri” to mountain), with Sanskrit roots
similar to Sīnhāgiri ("Lion Rock").The Bayon is one of the most well-known Angkor complex
buildings. The majority of people, however, are unaware that it was originally a
mispronunciation. Bayon’s original Hindu name was Jayagiri (or victory mountain). The
temple, which is located just to the north of Angkor Wat, used to be in the middle of the
ancient city of Angkor Thom.

Built in honor of the Khmer king who ordered its construction, it is occasionally referred to
as Jayavarman’s Temple. It is widely known for its several towers, each of which has a
smiling face on it. For a lot of tourists, a visit to Cambodia begins and ends with Angkor
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Wat. But barely a few kilometres from it is the 12 th century capital town of the Khmers
guarded by tall towers with massive faces. And Bayon temple, built around the 13 th century
by King Jayavarman V11 lies at the centre of the town .

Faces of Bayon

A plethora of towers, almost 40 of them with carved faces gape at you as I realize that they
are arranged in a staggering manner to form a stone mountain with smaller peaks. But while
the faces dominate the temple design, it is the outer bass reliefs on the walls of Bayon
temple that catches my attention.

The war between Khmers and Chams- The outer bass reliefs in Bayon temple depict several
themes – but one of them is recurring – the battles between Khmers and their traditional
enemies the Chams. The outer gallery: historical events and everyday life///A scene from the
eastern gallery shows a Khmer army on the march.
The outer wall of the outer gallery features a series of bas-reliefs depicting historical events
and scenes from the everyday life of the Angkorian Khmer. Though highly detailed and
informative in themselves, the bas-reliefs are not accompanied by any sort of epigraphic text,
and for that reason considerable uncertainty remains as to which historical events are
portrayed and how, if at all, the different reliefs are related. [10] From the
east gopura clockwise, the subjects are:

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 in the southern part of the eastern gallery a marching Khmer army (including
some Chinese soldiers), with musicians, horsemen, and officers mounted on elephants,
followed by wagons of provisions;
 still in the eastern gallery, on the other side of the doorway leading into the courtyard,
another procession followed by domestic scenes depicting Angkorian houses, some of the
occupants of which appear to be Chinese merchants;
 in the southeast corner pavilion, an unfinished temple scene with towers, apsaras and
a lingam

A scene from the southern gallery depicts a naval battle; this section shows Cham warriors in a boat and
dead Khmer fighters in the water./A market scene in the southern gallery shows the weighing of goods;
the fish belong to a naval battle taking place above.

 In the eastern part of the southern gallery, a naval battle on the Tonle Sap between
Khmer and Cham forces, underneath which are more scenes from civilian life depicting a
market, open-air cooking, hunters, and women tending to children and an invalid;
 still in the southern gallery, past the doorway leading to the courtyard, a scene with boats
and fisherman, including a Chinese junk, below which is a depiction of a cockfight; then
some palace scenes with princesses, servants, people engaged in conversations and
games, wrestlers, and a wild boar fight; then a battle scene with Cham warriors
disembarking from boats and engaging Khmer warriors whose bodies are protected by
coiled ropes, followed by a scene in which the Khmer dominate the combat, followed by
a scene in which the Khmer king celebrates a victory feast with his subjects;
 in the western part of the southern gallery, a military procession including both Khmers
and Chams, elephants, war machines such as a large crossbow and a catapult;
 in the southern part of the western gallery, unfinished reliefs show an army marching
through the forest, then arguments and fighting between groups of Khmers;[14]
 in the western gallery, past the doorway to the courtyard, a scene depicting a melee
between Khmer warriors, then a scene in which warriors pursue others past a pool in
which an enormous fish swallows a small deer; [15] then a royal procession, with the king
standing on an elephant, preceded by the ark of the sacred flame;
 in the western part of the northern gallery, again unfinished, a scene of royal
entertainment including athletes, jugglers and acrobats, a procession of animals, ascetics
sitting in a forest, and more battles between Khmer and Cham forces;
 in the northern gallery, past the doorway to the courtyard, a scene in which the Khmer
flee from Cham soldiers advancing in tight ranks;
 in the northeast corner pavilion, another marching Khmer army;

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 in the eastern gallery, a land battle between Khmer and Cham forces, both of which are
supported by elephants: the Khmer appear to be winning.
The outer gallery encloses a courtyard in which there are two libraries (one on either side of
the east entrance). Originally the courtyard contained 16 chapels, but these were subsequently
demolished by the Hindu restorationist Jayavarman VIII.

Khmers defeating the Cham War ships on the Ton le Sap

You can see these battles fought on land as well as water ,especially the war ships are seen on
the Ton Le Sap lake.

War ships on the Ton le Sap

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A boat or a warship on the Ton le sap/ Woman playing with children

Another recurring theme in these outer bass reliefs in Bayon Temple is the social life of the
Khmers – from market scenes to cooking, to women playing with children, one can see
vignettes carved on these walls.

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Vignettes of Khmer lifestyle/ A cockfight and a market scene

Bass relief sculptures in Bayon

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 ’\

Neither are there words to quite describe the mysterious atmosphere inside the entire
Bayon complex that suggests a fragile sense of balance between destruction and
quietude.Takeshi NakagawaWaseda University, Field Director of Japan-APSARA project

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The Bayon is a highly dense, three-dimensional complex with the main structure of the
temple having a large terrace projection on the east front and a rectangular ground
plan that measures approximately 130 m wide along the front and 140 m along its sides.
It is enclosed by the outer gallery, the cruciform has vast numbers of massive faces of dieties
that are difficult to define as either sculpture or architecture. The 43 m high central
tower, having an oval ground plan, is joined by groups of numerous halls and towers on
an elaborately structured three-tiered terrace, some arranged in orderly fashion in the four
directions – north, south, east and west – and others with versatile flexibility.
In spite of the fact that almost half the stone masonry of the central tower has collapsed, it
nevertheless rises straight up into the sky and valiantly commands a broad view into the far
distance. Indeed, throughout the intricate structure of the Bayon, roof and stone
masonry walls are on the verge of collapse, bearing eloquent gallery and the inner gallery,
the last of which was built in later years and composed of corner galleries.
There is diversity and distinctiveness in the 173 faces of Deva / Devata / Asura images (more
than 181 faces at the time of initial construction) that are carved in a total of fifty-two deity-
faced towers. Each face not only differs from the others in size, position, height and
appearance.
Three guardian deities are:
1. Devata -Devata as the deity to protect the main deity enshrined in the central
tower of the Bayon,
2. Asura- Asura as the deity to protect the perimeter of the temple
3. Deva- Deva as a neutral deity

