Dissection of the Hindu Mandir

Dr. Uday Dokras

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The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Mandir Architecture

ABSTRACT

This is a short paper on the importance of the plinth in Jain temples where the infrastructure supports the
weight of many( sometimes 1000) pillars and the corresponding domes adorning them to prove that the
plinth is the most important part though not visible or visually encompassing as the lofty Jain
architectural structures it supports

I bow to the Arihants, Siddhas, Acharyas, Upadhyayas,

and I bow to all the Sages of the world.
This five-fold salutation completely destroys all the sins.
And, of all auspicious mantras, (it) is indeed the foremost auspicious one.
Ṇamōkāra Mantra

Introduction: In Architecture, the concept of a plinth is pretty basic: To create a base or platform, then
put whatever one builds on top of it. You may not think there are too many ways to mess with that basic
formula, and to a degree you're right. Still, when we talk about plinths, there are three main uses. To
understand the Plinth we need to familiarize with the other concepts of Grid:

The grid is a useful device for expressing design rules about the placement of elements in a layout. By
expressing position rules for elements in relation to a grid, a designer can organize decisions in a layout
design problem systematically. Grids and placement rules offer a discipline that can help a designer work
effectively to lay out complex designs, and it can also facilitate group design work. The grid, one of the
oldest architectural design tools, is a useful device for controlling the position of building elements. Grids
have been and continue to be used in all manner of layout tasks from urban design to building
construction. A grid can help a designer control the positions of built and space elements, making the
layout task more systematic. By determining positions of different building elements in relation to a grid
or to a set of grids, the designer can specify design rules that describe a typology of physical forms. 1

Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some
exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is
a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines

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in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use
these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other
examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-
Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient
Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in
expression and aesthetic independence.T he Teli temple reflects in its proportions a careful expansion of
the grid system known from square temples in Central India in the eighth century.” y. In fig. 4 I give a
ground plan for the Teli temple. Several plain bhitta platforms support the base moldings (vedibandha) of
the temple walls (figs. 6, zo). These consist of khura, kumbha, a broad antarapatta-setback (decorated
with a vedika pattern of small pillarets with a broad cross-beam of foliage), and a kapotapalihood. The
frieze of the wall (janghd) has doors on the central bhadra projections which lead to broad recesses which
now lack their images. On the corners, smaller niches in the form of shrine models with entry doorways
(fig. 20) also lack images. Percy Brown records the inner dimensions of the sanctum of this temple as 1 5
x 30 ft. (a ratio of i: 2).16 This is not correct. The sanctum measures ca. 6 x 9 meters, the ratio being 2: 3.
In fig. 5, I give a diagram of one quarter of the temple's ground plan showing the grid from which the
architect has generated his plan. The sanctum is defined by 4 x 6 squares; the walls are two squares thick,
measured from the corners. (Each square of this grid is ca. I .5 meters on a side.) Corner buttresses
measure 2 x 2 squares at the khura-hoof of the wall's moldings (fig. 6). The central bhadra projection on
each side projects a full square. The opening into the bhadra shrine is ca. two squares wide. 2

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 The Grid of the Jain Temple at Dilwara, Mount Abu

1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of
art (or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever
they're holding; that's the plinth.Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches
the floor is sometimes called a plinth as well. That would make your chair a glorified pedestal, and you
sitting in it a work of art. There's your ego boost for the day.
2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.

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3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very
large plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice. Look around your city or
neighborhood: there's a good chance that some structures are resting on massive bases of stone, concrete,
or other strong materials.
Definition: When something's important, we tend to raise it off the ground. This is universal in human
cultures; we try to visually separate the things we make from the earth itself. The Plinth allows us to do
this.

A plinth is a base or platform that's used to support something else above the ground. The plinth is one of
the most underappreciated, and yet most important, elements of architecture found around the world and
used throughout history. Ironically, the one thing we can't actually put on a pedestal (because it is one) is
the thing that may most deserve it.

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Taranga Jain Temple,Kheralu,Gujrath showing Plinth and super structure

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Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity
in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually
developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain
temple construction and majority of Jain temples in India consists of these core building elements:

PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE

The majority of Jain temples in India consist of a few core building elements. Lets understand their
function and symbolism. Starting from the outer to the inner –
1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL
Almost without exception, Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing detached compound walls,
encircling the entire sacred temple area.
The symbolism is for the devotee entering to be leave his ordinary concerns of the householder life before
entering the holy ground.
2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM
Although may be varied in relative proportions and forms, all Jain temples are built on a platform or
terrace that physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area.On
this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms
are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation –
pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further
shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level.
The symbolism is related to the idea of the difficulties –durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By
extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment.
3. ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH
This is the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to shrines and maṇḍapas. At the main
gateway, a worshiper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. The gateway greets the
worshiper with a host of sculpted secular figures on the outer walls; representing the worldly concerns of
man. Usually the gateway to a temple will be a massive and magnificent construction. When we stand in
front our feeling of insignificance helps to break our ego.
The Symbolism is that this marks another transition from the outer world to the inner world of the temple.
Porches are very small, simple halls that provide access to.
4. MANDAPA – HALL
This is the hall or halls in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. The halls can have
side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the sides open. Temple halls create an

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approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual equipment. Halls are used for rituals,
the recitation of sacred texts, meditation and for larger gatherings that involve singing hymns etc. Here,
often the worshiper will come across mythological themes, carved on the inner walls, to attune his
attitude towards higher ideals.
The symbolism here is that the devotee must prepare to leave even his concerns for the temple and fellow
devottees and prepare to enter the inner sanctum.
5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER
Some temples have this additional element. This small vestibule is a space between the main sanctuary
and its hall, in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the idol or follow rituals conducted within the
shrine. As the worshiper progresses towards the inner sanctum, the sculptural details and decorations
become simpler.
The symbolism is again to help the worshiper to put aside distractions and try focusing their attention on
the sanctum.
6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY
It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the
deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.
The symbolism here is that this represents an encircling of the universe itself.
7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE
The upper part of the Garbh griha is called as the Sikhara; the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple,
Vastu Shastra says that the design of the Shikhara over the Garbhagrahamm attracts energies from the
cosmos from the cosmos, much like an aerial or even like our nose attracts pranavayu (oxygen) from air.
The symbolism here that it represents the axis of the world through Mount Meru.
8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM
The main part of Jain temple is called “Gambhara” (Garbha Graha) which is the nucleus and the
innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the main deity (mulnayak) is placed.
This is the focal point of the building and beside a statue of a sacred figure it may house abstract religious
element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic person, yantras and sacred
syllables or mantras. The shrine or garbha-griha (womb space) is usually devoid of any ornamentation to
avoid distraction and lead the worshiper further to tranquility.
The Symbolism here is in the name – garbha = womb, graha = home; representing the final journey of the
soul to its real self.

Ideology of Design: According to the Jaina ethics, a man’s life is asummation of countless individual
lifespans bound up in the cycle of rebirth. One can from achieve enlightenment thorough pure deeds,

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thoughts and dedication. Thus, in this world the temple is the symbol of enlightenment: it is the place
where we can be closer to our soul and through rituals and ceremonies men can discover the divine
knowledge.
The walk to the inner sanctum by the devotee indicates that he has to leave the grand external world
outside and direct our minds inward, light up the lamp of knowledge there and by seeing the Jina we are
to behold our Atma within the sanctum sanctorum of our hearts.Thus the ideology behind the designing of
Jain temples is to link man with himself. It is a depiction of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the
microcosm (the inner space) and has developed over thousands of years; the elements may vary in
number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built on a platform.

The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and
creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that
is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it.

The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the
construction of every Hindu and later Jain temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by
means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the
evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about these
techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents, reflecting a
certain firmness.

Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short,
is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension
it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the
temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than
the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the
building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the
temple building, to be at the same level.

This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the
medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the
columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most
important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural
complexity.4

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Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of
the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view.
Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance.
The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall
enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside.

Uses of Vedi

The concept of a plinth is pretty basic: create a base or platform, then put whatever you're building on top
of it. When we talk about plinths in Jain temples, there are three main uses.

1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of art
(or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever they're
holding; that's the plinth.

Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches the floor is sometimes called a
plinth as well. That would make the chair a glorified pedestal, and the one sitting in it a work of art.

2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.

3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very large
plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice.

Diagrammatic example of the Plinth showing the Osiyan Temple of Rajasthan(Below pictures)

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Osiyan Jain Temple,Jodhpur, Rajasthan.CEPT University,Temple-Overall Plans, Plan At Plinth Level,
Plan Above Parapet, Harihara Temple – 3

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Part of the plinth seen in this pic of the Osiyan temple. Above and Below

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Temple structure showing the plinth positioning (Encyclopedia Britannica)

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The Chaturmukha Jain Temple of Ranakpur as an example No 2:

The plinth of this temple supports 1444 marble pillars, twenty-nine halls, 80 domes and 426 columns The
most outstanding feature of this temple is its infinite number of pillars. This temple can be called a
treasure house of pillars or a city of pillars. In whichever direction one might turn one's eyes meet pillars
and pillars big, small, broad, narrow, ornate or plain. But the ingenious designer has arranged them in
such a manner that none of them obstructs the view of the pilgrim wishing to have a Darshana' (glimpse)
of God. From any corner of the temple one can easily view the Lord's image. These innumerable pillars
have given rise to the popular belief that there are about 1444 pillars in the temple.In the North of this
temple, there is a Rayan tree (Mimusos laxandra) and the foot prints of Bhagavan Rishabhadev on a slab
of marble. They remind us of the life and preaching of Bhagavan Risabhadev and of Shatrunjaya, the
foremost among the places of Jain pilgrimage. The architecture and stone carvings of the temple are based
on the Ancient Mirpur Jain Temple at Mirpur in Rajasthan. The temple is a grand white marble structure
spread over 48,000 square feet (4,500 m2)

On one hand the temple has been made artistic with it's two upper storeys, on the other the designer has
shown foresight in constructing some nine cellars in which the sacred images could be safely preserved in
the event or a crisis. It is believed that there are many Jain images in these cellars. These cellars must be
an additional streng and support to the entire structure and must have sustained it against the onslaught of
time and the elements The Jain temples of Mount Abu are famous for the carvings, but the Ranakpur
temple also is second to none in its delicate carvings. What attracts one most is its complexity and vast
expanse of its structure. There is a popular saying among the people: The canings of Abu and the
architecture of Ranakpur are unique". The eroding sweep of time and nature and wanton and mindless
destruction by foreign invaders did much damage to this holy shrine. For a long time it wore a deserted
look as pilgrims didn't find it safe to go to this secluded place infested with wild animals and dacoits.

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 Plinth of various temples a) Straight b) Conical c) Cascading

REFERENCES

1.Grids in Design and CAD Mark D. Gross University of Colorado at Boulder

https://depts.washington.edu/dmgftp/publications/pdfs/acadia_91_mdg.pdf

2. Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples Author(s): Michael W. Meister
Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, (1983), pp. 266-296

3. Indian Architecture, Brown, Percy: Bombay, 2nd Edn.

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4. Chakravarti , Glassenapp, H.V. : Doctrine of Karman in Jaina Philosophy, Bombay, 1942 .

As mentioned in Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis,
Erasmus Mundus Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS
AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008

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Garbhagiha means the House of the womb
Technical paper on Garbhagriha of the hindu temples
From the Tech Papers series of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Garbhagiha means the Home of the womb- to call it sanctum

anctorum which is the term in Hebrew for Holy of the Holies and
refers to the Jewish temples is erroneous but has been going on
since the time Indian Temple Architecture has been written about
in English. Garbha is womb and Griha is house. Let me give
another example. A pregnant women is called a GARBHAVATI in
Sanskrit which means one who carries the WOMB“ Gravid in
Swedish. enceinte in French meaning enclosed.

A Hindu temple has various parts:

Garbhagriha” refers to the womb chamber which is the innermost chamber of

any temple where the deity resides. It is mainly square in layout and is entered
through eastern side. It has a tower called a vimana over it.
“Pradakshina Patha” refers to the ambulatory passageway for
circumambulation and comprises of enclosed corridor outside the garbhagriha.
The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction, paying their respect
to the deity
The ardha-mandapa and maha-mandapa are in front of the garbha-griha
(inner sanctum). The front porch in the main entrance of the temple which
leads to the main temple Some other essential structural elements found in the
Hindu temples are Mainly found in the south Indian temples.
The gopurams are entrance towers. Temples try to have Gopurams that are
monumental and ornate entrance to the temple premises..

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Pitha or the plinths of the main temple.
Toranas”:The gateways typical to north Indian temples are,”Toranas”.

“Mandapa”, is the pillared hall in front of the garbha- griha, used as

assembling point by devotees for chant; rituals meditate or observe the priests
perform the rituals. • Sometimes,
“Natamandira” is also provided in some temples which mean the hall for
dancing. In some early temple structures, the mandapa was isolated and
separate structure from the sanctuary.
“Antarala”, refers to the intermediate chamber which joins the main sanctuary
and the pillared hall of the temple premises.
The veranda next to the inside walls of the pradakshina path.
Tanks and wells, which are either sacred or for bathing purposes.
Subsidiary deities and shrines dedicated to minor gods.

This paper deals with the styles, design and geometry, structural system and
construction technology of the Innermost sanctum of Indian temples.  In this
context, the Hindu Temples are epitome of knowledge, art, architecture, culture
and represents the advancement of building science of the ancient Indian
subcontinent.  Each culture and era has a distinctive construction practice
which is unique and represents the ideology, development, art and architecture
of that particular era or culture.

The cerebral exploration of interlocking geometries based on mandala diagrams

was to become the defining characteristic of Hindu temple form in the
centuries to come. Mandalas are derived from original Vedic altars and are
used in both the Hindu and Buddhist religions as diagrams to map the cosmos
for astrological observations. These diagrams are abstract, without scale, and
can take any number of forms derived from a combination of superimposed
squares and circles. Garbha griha Subsiduary shrines.

Example of the Elephanta caves

The Elephanta Caves are located in Western India on Elephanta Island

(otherwise known as the Island of Gharapuri), which features two hillocks
separated by a narrow valley. The small island is dotted with numerous ancient
archaeological remains that are the sole testimonies to its rich cultural past.
These archaeological remains reveal evidence of occupation from as early as
the 2nd century BC. The rock-cut Elephanta Caves were constructed about the
mid-5th to 6th centuries AD.

Elephanta is a Hindu shrine adapted from the older Buddhist rock-cut

structures The Elephanta caves has a real mountain in which it is embedded.
It is having square garbha-griha, Hindu Architecture and has the Shiva Lingam
at its center. From the middle, four axes radiate out, defining access paths.

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Elephanta is open on all four sides, though east is its primary direction of
access.

Elephanta has a much more complex geometry, with four sets of nine-square
mandalas interlocking to define two major axes of access, one from the west and the
other from the north. he north-south axis, aligned with the main entrance, terminates
in three gigantic Shiva sculptures in deeply recessed niches. This triptych, occupies
the entire width and height of the end wall, and, compared to the rough-hewn
character of the rest of structure, was carved with greater care. The Elephanta Caves
contain rock cut stone sculptures, mostly in high relief, that show syncretism of
Hindu and Buddhist ideas and iconography. The caves are hewn from
solid basalt rock. Except for a few exceptions, much of the artwork is defaced and
damaged. The main temple's orientation as well as the relative location of other
temples are placed in a mandala pattern. The carvings narrate Hindu mythologies,
with the large monolithic 20 feet (6.1 m) Trimurti Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva),
Nataraja (Lord of dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga) being the most celebrated. The
island has two groups of rock-cut caves, hewn from solid basalt rock. The

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larger group of caves, which consists of five caves on the western hill of the
island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures. The primary cave, numbered as
Cave 1, is about 1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai harbour.
Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1 further southeast, arranged in a row.
Cave 6 and 7 are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2, but
geologically on the edge of the eastern hill.