These are also found contained in the ‘Churning of the Sea of Milk’ in the gallery of
Angkor Wat but here in bayon they are ingeniously arranged inside the complex and at
the entrances to the temple to produce a new structural style that distinguishes Bayon from
Angkor; so that the Bayon represents a multilayered world protected in its entirety by the
deities.Royal authority legitimized. The bas-reliefs carved on the walls of the inner and
outer galleries, which distinctly characterize the Bayon, also hold significant meaning.
Centred on the beliefs of Jayavarman VII himself (who ruled from around 1181 to 1219) and
the royal family, the bas-reliefs on the front wall of the inner gallery show the succession of
kings and their legitimacy of rule and authority.
A.the north and west walls respectively depict stories that artfully contain motifs relating
to the legends of Shiva and Vishnu,
B. South wall is thought to have been planned around a Buddhist theme.
Since it had religious images and the French didn’t know the original name at the time, they
chose to call it Banyan Temple when they arrived.Because there were so many depictions of
Buddhism there, they gave it the name Banyan temple (i.e. the Buddha is said to have
attained enlightenment under the Banyan tree). A pronunciation error occurred when native
Khmer workers arrived to renovate the Banyan temple, leading to the creation of Bayon.
Another view on Bayon is that it was named in 1880 by Etienne Aymonier. According to his
report, Bayon is the Latin term for what he had seen written in Khmer as “Bayânt,” which he

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believed was most likely a distorted form of the Pali Vejayant or Sanskrit Vaijayant, the
name of the heavenly palace of Indra, of which the Bayon was thought to be the terrestrial
counterpart.

The Vaijayanti (Sanskrit: वैजयन्ति, lit. Victory Garland and not 'garland of victory') is a
mythological garland or elemental necklace, primarily associated with Vishnu. Employed in
its worship as a garland, this object is also called the Vaijayantimala, or the Vanamala. The
latter makes no sense. In Sri Vaishnava tradition, the poet-saint Thondaradippodi Alvar is
regarded to be a manifestation of the Vanamala.

In the Skanda Purana, Varuna presents Lakshmi with the garland as a wedding gift.
According to the Vishnu Purana, the garland prominently displays five precious gemstones:
emerald, sapphire, ruby, pearl, and diamond. These correspond with the five classic elements
commonly named earth, water, fire, air, and ether respectively.
In the Shiva Purana, Vishnu offers his garland to his son-in-law Kartikeya, before his battle
with the asura Taraka.The Garuda Purana includes a prayer known as the Vishnu Panjaram,
which includes the following verse: "Taking up Vaijayanti and Srivatsa, the ornament of thy
throat do thou protect me in the north-west, O god, O Hayagriva. I bow unto thee".

The Vaijayanti, Karnataka/ Garuda the vehicle of Vishnu

Vaijayanti finds a mention in Vishnu Sahasranama, a stotram dedicated to Vishnu in

the Mahabharata, as vanamali (forest flowers).The garland of victory is mentioned in
the Mahabharata, as made of never-wilting lotuses.

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Jayavarman VII, posthumous name of Mahaparamasaugata (c. 1122–1218), was king of
the Khmer Empire. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150–1160) and
Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. [2] He was the first king devoted to Buddhism, as only one prior
Khmer king was a Buddhist. He then built the Bayon as a monument to Buddhism.
Jayavarman VII is generally considered the most powerful of the Khmer monarchs by
historians.[3] His government built many projects including hospitals, highways, rest houses
and temples. With Buddhism as his motivation, King Jayavarman VII is credited with
introducing a welfare state that served the physical and spiritual needs of the Khmer people.

Defeat of the CHAMs and the CORONATION of Jayavarman

1178, the Cham invaded the Khmer Empire. In 1177, Champa King Jaya Indravarman
IV launched a surprise attack on the Khmer capital by sailing a fleet up the Mekong River,
across Lake Tonlé Sap, and then up the Siem Reap River, a tributary of the Tonle Sap. The
invaders pillaged the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura and put
king Tribhuvanadityavarman to death. Also in 1178, when he was in his mid 50s, Jayavarman
came to historical prominence by leading a Khmer army that ousted the invaders, which
included a naval battle depicted on the walls of the Bayon and Banteay Chmar. Returning to
the capital, he found it in disorder. He put an end to the disputes between warring factions
and in 1181 was crowned king himself.

In 1177 and
again in
Early in his reign, he probably repelled another Cham attack and quelled a rebellion of the
vassal Kingdom of Malyang (Battambang). He was greatly helped by the military skill of
refugee Prince Sri Vidyanandana, who also played a part in the subsequent sacking and
conquest of Champa (1190–1191). His conquest of Champa made it a dependency of the
Khmer Empire for thirty years. [7] Jayavarman expanded Khmer control of the Mekong Valley
northward to Vientiane and to the south, down the Kra Isthmus.

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Bronze replica of one of the twenty-three stone images King Jayavarman VII sent to different parts of his
kingdom in 1191. The Walters Art Museum.

Over the 37 years of his reign, Jayavarman embarked on a grand program of construction that included
both public works and monuments. As a Mahayana Buddhist, his declared aim was to alleviate the
suffering of his people. One inscription tells us, "He suffered from the illnesses of his
subjects more than from his own; the pain that affected men's bodies was for him a spiritual
pain, and thus more piercing." This declaration must be read in light of the undeniable fact
that the numerous monuments erected by Jayavarman must have required the labor of
thousands of workers, and that Jayavarman's reign was marked by the centralization of the
state and the herding of people into ever greater population centers.
Historians have identified many facets in Jayavarman's intensive building program. In one
phase, he focused on useful constructions, such as his famous 102 hospitals, rest houses along
the roads, and reservoirs. Thereafter, he built a pair of temples in honor of his parents: Ta
Prohm in honor of his mother and Preah Khan in honor of his father
Finally, he constructed his own "temple-mountain" at Bayon and developed the city
of Angkor Thom around it. He also built Neak Pean ("Coiled Serpent"), one of the smallest
but most beautiful temples in the Angkor complex, a fountain with four surrounding ponds
set on an island in that artificial lake.
Ta Prohm
In 1186, Jayavarman dedicated Ta Prohm ("Ancestor Brahma" or " Eye of Brahma") to his
mother. An inscription indicates that this massive temple at one time had 80,000 people
assigned to its upkeep, including 18 high priests and 615 female dancers.
Angkor Thom and Bayon
Angkor Thom ("Grand Angkor" or "Angkor of Dham(ma)") was a new city centre, called in
its day Indrapattha. At the centre of the new city stands one of his most massive
achievements—the temple now called the Bayon, a multi-faceted, multi-towered temple that
mixes Buddhist and Hindu iconography. Its outer walls have startling bas reliefs not only of
warfare but the everyday life of the Khmer army and its followers. These reliefs show camp
followers on the move with animals and oxcarts, hunters, women cooking, female traders
selling to Chinese merchants, and celebrations of common foot soldiers. The reliefs also
depict a naval battle on the great lake, the Tonle Sap.
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Jayavarman VII's bust has been a favorite of Khmer households and a masterpiece of the
National Museum for many years. The recent discovery of portions of the rest of his statue
confirmed speculations about his spiritual aura as a sovereign.

Jayavarman VII is commonly depicted with both his arms amputated.

King Suryavarman (Sun Shield) II, builder of the great Angkor Wat, died in 1150. He was
succeeded by Dharanindravarman II, who ruled until 1160. Due to the absence of Jayavarman
VII, Yashovarman II succeeded the throne, who was himself overthrown
by Tribhuvanadityavarman (Protegee of the Sun of three worlds), assumed to be an usurper.
In 1177, the Chams, led by Jaya Indravarman IV, invaded and Angkor was
sacked. Nonetheless, this date, not to mention the event itself, has been questioned
by Michael Vickery, who doubts the reliability of the Chinese sources for this periodIn 1181
Jayavarman VII became king after leading the Khmer forces against the Chams Jayavarman
VII then exacted vengeance against Champa in 1190, for the earlier raid in 1177.
Jayavarman died around 1218. He was succeeded by Indravarman II, who died by 1243.
Indravarman was succeeded further by Jayavarman VIII, a Shivaite. He embarked on the
destruction or defacement of Jayavarman VII's Buddhist works. The niches all along the top
of the wall around the city contained images of the Buddha, and most of these were removed.
This included the great statue of Buddha at Bayon, and the Buddha images in Angkor Thom,
which were converted into linga.

LEGACY of JAYAVARMAN VII

The history of the Khmer empire cannot be read in the manner of European patterns of
kingship, inheritance or nationhood. The sons of a Khmer king did not necessarily inherit
their father's thrones; Jayavarman VII himself had many sons, such as Suryakumara and
Virakumara (the suffix kumara usually is translated as "prince", one of the king's sons), and
Srindrakumaraputra, the crown prince who died before his father, but only Indravarman II

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inherited the throne. Jayavarman VII built 121 "houses with fire" rest houses built every
fifteen kilometers along raised highways for travellers, and 102 hospitals. His was the
"Buddhism of the Greater Vehicle". However, Brahmans continued to play a "role at court",
with Hrishikesa being made chief priest, with the title Jayamahapradhana.He married
Princess Jayarajadevi and then, after her death, married her sister Indradevi. The two women
are commonly thought to have been a great inspiration to him, particularly in his strong
devotion to Buddhism.

There are many reasons why the Bayon Temple is an enigma. The first is the name of the
temple, or rather our lack of knowledge of how people referred to the temple during its time
of use. Although stone inscriptions, often found at temple sites, dating from the time
of Jayavarman VII exist, and provide specific details such as the name and inhabitants of
other temples (such as Ta Prohm just outside of the royal city of Angkor Thom), there is no
extant documentation for Bayon—the royal city’s most important state temple. The name
“Bayon” is a 19th-century French transcription of what early European explorers (such as
Charles-Emile Bouillevaux, a Catholic missionary, and Henri Mouhot, a naturalist), heard
from their local informants. [2] Bayon likely refers to the Sanskrit term paryanka, which
translates to “a pedestal for sacred statues.” [3] According to historian Michael Vickery, the
only contemporary inscription that may refer to the temple appears to call it madhyadri or
“central mount,” which is a generic term for temples. [4]

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Left: Tower Faces, Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia; right: detail of the tower face
in the red square (photo: Photo Dharma, CC BY 2.0)
The mystery over the temple’s name contributes to the enigmatic face-towers that define the
temple’s architecture. Since the Bayon’s rediscovery by French scholars and explorers in the
19th century, the identity of the smiling figures that greet visitors to the temple and to the city
of Angkor Thom has been debated. Do they depict Buddhist or Hindu deities, or do they
depict King Jayavarman VII smiling over his empire? Inscriptions from the temple along
with its name could aid in our understanding of the identity of the four-faced figures;
however, it has been presumed by scholars that such inscriptions were destroyed by
successive rulers who took over Angkor Thom after the death of Jayavarman VII

Heart of Angkor Thom

The Bayon Temple, which was constructed during Jayavarman VII’s reign, is unique as it is
the only Buddhist state temple and the last to be built in the Angkor Empire (also sometimes
called the Khmer Empire). While temples continued to be constructed during the Angkor
period (9th–15th century), none were on the scale or harnessed the wealth and resources of
the Bayon after the death of Jayavarman VII.

The complex itself is built on three levels that are intended to create a mountain-like
structure, symbolically and visually linking the Bayon to Mt. Meru. To this end, the complex
includes two enclosures (levels one and two) that consist of covered galleries and shrines. At
the center of the complex (level three) is the raised cruciform platform that serves as the
foundation for the main temple structure, which originally housed the main icon.
The Bayon, as it stands today, does not reflect the original design of Jayavarman VII and his
architects. This is because the temple has been added to over the centuries. Angkor Thom
was so well fortified that later kings continued to use it as their royal city. While it was
common for kings to build a new state temple to reflect their own religious affiliations,
Jayavarman VII’s successors found it simpler to remodel the Bayon rather than remove it and
build a new temple. [5] This accounts for the appearance of both Buddhist and Hindu
imagery at the temple, depending on the religious affiliation of the new king. These later

187
changes further contribute to our lack of understanding of the temple as it is not entirely clear
when and by whom such additions were made.
The outer enclosure

Scene showing a marketplace and fortune telling, bas-relief, Bayon, Angkor Thom // Battle scene, Bayon
Temple, Angkor Thom

The outer enclosure (level one) was constructed during the time of Jayavarman VII, and
includes bas-reliefs of daily life in the early 13th century that depict scenes of a marketplace
as well as a woman getting her fortune told. Historical events such as the Khmer’s battle with
the Chams are also found in the galleries of the outer enclosure. These carved reliefs are an
important and rare visual document of life in Angkor at this time.
The inner enclosure

Bas-relief of Shiva, inner gallery, Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom (photo: Gary Todd, CC0)
The inner enclosure (level two) was built during the time of Jayavarman VII; however, some
of the reliefs found in its galleries were likely carved at a later date. This is reflected in
changes in artistic style of the carved reliefs as well as the subject matter of the carvings. For
example, there is an image of the Hindu God Shiva (in the eastern gallery of the southern
section) that was likely added during the reign of Jayavarman VIII who reverted Angkor back
to Hinduism.

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Bayon

The many faces of Bayon

The cruciform platform—the third and innermost level of the Bayon—consists of a central
tower that is surrounded by eight tangential towers, which are decorated with monumental
smiling faces.

The Buddha seated on the serpent Muchalinda, shown here soon after it was excavated in the
early 1930s
The central tower served as the sanctuary of the Bayon Temple and originally housed a
monumental sandstone sculpture of the Buddha seated on the serpent Muchalinda.

The sanctuary is further surrounded by towers and pavilions that are topped with sculptures
of three or four-smiling faces. Together, these towers of smiling faces at various heights
mimic the peaks of a mountain, reminding the visitor that the Bayon was intended to
symbolize the center of the Buddhist universe, Mt. Meru. Today, only 37 face-towers remain
in the third level. It is believed that there were originally 49 face-towers; however, the
archaeologist Olivier Cunin has argued that there were originally 59 face-towers[6] While
the original number of face-towers has more recently been contested, the identity of the
smiling faces have perplexed scholars since the 19th century

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south gate,Thom
Scholars have speculated that the monumental faces that greet visitors at the entrance gates of
Angkor Thom and at Bayon represent the Mahayana bodhisattva, Avalokiteshvara; the
Tantric, Buddha Vajrasattva; or the Hindu deities, Brahma and Shiva, among others. [7] This
is owing to the absence of specific iconography that would help to identify the faces, and our
lack of understanding of the particular practice of Buddhism under Jayavarman VII.
The face-towers typically have four faces, each pointed towards the cardinal directions;
although, some of the towers at Bayon have three faces. The faces themselves are uniform in
style. The smiles are broad, and the eyes are open. The figure wears an intricate filet-style
crown, and his elongated earlobes are adorned with inverted lotus jeweled earrings. Because
there is no identifying iconography such as the Buddha’s cranial protuberance or Shiva’s
third eye, scholars have focused on the multiple faces of the figure to aid in their
identification. It is for this reason that early on, scholars associated the figure with
the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who appears in art with multiple faces and who is an
important deity in Mahayana Buddhism. However, the faces have also been associated with
the multi-faced, Hindu deity, Brahma, who is the Creator of the Universe and who oversees
Mt. Meru.