The two hills are connected by a walkway. The eastern hill is also called the
Stupa hill, while the western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their
historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and the Portuguese era firing
Canons they host respectively .

rock-cut temples : All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an
area of 5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main
chamber, two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all
are so fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from
the front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode
of Shiva, depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and
mythologies of Shaivism.However, the artwork reverentially displays themes
from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism .

The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall.
The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of
the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-
mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa)
connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are
dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16
in plan).[10] It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances,
located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways
into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is
guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their
heights spanning floor to the ceiling. [ These were badly damaged when the
Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is
surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as
in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this
shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of
this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with
three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract,
unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest,
iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up.

All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an area of
5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main chamber,
two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all are so
fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from the

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front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode of Shiva,
depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and mythologies
of Shaivism.[8][18] However, the artwork reverentially displays themes
from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism as well

Layout
1. Ravananugraha
2. Shiva-Parvati,
Mount Kailash
3. Ardhanarishvara
4. Sadashiva Trimurti
5. Gangadhara
6. Wedding of Shiva
7. Shiva slaying
Andhaka
8. Nataraja
9. Yogishvara
16. Linga
East Wing Shrine
10. Kartikeya
11. Matrikas
12. Ganesha
13. Dvarapala
West Wing Shrine
14. Yogishvara
15. Nataraja

The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to
the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as

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the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance).
The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara and the
other of Gangadhara. The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism
legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature
the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence
transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the figures leap out of the cave
walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the
manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks.

Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, each more than 5 metres
(16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall
opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of
a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of
Shiva. The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft),
depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and
Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient
Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in
Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance). [26]
Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern
sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography
of Shaktism tradition

The island has two groups of rock-cut caves, hewn

from solid basalt rock. The larger group of caves,
which consists of five caves on the western hill of
the island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures.
The primary cave, numbered as Cave 1, is about
1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai
harbour. Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1
further southeast, arranged in a row. Cave 6 and 7
are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2,
but geologically on the edge of the eastern hill.[8]
The two hills are connected by a walkway. The
eastern hill is also called the Stupa hill, while the
western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their
historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and
the Portuguese era firing Canons they host
respectivel

.
The garbha-griha is surrounded by a well- defined and fully enclosed
parikrama path, It has nine subsidiary shrines arrayed in constellation around
it The garbhagriha is located in the most important among the caves is the great Cave 1, which
measures 39 metres from the front entrance to the back. In plan, this cave in the western hill
closely resembles Dumar Lena cave at Ellora, in India. The main body of the cave, excluding the
porticos on the three open sides and the back aisle, is 27 metres square and is supported by rows
of six columns each.

24
The 7-metre-high masterpiece “Sadashiva” dominates the entrance to Cave 1. The sculpture
represents three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer, identified,
respectively, with Aghora or Bhairava (left half), Taptapurusha or Mahadeva (central full face),
and Vamadeva or Uma (right half). Representations of Nataraja, Yogishvara,
Andhakasuravadha, Ardhanarishwara, Kalyanasundaramurti, Gangadharamurti,
and Ravanaanugrahamurti are also noteworthy for their forms, dimensions, themes,
representations, content, alignment and execution.

The layout of the caves, including the pillar components, the placement and division of the caves
into different parts, and the provision of a sanctum or Garbhagriha of sarvatobhadra plan, are
important developments in rock-cut architecture. The Elephanta Caves emerged from a long
artistic tradition, but demonstrate refreshing innovation. The combination of aesthetic beauty and
sculptural art, replete with respondent Rasas, reached an apogee at the Elephanta Caves. Hindu
spiritualistic beliefs and symbology are finely utilized in the overall planning of the caves.

This main cave, also called Cave 1, Grand Cave or the Great Cave, is 39.63
metres (130.0 ft) square in plan with a hall (mandapa).[10] The basic plan of the
cave can be traced back to the plan of the ancient Buddhist viharas, consisting
of a square court surrounded by cells, built from about 500 to 600 years before
in India.[21] The Cave has several entrances, the main entrance is unassumingly
small and hides the grand hall inside. The main entrance faces north, while
two side entrances face east and west. The cave's main entrance is aligned with
the north–south axis, unusual for a Shiva shrine (normally east–west).
However, inside is an integrated square plan Linga shrine (garbha-griya) that is
aligned east–west, opening to the sunrise.

To reach the main cave, a visitor or pilgrim has to walk up 120 steep steps
from the beach or take the tourist toy train. At the main entrance are four
pillars, with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back. Pillars, six in each
row, divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers. The roof of the hall has
concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals.

Main entrance, Cave 1/ Side entrance/

Main mandapa and pillars

25
The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall.
The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of
the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-
mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa)
connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are
dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16
in plan). It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances, located
in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways into the
sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is guarded
by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights
spanning floor to the ceiling.[23] These were badly damaged when the
Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is
surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as
in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this
shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of
this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with
three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract,
unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest,
iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up.
The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to
the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as
the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of
Dance).] The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara
and the other of Gangadhara.
The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism legends. All the friezes,
states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where
the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest,
the figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet
the narrative. Even the manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the
rocks.
Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, each more than 5 metres
(16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall
opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of
a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of
Shiva.[26] The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft),
depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and
Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient
Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in
Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance).
Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern
sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography
of Shaktism tradition.

26
Sadasiva: Trimurt

GARBHAGRIHA the enclosed SHIVLINGA can also be seen

27
Cave No 1 pictures

Trimurti Shiva flanked by the dvarapalas.

28
The Trimurti is considered a masterpiece and the most important sculpture in
the caves. It is carved in relief on the south wall of the cave facing the north
entrance, along the north–south axis. It is also known
as Sadashiva and Maheshmurti. The image, 6 m (20 ft) in height, depicts a
three-headed Shiva, representing Panchamukha Shiva.
The three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection,
and destruction. As per another version, the three heads symbolize compassion
and wisdom. The right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud,
depicting the promise of life and creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma,
the creator or Uma or Vamadeva, the feminine side of Shiva and creator. The
left half-face (east face) is that of a moustached young man. This is Shiva as
the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and destroyer. This is also
known as Rudra-Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and meditative
Tatpurusha, resembles the preserver Vishnu. This is the Shiva form as the
"master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their
harmony".The three-headed Shiva are his creator, preserver and destroyer
aspects in Shaivism. They are equivalently symbolism for Shiva, Vishnu, and
Brahma, they being equivalent of the three aspects found in Shaivism.

Garbagriha at Ellora Rock Cut Caves:

Located in the Sahyadri hills near Aurangabad, Ellora is the most important
second-wave site of ancient rock-cut architecture in India. In the western face
of one hill, composed of volcanic Basalt rock, there are 35 caves and rock-cut
temples, largely produced during the reign of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 6th
and 7th centuries CE. The earliest cave, the Hindu Ramesvara (no. 21), dates
to the 6th century CE. Typical of early Hindu temples there is an inner
sanctum (garbhagriha), a circumambulatory corridor for worshippers to walk
around, vestibules with double porticoes, and extensive decoration via high-
relief friezes and carvings depicting scenes from the Puranas sacred texts. This
cave alsonhas carved river goddesses on the exterior, a Nandi sculpture at the
entrance and inside are both a large dancing Shiva surrounded by musicians
and Durga slaying the buffalo demon king. Other points of interest are the use
of couple figures for brackets (salabhanjikas) as well as reliefs of elephants
and mithuna (lover) figures.

The Dhumar Lena cave (no. 29) seems to replicate the famous cave at
Elephanta suggesting a connection between Ellora and the Kalachuris. The
figure brackets of cave 21 are additional evidence of a cultural link between the
two sites.

29
Late Chalukyan Period Rajasimhesvara Temple. It Has attached mandapas,
and Rajasimhesvara Temple’s two enclosed mandapas set up a single
longitudinal axis.Rajasimhesvara’s precinct is packed with a phalanx of
subsidiary shrines, and in fact has the beginnings of a second precinct
enclosure also made of subsidiary shrines, The inner columns of the
Rajasimhesvara have a simple arithmetic geometry.

Garbagriha: The temple complex is complete in all respects as it

has garbagriha (sanctum sanctorum), antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a
high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram. The mandapa, which
was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by interposing
an ardhamantapa (smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive
features of mythical lion mounts.
The structure has a simple layout with a tower or vimana at the center of the
complex. The vimana of the temple, above the main shrine (sanctum
sanctorum), is square in plan and rises up in a pyramidal shape. The tower
has many levels rising proportionately. At the top of this tower, there is a small

30
roof in the shape of a dome. The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes
(lions on the base) are extra features in Pallava style. At the entrance,
the gopuram walls are plastered. Its entrance wall has eight small shrines and
a gopura, precursor to the main gopura. At some later stage, the mandapa and
the sanctuary were joined by an intermediate hall called the ardhamantapa,

31
which is reported to have marred the beauty of the temple to some extent. The
temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular layout.

A sculpture in one of the niches of the 58 subshrines./Sculpture depicting Shiva as Gangadhara capturing
the river Ganges with a strand of his hair./ Sculpture depicting Goddess Durga.

The main shrine has a 16 sided Shivalinga in black granite stone deified in the
sanctum sanctorum. Within the walls of the main shrine there is padabhanda
adhisthana (main pedestal) with very elegantly carved images of gods with a
sculpted Nandi, a little distance away giving guard to the deity. On each face of
the outer walls of the main shrine there are many carvings of deities.
The south facing wall the sculpture depicts Shiva as Umamaheshavara (Shiva
with his consort Parvati) with Lingodbhava (emergence of Shiva as fiery pillar
- linga) surrounded by Brahma and Vishnu and flying amaras on the lower
level.
The west facing hall has sculptures of Shiva in the form of Sandhya
Tandavamurti and Urdhava Tandvamurti and the ensemble is completed with
images of ganas in dancing poses and also with images of Brahma, Vishnu,
Nandi and Parvati.
The carving of Shiva on the north facing wall is a composition
of Tripurantaka flanked by three ganas, goddess Durga with three ganas, and
goddesses Bhairavi, Kaushiki and Jyestha.
The exterior faces of the vimana (tower) have images of aspects of Shiva
- Bhikshatana, Somaskanda and in Samhara-Tandava (destructive dancing)
pose.
In the inner walls of the prakara (circumambulatory passage) there is galaxy of
images of Durga, Kartikeya, Bhavati, Tripurantaka, Garudarudha-
Vishnu, Asura Samhara (slaying of demons), Narasimha (Vishnu's
avatar), Trivikrama (another Vishnu's avatar), Shiva Tandava (Shiva in a
dancing pose), Shiva severing the fifth head of Brahma, desecration of Yagna of
Daksha, Brahma and his wife, Gangadhara, Urdhava tandava, Vishnu flanked
by Bhudevi and Sridevi, Lingodbhava, Bhikshatana, Ravana, and Vali offering

32
prayers to Atmalinga Chandikeshvara. The image of Ardhanariswara sitting on
a bull is considered the most noteworthy among all images.

Mandapa showing the entrance to the garbhagriha Ornate pillars in the Saraswati
temple at Gadag

Vimana's south facing wall has very elegant image of Shiva in a sitting posture
of peace and quietude known as Dakshinamurthy, and its west wall has Shiva
in the form of Lingodbhava.
The tower has multiple shrines embodied on all its external faces which have
the appearance of miniature shrines. These shrines have three features, the
sala (rectangular), kuta (square) and panjara (apsidal) styles. Eight small
shrines also decorate the entrance wall. The 58 small shrines are built into the
niches of the compound wall that encloses the main shrine;hey depict
Somaskanada reliefs of Shiva and his consort Parvathi in many dance forms.
The temple maybe built using a geopolymer that looks like sandstone

33
34
A circumambulatory passage, around the Garbagriha with a symbolic
meaning is situated along the compound wall. In order to make the
circumambulation, there is a narrow entry passage which devotees must crawl
through. Seven steps must be climbed in order to reach the passage. Passing
through the narrow passage is indicative of passage through life. After the
circumambulation, the exit is through a pit or another narrow passage
symbolic of death. The entry point for this passage is called Gate of Death
(Tamil: இறப்பு வாசல்). It is believed that making the circumambulation round
the various deities would usher the same blessings as visiting paradise. During
completion of circumambulation - Crawling and coming out of the passage also
indicates that your coming out of mother's womb and also explains Hindu's
belief of rebirth. Hence, exit is called Gate of Birth (Tamil: பிறப்பு வாசல்). There
is another belief that by completing this circumambulatory passage the
possibility of rebirth is not there and you shall attain Moksha. Such passage is
UNIQUE, explaining the life cycle including aging process, death and rebirth.

Inverted lotus-base plinth. Of Sun Temple in Modhera

The Sun Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the solar deity Surya located
at Modhera village of Mehsana district, Gujarat, India. It is situated on the
bank of the river Pushpavati. It was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign
of Bhima I of the Chaulukya dynasty. No worship is offered now and is
protected monument maintained by Archaeological Survey of India. The temple
complex has three components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine
hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir. The halls
have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has steps to reach the
bottom and numerous small shrines.

PLAN; SANCTUM SANCTORUM

This is called the main temple or the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.
Lotus opens with sunrise and closes itself with sunset. Hence, it is
considered to be sun's flower. The entire temple is therefore based on an
inverted lotus-base plinth. It was designed such that the rays of the
rising and setting sun on the day of equinox (length of day and night is
nearly equal - 20 March and 21 September generally), fell on the
bejeweled pure gold idol of Sun riding on his chariot driven by Saarthi
Arun. Sun's chariot has 7 horses and Saarthi Arun sits on the 4th horse.

The entire idol made of gold (including the charioteer, chariot and horses)
was placed on a pit that was 15 feet deep and filled with gold coins. It
was built by the Solankis in honour of their ancestral God. It was
plundered by Mahmud Gazni.

35
Rajasthan’s only hill station, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains.
This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises
respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’,
there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu.

The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a
respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The
Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the
canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these
temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along
with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every
year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to
Jain saints.
When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are
respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary
from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to
marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and
the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’
delight.
The ceilings feature ornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom
in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple
36
complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings
depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm,
the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across
Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural
perfection.
They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of
Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a
necessary pre-requisite to the performance of ‘puja’ (prayer). In the winter
months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing.
The five temples have their own unique identity and are named after the
villages they are located in. They are all dedicated to important Tirthankaras
(saints).

Vimal Vasahi: first Jain, Adinath.

Luna Vasahi: 22nd Jain Tirthankara, Neminatha.
Pithalhar: first Jain Tirthankar, Rishabha
Parshvanath: 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Parshva.
Mahavir Swami: last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira
Among these, Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi are the most famed.

The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was
made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord
Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature
miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous
for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and
arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and
houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the
deity.

Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal

and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design
is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features
a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular
band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features
stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain
Tirthankar Neminatha idol.
The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha
Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance
of the above mentioned temples.

PLAN 1st Jain Tirthankara 22nd Jain Tirthankara 23rd Jain Tirthankara:
There are 5 Unique Temples of Dilwara each with its own unique identity and
each named after the small village in which it is located. These are:
1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabha.
2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara,

37
 3. Neminatha. Pithalhar, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankar,
4. Rishabha Khartar Vasahi, dedicated to the 23rd Jain Tirthankara,
5. Parshva. Mahavir Swami, dedicated to the last Jain Tirthankara,
Mahavira.

The most famous of these being the Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi
temples.

Vimal Vasahi Temple This temple carved entirely out of white marble was
built in 1021 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhimidev I, the Chalukya King
(Solanki Maharaja) of Gujarat. The temple is dedicated to Rishabha. The
temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has
numerous cells containing smaller idols of the Tirthankaras. The richly
carved corridors, pillars, arches, and 'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple
are simply amazing. The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds,
petals, flowers and scenes from Jain and Hindu mythology. The Rang
manda is a grand hall supported by 12 decorated pillars and nicely carved
out arches with a breathtaking central dome. On the pillars are carved
female figurines playing musical instruments and 16 Vidhyadevis, or the
goddesses of knowledge, each one holding her own symbol which is believed
to be memorial of victorious Brahma Kumaris follower from last Kalpa.

Garbhagriha seen

Rajasthan’s only hill station, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains.
This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises

38
respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’,
there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu.

The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a
respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The
Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the
canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these
temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along
with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every
year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to
Jain saints.

When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are
respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary
from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to
marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and
the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’
delight.

The ceilings feature ornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom
in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple
complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings
depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm,
the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across
Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural
perfection.

They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of
Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a
necessary pre-requisite to the performance of ‘puja’ (prayer). In the winter
months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing.

The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was
made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord
Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature
miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous
for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and
arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and
houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the
deity.

Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal

and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design
is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features

39
a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular
band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features
stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain
Tirthankar Neminatha idol.

The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha

Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance
of the above mentioned temples.

The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each one

containing beautiful carvings of different designs supported on ornate
pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall once you step inside its heavily
decorated doorway. Installed here is the idol of Adi Nath or Lord Rishabdev,
as he is also known. The mandap is meant for Aarti to the deity. The
Hastishala (Elephant Cell) was constructed by Prithvipal, a descendant of
Vimal Shah in 1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture.

Ranga mandapa – Ceiling

Luna Vasahi The Luna Vashi temple is dedicated to Neminath. This

magnificent temple was built in 1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal
and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The
temple built in memory of their late brother Luna was designed after the
Vimal Vashi temple. The main hall or Rang mandap features a central dome
from which hangs a big ornamental pendent featuring elaborate carving.
Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting posture
and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another
circular band. The Navchowki features some of the most magnificent and
delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple. Each of the nine ceilings
here seems to exceed the others in beauty and grace.

The Gudh mandap features a black marble idol of the 22nd Jain
Tirthankar Neminatha. The Kirthi Stambha is a big black stone pillar that
stands on the left side of the temple. The pillar was constructed by
Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The remaining three temples of Dilwara are
smaller but just as elegant as the other two.

This temple was built by Bhama Shah kavdia [Rajasthan]. A massive metal
statue of first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha Dev (Adinath), cast in five metals,
is installed in the temple. The main metal used in this statue is 'Pital'
(brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The Shrine consists of a main
Garbhagriha, Gudh mandap and Navchowki. It seems that the construction
of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The old mutilated idol
was replaced and installed in 1468-69 AD weighing 108 maunds (about 40

40
quintals or four metric tons) according to the inscription on it. The image
was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is 8 ft (2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad
and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in height. In Gudh Mandap on one
side, a big marble Panch-Tirthi sculpture of Adinath is installed. Pittalhar
Temple.

The striking feature of this temple is its dome, which stands on 8 pillars.
The pendant of the dome drops from the ceiling looking like a cluster of half
open lotuses. Next is the Garbhagriha, which when lighted reveals the
massive idol of Neminatha. There are 39 cells here each containing one or
more images. Most of the ceilings in front of the cells are highly ornamented.
The reliefs in the porticoes of the cells depict incidents from the life of
Neminatha, his marriage, deification etc. The representation of the marriage
pavilion describes the scene and portrays the reason for the conversion of
Neminatha who was betrothed to Rajimati, the daughter of the king of
Girnar.

The Rang Mandap has a central dome from which hangs a beautifully
carved ornamental pendent. 72 figures of seated Tirthankaras are portrayed
in a circular band and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain
monks.

The Hathishala or
elephant cell features 10 beautiful marble elephants neatly polished and
realistically modelled.

41
CHOLA ARCHITECTURE Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD
. The key inscription on the base of the vimana where Rajaraja Chola says
he built the stone temple and records the gifts that he, his sister, his queens
and others gave the temple. Pichard called the vimana an “architectural
audacity”.

Brihadeeswarar Temple has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

under the list of ‘Great Living Chola Temples’. An approximate of 130,000
tons of granite was used in the formation of this temple. The holy shrine has
a temple tower (vimana) that is built at a height of 216 feet. Being the tallest
in the world, it symbolizes Mount Peru. ‘Gopuras’ or the two gateways are
located at the eastern entrance of the temple. The temple’s entrance has a
large statue of Nandi (sacred bull) that measures about 16 feet in length and

42
13 feet in height. This statue has been carved out of a single stone.
‘Kumbam’ is the topmost component of the holy shrine and weighs about 60
tons. It has been also carved out from a single granite stone. A huge idol of
Lord Shiva with three eyes is present inside the temple along with the 108
dance forms or ‘karmas’. The exterior part on the other end is decorated
with sculptures. There are 250 lingams in the entire temple compound. This
famous sanctuary is made up of a pillared hall and an assembly hall which
is known as mandapas and many sub-shrines.

8 Dikapalas: Dik- means direction; paalaka means ruler. Therefore,

dikpalaka means the person who is the ruler of that direction/disha/dik.
We know that there are eight direction of a plane surface. Also thare are two
directions vertically that is above/oordhwa/zenith/aakash and
below/adho/nadir/paatal.The vertical directions are not taken into
consideration in Vaasthu shastra.

The inner part of the mandapas is noteworthy and is divided into various
categories with the help of sculptures and pilasters. Being one of the rarest
temples in India, the idols of ‘Ashta- dikpaalakas’ or guardians of directions
can be found here. The six feet effigies of Agni, Varuna, Indra, Yama, Isana,
Kubera and Nirriti are placed in a separate temple. Being a masterpiece in
itself, the shadow of the tower over the gateway of the shrine never falls on
the ground, more significantly in the premises of the temple. The altar
situated at the entrance of this holy shrine has two idols of Lord Ganesha.
When a person taps on any one of the idols, a sound occurs that travels
towards the other idol slanting through the stone at one end and the metal
to another. There are many pillars of the temple that produce such musical
sounds.

It has a double portico of 450 m perimeter running all around the structure
contains 252 lingas in black stone arranged under corbelled vaults carried
on 400 pillars all around The wall behind the portico is beautifully painted

43
 II
Technicals of the Garbagrha of Hindu Temples

Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the
main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of
the garbhagṛha may be (on plan):
1. caturaśra (square),
2. āyata (rectangular),
3. vṛtta (cicular),
4. āyatavṛtta (elliptical)
5. or vṛttāyata (ovoid).
The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the
deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other
varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or
sitting in a row are to be installed.
Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it
is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male
deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while
the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha.

Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words

[garbha (womb) and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house).
It denotes the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that
of a Hindu temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and
fundamental component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to
the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of
habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred
architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha,
resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the
multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of
civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who
is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading
entity.

Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in

the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is
the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed.

Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each

temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many
subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of the mūla beras
are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In

44
these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely, Śiva and
His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His
other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli,
Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati.

Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture

(vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort
building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy
of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe.
Shilpashastra (iconography)

Shilpashastra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts

(shilpa) such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to
Vastushastra (architecture), they often share the same literature.
Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of
Shilpashastra from relevant books on Exotic India

In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)

Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme
being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of
scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced
back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It is transformed
into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva
Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is
invited to reside in the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be
sustained only if the deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most

45
important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest is to maintain the “presence” and
sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed. Only then can the
temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees
find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā.

Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity
resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed
into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This
explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a
space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha .

Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is

called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner-
most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary
deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu'
means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this
innermost chamber.

Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For

example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of
most of these temples is a two-storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and
a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa and a narrower
maha-mandapa.

The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and
sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means
"the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the
Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most
holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been
46
considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of
Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the
Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has
some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church
architecture.
The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a
synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary.
The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of
Holies.[1] Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in
the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome.
In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the
deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum.

The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine

inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate
building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum
sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term
actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However,
some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term
literally as "womb house".

sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost

sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of
the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as
the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from
the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in
Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the
term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found
in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to
Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture.
Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional
and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of
a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or
sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high
superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls Architecture:
The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by
the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least
approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in
the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of
the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small
room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is
treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often
includes a hollow space.

47
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the
north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it,
and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together
may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The
garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which
generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-
axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber,
intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of
the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted
to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as
opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain
temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In
the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with
other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the
.

inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the
garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine
became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. [5]

48
The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated
to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a
microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity.

In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be
rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image
there.There are a very few examples of larger variance; the chamber
at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor
level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a
rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the
chamber.

Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple

In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it
hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made
inside this area.
In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are
the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi
districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a
certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the
temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area
and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in
pandharpur.

Sanctum Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas,

which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen.
Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one
worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic
shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell
shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are

49
mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush.
The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and
housed.

The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the
principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum
is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone
structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the
wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The
sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually
help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay
windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an
empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a
sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a
seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of
the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone,
but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while
the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden
sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the
worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before
construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating'
(Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves
letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones,
several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants),
symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is
said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila)
is placed over the spot.

The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul.
This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 .
Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give
an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha
is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala,
Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches
are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has
projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional
aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for
worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their
convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in
Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum
(rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at
Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a
stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the
centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height.
The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre

50
because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of
the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting
projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled
out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level
from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and
Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in
Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala.

Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also
can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could
admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public
and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of
single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture,
which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or
gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to
be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are
also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna
describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul
(Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with
some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in
the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and
light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the
wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum
represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper
vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used
to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering
besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was
usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka
mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next
best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be
considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed
first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as
'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This
ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine
precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by
ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the
womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab
(Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb
and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum,
which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-
Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this
ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some
temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In
a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of
garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva

51
Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing
space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected
slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple
entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in
the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was
provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum
9* Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of
sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in
standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such
images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight of the rear
portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image.
Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the
sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these
circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall
(e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in
Raichur district of Karnataka) 11)Most of the temples in Goa have the main
deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha:
All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow, permitting the devotees
to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of devotion. This
circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a
structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally,
as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory
passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the
temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The temple, which
doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva
temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur
temple etc.". 87 Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a
shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also called as Kapota.
Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests and rises is over-
laid by a single stone slab, known in the texts as 'Brahma randra sila' (the
stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises
above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important
part of the temple.

52
 III
ANTARALA- intermediate space in Hindu Temple design

53
In the temples of South India, the Garbagriha , generally, is followed by four types
of Mantapas or pavilions. Mantapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall)
resting on pillars, standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple.
The first of the Mantapas is the Antarala (sometimes called sukanas or
sukanasi or Ardha-mantapa), a narrow pavilion connecting the Garbha-griha and
the Navaranga. It usually will have niches in the north and south walls, occupied by a
deity, with attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche. In a
few temples the Antarala serves as the navaranga too.

The next Mantapa is Nrtta-mantapa or Navaranga, which is a big hall used for
congregational services like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts, religious
discourses and so on. The Navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will
have nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars.

This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This
leads to Mukha mantapa the opening pavilion.
Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer
between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian
temples.
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and
the 'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.
Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. intermediate space) is a small antechamber or foyer
between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian
temples.
Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the 'Vimana' and
the 'Mandapa' are connected through the 'Antarala'.

54
Article Example

Antarala Antarala are commonly seen in Chalukyan Style temples in which the

'Vimana' and the 'Mandapa'

are connected through the 'Antarala'

Antarala Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. "intermediate space") is a small

antechamber or foyer between

the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.

Manwal It consists of a Garbhgriha (sanctrum) and an Antarala with square Mandapa.

55
Article Example

The walls of the Mandapa

have eight niches.

Hindu temple Antarala is a small antechamber or foyer between the garbhagriha/ garbha graha
architecture
(shrine) and the mandapa,

more typical of north Indian temples.

Mahadev The temple consists of garbhagriha, antarala and a pillared Nandi mandapa built
Temple,
Tambdi Surla of basalt. The four pillars,

embellished with intricate carvings of elephants and chains support a stone ceiling

decorated with finely

carved Ashtoken lotus flowers.

Lakkundi The second storey, as in the Jain temple at Pattadakal, is functional and has an antarala-mantapa

in front over the

vestibule of the lower storey. This raises the total height of the vimana considerably.

Gudimallam The floor of the sanctum is below the floor level of the Antarala and Mukhamantapa.

The figure of Siva carved

on the linga resembles a vigorous hunter. These two names however are not mentioned

in the inscriptions.

The village is referred as Viprapita (Brahmana Agrahara).

56
 Article Example

Kanchi The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has "garbagriha" (sanctum sanctorum),
Kailasanathar
Temple antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram.

The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by interposing

an "ardhamantapa"

(smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts.

Bisaldeo The architectural plan of the temple measures . The building comprises a "garbhagriha" (sanctum),
temple
a "shikhara" (tower), an "antarala" (vestibule), a square "mandapa" (hall) with a hemispherical dome,

and a portico. It features a pancharatha projection. The sanctum houses a linga (a symbol of Shiva).

Example the Khandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, one of the best examples of temples preserved
from the medieval period in India, is the largest of the western group of temples in
the Khajuraho complex which was built by the Chandela rulers. Shiva is the chief
deity in the temple deified in the sanctum sanctorum.
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built during the reign of Vidyadhara (r. c.
1003-1035 CE).[9] At various periods of the reign of this dynasty many famous
temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, Surya, Shakti of the Hindu religion and also
for the Thirthankaras of Jain religion were built. Vidhyadhara, also known as Bida
in the recordings of the Muslim historian Ibn-al-Athir was a powerful ruler who
fought Mahmud of Ghazni in the first offensive launched by the latter in 1019.
This battle was not conclusive and Mahmud had to return to Ghazni. Mahmud
again waged war against Vidhyadhara in 1022. He attacked the fort of Kalinjar.
The siege of the fort was unsuccessful. It was lifted and Mahmud and Vidhyadhara
called a truce and parted by exchanging gifts. Vidhyadhara celebrated his success
over Mahmud and other rulers by building the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva Temple,
dedicated to his family deity Shiva. Epigraphic inscriptions on a pilaster of
the mandapa in the temple mentions the name of the builder of the temple as
Virimda, which is interpreted as the pseudonym of Vidhyadhara. Its construction
is dated to the period from 1025 and 1050 AD

57
The advanced typical Hindu temple structure consists of five compartments:
Entrance porch ( ardh-mandapa ), Main assembly hall ( Mandapa ), Ambulatory
passage hall ( Maha-Mandapa ), Ante chamber between shrine and hall
( Antarala ), Sanctum ( Garbhagriha )

58
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, 31 metres (102 ft) in height, is in the western
complex, which is the largest among the three groups of the Khajuraho complex of
temples. This western group of temples, consisting of the Kandariya,
Matangeshwara and Vishvanatha temples, is compared to a "cosmic design of a
hexagon (a yantra or Cosmo gram)" representing the three forms of Shiva. The
temple architecture is an assemblage of porches and towers which terminates in
a shikhara or spire, a feature which was common from the 10th century onwards
in the temples of Central India.
The temple is founded on a massive plinth of 4 metres (13 ft) height.The temple
structure above the plinth is dexterously planned and pleasingly detailed. The
superstructure is built in a steep mountain shape or form, symbolic of Mount
Meru which is said to be the mythical source of creation of the world. [8] The
superstructure has richly decorated roofs which rise in a grand form terminating
in the shikara, which has 84 miniature spires. The temple is in layout of 6 square
kilometres (2.3 sq mi), of which 22 are extant including the Kaṇḍāriyā Mahādeva
Temple. This temple is characteristically built over a plan of 31 metres (102 ft) in
length and 20 metres (66 ft) in width with the main tower soaring to a height of 31
metres (102 ft), and is called the "largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho. A
series of steep steps with high rise lead from the ground level to the entrance to
the temple. The layout of the temple is a five-part design, a commonality with the
Lakshmana and Vishvanatha temples in the Khajuraho complex. Right at the
entrance there is torana, a very intricately carved garland which is sculpted from a
single stone; such entrances are part of a Hindu wedding procession. [4] The
carvings on the entrance gate shows the "tactile quality of the stone and also the
character of the symmetrical design" that is on view in the entire temple which has
high relief carvings of the figurines. Finely chiseled, the decorative quality of the
ornamentation with the sharp inscribed lines has "strong angular forms and
brilliant dark-light patterns". The carvings are of circles, undulations giving off
spirals or sprays, geometric patterns, masks of lions and other uniform designs
which has created a pleasant picture that is unique to this temple, among all
others in the complex.[14]

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The main temple tower with 84 mini spires/Erotic sculptures on the external walls of the
temple

A section of the detailed sculptural decoration carved in the exterior walls of the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
The interior of the temple was also provided with statues of divinities and very
beautiful ceilings, whose superimposed overhangs were used for decorative purposes
by using geometric compositions. The most beautiful temples of this type are, in
Bhubaneshwar, the Lingaraja temple (first half of the 11th century) -whose roof
culminates about 50 m above the ground- and, in Khajuraho, the Kandariya Mahadeva
temple (of this same period).