South gate, Angkor Thom, showing the Churning of the Milk balustrade on the left and right
(photo: Gary Todd, CC0)
Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist in the Mahayana tradition; however, it is unclear what the
particulars of his practice and beliefs were. This is owing to the appearance of Hindu imagery

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in the city of Angkor Thom, such as the Churning of the Ocean of Milk balustrade leading up
to the royal city as well as cult imagery associating himself with the Buddha, and his mother
with the Buddhist deity Prajnaparamita (bodhisattva of wisdom and the mother of all
Buddhas) and his father with Avalokiteshvara (bodhisattva of compassion).
The mystery of the face-towers and the practice of Buddhism during the time of Jayavarman
VII may be our own self-induced puzzle. It is possible that for Jayavarman VII and the
people of Angkor Thom, the smiling faces did not represent just one person and that
Buddhism was much more multivalent than we are comfortable with acknowledging. As
contemporary students, teachers and admirers of Cambodian history and culture, we seek to
categorize the various monuments and reigns of the Angkor Period as either Hindu or
Buddhist. This helps us to create a linear narrative that has a clear beginning and end. For
much of Angkorian history, the empire was ruled by Hindu kings and societal elites who
would have also ascribed to Hinduism. Such individuals would not have rejected their faith
and their gods outright because King Jayavarman VII established Buddhism as the state
religion. The ambiguity and duality of Buddhist and Hindu imagery at Bayon and Angkor
Thom may reflect the lived experience and beliefs of contemporary peoples who, like the
temple and city, are not so easily categorized.
While the mystery of the smiling face-towers continue to perplex scholars and visitors, it is
agreed that the Bayon Temple was intended to represent Mt. Meru on Earth. This is
articulated by the face-towers that represent the peaks of the mythical mountain as well as the
central location of the Bayon in the royal city of Angkor Thom. During the 13th century, the
central tower of Bayon would have been gilded, appearing as a golden mountain at the heart
of the city. Although visitors can no longer experience the original splendor of the Bayon,
extant architecture and detailed bas-relief sculptures serve as a document of the beliefs and
lives of the Khmer people in the 13th century.
Though he had many sons, we know the names of only four, Suryakumara (mentioned in Ta
Prohm), Virakumara (mentioned in Preah Khan), Srindrakumara (mentioned in Banteay
Chhmar), and Tamalinda (later became a bhikku). Jayavarman VII appears as downloadable
content for the 4X video game Civilization VI, whereit leads the Khmer civilization.
Legacy of Jayavarman VII Continued
Hospitals of the Khmer King Jayavarman VII
Jayavarman VII, who reigned c.1181–1218, ordered the construction of 102 hospitals ('halls
devoid of disease' or arogyasala) throughout his realm.Not only did he built big temples but
as a true BUDDHIST tried to serve his people in as many ways as possible it is said. Khmer
inscriptions investigated by French archeological researcher George Cœdès in the early 20th
century, confirmed the existence of 15 hospitals (out of Jayavarman VII's 102 hospitals)
across the kingdom. Neak Pean was originally designed for medical purpose ws built by
Jayavarman VII.

The exact origins of traditional Khmer medicine, however, remains unclear, but it is
believed to have been founded and formalised from the Nokor Phnom period (Funan era) to
the 9th century, during the Angkorian period. It is influenced by Ayurveda (traditional Indian
medicine) and traditional Chinese medicine. These foreign frameworks and practices were
mixed with local beliefs and superstitions to create the foundations of TKM. The temple
of Neak Poan is believed

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All ancient civilizations of the world developed their own medicinal systems, but the ancient
Indian system of medicine is considered to be the most methodical and the most holistic
system, both in its ideas and its curative measures and today we are finding its impact
( should we say) on the ancient Khmer medical system. So when the ground breaking and
Krong Pali Ceremony was held at the construction site in Cambodia of a Huge Hospital at
Sangkat Veal Vong, Khan 7 Makara last year (2021) how many thought of the excellent
healthcare and Hospitals that Khmer Kings.had.built.centuries.ago?

Workshop on “Buddhism and Traditional Medicine” at the ANA’s Angkor Training Centre on July 20, 2021

Researchers are claiming that the ancient Angkorian Khmer Empire established the world’s
first healthcare system within the government structure, with a total of 102 hospitals built
throughout the empire. Healthcare in past historical periods show the Khmer Empire was the
first to create an organised healthcare system in the world. The international experts
presented research indicating that each hospital established by the Khmer Empire had a
proper management system show Khmer empire had medical facilities with nearly 100
employees, including one director at each hospital and other staff such as doctors, nurses,
pharmacists and medical assistants.The healthcare system they described was created under
King Jayavarman VII and was in operation from the end of the 12th century onwards. The
first scholars to start researching this topic were the French, who translated the inscriptions at
an ancient hospital in Cambodia in 1903, which confirmed that the Khmer Empire had
hospitals in ancient times.

With 102 functioning hospitals all across the kingdom during the reign of King Jayavarman
VII, people of the Angkorian era possessed a great deal of knowledge on medication and the
scientific as well as spiritual healing process. The buildings and temples of some of these
ancient hospitals is discussed below. Historians with the APSARA National Authority in
Cambodia, said regarding the Leak Neang temple which is unique and different from the
others because it was at a hospital. The Leak Neang temple is one of the four temples located
at the entrances of Angkor Thom. Let me explain. [The walled city of] Angkor Thom has the
overall shape of a square in which the Bayon temple stands in the center. On each side is a
gate to the city. Actually, there is a fifth gate, but let’s consider only the gates that are
perpendicular to the Bayon temple.

In front of the Angkor Wat temple stands another temple called Prohm Kel, which is in fact a
hospital. Similarly, there’s another temple at the western gate named Tramoung, which is also
a hospital. To the northern gate stands another hospital named Tonle Snguot. We now are at

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the Leak Neang temple of the eastern gate. At every gate of the city, there is a hospital.
Specifically, an ancient hospital consisted of the medical-care building, the place where the
physician could stay, the healing center, and the administration center. In every hospital
compound, there’s a temple. Today, we would call it a shrine. The shrine was built for the
people to worship. For example, this is a hospital. Back then, the hospital was usually built of
wood with a tile roof. In that wooden hospital, there was a temple. It was for the sick to pray,
worship, make offerings, or the doctors themselves to worship. What we are seeing today is
the remaining stone temple whereas the wooden hospital with its tile rooftop might be laying
around here somewhere.