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A view of the inner roof of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

The
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (meaning “the Great God of the Cave”), is the largest
and most ornate Hindu temple found at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh, India). It is
considered one of the best examples of temples preserved from the medieval period in
India.
Another floor plan from the same period is that exemplified by the temples at
Khajuraho (temples of Vishvanatha, Lakshmana, etc.): over a common rectangular
terrace are arranged in a staggered pattern (pañcayatana) the sanctuary in the center
and four chapels at the angles.

In the interior space from the entrance there are three mandapas or halls, which
successively rise in height and width, which is inclusive of a small chamber
dedicated to Shiva, a chamber where the Shiva linga, the phallic emblem of Shiva
is deified. The sanctum sanctorum is surrounded by interlinked passages which
also have side and front balconies. Due to inadequate natural light in the
balconies the sanctum has very little light thus creating a "cave like atmosphere"
which is in total contrast to the external parts of the temple. In the interior halls of
the temple and on its exterior faces there are elaborately carved sculptures of gods
and goddesses, musicians and apsaras or nymphs. The huge pillars of the halls
have architectural features of the "vine or scroll motif". In the corners of the halls
there are insets which are carved on the surface with incised patterns. There is a
main tower above the sanctum and there are two other towers above the other
mantapas also in the shape of "semi-rounded, stepped, pyramidal form with
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progressively greater height". The main tower is encircled by a series of interlinked
towers and spires of smaller size. These are in the form of a repeated subset of
miniature spires that abut a central core which gives the temple an unevenly cut
contour similar to the shape of a mountain range of mount Kailasa of
the Himalayas where god Shiva resides, which is appropriate to the theme of the
temples here.
The exterior surfaces of the temples are entirely covered with sculptures in three
vertical layers.[4] Here, there are horizontal ribbons carved with images, which
shine bright in the sun light, providing rhythmic architectural features. Among the
images of gods and heavenly beings, Agni, the god of fire is prominent.[14] They are
niches where erotic sculptures are fitted all round which are a major attraction
among visitors. Some of these erotic sculptures are very finely carved and are
in mithuna (coitus) postures with maidens flanking the couple, which is a
frequently noted motif. There is also a "male figure suspended upside" in coitus
posture, a kind of yogic pose, down on his head. [4] The niches also have sculptures
of Saptamatrikas, the septad of mother goddesses along with the
gods Ganesha and Virabhadra. The seven fearful protector goddesses include:
Brahmi seated on a swan of Brahma; Maheshwari with three eyes seated on
Shiva's bull Nandi; Kumari; Vaishnavi mounted on Garuda; the boar-
headed Varahi; the lion-headed Narasimhi and Chamunda, the slayer of demons
Chanda and Munda.[4] The image of Sardula, a mythical creature with lion face and
human limbs in lower panel is a unique figure seen in the temple

The design and the architectural elements of the Nageshwar temple have a unique
symbolism and it’s interesting to know more about it. The Nageshwar temple has a
lot of spiritual significance that seeps in through its design elements.

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 Conceptual Design of Temple
The Nageshwar temple has a unique design that follows the ancient principles of
Vastu Shastra and is in complete affirmation with conservative Hindu temple
design. The temple follows the western style of temple architecture and it faces
west. A devotee who prayers to the divine Shiva Linga in Nageshwara temple also
automatically faces the Sun God.
The temple is planned on the basis of the posture of Sayanam of the Human Body.
The Mahadwar, entrance and porch, prayer halls (Sabha Mandapa), Antarala
(Nandi’s Place), Inner Sanctum (Garbha Griha) are the portions of the temple. Here
the different structures have the following significance.
 Mahadwar is the body’s feet: devotee enters through the feet
 Entrance Porch is between the two sacred idols of Hanuman and Ganesh: hands of
the human body
 Sabha Mandapa contain the payer seats: they are the abdomen and chest of the
body
 Antaralaa is the worship place of Nandi
 Holy Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha i.e. the Body’s head
The total height of the temple is 110’ above Ground’s level and it has many
beautiful elements like arches, rounded flute shaped columns, lotus themed
capitals, jails made of pure marble etc., the whole structure is interspersed with
swastika and Kalash which are traditional Hindu worship signage.
The temple has three different levels. The Garbhagriha or the first level is 6 inches
below ground level while Rangamandapa is 2 inches above the ground level
(second level). The Antarala is situated somewhere in between and it guards the
Shiva Linga in Garbha Griha. The Antaral is believed to be the transition place
between the God (Lingaa) and the devotees in Mandapa. The Antaral is therefore
called as the level of Pujari.

Architecture of the Temple

The temple is constructed according to the basic weather conditions of the area
and it gently slopes towards the Lake of Nageshwar. There is a retaining wall along
the Nageshwar Lake. The foundation of the temple is built in raft style as the size
is huge and there are no rock strata beneath. The whole temple is built out of RCC
or Reinforced Concrete Cement that have anti rust chemical coatings. Porbandar
stone of light and porous texture is cladded on the structure. Huge amount of
labor force was called in from Bombay to complete the temple.

IV
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 Constructing a Gopuram. RAMBLINGS !
1. Way-finders: They serve as way-finders for travelers. In ancient times devoid of
tall buildings, a gopuram could easily be seen from kilometers away thus leading a
lost traveler to the 'nearest city'.
2. Watchtowers: Gopurams could have easily been used as watchtowers. They
usually have stairs leading up till the top floor, from where you can keep a watch
on a large perimeter.
3. Positive energy: I'm not sure about this, but gopurams might have been built to
be a source of positive energy to people.
4. Show-off: Kings might have built highly ornate and tall gopurams to show-off
that they can.

Regarding the number of storeys and the statues, I don't think they hold any special
significance. From observing a gopuram, you might be able to tell who (the dynasty or
maybe the king) built the temple. But for that, you need to 'study' gopurams and their
architecture.

Gopuram:

It represents auspicious fire from Yagum/yajna. It is a symbolic representation of entering

Lord’s house through the fire that burns our ignorance of maya.

Storeys of Gopuram:

Generally built in odd numbers ranges from 3 to 13 mostly. The smallest in ancient temples
is Kailasanathar temple, Kanchipuram 3 storeys and tallest is srirangam rajagopuram-13
storeys though it is recently built.

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Rarely in even number - 20 storeys in Murudeshwar Temple

Learnings from Gopuram:

Gopuram is the sangama where bhakthi and history merges. some of the examples

1)Srirangam Vellai Gopuram: East Entrance White Gopuram:

Coloured in White in remembrance of Devadasi Vellayi who sacrificed her life in saving the
temple from Invaders.

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In same gopuram you can also see the idols of two jeeyars who sacrificed their life for the
Temple (Exact Reason unknown).

The legend of Vellayi

2) Chidambaram Gopuram:

Idols of Kulothunga Chola II & Sekkizhar

Kulothunga II ordered sekkizhar to compile shaiva saints history Periyapuranam.sekkizhar

gave periyapuranam to the world in chidambaram temple.

Entry of Manikkavasagar

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Manikkavasagar entered Chidambaram Temple and achieved salvation.

Temple Architects with Measuring Scale:

Idols of two Temple Architects with measurement scale used in the construction of Temple

Image Credit: from Book -Tamizhaga Gopura Marabu (Tamilnadu Gopuram Traditions
) by Kudavayil Balasubramanian

Likewise you can make hundreds of observations in the Temple Gopurams inf India.

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Reference Book:

Tamizhaga Gopura Marabu (Tamilnadu Gopuram Traditions ) by Kudavayil Balasubramanian

The temples in South India. The earliest known famous stone temple in Tamil Nadu will be
the Ratha Temples in Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas during the 7th century. These are
rock cut temples - carved out of rocks / boulders.Then you ll find the later Cholas building a
temple out of stones in the starting of 9th century - the Vijayalaya Choleswaran Temple at
Narthamalai

After a century, you ll the find the construction of Tanjore Big Temple - the magnum opus
of the Chola architectural style. It was again built by the later Cholas in the 10th century.The
point is you see the evolution of the architectural style, capability of the people over a
period of years. In history, nothing comes out of the blue but you will always find the
precursor to it like the evolution of organisms.

This is the Tomb of Sultan Hoshang Shah at Mandu in the State of Madhya Pradesh. Built
in 1440, the Hoshang Shah’s tomb is a mausoleum built entirely of marble. Considered to be
India’s first marble monument, it is believed that the design and architecture of Taj Mahal at
Agra was inspired by this tomb. 200 years later, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan sent one of the
architects involved in the building of Taj Mahal, Ustad Hamid to pay homage to the
architects of this building which is known to us through the inscription on the arched

doorway.

Before building the Taj, the Mughals built another beautiful edifice completley in marble
pretty closer to Taj Mahal in Agra. It is the Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah. The mausoleum
was commissioned by Nūr Jahān, the wife of Emperor Jahangir, for her father Mirzā Ghiyās
Beg. The tomb, built between 1622 and 1628 represents a transition between the first phase
of monumental Mughal architecture – primarily built from red sandstone with marble
decorations, as in Humayun's Tomb in Delhi and Akbar's tomb in Sikandra – to its second
phase, based on white marble and pietra dura inlay, most elegantly realized in the Tāj
Mahal.

After the completion of the Taj Mahal, the Mughals built this one.

Unless you look deep into this picture, you might mistake it for the Taj Mahal. No wonder it
is called the Taj of the Deccan and it was designed inline with the Taj Mahal by the son of
the principal designer of the Taj Mahal. It is one of the finest Mughal buildings existing in
the south of India and it was built during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb but you
can safely assume it wasn't built by him considering his austere nature as well as his
orthodox religious views. It was constructed by his son Prince Azam Shah in memory of his

68
mother Dilras Banu Begum and this beautiful mausoleum is widely known as Bibi ka
Maqbara- Tomb of the lady.

As you can see from the design & construction patterns, I believe the Taj Mahal to be a
Mughal Construction but not a Shiva Temple.

I have been to other mosques / Islamic monuments which had been converted /
constructed over temples or by the materials taken from the Hindu Temples and you would
see stark evidences / architectural designs in them like the ones given below

own understanding from my 2 year travels across India and my visit to huge number of
historical monuments in India. In my humble opinion, The Taj is nowhere closer to the
architectural grandeur & engineering prowess of the Indian Temples like The Kailasanatha
Temple in Ellora, The Big Temple in Tanjore, The Konark Sun Temple in Odisha and I can go
on. All these were 600 years older to Taj and I can only fathom if India wasn't invaded what
we would have constructed.

The Taj is not a Shiva temple and never was. There is overwhelming evidence that the Taj
Mahal was always just that- a monument to love. Usually I present answers giving facts and
scientific/historical evidence, but it is unnecessary in this case. All the statements in this
regard can be traced back to one person:

Purushottam Nagesh Oak. Now, shut off logic and reasoning for a minute before reading
the rest of the answer.

His other statements include:

1. Christianity is a derivative of Hinduism

2. Christian - Krishna sound alike
3. Vatican and the Papacy are Hindu derivatives (Vatican came from Vatika)
4. Stone henge is a Hindu structure
5. Islam is a derivative of Hinduism
6. Kabba is a Hindu structure/temple
7. Arabia was visited by Vikramaditya (Indian King)
8. All civilizations were born in India
9. Red fort is a Hindu structure

I could go on, but you get the general idea right? There are more theories of his that I am
not mentioning here, the more curiously inclined can do more digging.

When he filed a public interest litigation in court to declare the Taj a Hindu structure, it was
thrown out of court. To quote:

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Somebody has a bee in his bonnet, hence this petition was the remark of a Division
Bench comprising Mr Justice SP Bharucha and Mr Justice Ruma Pal

India has a rich history inherited from various cultures. Why try to categorize these
structures according to religion?The builders of these structures had resources, architectural
genius and wanted to inspire awe and respect, not hate and prejudice. Forget these
conspiracy theories and focus on the beauty and symmetry that is universal.

Hinduism is a complete way of life which includes daily rituals, habits, culinary skills for daily
and special days/periods, plant based medications and most of all societal interactions.
Temple is part of what is known as “community meeting place” for commoness in worship
and seek mental balance.

Temples have always been a place of chants, purity, serenity, worship and communal
interaction for the general well being of one and all. It is to be noted that temple structures
have a conical roof top, images made from special rock formations and vast space of
emptiness which reverberate the chants which become part of daily routine. This is where
when a person sits down or walks around grounded (no footwear and hence feet touches
the ground) to absorb the positive vibrations and also absorbs negative ions to balance
them for a better day and most importantly mental stability. Of course would it mean if one
never visited a temple they would be mentally unstable - not at all - the temple just
augments the situation.

Temples have always been built traditionally as the center of every village or community and
it's “rajagopuram” or entrance stands tallest amongst the buildings around it. The vessels
which are made of high conductivity metal such as Gold, Copper, bronze, etc are fitted and
then connected through a string of structures to ground a lightning strike. This protects the
households around the temple.

Secondly the Rajagopuram has “vessels” which contain the germinating seeds of all those
cultivated in and around the area - certain temples only have three or four “heads” whereas
larger temples have many more - this is to accommodate the seeds which are used by
agriculturists around the area. A repository of seeds for a period in time. This is retained in
the structure for a maximum of 12years and then renovated with fresh set of seeds. This
seed vaults high up is preserved for distribution in the event of a regional calamity either
through excessive floods, epidemic or drought! Since it is considered part of a worshipping
center chances of theft or vandalism is minimum and also people will respect the structure
in awe than with evil intent.

The temples also played another role of preserving local culture, folklore and natural
resources. Take for instance Chidambaram, the temple has supported and encouraged
BharathaNatyam for centuries, the Tirupati Temple has ensured the forest lands, the animals
living within and the hills themselves are preserved forever! Temples instil a moral

70
obligation, divine fear and social responsibility amongst the community to ensure
preservation! Preservation encompasses not just resources but also values, culture and even
language!

VI
: ប្រាង្គ
The PRANG of Khmer
temples

A prang is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later adapted by Buddhist builders
in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–
1932). In Thailand it appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front') and aṅga (limb of the
body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi.
Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding size as it ascends. The receding size of
almost identical roof structures of the stepped pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the
tower is taller than it actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu
temple, although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points, a prang usually has richly
adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or blind doors. The prang took plan of multi corners
rectangular, which on top of each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of
multi-headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.

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Khmer

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods, such as Shiva and Vishnu.
The space within the prang tower, the cella, was relatively small for two reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the capital of the Khmer
only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was called the Mandapa. Over
the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru,
crowned by a top stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha (temple towers) elements. The
early 10th century and the late 12th century prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects
of the great temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.

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The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries - giving ample
room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of the people. The outer
gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat was
designed to represent the world with the four corners of the outer wall anchored at the four corners of the
earth and the moat representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales,
religious iconography, and royal processions all wind themselves around the façade.
At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present day to
receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The
central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu statue once
stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all earthly and divine occurrences. The
galleries, according to some scholars, were used for astronomical observations and were built specifically
for that purpose so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There
is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the
constellation of Draco, the dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.
Transformation & Decay

THE BUDDHIST CRAFTSMEN ADDED TO THE INTRICATE STORY OF THE TEMPLE

WHILE TAKING NOTHING AWAY.

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and statues of the Buddha and
Buddha-related stories were added to the already impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the
beliefs of the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork was left in place.
The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the temple while taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was still occupied by Buddhist
monks, and it became the subject of stories and legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the
distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for his son and that it
rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was protected from the surrounding jungle

73
by the immense moat and so, unlike other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of
Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.

Even though local people still visited the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark
spirits. The great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed to be continued
to infuse the area with positive energy. Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the
afterglow of the high energy, moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to
emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went to visit.
With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and even though it was never
completely taken by the jungle, natural growth made headway up the walls and through the cracks
between the stones.

Western Discovery & Restoration

The temple did not sit quietly for long, however. In western documents, Angkor Wat was first visited by
the Portuguese monk Antonio da Madalena in 1586 CE whose notes on the complex clearly convey his
sense of wonder. He made no efforts at restoring the site, or even suggesting it, but recorded its location.
The next westerner to visit was the French archaeologist Henri Mouhot c. 1860 CE. Mouhot is always
cited as the man who "discovered" Angkor Wat but, actually, it was never lost. Anyone who lived in the
area knew of the site, and it was known in legend by people far off.
Mouhot was, however, the first westerner to take an active interest in Angkor Wat and publicize its
existence. He was so impressed by the temple that he devoted himself to its renovation and restoration.
Mouhot believed the temple had been built by some ancient civilization now lost and considered the
stories of how Indra had raised the structure in a night to be evidence of an ancient culture's lost
technology. He refused to accept that it could have been built by the ancestors of the Cambodians he
interacted with on a daily basis in exactly the same way that westerners c. 1850 CE rejected the notion
that the great cities and temples of Mexico and Central America could have been built by the Maya.

Main shrine Shikara EAST face and FRONT face to RIGHT :Picture

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Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian
architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. [24] However, the Southeast Asian temple
architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the
Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the
theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled
the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more
conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought
than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred
architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a
memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple
architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century),] and
the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).
How many buildings are in Angkor Wat? thousand buildings 1150 to be precise: The vast religious
complex of Angkor Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings, and it is one of the great cultural
wonders of the world. Angkor Wat is the world's largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres
(160 hectares), and marks the high point of Khmer architecture.

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 Pointe

d Shikaras

Flattened but spirev like Shikaras with no klash. Kalash is absent in Angkor temples or has been knocked
down

10 Largest Temples in the World

Although roughly defined as a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities not all religions use
the word temple. In the Western Christian tradition temple is rarely used for example so these churches
and cathedrals will be excluded. In contrast, in the Eastern Christian tradition the word temple is used
very frequently.
Second what measure of size to use? According to the Guinness World Record the Akshardham Temple
is the largest Hindu temple in the world but this is disputed by at least 3 other temples in India which are

76
all claimed to be the largest temple. These temples are often part of a larger complex which makes it even
less clear. In this list I’ll focus on the main temple (if any) to determine which is the largest temple in the
word.
10. Baalbek

flickr/upyernoz
Baalbek, also called Heliopolis, is a spectacular archaeological site in northeastern Lebanon. From the 1st
century BC and over a period of two centuries, the Romans built three temples here: Jupiter, Bacchus and
Venus. Created to be the largest temple in the Roman empire, the temple of Jupiter was lined by 54
massive granite columns. Only 6 of these titanic columns remain standing but even they are incredibly
impressive. The best preserved temple at the site is the Temple of Bacchus built in 150 AD. The temple is
69 meters long and 36 meters wide. Its walls are adorned by 42 Corinthian columns, 19 of which remain
upright in position standing 19 meters (62 feet) high.

9. Temple of Christ the Saviour

flickr/akk_rus

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One of the most imposing and controversial buildings in Moscow, the resurrected Temple of Christ the
Saviour has had a short but turbulent history. It was originally commissioned after the defeat of
Napoleon, but construction did not begin until 1839. In 1931 it was blown to pieces by orders of Stalin to
make way for a proposed Palace of the Soviets, which was never built. In 1990, the Russian Orthodox
Church received permission to rebuilt the cathedral. Completed in 2000, the new cathedral is loosely
based on the original design, but constructed with modern building materials. At a height of 105 meters
(344 feet) it is the tallest Orthodox church in the world.
8. Temple of Saint Sava

flickr/Jorge-11
The Temple of Saint Sava in Belgrade is the largest Orthodox church building in the world. It is dedicated
to the founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church. The construction of the church began in 1985 and was
mostly completed by 2004. The internal decorations are still not finished. In English, it is usually called a
cathedral because of its size and importance but it is not the seat of a bishop and therefore technically not
a cathedral. In Serbian it is called a hram (temple). The church is 91 meters (299 feet) long from and 81
meters (266 feet) wide. It is 70 meters (230 feet) tall, with the main gold-plated cross on top of the dome
extends the church for 12 more meters (39 feet). It has a surface area of 3,500 m2 on the ground floor.

7. Tikal (Temple IV)

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Tikal was the largest Mayan city between ca. 200 to 900 AD with an estimated population between
100,000 and 200,000 inhabitants. Tikal contains 6 very large step pyramids. The largest, Temple-pyramid
IV, is some 72 meters (230 feet) high and was finished around 720 AD. Temple IV is the largest temple
built anywhere in the Maya region, and as it currently stands is the tallest pre-Columbian structure in the
Americas although the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan may originally have been taller, as may have
been one of the jungle covered pyramids at El Mirador.

6. Jetavanaramaya Stupa, Srilanka

Located in the city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, the Jetavanaramaya is the largest stupa in the world if
measured by volume. The temple was built by king Mahasena in the 3rd century AD and took 15 years to
complete. Approximately 93.3 million baked bricks were used in the construction. With a height of 122
meters (400 feet), Jetavanaramaya was the third tallest structure in the world behind the pyramids of Giza
at the time of its completion. The diameter of the dome itself is approximately 95 meters (312 feet).

5. Sri Ranganathaswamy, INDIA

flickr/Melanie M

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Dedicated to Lord Ranganatha (a reclining form of Lord Vishnu), the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in
Srirangam is an important shrine that receives millions of visitors and pilgrims every year. With an area
of 156 acres (6,31,000 m²), the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is one of the largest temples in the world.
In fact, the temple can be easily termed as the largest functioning Hindu temple complex in the world.
The oldest structure of the temple dates back to the 10th century. There are 21 gopurams (tower), among
which the Rajagopuram is the biggest temple in South India. It is 73 meters (240 feet) in height, and dates
from the 17th century, although it was only completed in 1987.

4. Akshardham Temple,Delhi INDIA

Completed in 2005 by the spiritual organization BAPS, no expense has been spared in decorating the
Akshardham temple. The building was inspired and moderated by Pramukh Swami Maharaj, the current
head of Swaminarayan Hinduism. The central monument is 43 meters (141 feet) high, 96 meters (316
feet) wide, and 110 meters (370 feet) long, and is covered top to bottom with carved details of flora,
fauna, dancers, musicians, and deities. It is constructed entirely from Rajasthani pink sandstone and
Italian Carrara marble, and has no support from steel or concrete.
3. Borobudur, Java

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Located on the Indonesian island of Java, 40 km (25 miles) northwest of Yogyakarta, the Borobudur is
the largest Buddhist temple in the world. The temple was built over a period of some 75 years in the 8th
and 9th centuries by the kingdom of Sailendra, out of an estimated 2 million blocks of stone. The
Borobodur can be divided into three groups: base, body, and top, which resembles the three major
division of a human body. The base is a 123×123 meters (403.5×403.5 feet) square in size and 4 meters
(13 feet) high of walls. The total surface area is approximately 2,500 m2. The body is composed of 5
square platforms each with diminishing heights. The top is a monumental stupa with a main dome at the
center . The dome has a height of 35 meters (115 feet) from the ground level.

2. Karnak (Great Hypostyle Hall)

Although badly ruined, few sites in Egypt are more impressive than Karnak. It is the largest ancient
temple complex in the world, and represents the combined achievement of many generations of Egyptian
builders. Karnak actually consists of several temples. One of most famous structures of Karnak is the
Hypostyle Hall, a hall area of 5,000 m2 (50,000 sq ft). The 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows
supported a roof that has now fallen. At a height of 24 meters (80 feet) the 2 middle rows are higher than
the others.

In S.E.Asian type of temples the Top of the temple is called the PRANG
The

PHRA PRANG SAM YOD, LOPBURI, THAILAND – (RIGHT PIC): The centre of Lopburi dominated
by the 13th century Khmer temple of Phra Prang Sam Yod. From the late 9th century, the Khmer empire,

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which was centred around Angkor was to dominate a large swathe of Southeast Asia including parts of
Thailand. They left behind a legacy of stone sanctuaries and palaces built to the gods as well as
magnificent sculptures of Hindu deities.. (Photo by Ben Davies/LightRocket via Getty Images) The
temple was built by King Jayavarman VII of the Khmer Empire in the early 13th century. Jayavarman
intended for the temple to be an important location in the royal cult surrounding himself, as it would
increase the legitimacy of his rule. In addition, the temple served to showcase the prestige of the Khmer
Empire in Lopburi (then known as Lavo) as it had only recently captured the city from its Cham and Mon
rivals. This is evidence of the extentand reach of the Asparagus spire temples of Angkor. Built along the
lines of contemporaneous Khmer architecture, the temple is made from brick with a stucco exterior, the
latter possibly being inspired by Mon architectural tradition. The structure has three towers, each with a
corresponding deity; the north tower is dedicated to Prajnaparamita, the central tower to the Buddha, and
the south tower to Avalokiteśvara.

The spires represent the mountains of eternity and the moat the eternal waters. It was built using 1.5
cubic meters of sand and silt in the 12th century CE under the reign of the Khmer emperor Suryavarman
II (r. 1113-1150 CE) as a grand Hindu temple expressing the monarch's dedication to Vishnu. What is the
elements of Angkor Wat? The spires look like asparagus as seen below-

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The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of Khmer architecture and include the ogival,
lotus bud-shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries, connecting enclosures and cruciform terraces.
Angkor Wat is a temple complex in the province of Siem Reap, Cambodia originally dedicated to
the Hindu god Vishnu in the 12th century CE. It is among the largest religious buildings ever created,
second only to the Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt and, some claim, even larger. How many pillars
does Angkor Wat? From the top of the terrace there is a fine view of the gallery on the first level, known
as the Gallery of Bas-reliefs (215 by 187 meters, 705 by 614 feet). The outer side, closest to the visitor,
comprises a row of 60 columns whereas the inner side is a solid wall decorated with bas-reliefs. How
many buildings are in Angkor Wat? 1 thousand buildings- (1150). The vast religious complex of Angkor
Wat comprises more than a thousand buildings, and it is one of the great cultural wonders of the world.
Angkor Wat is the world's largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres (160 hectares), and marks
the high point of Khmer architecture. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this
area, and the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the
landscape beyond. HOW BIG IS Angkor Archaeological Park? 400 km2-Stretching over some 400 km2,
including forested area, Angkor Archaeological Park contains the magnificent remains of the different
capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century. The monument was made out of five to
ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far
greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly
greater than modern-day Paris. Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and
the remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape
beyond.Which means 72 major Vimanas or Shikaras and 1000 buildings some with and others without a
Vimana or shikara roughly I would estimate that total number of Vimanas would be around 200-250 at
the least.

Kalasan

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Hindu temples typically have Kalasam or Called As Gopura Kalasam at the top of temple towers, in the
form of inverted pot, with pointed head facing the sky, is one of the prominent symbol of temples

Kalasan temple is called so as it is Kalash shaped and is also linked with the of Kalasan
inscription

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Angkor Wat means "City of the Temple", justifies the statistics quoted in the above paragraph and it
was created as a physical manifestation of human interaction with the realm of the gods. The spires
represent the mountains of eternity and the moat the eternal waters. It was built using 1.5 cubic meters of
sand and silt in the 12th century CE under the reign of the Khmer emperor Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1150
CE) as a grand Hindu temple expressing the monarch's dedication to Vishnu.

The temple covers 420 acres (162.6 hectares) with a central tower 213 feet (65 m) high. The surrounding
moat is 650 feet (200 m) wide running a perimeter of over three miles (5 km) with a depth of 13 feet (4
m). Its function as a Hindu temple fell out of use in the late 13th century CE, and it was taken over
by Buddhist monks.

IT WAS THE GRANDEST COMPLEX IN THE REGION, THE CENTER OF THE KHMER EMPIRE,
BUT HAD BEEN LARGELY ABANDONED BY THE 16TH CENTURY CE.

In its time, it was the grandest complex in the region, the center of the Khmer Empire, but had been
largely abandoned by the 16th century CE and was taken by the surrounding jungle. Western explorers
discovered the site in the 19th century CE, cleared the overgrowth, and began restoration efforts. Today it
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.
Suryavarman II & Construction

Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE) for his
creation of a strong central government that united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military
expeditions against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring Champa
kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes were in diplomacy, not war, as he
successfully opened relations with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.
Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper, who assassinated his great
uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to
destroying a serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He then legitimized
his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it through the construction of the grand
complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his
victory. He had amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense in the
creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher Scarre notes:

The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an austere civilization like that of the Indus, a
society that carried the cult of wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached
it apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat. (366)
The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could only enter
from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to
experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great stories of the gods, heroes, and
ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of the great temple. All around the
complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a network of
roads created.

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Angkor Wat, Cambodia………………………………..SuryavarmanII

A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then encased in
sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills,
18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is unknown how long
construction took to complete and, according to some interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II wanted to ensure that,
however one saw the work, he would be part of it. Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu,
consorting with the god, and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and
holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different scenes, in fact, led early
excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary temple.
There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other temples in the area - which face
east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple
are clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts traditional religious
rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would
be no contesting the claim for it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this.

It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished at Suryavarman
II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had
it purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers the king's
religious beliefs.

MOUNT-MERU

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Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical nexus in Hinduism which is
the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple.
Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced
in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the
brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven,
the gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not
allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but the
gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before
allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works of Hindu
religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As most people could not read
in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book on which the important religious and
cultural tales could be related visually.

Mount Meru (मेरु), also known as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked
mountain of Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all
the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist, Jain,
and Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. Etymologically,
the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Sanskrit: Meru), to which is added the approbatory
prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".Meru is also the name
of the central bead in a mālā.

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Shikharas or Vimanas of the Royal Thai Palace Bangkor

Shikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu
temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples.