As the roofs were made of wood the building slowly crumbled, the pieces fell on the ground.
And the surrounding forest eventually spread over the area. So, the temple was surrounded by
the hospital. The overall structure and architectural design of each hospital is identical to one
another. Thus, if we can recognize one hospital temple, we can easily spot the others. The
temple is the clue or key for us to find where the hospital is. We cannot find the hospital itself
without this clue because the wooden building is now gone. Fortunately, we are left with the
temple. So, where the temple stands, the hospital stood. The hospital was not a place to teach.
It was a place to heal the sick...The inscription at the Ta Prohm temple, which…is very near
to where are we right now, contains details on how many medical schools or ak-roak-sala
there were during that period. The “ak” in ak-roak-sala can translate into “Anti-Sickness
Building.” The “ak” is a negative prefix. So, it is the place that cures diseases. There were
102 places that cured illness in the whole Khmer Empire during the reign of King
Jayavarman VII.
Researchers say there were a total of 102 in the Khmer Empire that spread thousands and tens
of thousands of square kilometers. Up to now, we have managed to find the locations of the
hospitals through the temples. Some of them are in Leaw [Laos], Siam [Thailand], the
Mekong Delta of Vietnam, the Angkor region, and other places. Also, in every province or
commune, there is a “doctor’s house.” According to the inscription, it is specifically called a
place that cures diseases or ak-roak-sala- “The place that heals all kinds of diseases”. This
place is similar to a ministry, consisting of a director, doctors, nurses, assistants, guards and
much more.
Mainly the inscriptions at every hospital share the same content. It is as if the Angkorian
government implemented a decree to have an inscription at every hospital. Because of the
inscriptions, we are able to know more about the hospitals including the medications, the
management, the origins of the medicines and so on and so forth.

Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical
park.

Inscriptions detailing Hospitals and their presence

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 No. Names in English Sources (inscription codes, pages)
1 Choan Chum K-11 Inv.I p. 3
2 Kh'na temple K-160 p. 240
3 Kok Roka K-435 BEFEO, XIII p. 34, XV p. 108
4 Banteay Thleng temple K-667 BEEFEO, XXX, p. 222, 224
5 Sai Fong K-368 Inv.II p. 96
6 Ta Moan Toch temple K-375 Inv.II p. 132
7 Wat Pak'am K.386 Inv.II p. 223
8 Konburi K.387 Inv.II p. 238
9 Nom Van K-395 Inv.II p. 265
10 Wat Ku K-402 Inv, II p. 310
11 West gopura of Angkor Thom K-602 BEFEO, XXVI, p. 512
12 Ta Prohm Kel temple K-614 Inv.III, p. 116
13 Ta Keo, the hospital temple K-537 BCA1, 1917–30
14 Ta Ke Pong temple K-209 Inv, III p. 438
15 Wat Svay K-912, EFEO No 22, p. 8

Inscriptions in these hospitals describe the number of medical staff and their different roles
such as hospital managers, drug combiner staff, water boiler staff, drug grinders and drug
distributors. An inscription in Sai Fong has become the most renowned quote of King
Jayavarman VII: "Diseases of the people make him more painful than his own illness."

Prasat Chrey and Prasat Lek 8 (Number 8 temple) are temples in Sambor Prei Kuk that were
previous hospital chapels during the Chenla era. Inside the hospital chapels, ground or
smashed traditional herbal medicines extracted from plant trunks, roots and leaves were
mixed with purified water. The drug liquid was then poured over a Shiva Linga to enhance
the effectiveness, after which it flowed from the Linga base through the outside part of the
chapels via a drainpipe connected to the north side of the buildings. Here, patients, who were
waiting outside the hospital, finally received the drug liquid.

Medicines

The majority of the medicines were written in the Khmer alphabet or through the Sanskrit
language. So far, we know a little about it. There were two categories of medicine being used
at that time. The first category was imported from abroad. The second type of medicine was
grown domestically. Perhaps the hospital had a garden to grow [medicinal plants and herbs]
and produce medicine. The medications were extremely organic. We can see that it is in
contrast with today’s medication, which involve [synthetic] chemicals. Back then, medicines
were totally natural. Based on the inscriptions, most of the medicines were imported from
India, another portion came from China, and some were grown locally as well. These
medicines would go to the government. The government then would distribute the imported
medicines and domestic ones. Whereas other medicinal plants and herbs could be grown
around the hospital. At that time, the medical technology was quite advanced. Some of the
ingredients were grinded, separated, formed into small tablets, and carefully stored. Since

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these medicines were organic, they could only be kept for a short period of time. Therefore,
each hospital had to visit the royal storage in Angkor City every three months to get fresh
medicine. The hospital directors had to journey to the main city to get new medicines and
materials to supply their hospitals.

A survey of Indian medical historiography will reveal no dearth of work on the systems of
medicine and medical literature of ancient India. However, the people who were responsible
for the healing have not received much attention. The healers of ancient India hailed from
different castes and classes. They were well-respected and enjoyed state patronage. They
were held to the highest ethical standards of the day and were bound by a strict code of
conduct. They underwent rigorous training in both medicine and surgery. Most physicians
were multi-skilled generalists, and expected to be skilled in elocution and debate. They were
reasonably well-off financially. Could this be the system followed by the Khmer Kings?

Traditional Cambodian medicine comprise several traditional medicine systems in Cambodia.

Healers and herbalists of Cambodian traditional medicine are collectively referred to as Kru
Khmer. There are many regional variations of the practice and herbal knowledge of
traditional medicine within Cambodia. Traditional Cambodian medical practices are widely
used in Cambodia.Because of the ethnic Chinese and ethnic Vietnamese populations of
Cambodia, traditional Chinese medicine and traditional Vietnamese medicine are also
practiced and represented in the country.

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Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical
park.
Jayavarman VII ordered a total of 102 'halls of diseaselessness' across the Angkorian Empire in the 12th century,
serving the general population.

Khmer traditional medicine used to rely on written texts, Khmer sastras or palm-leaf
manuscripts, since the 9th century, stored and studied at the many temples across the
former Khmer Empire. However, during the Cambodian civil war and the following Khmer
Rouge regime, virtually all historic scholarly texts and philosophical literature in Cambodia
were destroyed, including many Khmer medical manuscripts.
To understand the profession and practice of the Kru Khmer in more detail, the profession
may be divided into a number of sub-classifications, each tied to a specific method, affliction

of attention and/or service provided. The knowledge and practice of Traditional medicine( ™)
was written down on palm-leaf manuscripts, written in the pali language, and stored in
temples all over the empire. Most of these original Khmer medicinal manuscripts are thought
to have been destroyed in the Cambodian civil war, but some still exists and they represent
some of the most reliable sources to the origins of TM. Surviving ancient Khmer medical
texts shows a considerable systematization of medical knowledge, but an institutionalized
Khmer medical system with associated doctrine-based practices, did not survive into the
modern age in Cambodia. Scholars and historians have long wondered what happened to this
grand medical tradition and the 13th century is considered a crucial tipping point in the
history of traditional Khmer medicine. The gradual decline of the Angkorian Empire and the
religious shifts to Theravada Buddhism appears to have affected the original medical culture
greatly. The Siamese conquest of Angkor is not thought to have destroyed the medical
traditions, but rather appropriated the medical knowledge and preserved it as Thai instead of
Khmer. The French colonial era is also thought to have affected and prevented the rise of the
ancient Khmer medical tradition. Unlike India for example, where dialogue and knowledge
exchange between initial colonialists and Indian doctors took place, the colonial presence
beginning with the 18th century in Cambodia was almost instantaneous and the French
demanded and relied upon Western medicine from the very start, abolishing the local
Cambodian medical traditions altogether. The following independence and warring upheaval
of Cambodia during the civil war, the Khmer Rouge regime and the Vietnamese occupation,
all continued this suppression of medical traditions, in particular the spiritual aspects. This

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centuries-long pressure fragmented the Khmer medical tradition, sometimes with local
reinventions emerging.