Basic form of a Hindu temple

Temple architecture have been a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave temples to monolithic
rathas which finally culminated in structural temples. Before we come to the basic form of a Hindu
structural temple we must consider the following architectural steps or nuances:

Steps in Temple Construction 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple
and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is
fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vaastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed
with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves creating
cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main
deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the
earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness and infinity (see Fig. below). The
mandala is actually a square divided into smaller squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller
square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used mandala is the square
subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Figure-: The image of Vastupurushamandala with 64 blocks for
different deities. See my detailed article on Vastupurushamandala on academia.edu and
researchgate.net

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VINYASASUTRA (LAYOUT & ORIENTATION) of Ancient Temples: In Hindu temple manuals,
design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the
simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with
Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection,
and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for
the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is
considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. Figure-: Typical Temple Plan (a)Shrine
alone (b)Shrine with porch (c)Shrine with Antarala and porch. (d) Sarvatobhadra shrine with four
entrances Figure-: Typical Temple plan of temple : temple of Tanjavur

Tanjavar layout plan above

The temple architecture portrays the advancement of ancient Indian building sciences. The styles, design
and geometry, structural system and construction materials and technology of the Indian temples, their
distinctive architectural styles of Hindu temples are all a ancient science emulated temple after temple. It
also focus on geometric excellence of the layout plans of the ancient temples. The balance, hierarchy,
regulation and symmetry like architectural concepts was well developed in ancient India before thousand
of years.

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 Tanjavar
1. Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much
ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and
Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

4. Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
8. Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which
is placed axially before the sanctum.
Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as
 Nagara (in North India)
 Dravida (in South India)
 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing of
Nagara and Dravida orders.

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Introduction to the SHIKARA: During the Gupta Empire, when Buddhist practices began to fuse with
the surviving Vedic practices of pre-Buddhist times, Which lead to new and well- organized religion that
we now call Hinduism. The Gupta revival of a transformed Vedic Hinduism was a skillful exercise in
adaptation and invention. Vedic institutions were reinvented to serve the purposes of their new
champions. Old fire sacrifices were transformed into courtly ritual, oral Vedic literatures were rewritten
to integrate contemporary social and cultural norms. Vedic gods were supplanted by new, more agential
and personal gods— particularly Shiva and Vishnu.

Sanskrit became the language of the court and the medium of an official high culture that revolved
around the reinvented institution of the temple. Though the new Hinduism challenged Buddhism
theologically, the latter’s institutions and practices were assimilated into the Hindu temple. Buddhist
practices were not prohibitedin fact, their institutions continued to thrive. By this time, the Buddhists
were themselves routinely making stone images of the Buddha.

To start with in Hindu worship, the antarala (doorway or threshold) between the garbha - griha and a
mandapa marks the all- important moment of transition at which the worshipper and the deity come
into direct visual contact and enact the critical transaction called darshana (“beholding of an
auspicious deity”). A sanctum inside the Hoysaleshwara templein Halebidu the whole temple can be
considered a two-way portal between the worlds of the worshipper and the deity. In essence, the deity
descends into the lingam or statue while the worshipper ascends to the sacred threshold. The deity is
considered to be a guest in the world of the worshipper.

The Hindu temple Temple Architecture of architecture developed over two thousand India years. It is
said thatbthe architectural evolution of the indian temples took place within the rigid frameworks
derived entirely from religious thoughtfulness. Therefore the architect was bound to keep to the
ancient primary dimensions and strict configurations, which remained unaltered over the period of
time.

The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the early wood,
timber and thatch buildings.It had persisted for centuries in one form or another in the stone structures
even though the original purpose and context was lost. This can be studied from the horseshoe shaped
window. The origin of this type of window can be traced from the chaitya arch doorway first at the
Lomash Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills used in the 3rd century BC.It was transformed later into a
dormer window known as a gavaksha and eventually it was used strictly as the decorative design of
interlaced forms seen on the towers of medieval temples.

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The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and decoration of the
temples. This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural elements, sculptural forms and
decorative ebullience that is the characteristic feature of Indian temple architecture has few analogues
in the aesthetic manifestation of the whole world.

The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the south India was the
result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic differences resulted,
from early on, in.The Vastu Shastras, the ancient canonical texts on architecture, classify temples into
three different orders: the Nagara or the Indo-Aryan or Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern
style and the Vesara or Mixed style of temple architecture.There are also definite regional styles in
peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.

In the early years, when the temple building had just begun, the shape of their superstructures can
distinguish the two styles. The most significant difference between the later northern and southern
styles are the gateways. The shikhara in the north Indian temples remained the most prominent
component of the temple and the gateway was ordinarily unassuming. In the south Indian temples, the
enclosure walls were built around the whole complex.• Elaborate and often magnificent gateways
called gopurams were ideally set along the east-west and north-south axes of these walls, which led
the devotees into the sacred courtyard. Less obvious differences between the two main temple types
include the ground plan; the selection and positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and
the interior, and the range of decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost
obscure the underlying architecture.

Parts of a Hindu temple:

Examples The best examples of the north Indian style of temple architecture are the Khajuraho
Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark, Surya temple, Modhera, Gujarat and Ossian temple, Ossian,
Gujarat.

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 The finest examples of Dravidian style are temples of Tanjore, Madurai, Mahabalipuram, Badami,
Pattadakal and Kanchipuram. Sarkar, Gurudas. "Notes on the History of Shikhara Temples." Rupam -
an Illustrated Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art, no. 10 (1922).
The most characteristic feature of a class of temple architecture in India is its spire or shikhara which
forms the termination of the upper portion of the body, or vimana, of the temple. In the temples of the so-
called Aryan or Āryāvarta type the spire is more or less a curvilinear one with a corrugated stone at the
top—known as the amalaka—surmounted in its turn by the kalasa or the water jar finial. In South Indian
architecture the vimana is, however, a many-storied one and, instead of the kalasa or amphora, it ends in
octagonal or domical structures. The spire lies just above the cella or garbha griha and, except in the case
of Dravidian temples with their tall gopurams or gateways, it is the most elevated part of the temple and
attracts attention from a distance. Dr. Coomaraswamy has truly remarked that in Āryāvarta style ‘the
bulging spire with carved ribs rising above the shrine’ is ‘often repeated upon itself, as an architectural
ornament.’
The origin of the shikhara is still shrouded in obscurity and we propose in this paper to consider the
various theories promulgated by scholars, in regard to the shikhara and its significance, and to attempt a
genetical account—so far as it’s possible with the materials available—with reference to the distribution
and relative antiquity of the still existing archaeological remains.

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Leaving aside the Buddhist cave temples where architecture or architectonics, properly speaking, can find
no place—the oldest example of the shikhara is to be met at Bodh-Gaya—in the spire of the Mahabodhi
temple (Fig. 1). According to the generdity of opinion, the original structure is said to date from the 1st
century before the Christian era. Mr. H. Longhurst, however, believes that the Bodh-Gaya style cannot be
dated earlier than the 11th or 12th century A.D. He says that the Burmese introduced this peculiar style of
architecture into Bengal (sic) but it seems there’s little doubt that they originally borrowed it from
Southern India.1 Although the Bodh-Gaya spire has had to undergo reconstruction at a later period, we
can, from the representation of it as given in the Kumrahar plaque (Fig. 2), discovered by Dr. D. B.
Spooner, clearly make out that it originally had no curvilinear sides and that the prominent features of
Aryan or Āryāvarta class of spires were altogether wanting. Fergusson 2 has observed with reference to the
spire of the Bodh-Gaya temple that “the tower took a straight-lined course like the doorway at
Missolonghi and the ‘Gates of Lions’ at Mycenae, while the Hindus took the more graceful curvilinear
shape, which certainly was more common in remote classical antiquity and, as it is found at Persia, may
have reached India at a remote period.” The Mid-Victorian archaeologists seem to have had a special
penchant for theories relating to the alleged importation of architectural forms into India and, so far as the
curvilinear shikhara is concerned, it seems to have been in a manner countenanced even by so keen-
sighted an archaeologist as Raja Rajendra Lai Mitra. 3 We shall discuss in its proper place a modern
recrudescence of this theory but in order to be able to form a correct estimate of such views it is necessary
that the earliest types of Indian spires should at first be taken into consideration.
Of the old Indian structural temples—those of the Gupta age may be mentioned as next in sequence to the
Mahabodhi shrine, though there are few points of similarity between the two classes of structures. There
is a clear gap of 3 or 4 intervening centuries which still remain unabridged. The Gupta temples, which are
met with at Eran, Bilsar,4 Sanchi, Udaygiri, Tigowa, Deogarh and Nachna-Kuthara are built of stone and
in the oldest specimens ‘the flat roof, the square form, and the stern simplicity all point to the rock-hewn
cave as its prototype.’ As Cunningham observes in regard to the Gupta temples at Sanchi, there are in the
neighboring hill of Udaygiri actual rock-hewn examples of this type. 5 At Udaygiri moreover, there is a
false cave temple on one of the sides of which has been built up—the roof being a natural ledge of the
rock6. At Nachna-Kuthara (near Jaso in Central India) the Parvati temple which has a curious
conventional imitation of rock carvings on all the outer faces of its walls—apparently in the fashion of
‘old temples on the rock’—bears strong testimony to the persistence of cave features'. 7 Mr. R. D.
Banerjee, Superintendent of the Archaeological Survey, Western Circle, who visited the place at the
request of the Editor of "Rupam", ascribes it to the early Gupta period i.e., to the 4th or 5th century
A.D.8 There is however another spired Gupta temple at Nachna, that of the Chaturmukha Mahadeva
which more prominently deserves our attention. At the time when General Cunningham visited the site, it
had a tall spire with slightly curved sides nearly 40 ft. in height. Mr. Banerjee, who gives a representation
of this temple in PI. XVII of his report, describes it as an earlier Gupta temple and remarks that the large
four-faced lingam of the Mahadeva is certainly earlier than the temple itself. 9 Cunningham, who tried to
be more definite in his estimate of the age of the Chaturmukha temple, says that it must be considerably
later than the other (the Parvati temple) and is probably not older than 600 to 700 A.D. 10 This temple and
the spired Gupta temple of Deogarh in Jhansi District appear to have been built on the same model and
both stand on raised platforms.
Of the Deogarh temple, however, the spire—to quote from Cunningham’s Report— ‘is long in ruins
though several specimens of amalaka fruit, which forms the special ornament of a Hindu spire, are lying
about.’ Cunningham ascribes the same age to the Deogarh temple as that given to the spired temple at
Nachna-Kuthara. His main reason appears to have been that in these temples—his fifth characteristic of
Gupta temples viz. the flat roof— has given place to the spire which he regarded as one of the latest
characteristics of the Gupta style. He observes in his connection, ‘…as some of the flat-roofed Gupta
temples are certainly as late as A.D. 400, and others probably a century later, I think the Deogarh temple
cannot well be placed earlier than A.D. 600 or later than A.D. 700.” 11 The discovery however by Mr. Y.

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R. Gupte of an epigraphical record in characters of about the end of the 5 th century, noting a gift on the
part of one Govinda, the lord of Kesavapura 12 serves substantially to disprove Cunningham’s views on
this point. Another interesting find, a clay seal (Fig. 3.), among certain seals and old relics discovered at
Parbati13 especially attracted the attention of General Cunningham as it bore the representation of
a shikhara temple with a pennon floating from the top. While this particular seal bore no date, the other
seals which were discovered at the spot were found to contain inscriptions in Gupta characters. It may
therefore be surmised that the shikhara temple depicted on the seal must have been a fairly familiar type
in the Gupta period and existed not later than the 5th century.
Among the archaeological remains of Nagari, the ancient Madhyamika, which must have been in a
flourishing condition from the 3rd century B.C. to 7th century A.D.14 is a quarry of the Gupta period,
‘exploited for the purpose of sculpture’. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar discovered two
unfinished amalaka pieces15 which certainly presume the existence of shikhara temples here, in about the
5th century A.D.—an epigraph of this period having been discovered in a different part of the locality. 16
There are ruins of several Gupta temples also at Tigowa in Central Provinces, among which a flat-roofed
one, built in a style similar to the cave-temples at Udaygiri and the structural temples at Eran, has been
considered as the oldest by Cunningham, but there are certain other temples possessing ‘spire roofs
covered with the usual pinnacle of amalaka fruit,’ which were “undoubtedly all Brahminical as not a
single fragment of Buddhist or Jaina sculpture has been found among the ruins.’ 17 These temples are
believed to have been built not later than the 5th century A.D. and are probably as old as the 3rd18, and if the
earliest limit herein mentioned be taken as applicable to some of these shikhara temples also, there would
still be the period of three centuries to account for, in order to prove the Āryāvarta temple as a type
parallel and contemporaneous to the Mahabodhi.
‘shikhara is Indo-Aryan, not only, because it was mostly found in Northern India or the Ancient
Āryāvarta, but because it was introduced into India by the early Aryans and was peculiarly their own
contribution to Indian building traditions. It is sourced from Mesopotamian sources and refers to the royal
fortress palaces of analogous forms depicted in the stele of Naram-Sin, now in the Louvre (Fig. 22), and
in one of the sculptures figured in Layard's Nineveh (PI. 16, 2 nd series), ascribed to the age of
Sennacherib.
While we are grateful to Mr. Havell for thus bringing to prominent notice, these shikhara-like forms of
Assyrian origin, which are undoubtedly the oldest Asiatic types known to us, we think that the
conclusions drawn by him, as regards the significance of domical forms and the shikhara-like towered
structures, are hardly warranted by fact. One of Mr. Havell's examples is drawn from Plate 17 of Layard's
Nineveh or to give the volume its full title, A second series of the Monuments of Nineveh including bas-
reliefs from the Palace of Sennacherib and bronzes from the Nimroud (London, Murray, 1854). The plate
bears this short description ‘Workmen with implements and ropes for moving a winged Bull’ (Konyunjik)
8. The attempt to associate the spire in the bas-reliefs with the Vishnu or Creator, because of the
flowering tree near it and the domical form with the Destroyer (Shiva), because of the presence of yew
trees depicted in the vicinity, seem to us to be too idealistic for a matter-of-fact study of architecture. The
symbolism sought to be imposed in this connection is clearly out of place. The main theme of the picture
is the carrying of a winged bull to the top of an artificial mound. We find in the reproduction a well-
defined channel marking a flowing stream and four carts pulled by men apparently in parallel rows. The
yew trees are to be found not only near the dome-like building, but also in the lower parts of the panel.
Yew trees and flower-bearing trees of an exactly similar type are also depicted in Plate 15 of the same
album (Fig. 23), close to a mountain ridge at the top of the picture where no architectural representations
appear. This seems clearly to point to the fact that the trees are merely of a conventional kind. The earlier
tombs might have been domical in form and the towers or the so-called shikhara structures were probably
associated with fortresses, but it is too far-fetched to draw from them any analogy as regards the shapes of
Vaishnavite and Shaiva temples.