Historically, three sub-categorizations of the Kru Khmer profession have been noted: kru
pet kru thnam and tmup. Kru pet were the most revered and theoretically educated. They
studied the palm-leaf manuscripts in temples and were mostly found around the royalty's
residences and temples, less so among the general population. Kru thnam, who were
herbalists without much interest in religious aspects, were much more numerous and to be
found throughout the country. Tmup were sorcerers.
These general categorizations are still in use in Cambodia today, but the kru pet class is
nonexistent.

Notable Kru Khmers

Kru pet hermits have always been glorified and venerated in the Khmer culture for their
kindness of saving human and animal lives. Statues were made to pay respect to kru pet, like
the hermit sculpture on Phnom Santuk mountain, and hermitages or temples dedicated to kru
pet were built such as Maha Rusey hermitage on Phnom Da mountain.Semahatata was a
royal doctor of King Rodravarman and Jayavarman I during Chenla period. In addition, he
was the royal official of King Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman. At that time, he was the
mayor of Vyadhapura also.

Yajnavaraha was a religious Kru Khmer and royal physician of the Khmer Empire in the 10th
century. Along with Khmer traditional medicine he also practiced Ayurveda, an Indian
traditional medicine system.

Of course, there were schools. The hospital was solely used for medical practice whereas
theories and lessons could be learned at school. The schools were actually the pagodas or the
religious temples such as Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, or Banteay Kdei. These were universities.
Even though they are sacred temples, all the huge temples were also a place for education.
Moreover, higher degree of learning up to the university level for doctors, engineers,
architects, and astrologists was available at the temples as well. Therefore, the temple had
multiple functions aside from religious purposes. Furthermore, the teachers or professors who
taught at the temples were sponsored by the government. Then, they could use their salaries
to support and provide for themselves. The government also supported each doctor who
worked at hospitals. A hospital had to have two doctors, probably 18 nurses and medical
assistants, guards, people in charge of boiling water, people who grinded medicine, rice and
more. So, there was approximately 90 to 98 people for a single hospital. This makes a
hospital similar to a ministry.

This was only at the last period of the Khmer Empire. There was a legacy from the earlier
generations. It is not as if everything just suddenly appeared during the era of King
Jayavarman VII. Obviously, there were people before him. Nevertheless, in terms of
inscriptions or written evidence, it is clear that the details [regarding hospitals] were inscribed
during King Jayavarman VII’s years. The medical and education sectors appeared earlier,
before his reign.

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9th and the 10th century inscriptions,when translated show the written information that
mentions a variety of scholarships including age-oriented government sponsorships, food and
even school supplies. In addition, the inscriptions also mention graduation events for
individuals including the royalty and the king himself becoming teachers. But I would like to
emphasize that no single inscription contains all of these details at once. Instead, this is the
result of combining and saving inscriptions over the years. We have about 3,000 inscriptions
and we try to study each of them and put them together to get the full picture. That’s why a
research cannot come to conclusion based on a single piece of evidence. We have to put all
the information together so that we can understand and, subsequently, compare and analyze
disparities in the information.

Restoration Projects --Tonle Snguot

The Tonle Snguot temple, located in the northern section of Angkor Thomis a temple inside a
hospital. Moreover, the study of hospital and medical procedures is still in progress. Although
the Shastras -studied the historical research data, has not been studies people are bworking on
shastra [manuals of instruction] and ancient medications.

In the past, doctors examined the patient’s condition based on four main factors. These
factors are linked to the four elements, which are water, earth, fire, and air. Our body is made
of these four elements. Similarly, these elements will influence our health and that might be
the cause of why we are feeling sick. In the instance of this case, they are treating the cause
of sickness based on the element of air. For some other cases, the doctors will refer to the
other three elements. The absence or imbalance in any element will unsettle our health. We
could get sick. This traditional approach is being used today as well. Whenever one feels
discomfort, one will say “chong kert k’chol” [catching-the-air or minor dizziness]. This is
because the air element inside our body is imbalanced. Traditionally, in order to cure this
illness, people would have to chase the air away through the gua sha body-massage
technique. The massage will ease and stabilize the “air” in one’s body. Then, when one

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would start to feel more and more lightheaded, they would say “k’chol ko” (spinning air or
fainting). Just like how it feels like when the wind is spinning. And if one is feeling heavier
and heavier as if the air is turning into a tornado, they would exclaim “dach k’chol” (air
disconnection or suffocation). This is the last and harmful part. So, you see, first it is “kert
k’chol” (dizziness). Then, it will lead to “k’chol kor” (fainting). People will experience
unsteadiness and headache at this point. And if it continues to get worst, it will be harmful.

Temples as contributors to medical care

The reason why the Angkor period was so flourishing is neither because of the impressive
temples or the excellent sculptures. Any country could have done the same thing. Instead, the
reason for Angkor’s glory is what we have seen so far. There were hospitals and proper
techniques used to diagnose, proper medications to cure diseases, skilled physicians, nurses,
and first-aid staff. Moreover, another reason that contributed to this peak medical care is the
temples.

1. What do you think it means to have a temple inside a hospital?

2. First of all, the temple is meant for the sick to perform monthly or annual ritual
ceremonies. Inside the temple, there are two priests. One will assist with related
religious activities while the other priest will treat the sick.
3. In cases when doctors cannot identify a patient’s disease, then the priest will have to
step in and examine the patient himself.
4. In the end, they will use the two results from both religion and science to come to a
conclusion. All those who enter the hospital will be cured and healthy once again for
sure.
5. If they are possessed by any spirits, the priest over there will know immediately.

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels surrounding Angkor Thom. Another, known
simply as the Chapel of the Hospital is located to the east, with two others--Prasat Tamoung
and Ta Prohm Kel--located to the west and south, respectively. Jayavaraman VII built at least
102 of these 'arogayasala' throughout the empire, primarily in central Cambodia and modern-

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day eastern Thailand (the Khorat plateau). Apart from the chapels, the hospitals were not
constructed of durable materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive.

Although small, the hospitals are decorated in the style of the Bayon with numerous Apsara
figures on each of the four sides.

Neak-Pean
Neak Pean (or Neak Poan "the entwined serpents") at Angkor, Cambodia is an artificial
island with a Buddhist temple on a circular island in Jayatataka Baray, which was associated
with Preah Khan temple, built during the reign of King Jayavarman VII. Neak Pean was
originally designed for medical purposes (the ancients believed that going into these pools
would balance the elements in the bather, thus curing disease); it is one of the many hospitals
that Jayavarman VII built. It is based on the ancient Hindu belief of balance. Four connected
pools represent Water, Earth, Fire and Wind. Each is connected to the central water source,
the main tank, by a stone conduit "presided over by one of Four Great Animals (maha
ajaneya pasu) namely Elephant, Bull, Horse, and Lion, corresponding to the north, east,
south, and west quarters....The stone conduits in the little pavilions are fashioned to represent
the heads of the Four Great Animals...the only exception being that on the east, which
represents a human head instead of a bull's." Originally, four sculptures stood on the floor of
the lake. The only remaining statue is that of the horse Balaha, a form of the
bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, saving sailors from the ogresses of Tamradvipa. The temple on
the lake was originally dedicated to Avalokitesvara. Willetts believed that "this is Jayavarman
as he would have wished to have appeared to his people.

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 Hospital Chapel

Hospital Chapel (12th century) Picture to the RIGHT is one of the 102 hospital chapels
built by Jayavarman VII.
It is the "Mebon" of the Preah Khan baray (the "Jayatataka" of the inscription). Some
historians believe that Neak Pean represents Anavatapta,a mythical lake in the Himalayas
whose waters are thought to cure all illness. The name is derived from the sculptures of
snakes (Nāga) running around the base of the temple structure, neak being the Khmer
rendering of the Sanskrit naga. "They are Nanda and Upananda, two nagas traditionally
associated with Lake Anavatapta."
Zhou Daguan refers to Neak Pean in his visit to Angkor in the late 13th century.

At the same time, one should not confuse the Neak Pean temple [built on a small island in the
middle of the north baray at Angkor] with a hospital, which many people do. The Neak Pean
temple is not a hospital for it does not have enough facilities for treatment. The Neak Pean
temple is a whole other story…it is different from a hospital. There are even accommodations
inside a hospital. In the past, a hospital was not only a place to cure diseases. A hospital was
also a charity-and-rescue center like the present-day Red Cross. People also prepared food
and water at the hospital for the poor and needy. They were allowed to eat there if they could
not find food. There were shelters for the homeless to stay. Anyone could come to stay at the
hospital or the rescue department if one did not have a place to go during the cold season.
Therefore, the hospital was both a charity and rescue place. Furthermore, the hospital was a
place that distributed donations. Every year, the hospital would donate to the poor and sick
who were struggling. They could come to get medicines or goods directly from the hospital.

In the early years of his reign Jayavarman VII built a number of public works throughout the
empire, including 102 hospitals. Apart from the chapels, they were not constructed of durable
materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive. Four such hospitals
(called arogayasala) were built around Angkor Thom, including this building and Ta Prohm
Kel near Angkor Wat. Although small, they were decorated in the style of the Bayon.
The structure comprises a central sanctuary with an entrance facing east. Originally a gate
(now ruined) provided access from the east. It is located just 150 meters west of Ta Keo, so it
is recommended to combine visits both sites.

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Jayavarman VII (ca. 1120–1218) is one of the best known Cambodian “Angkor” leaders, in part
because he was able to unite the numerous small, fragmented Khmer Cambodian and Cham
kingdoms of the day. He ruled his consolidated Khmer kingdom from 1181–1218, bringing the
decentralized Khmer and Cham states together through political and military alliances. Religion,
especially India-derived Brahmanism, or “Hinduism,” Mahāyāna Buddhism, and local
Cambodian religion, was a key component of Khmer society. Over time different Khmer rulers
endorsed one or more of the religious systems to their own advantage. Jayavarman VII was
especially committed to Mahāyāna Buddhism, evidenced by the remarkable extent of his support
for Buddhist monuments, and attested in many hundreds of Sanskrit inscriptions.

The Temple Mountain of ANGKOR WAT

The temple mountain form was meant to represent Mount Meru. The five towers
are arrayed in quincunx form; four at the corners and one in the center.

Angkor Wat is a Hindu temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king
Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and part of his capital
city. (The Angkorian period dates 802-1432). As the best-preserved temple at the
site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its
foundation–first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. Angkor Wat
combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple mountain and
the later galleried temple, based on early South Indian Hindu architecture. It is
designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a
moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries,
each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of

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towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west. A
UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Angkor Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. Its name,
which translates to “temple city” in the Khmer language of the region,
references the fact it was built by Emperor Suryavarman II, who ruled the
region from 1113 to 1150, as the state temple and political center of his empire .
In 1840s “ re-discovered” by the French explorer Henri Mouhot, It impressed him
so much that he wrote that the site was “grander than anything left to us by Greece
or Rome.”

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The compliment can likely be attributed to the temple’s design, which is supposed
to represent Mount Meru, the home of the gods, according to tenets of both the
Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Its five towers are intended to recreate the five peaks of
Mount Meru, while the walls and moat below honor the surrounding mountain
ranges and the sea.

In his article- Mountains and Cities in Cambodia: Temple Architecture and Divine
Vision, Michael Meister exclaims the similarity of modern American cities with that of
ancient Khemer ones such as the Angkor Wat, towering towers.1

1. Meister, M. W. (2000). Mountains and Cities in Cambodia: Temple Architecture

and Divine Vision. International Journal of Hindu Studies, 4(3), 261–268.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20106740

Udayadityavarman II ruled the Angkor Kingdom from 1050 to 1066 A.D. He was
the successor of Suryavarman I but not his son; he descended from Yasovarman I's
spouse.He built the Baphuon Temple to honor the god Shiva, but some of the
sculptures are dedicated to Buddha. He also completed the construction of
the West Baray reservoir and built the West Mebon, a raised-earth island in the
center.
During his reign, several attempted rebellions, in 1051 and 1065, were crushed by
his general Sangrama.

The Angkorian architects and sculptors created temples that mapped the cosmic
world in stone. Khmer decorations drew inspiration from religion, and mythical
creatures from Hinduism and Buddhism were carved on walls. Temples were built
in accordance to the rule of ancient Khmer architecture that dictated that a basic
temple layout include a central shrine, a courtyard, an enclosing wall, and a moat.
Khmer motifs use many creatures from Buddhist and Hindu mythology, like the
Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, use motifs such as the garuda, a mythical bird in
Hinduism.

The architecture of Cambodia developed in stages under the Khmer empire from
the 9th to the 15th century, preserved in many buildings of the Angkor temple. The
remains of secular architecture from this time are rare, as only religious buildings
were made of stonpe. The architecture of the Angkor period used specific structural
features and styles, which are one of the main methods used to date the temples,
along with inscriptions.

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The Sdok Kak Thom temple, located near the present day Thai town
of Aranyaprathet, was also constructed during his reign. The temple is perhaps
most famous as the discovery site of a detailed inscription recounting the sequence
of previous Khmer kings. The inscription stele is now part of the collection of the
national museum in Bangkok. He was succeeded by his younger brother
Harshavarman III.