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As we have seen in the course of our enquiry, it has not been possible to trace back beyond the 5 th or
6th century A.D. the authentic exellence of shikhara form in this country. It appears to be certain that as in
the case of mediaeval Chalukyan shikharas, the Indo-Aryan shikharas which were of undoubtedly earlier
origin formed no part of the original temples which were flat on the roof. Among the ancient monuments
of Aihole, has also been found a temple in which the shikhara or tower is totally different, being ‘far
more archaic looking and clumsy.’ Mr. Cousens almost admits that ‘it gives one the idea of an early stage
in the evolution of the Northern style of tower’ and the sole ground of his objection to this inference is
that it is ‘not likely that a crude attempt would be erected side by side with the perfected article.’ 66 In view
of the innate conservatism of the Indian master-builders exemplified in the copy of cave types and the
more primitive wooden form, this objection seems to be clearly beside the mark. Freak buildings are the
rank architectural growth of the present day and if the shikhara, in its fully developed form, had really
been imported from abroad, there would hardly have been left any trace of early embryonic examples
among these temple-types of ancient Aryyapura. Fergusson, in his work on Indian and Eastern
architecture, was unable to trace out the origin of the shikhara beyond describing it as a ‘constructional
necessity’.
He maintains however, that the shikhara temple is a sure indication ‘of the existence, past or present, of a
people of Dasyu extraction.’ Though Mr. Havell finds fault with this theory, Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy
says with no uncertain emphasis that the later styles of architecture have clearly been shown to be the
development of aboriginal and non-Aryan structures built of wood, bamboo, thatch, etc., and that
architecture had not made much progress among the Aryans when they first entered India. The question is
a debatable one and at present it is difficult to hold extreme views on either side. That the non-Aryan’s
predecessors of the Aryan invaders made their contributions to the common wealth of culture in the Vedic
or post-Vedic period is probable and it is certainly interesting to find in a thatched temple-hut of the
Todas, a still surviving example of aboriginal shikhara. What is still more striking is the use of a flat
stone to cover the opening at the top of the spire where certain relics are intended to be hidden away from
the public gaze.67 From its position at the top of the spire, this stone may well be regarded as the fore-
runner of the amalaka. Mr. Simpson who gives an illustration of this structure in his learned paper
on Origin and Mutations in Indian and Eastern Architecture, referred to above, is of opinion that the
circular rooms in Behar caves with dome-like roofs are the developments of these Toda huts
It may be argued that these aboriginal structures were more or less confined to certain localities in
Southern India, and, as such, were hardly likely to influence the cave constructions in ancient Magadha.
The one main significance of vimana, in fact its principal symbolic expression, seem to have escaped the
attention of the specialists in Indian architecture. The shikhara spires over the main shrines in
the sancta standing as they do for the old world zeppelin, point necessarily to their imputed celestial
origin, and also emphasizes the kindred points in their relations respectively to the human worshippers
and the heavenly deities. The spire indicates the deity’s descent to earth by means of the flying car and it
further implies that by means of the shikhara the faithful worshipper would, through his assiduous
devotion at the shrine and the religious merit accruing on the construction of the temple, be able to
ultimately reach the heavenly regions. That this idea must have been innate in the Hindu architect is
forcibly brought out in the case of two shikhara temples which the symbolism has been of a less esoteric
character.

In a 10th century temple at Tilasma in Mewar, called Talesvara, the shikhara of which is in the Guzrat
style, there is just under the amala sila a figure standing against the body of the spire with a conical cap
and a sword dangling at the right side represented in the very act of ascending. This figure has been
supposed to be that of the royal personage who built the temple and who, by means of that meritorious
act, ascended lo heaven. In both of these are prominent, miniature reproductions of shikharas serving
as vimanas, and canopying the shrines of trithankaras who are represented as figures in a sitting posture.
The symbolic presence of the shikhara implies the heavenward ascent of these Jaina saints. The

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correctness of this explanation, we believe, will be readily conceded, when it is remembered that on the
recent demise of a popular Indian leader, his admirers carried his photograph on a vimana to indicate his
translation to heaven as a reward of his manifold merits.
This significance of the shikhara must be kept in mind in order to understand its wide prevalence and its
popularity, even among sectarian communities like the Jainas who crave rewards for their pious acts not
less eagerly than the Hindus. It has not been possible within the scope of this single paper to deal fully
with the many-sided problem we set before us at the commencement, and the writer will feel grateful if a
competent scholar is induced by this humble effort to take up the matter and give a further and more
satisfactory elucidation of the whole question.

Sikhara”refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidal and tapering representing the
mythological “Meru” or the highest mountain peak. The shikhara marks the vertical axis in the form of
the cosmic mountain. Its purpose is to enable the worshipper to visualize the order of the complete
universe as described by Hindu cosmogony. A shikhara, therefore, is a three- dimensional model of the
Hindu cosmos. All temples culminate in a finial, the conceptual center of the structure. From there, the
“cosmos” splays outward, cascading down the building along radial lines.

Shikhara ( Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower
in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A shikhara over
the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of
a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building,
including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only,
which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with the northern form. The
southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples,
called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples.

The vertical axis: the mountain as a link between the upper and lower worlds The axis of access Sikhara
or tower. Shikharas conceived of as solid and are for the most part, even though for structural reasons
some may have internal hollows. The actual geometries of the shikhara are determined by its mandala, or
astrological diagram. They can best be understood ood, as Adam Hardy has recently described, as
complex assemblages of mini-temples, or aediculae, intended to depict the composite nature of the Hindu
cosmos.

During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hindu architecture in South Asia entered an experimental phase, and
rock-cut temples competed for prominence with the new structural-stone and brick temples. The plethora
of styles and approaches was a product of the numerous kingdoms, that of Harshavardhana (606– 47
CE ) in the north, and, moving southward, the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. An
interesting comparison can be made between two 6th-century Gupta period temples: the Shiva shrine on
Elephanta Island, a rock-cut structure built by Shaivite monks for their own use, and the Dasavatara
Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, a brick-and-stone structure built for a large devotee population.

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Deogarh is a new invention a shrine constructed with rock to appear as if it is monolithic (i.e., rock-cut).
The Deogarh has a representational mountain as its shikhara, begin with a square garbha-griha.
Deogarh would have had originally held an image of Vishnu, Deogarh is accessible only from the west
(the direction of Vishnu) and has three implied doors (ghana-dwaras, literally “blind doors”) along its
remaining cardinal directions. Deogarh’s main shrine is at the center of a nine-square mandala, with
four subsidiary shrines interlocked at its corners.
In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also
above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature of the
Hindu temple in the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1) the latina,
curvilinear in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2) the phamsana, rectilinear
in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually found above the mandapa.

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 The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding toward the
top and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The surface of
the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of diminutive chandrashalas

(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large grooved disk
(amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is indicated by
miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top. The latina shikhara has two
further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija. The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with
one or more rows of half spires added on either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base
and corners. The shekhari was popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most
Central Indian temples; the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya
Pradesh, have excellent examples.
The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the quadrants
between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the tower.
The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya Pradesh, and in
the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur, Madhya Pradesh.
According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped
crowning cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires, north
and south. The South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape from the North
Indian shikhara, having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story (bhumi) stepped and relatively
realistically delineated. The other forms of the Shikara are :
Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more than

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one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically near the ends
of the face or on the corners.
Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top, creating
a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape, often
approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West India.
The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear, but the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh
Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with an amalaka near the top.
The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. When the temple acquired
its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples, is uncertain.
However the current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple may represent a restoration of earlier work of the
2nd or 3rd century CE. A plaque from Kumrahar dated 150-200 CE, based on its
dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the Mahabodhi
Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a stupa finial on top, together with
devotional images of the Buddha and the elephant-crowned Pillar of Ashoka next to the entrance. It is
thought that this shape of a truncated pyramid was derived from the design of the stepped stupas which
had developed in Gandhara, as seen in the stupas of Jaulian, with an elongated structure formed of a
succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and
topped by a stupa.
By at least 600 CE in Odisha, and perhaps somewhat later in the Deccan Plateau and West India, the
Latina form of the shikhara is well-established, with an amalaka disk-stone at the top, and then
a kalasha urn. There is often a sukanasa feature over the entrance door.
The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th century, and from then on tend to predominate.
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the century, though Latina
ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana Temple. The bhumija spire probably first
appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath

Homogeneous Shikhara (but with rathas) of the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar

Shikharas form an element in the many styles of Hindu temple architecture, of which the three most
common are:
 the Nagara style prevalent in northern India. The shikhara is a high curved shape, and so called. In the
north-east, the local term deul or deula is more often used, both for towers and often the whole
temple. In Odisha a Rekha Deula is the sanctum and the tower over it; gandi is also a term for the
upper tower only, equating to shikhara. In Odisha the curve is very slight until the top, and the

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 amalaka rather large, typically supported by four lion sculptures facing out. [20] Of the many temples
in Bhubaneswar, only the Rajarani Temple has significant spirelets.
 the Vesara style, a synthesis of the two others, seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly
in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. In the vesara style, the tower moves towards a lower conical
shape, with highly ornate carving.
 the Dravidian style prevalent in southern India : The equivalent of the shikhara is the vimana. The
superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall shape,
consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is normally straight
rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.
In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings, or
water-pot, at its peak.
Mini Shikhara the Indian temple 'orders Indo-Aryan (north)Sculpture on a mass scale has these repeating
themselves Dravida (south) 2 types making up little structural inventiveness or technical ingenuity. These
structure of massive blocks one on top of the other ensured stability without using mortar Fine
appreciation of mass & value & effects of shadow to a marked degree can be seen here. Sikhara tower in
Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise • have decorative arches known as gavakshas and are
topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial • walls of Nagara
temples present a complex exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each side which create many
recesses.

Another name for the Shikhara is Vimana which is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum
in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of Odisha using the
Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as it is in
the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is
typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking
architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as a pyramid, consisting of
several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati vimanas that have up to
four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.

In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called a shikhara.
However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-shaped crowning cap
above the vimana.

A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main entrance,
North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is believed we will go
directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having four gopura,
one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall. This will continue to next tier
depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity's
shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the
outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous
as the temple complex itself.

The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This shrine is
entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size when compared to
most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth century, Parantaka I funded to cover
this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory even today.
The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example where the
gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and identity.
Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana,[4] the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his
consort, Meenakshi.

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The vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated height.
This form is not very common.
The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is a
representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra.
The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.

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 VII
Vimana

The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took
place when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th
century A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950
A.D) and the Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period
(1112-1435 A.D) .The activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-
1542 A.D) though on a very small and impoverished scale. The Vimana in the South Indian
temple history had an interesting career. For instance, the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-

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rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing height of 58 meters. Another temple
of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters.
Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the
towers that stand over the gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate, complicated and
huge.

It being the most important feature of the Dravida style is that its superstructure is always in the shape of
a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather each tier is decorated with a combination
of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the tiers.

Unlike the Nagara tradition, the Dravida style doesn’t allow for variety in the Shikhara typologies in
general. The Dravida style was codified with fixed components. Under this, we see a completely different
form of temple architecture which is nothing but a combination of Alpa vimana, Kuta, Shala and Panjara
(refer the figure below). The Dravida style incorporates all these elements in a temple arranging them
from top to bottom on an increasing scale. The most important feature of the Dravida style is that its
superstructure is always in the shape of a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather
each tier is decorated with a combination of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the
tiers. The walls of the Dravida temple always have pillar-couplets at intervals. However, this rule wasn’t
followed in every structure. Sometimes a niche or aedicule was carved in between those coupled pillars in
order to place a sculpture within.
The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the
temple. Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its final height above the sanctum .
But, some say that the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series
of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum).
In other words, the term vimana, it is said, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and
the stupi, the end. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the rising tower of a
temple constructed as per the architecture of North India; and is it’s most prominent and visible
feature. While the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them
Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the
present go with the last mentioned interpretation.

Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the three most common
ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the Nagara the most common style; and the third
born from the synthesis of the other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later
Chalukya temples of Karnataka.

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ORNATE: The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a
curvilinear dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or
from the richly carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure
culminates with a Kalashaat its peak.
EARLY VIMANAS: The early vimanas, in south, were circular until they ended in a point of the
finial (stupi); like the vimanam of Kadambar koil. In some cases , the flat-roof (kapota) of the
sanctum on which the tower rest and rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the
text as “the stone denoting the upper passage of life” (brahma-ranhra-sila). In certain structures,
slab after slab is placed in a diminishing order with the final slab crowned by a perforated stone
ring (amalaka) giving the structure a pyramid shape.

During the later times, the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered rising
up in several stages (tala). Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers of
mouldings depicting traditional motifs. The layers in a Tala are called Varga; and the sadvarga (six
modules) is regarded the classic version. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga
Devalaya. The sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The
vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in
three stages) structures.

The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the
sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to be
austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum. The
Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it;
and is revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who resides
within it. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an equal status.

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 The ‘Barrel-vault’ also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault is an
architectural design looking like an oblong wagon-top or a vault or resembling a boat placed up-
side down, is rather an old feature of the Indian temple architecture. Its curvy shape lends the
structure a semi-cylindrical appearance.

The term Valabhi could relate to the name of an ancient city located in the Saurashtra region of
Western India. It was the seat of the Maitraka dynasty who ruled the peninsula and parts of
southern Rajasthan (from fifth to the eighth century). The City of Valabhi was also a celebrated
centre of learning, with numerous Buddhist monasteries. It might be that such architectural type
was the main characteristic of the Valabhi region, where there were numbers of Buddhist Chityas.
In the earlier periods, the temples and Stupas, which were successors to the huts, were constructed
out of brick and timber. These were generally either elliptical (Kuta) or rectangular huts with gable
roofs (Sala) made of bamboos.
In South, the centre of the sanctum, from where the divine grace flows into the Man. His effort is
the ascent towards. There, the earlier temples had taller Vimanas (say, as in Brihadisvara of
Tanjore-58 meters; Gangaikonda-chola-puram – 48 meters). But the in the temples of later
centuries, the Vimana tended to grow comparatively shorter. Over a period, the Vimanas assumed
pyramidal or curvilinear form that we are familiar with. But the Gopura at the entrance (dvara)
grew increasingly ornate, complicated, huge and monumental in size.

Thus, the Vimanas over the sanctum grew shorter or modest; and , in the process , lost their wide
vaulted- roof- the Valabhi. In contrast to that, by about the twelfth century, the Gopura (gate-
house) at the entrance grew amazingly massive, towering in pyramidal structures, as tall as up to
sixteen stories, elaborately adorned and covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture of and
guardian deities; and, capped at the top by an apsidal, eight-sided, or oblong, barrel vault shaped
Sala (roof) pinnacle by a series of Stupi, the temple Kalashas.

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Thus, the ‘Barrel-vault’, the Valabhi, did not entirely disappear. It transformed, moved up and sat
on the top of a magnificent Gopura.

While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma –
sthana); the sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. The image is located
in the mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a square; that is, where its diagonals intersect
each other. This point is elevated, in a three dimensional projection, and rendered as the sthupi or
the central point of the Vimana. The Kalasha is installed at this point.
In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana, one could take its top-elevation;
that is, take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. The entire structure of the Vimana
resting on a square base, projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding into
a needle (bindu) is a Mandala resembling the Chakra. The sanctum with its Vimana, thus,
represents the worshipful (archa) form of the divinity. The different deities associated with the
mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides of the Vimana (Mandala), according to their
importance, starting with the grosser ones on the outer periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer
of the Mandala).The sthupi , the central point , the needle of the Vimana being the bindu of its
Mandala configuration.

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The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising
two huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the expertise
that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have
been way ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam (scaffold-
hollow), four miles north-east of the city, using a specially designed ramp.

Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base, creating spaces
for niches and windows in between. However, the temple departs from southern Indian convention
in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the temple’s walls.
Normally the gopuras are taller than the vimana.

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109
The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen storeys. The basement of the
structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is
believed the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on the ground. The dome rests on a single block of
granite, 25.5 feet square.

The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure.
They say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear
profiles.
Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram,
which succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. The Vimanam of this temple, in
contrast to the rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple, rises up in a concave
manner with fluid lines. The tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple, it is said, is under construction at
Mayapur in west Bengal. The temple when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and
almost as high as the great pyramid in Giza.

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 Kalasha

The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha, the vase. Some say it is reminiscent of the life
giving Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. Kalash
symbolizes blessings and well-being.
In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived rather late. The early
kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks, round or ribbed. They might have been in the nature
of cap-stones that structurally held the tall and tapering vimana, as in the North Indian temples.
The copper and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations; and the agama books favor use
of copper vases.
Kalasha has several members, such as “the foot-hold” (padagrahi) which is its foothold, the egg
(anda) or the belly, the neck (griva), the lotus-band (padma-pashika), the rim (karnika) and the
bud (bija-pura). The shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud, the lump, coconut,
alter or pot. all these shapes symbolize the potential and the possibilities of life.

Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not imbedded into the structure
by packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of
the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the
lanchana‘tokens’ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the hallow
tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra, the seat
of consciousness, through the Brahma randra. This is completes the analogy of the temple to the
purusha ot to the human form.

Kalasha, the pot, on top of the Vimana has an important hidden component, the golden person
(suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The belly of the Kalasha
contains a tiny cot made of silver, copper or sandal; over which is laid a soft feather mattress. A
tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four tiny pots made of
gold, silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. There is
also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This entire procedure of introducing the “golden-person “into
the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi.
Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this
Kalasha also contain tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet)
and nine types of precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same
axis.

There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. The structure of the Kalasha
resembles an inverted tree; and is almost a replica of the “womb” buried under the sanctum. Both
are described as roots. The one at the bottom urges upward growth; while the one atop is the root
of the inverted tree.

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The earliest specimens of Dravida tradition are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra
and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.

Under the constant cultural influx from north India, the south Indian temple architecture evolved out of
the pre-existing secular architecture prevalent in the region. The earliest specimens of Dravidatradition
are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.Both were
Buddhist sites, most probably Chaitya halls later converted into Hindu shrines. These shrines feature
apsidal types of Alpa-vimana crowned by a barrel roof Shala covering and they are dated around the
3rd to 4th century CE.

Ter Temple, Maharashtra

Components of
Dravida Shikhara or Vimana (Source: Author)
We see variations in the heights and details of the fixed superstructural elements. However, we do see
some different types of roof forms in the famous rock-cut Pancharathas at Mahabalipuram carved out
under the Pallava dynasty most probably in mid-7 th CE or earlier. These types of roof forms can be
basically assigned to the early form of Dravida temple architecture. Texts like Mansara, Mayamatam and
Kashyapa Shilpa talk about the Dravida style in greater detail.
ukhamandapa attached to it. The roof form is complex as compared to Draupadi Ratha. It is aDvitala or
two-tiered Shikhara adorned with a Vimanam and elements like Kuta, Shala and Panjara.

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 Draupadi and Arjuna Ratha at
Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)
The Bhima Ratha is a long rectangular shrine with an Ektala barrelled roof or Shala Shikhara. The
presence of ornate columns on all sides gives a sense of circumambulation path within of Sandharaplan.
The Nakula-Sahadev Ratha is a different type of monolithic shrine with a Gajaprishtha roof; shaped like
an elephant back adorned with two ornate columns.

Bhima Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)

\
Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana:
1)Sopana Marga: The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on
both sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures
2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha
3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha
4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions
5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha
6)Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main deity
7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature

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8)Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures
9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace
10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region
11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region
12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey)
13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey
14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana
15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped Arch
16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana
17)Stupi: The Finial (Final) of the Vimana - Kalasa

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 Evolution of Hindu Temples Architecture in Orissa

Etymologically the term temple is derived from the Latin word ‘Tempulum’ which in its original
sense means a square or a rectangular place marked out by the augur for the purpose of worship. In its
primitive sense this word corresponds to a place marked off as sacred to a God, in which the house of
God may be erected.

The shrine or the abode of the God has different nomenclatures. In ancient Sastras or literature the temple
is referred as Devagriha, Devalay, Devakula, etc. In the Vastusastra the North Indian temples are known

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as Prasada while as the Southern Indian temples are known as Vimana, Harmya and occasionally as
Prasada. The term ‘mandira’ for the first time occurs in Banabhatta’s Kadambari, a text of 7th century
AD.

The temple architecture in India had its humble beginning right from the Mauryan period, i.e. 3rd century
BC, as evident from the archaeological excavation at Sanchi (Madhy Pradesh, temple no. 40 and 18) and
Bairat (Rajasthan). However, it gained momentum in the Gupta period. The temple no.17 at Sanchi and
temple no.1 at Udayagiri near Vidisa were the earliest examples of temple architecture, which blossomed
during the Gupta period.

The Indian Silpasastras recognize three main types of temples known as the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
Nagara temple belongs to the country from the Himalay to the Vindhy, Vesara from the Vindhy to the
Krishna, and the Dravida from the Krishna to the Cape Camorin. However, an inscription of 1235 AD in
the mukhamandapa of the Amritesvara temple at Holal in Bellary distrct of Karnatak speaks of a fourth
style, i.e. Kalinga, in addition to the above three. Pratistha Lakhsyanasara Samuchaya by Vaivochana, a
Silpa text of 11th-12th century AD, mentions Kalinga temples as of rekha order. Indigenous texts like
Bhubana Pradip, Silpa Prakasa, Silpa Ratnakosha, etc. deals exclusively with the Kalingan style of
architecture. These silpa text of Orissa mentions three types of temples, rekhadeul, pidhadeul and
khakaradeul.

The rekha and pidha form two component parts of one architectural scheme, the former is represented by
a sanctum with its curvilinear spire and the latter by the frontal porch having pyramidal roof of receding
tires known as pidhas. In the earlier phase, there was no pidha deul and the Jagamohan or the frontal hall
had a by a flat roof. In course of time to meet the growing need of the rituals two more structures were
added namely natamandapa (dancing hall) and bhogamandapa (offering hall) during the Ganga period
(12th century). All the four components are arranged in one axial alignment and often the temple complex
is enclosed by a prakara (boundary) wall. The khakara order is noted by a semi-cylindrical vaulted that
looks like a inverted boat (boita) or a pumpkin gourd roof. The temples of this order are usually meant for
Sakti worship.

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Orissan temples constituted a sub-style of the Nagara style of North Indian temples. The building
activity of this sub-regional style continued for nearly one thousand years from the 6th-7th century to the
15th-16th century AD in unbroken continuity. Bhubaneswar, the ancient Ekamra Kshetra served as the
experimental ground of these temple building activities without being distracted by the change of ruling
dynasties or their cult affiliation. As a result, the temples are identified with the land Kalinga rather than
the royal families such as Pallava art, Rastrakuta art, Chandella art, Chalukyan art, etc. It is worthwhile to
mention here that temple building activities of another tradition were prevalent in ancient Orissa, as
attested by epigraphic evidences. Hathigumpha inscription (line-17) of the 1st century BC described
Kharavela as the “repairer of all shrines of Gods” (sava-devayatana- sankara-karako). From the village of
Asanpat in Keonjhar district, a stone inscription records the construction of a temple by Maharaja
Satrubhanja, who is ascribed to 3rd-4th century AD.

The Orissan temple is remarkable for its plan and elevation. The interior ground plan of the temple is
square as a rule. Rarely, however the temple has a star-shaped layout (as noticed at Boudh) or circular
plan (Ranipur-Jharial & Hirapur) to conform to the nature of rituals. Generally speaking, the Orissan
temples are distinguished by vertical offset projections called rathas (on plan) or pagas (on elevation).
Depending on the number pagas, the temples are classified into triratha, pancharatha, saptaratha and
navaratha. The earlier temples are characterized by a triratha plan.

On elevation, the temples show interesting features. Both sanctum and the porch can be divided into three
parts along the vertical plane viz. bada, gandi and mastaka. From bottom to top or final, each part of the
temple has a special name corresponding to that of limbs of the human body standing on a pista or the
platform on which the temple stands (which is not a compulsory element in early temples and is generally
found in later temples).

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The bada or the vertical wall portion of the temple is divisible into pabhaga, jangha and baranda. This
type of three-fold division of Triangabada is found in early temples and in later temples. Bada has five
elements namely pabhaga (or the foot portion is composed of five mouldings called khura, kumbha, patta,
kani and basanta), tala jangha (lower thigh), bandhana (mouldings joining the two thigh), upara jangha
(upper thigh) and baranda (the waist portion). The baranda, forming the top most part of the bada has a set
of mouldings, starting with one moulding in the early phase progressing into seven and ten mouldings in
the later and last phases of the classical tradition. The gandi (or the torso) of deul has a curvilinear super
structure; in the temples of early phase gandi is devoid of any sculptural embellishment.

Fully developed temples have ornamental bhumis, chaity motifs and angasikharas (miniature shrines).
The gandi of jagamohana is of pyramidal shape (designed with receding tiers in a sequence so as to
reduce the top most tier to the half of the lower tier). The mastaka (the head) consisted of the beki (neck)
or recessed cylindrical portion above gandi, amalaka (ribbed circular stone, resembling the amla fruit),
khapuri (skull), kalasa ( auspicious pot) and the ayudha (weapon of the enshrined deity) in succession.
The mastaka of the pidha deul has the same features except for the addition of ghanta (bell). The
horizontal cross- section of the bada and gandi in both the rekha and the pidha deul are square, while the
mastaka is circular. The ground plan of khakhara deul is oblong. The temples are remarkable for
abundance of sculptures. Stella Kramarisch has aptly remarked, “Architecture in Orissa is but sculpture
on a gigantic scale”. The sculptural repertory consists of human figures, kanyas, erotic motifs, cult icons,
animal figures including mythical and composite figures, decorative designs like variety of scrolls and
architectural motifs like pidha mundi, khakhara mundi, vajra mundi, etc.

The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took place
when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th century
A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950 A.D) and the
Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period (1112-1435 A.D) .The
activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-1542 A.D) though on a very
small and impoverished scale.

To a keen observer, the temples of Orissa portray a picture of organic evolution from Parasuramesvara to
Lingaraja through Muktesvara and Vaital, which ultimately culminated in Puri and the gigantic Konark.

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The evolution can be seen through four distinctive phases of temple building; viz. i) Formative phase, ii)
Transitional phase, iii) Mature phase, iv) Phase of decadence.

Formative Phase:

The period in between the 6th century AD to the first half of the 9th century AD is considered as the
formative phase that synchronized with the rule of the Sailodbhavas and early phase of Bhauma-karas.
The representative temples are Lakshamaneswar, Bharateswar, Satrughaneswar, Swarnajaleswar,
Parsurameswar, Mohini and Kapalini. Of these, Parsurameswar assigned to the 7th century is the best
preserved specimen of the early phase. Its triratha vimana has a rekha sikhara. The jagamohana is a
rectangular pillared hall with a terraced roof sloping in two tiers. The graha architrave has eight grahas
with the absence of Ketu. Temples of this period are triratha on plan with a central graha offset and two
corner projections. On elevation Bada is triangle, with three divisions, i.e. pabhaga, jangha, and baranda.
Pabhaga or the foot portion consists of three mouldings of khura, kumbha and pata. Gandi became a
gradual curveture and started from of the sikhara unburdened by any angasikhara. The temples are of
small and moderate height. Baranda is terminating in a recessed kanthi. Absence of dopicha simha in the
beki, below the amlaka, absence of Dikpalas, absence of baby on the lap of Matrikas. The sculptures are
in low relief, flattish and entrusted on the surface of the stone, beginning with disproportioned and rigid
limbs assumed flexibility and proportion during the Bhauma-kara period.

Transitional Phase:
The temple activities entered into a transitional period in the second half of the 9th century that continued
up to the first quarter of the 11th century under the rule of the later Bhauma-karas and the first half of the
rule of the Somavamsis (Kesharis). The temples of this period are Vaital (khakhra deula), Sisireswar, and
Markandeswar in Bhubaneswar and Bringesvara at Bajarkot (District Angul), Swapaneswar at Kualo
(District Dhenkanal), Siva temple at Badgaon, Simhanatha temple in an island of Mahanadi river at
Gopinathpur (District Cuttack), twin Hari-Hara temple at Gandharadi District Baud, Varahi temple
(khakhara deul) at Churasi (District Cuttack).

The notable feature of the period was the introduction of rampant erotic sculptures due to the influence of
Vajrayana philosophy. Mukteswar at Bhubaneswar, which is considered as the gem of Orissan
architecture, was the last monument of the period. Mukhasala or the jagamohana became an inseparable
element with a perfect and natural joining of the vimana with jagamohana without the crude overlapping
of the sanctum decoration as seen in the formative phase. Both the structures were conceived as a uniform

119
complex in the original plan. Towards the end, the plan and elevation of the mukhasala transformed from
a rectangular flat roof to a square hall with a pyramidal superstructure. Pabhaga had four mouldings.
Introduction of naga-nagi pilasters and chaitya medallions as decorative motifs, introduction of the vyala
and jagrata motifs in the jangha portion, baranda recess is carved with base-reliefs, kanika is divided into
fife horizontal bhumis (storey) by bhumiamlas.

Parsvadevata images are carved of separate single stone unlike the earlier tradition of blocks of stones
that constitute a part of the temple wall. Sculptural treatment of the interior part (particularly the ceiling)
which is a characteristic feature of the Somavamsis period and not noticed in the earlier or the later
temples, Matrikas carry babies on their lap. Finally Ketu was added to the list of planets, which became a
permanent feature of the graha panel in the temples of the subsequent period.

Mature Phase:
The building activity attended its maturity towards the middle of the 11th century (Somavamsis) that
continued till the 13th century (Gangas). The temple architecture developed further under the
Somavamsis, which can be traced through a series of temples like Rajarani, Brahmeswar, and finally the
Lingaraj that presents the Orissan temple style at its best. The building tradition was continued by the
Gangas who are credited with the construction of the great Jagannath temple at Puri, Chateswar temple at
Kakudia (District Cuttack), Sobhaneswar temple at Niali District, Cuttack, Drakshaprajapati at Banapur, a
few shrines at Bhubaneswar, the magnificent Konark temple (District Puri), marks the grand climax of the
Orissan style. The features are quite discernible as given in the discussion.

Bada is devided into five segments, i.e. pabhaga, talajangha, bandana, upara jangha and baranda. Pabhaga
has five mouldings (khura, kumbha, pata, kani and basanta). Gandi is embellished with angasikharas
(miniature temples) of diminishing size as they rise upwards.

The pagas projections are fully developed and prominently articulated. Amlaka sila is supported by
deulacharinis or seated divinities and dopicha simhas being set in the beki. Introduction of structural
motifs like pidhamundi, khakharamundi and vajramundi are in the jangha portion. The sculptures of this
period are excellent in their plasticity and modeling includes non-iconic female figures. These are more
proportionate, elongated and in alto-relievo. In the iconography of the cult deities new elements were
introduced with profusion of female figures, Ketu in a serpant body and Hanuman head in latter phase,
projected lion (udyota simha) on the Rahapaga. Pista and platform became a regular feature. Natamandap
and Bhogamandap were added to the Jagamohan. Introduction of subsidiary shrines in front of the
parsvadevata niche. Introduced of vahanastambha in front of the temple. Appearance of the female

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counter parts of the dikpalas on the uparjangha.

Phase of decadence:
After the Gangas during the 14th to 16th century AD under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis, the temple
building activities entered into a phase of decadence. The great period of Orissan temple architecture
came to halt with the crowning achievement at Konark. The Suryavamsis, who succeded the Gangas
remained preoccupied with political problems and could not give much time for temple building. Of the
few temples, the temples at Kapilesvara at Bhubaneswar belonged to this period.

Towards the later part of the 15th century AD impoverishment was noticed. Pidha deul became the choice
for both vimana and the jagamohana. The building materials are mostly laterite. The walls of the temple
are devoid of sculptural embellishment and decoration. Such insolvency was also noticed in the
decoration of doorjambs, which also largely remained plain. Thus the temple building activities that
started during the 6th century AD reached its climax during the Ganga Period started declining during the
Gajapati. The most important factors for the declines of temple building activities are a lack of royal
patronage and decline of Hindu power. Whatever it may be, till recently Orissa has possessed a rich
temple heritage which is the imprints of our ancestor, still existing with the ravage of time. These are the
pride of Orissan people in particular and that of India in general. These are the most compact and
homogenous architectural group in India.

From the scholarly article of By: D.B. Garnayak

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 ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
6
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 x6
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records
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 700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.
3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories for
having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor
laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English- SPOTLIGHT 7”-
and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a
copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic
Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm, SWEDEN and
President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras

MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA

https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS

recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

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Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing
highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of
_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR

The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy

https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras

Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of

Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.

https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras

https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

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Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of
Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU
TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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 Meditation Center Project
for HARIOM Cow Shelter by
Dr Uday Dokras

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 Design Consultant to
OCTAGONAL Meditation Center for REIKI MASTER-
Mrs.Tracey Stanfield,Fish Creek, AUSTRALIA

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