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‘The Construction of the Baphuon was part of a major dynastic change and
florescence of the Hindu-Mahayana Buddhist state and the modification is the key
evidence of Theravada Buddhist power after Angkor's decline in the 15 th century.
Using a newly-developed approach based on AMS radiocarbon dating to directly
date four iron crampons integrated into the structure, the first direct evidence was
oroduced for the history of the Baphuon. Both construction and modification were
a major temple associated with the imperial reformations and territorial
consolidation of Suryavarman I (1010–1050 AD) for whom no previous building to
legitimize his reign could be identified.The Theravada Buddhist modification are a
hundred years earlier associated with the Ayutthayan occupation of Angkor in the
1
1430s and 40s .
__________________________________________________________________________________
__ Leroy S, Hendrickson M, Delqué-Kolic E, Vega E, Dillmann P (2015) First Direct
Dating for the Construction and Modification of the Baphuon Temple Mountain in
Angkor, Cambodia. PLoS ONE 10(11): e0141052.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141052

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207
208
In the late 15th century, the Baphuon was converted to a Buddhist temple which
explains the presence of the Buddha images- probably added later on.

The foundation of the Angkor monuments is artificial soil embankment, so-

called “rammed earth”, and its compaction quality affects significantly on the
stability of the buildings. 1
________________________________________________________
1.Ryota Hashimoto, Tomofumi Koyama, Mamoru Kikumoto, Toru Saito, Mamoru
Mimura, Stability Analysis of Masonry Structure in Angkor Ruin Considering the
Construction Quality of the Foundation, Journal of Civil Engineering Research,
Vol. 4 No. 3A, 2014, pp. 78-82. doi: 10.5923/c.jce.201402.13.

209
 The walls of the Baphuon are double walls

TODAY a double wall (also called component wall) is made of two concrete slabs
with a thickness of 5–7 cm each that are held together with truss-type
reinforcement. In these concrete panels, the structural reinforcement for the entire
concrete wall is built into the precast concrete component.

After the installation of the double walls, the remaining void is filled with mix-in-
situ concrete; therefore, this double wall is a semi-precast part. This produces a
monolithic, dense and extremely solid concrete wall. The double walls thus
combine the major advantages of prefabrication with the advantages of a wall that
has been produced on site with concrete poured into casing. Double walls are used
for the walls in basements and each storey.

Often, double walls are produced with core insulation (with insulation inside them)
so as to be able to guarantee compliance with regulations concerning thermal
insulation. For structural calculations, a double wall is treated on the basis of its
full thickness in exactly the same way as a wall that has been produced by
concrete poured into casing.

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The temple itself was surrounded by a wall 125 by 425 m the central tower was
probably gilded wood, which has not survived.

However by the 20th century, much of the temple had largely collapsed, and
restoration efforts took on an epic quality. A large-scale project to dismantle the
temple so that its core could be re-enforced before the whole is re-constructed
again—a process known as anastylosis—was abandoned after civil war broke out in
1970. The workers and archaeologists were forced to leave 300,000 carefully
labelled and numbered blocks organized across 10 hectares surrounding the
temple. However, the plans identifying the pieces were lost during the decade of
conflict and the Khmer Rouge that followed.

A second project to restore the temple was launched in 1996 under the guidance of
architect Pascal Royère from the EFEO. It took the team another 16 years to
complete what had become known as the "largest 3D jigsaw puzzle in the world". In
April 2011, after 51 years of work, the restoration was completed and the temple
formally re-opened. King Norodom Sihamoni of Cambodia and Prime
Minister Francois Fillon of France were among those who first toured the renovated
temple during the inauguration ceremony on July 3, 2011.

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 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE BAPHUON

Architecture. The Baphuon temple is the prototype for the Baphuon style of
design which covers every available surface with intricate carvings. These carvings
include both realistic and fanciful depictions of lotus flowers, wild animals and
hunters, devata figures, and men in battle. There are also carvings with indirect
references to Hindu mythology and scenes illustrating epic poems such as the
Ramayana. The sandstone temple-mountain symbolically represents the sacred
five-peaked Mount Meru important in both Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. There
are three enclosures in the Baphuon temple complex, and the main structure is
situated on a high base. With the bronze tower that was part of the original
structure it would have been roughly 50 meters high, but without this tower it
stands 34 meters tall.
Zhou Daguan, a Chinese 'ambassador' in the 13th century, speaks glowingly of the
temple, describing it as a 'copper tower'. This suggests that the entire temple may
have once been sheathed in bronze plates.

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As with Angkor Wat, the Baphuon was converted to a Buddhist temple in the 16th
century. This involved the demolition of the outer galleries, causeway stones, and
other structures to reuse the material for construction of an enormous reclining
Buddha statue on the west side of the temple. The work was never completed,
however, and the half-finished Buddha is only barely distinguishable.

As the Baphuon was built on unstable soil it has not proven as durable as other
nearby temples. As early as the 1960s the EFEO (École française d'Extrême-Orient)
decided to begin restoration of the temple using the anastylosis technique, which
involved disassembly of large portions of the temple and reconstruction using the
original stones and replacements as needed. However, this work had to be
abandoned in the 1970s when the Khmer Rouge came to power. By that time, the
EFEO had completed the disassembly phase of the reconstruction. Over 300,000
stones were laid out in a 10 hectare area surrounding the temple. The EFEO
maintained careful records of the original position of each of the stones, but the
records were lost or destroyed during the Khmer Rouge period. In spite of this,
archaeologists working from 1995-2002 were able to reassign the locations of most
of the stones, and reconstruction was carried out from 2002-2011. The reopening
of the temple took place on July 3, 2011.

Plan of Baphuon
Drawn by Timothy M Ciccone following Claude Jacques, Michael Freeman, and Jean Laur.

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The period between 12th and 19th century was largely of religious wars and geo-
political instability across the Indian subcontinent, and the literature of this era do
not mention Masrur temples or present any scholarly studies on any Hindu, Jain
or Buddhist temples for that matter, rather they mention iconoclasm and temple
destruction.

After the 12th century, first northwestern Indian subcontinent, then India, in
general, witnessed a series of plunder raids and attacks of Turko-Afghan sultans
led Muslim armies seeking wealth, geopolitical power and the spread of
Islam. Successive Muslim dynasties controlled the Delhi Sultanate as waves of
wars, rebellions, secessions, and brutal counter-conquests gripped Indian regions
including those in and around Kashmir. The Mughal Empire replaced the Delhi
Sultanate in early 16th-century. The Mughal dynasty ruled much of the Indian
subcontinent through early 18th-century, and parts of it nominally through the
19th century.

The Kangra valley region with Masrur in the Himalayas was ruled by
smaller jagirdars and feudatory Hill Rajas who paid tribute to the Mughal
administration for many centuries. The arrival of the colonial era marked another
seismic shift in the region's politics. By the late 19th century, British India officials
had begun archeological surveys and heritage preservation efforts. The first known
visits to study the Masrur temples occurred in 1887.

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