Epoch of TWIN KINGDOMS of the Kedu Plain

Dr Uday Dokras

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 I
MATARAM KINGDOM and
ARCHITECTURE of the THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic plain
that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and the Progo
River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta Special
Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many archaeological
sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as an important
religious, political, and urban center.

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 MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both the Medang i
Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram Sultanate in the
16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history and culture for over a
millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of historic significance. If
each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central Java period could be said
to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and hills
around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Adjacent to
the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple; to the east are
found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and further is
the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the south. The
discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that this area was
once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite the smaller scale
of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in this plain are
comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and Prambanan in particular,
are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central Java
Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan should be
treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring measured 30
square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies. The area includes
major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan temples. The sanctuary
is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor archaeological area in Cambodia,
which suggests that the government should prevent or regulate permits to construct any new
buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as well as BTS towers. This was meant to
protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern day visual obstructions and the
encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related buildings and businesses. There are
a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and Buddhist:

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 Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on each
chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple adorned
with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by Hindu
Mataram Kingdom.

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 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top
with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure,
all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.

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 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name of
this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of
which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his
Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for a
buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope
of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the
roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children
or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under restoration
since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep. A
main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible.
Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and style with
Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground. Together
with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic
plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
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The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant location
in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of the Sailendra dynasty
as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the colonial Dutch East Indies period, the
Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which at that time covered what are now
the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon temple.
However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction is

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 impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been discovered,
which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

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This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in
a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The
kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and
serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese
came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the official religion in
China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in
Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It
was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact
location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-
day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern coast of Jepara
Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang regency shows that
Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an altered name of Pe-
Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce
and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central Java .
Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records from China .
In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because this kingdom was
part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara Kingdoms which
Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong competitors of the
Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for communication
between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon, to the west, and
Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came under control of
the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in the 18th century, it
granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch built a fort in
Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as an internment
centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II. The structure has
continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the Pekalongan, (city) is the
capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah) situated on the northern coastal
plain of the island of Java.

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Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan city
is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other goods.
Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s fertile
river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city, 17 square
miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was discovered
on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Kecamatan
Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava script in Sanskrit tells about a
clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue of holy Ganges's source in India.
The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu (water
jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are symbols
of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in
Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script
in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a ruler
named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian
historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that
later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a
Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest Javanese candis are
also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central Java, such as the Hindu
temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are probably built in later period,
during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old

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kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra
of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived in
Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance of
Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition, one
day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed
truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to
them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally touched the bag
with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister
that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the prince's foot that touched the
bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through mutilation. [3] According to Carita
Parahyangan, a book composed in later period, Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the
king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom, and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps in
response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple
compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a
thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

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Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates
nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples,
this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular
local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original name for the
temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

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 CONSTRUCTION
Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4 no.
37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.
According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century at
the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King
Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king
who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple was the
largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was completed 37
years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes the
universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a prince
who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani. Most of his
subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism. The proximity of
the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu and Buddhist
communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built. And the scale of
the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple that served as an
important religious site.

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Candi Sewu main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins were
not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the temple
were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and a cursed
princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of supernatural
origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created by a multitude
of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely the reason the
temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–1830). The local
villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to be haunted by
supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons permission
to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report of this trip
contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan temples and in
the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann Cornelius unearthed the Sewu
temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and used
in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch colonists
stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers used the
foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made earlier by
Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that several Buddha

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 heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from the
site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It was
de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are missing.
The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were completed in
1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris were
scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To prevent the
central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four corners and
attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site was reopened
for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the metal frame has been
removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and
digitised by the British Library.

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Candi Sewu Layout

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An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the
8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller

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temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

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As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and Prambanan
Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s architecture.
The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments that decorate parts
of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist principles, not only as
visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important. Ornaments are an artistic
component that is added to decoration in crafts, including architecture. Ornamentation cannot be
separated from the socio-cultural background of the community and the area of origin of the
ornament, because ornamentation is a means of communication to reduce culture from the
previous generation to the next generation. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the
evolution or development of the forms and meanings of architectural ornaments in the
archipelago with a time series of architectural developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and
traditional architecture, especially Java, following the location of the temple. The purpose of this
study is to examine the evolution of forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist
architectural ornaments found in Sewu Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese
architecture. This research uses descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a
1
relationship between Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case

Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities
Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

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Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java. While
the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable
Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a
cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers
(seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the spread of
Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist communities found
great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The plethora of Buddhist
figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication, and the temple’s
massive scale points to elite patronage.

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Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due to
looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and Southeast
Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the regions. Candi
Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See, for
example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the lion at a
temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and mouth open,
and its head seems to support the structure above.

21
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time. Prominent
imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor deities), and
flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the temple. Bells and
billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs leads through a
vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semicircular
platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy person with sacred
fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-asian/sacred-sites-in-
southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

22
 The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located
within the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia.
The temple is located within Prambanan or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with
numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple,
visitors can go through the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest that
the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha complex), as
the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This suggestion is based
on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called Candi Gana that marking
the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western sides around 300 metres
from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however, the stones are too scarce to
reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of four vanguard temples placed
around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian
temple of southern direction, according to mandala and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins for
many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a Buddhist
temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram kingdom that ruled
Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related to Sewu temple which
is located around 300 metres to the north.[2] Bubrah temple believed was constructed around the
same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu and Lumbung temple, all three
being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built by Rakai Panangkaran hailed
as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to
be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu mandala as the southern shrine
dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah temple was constructed after the
reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which
means the temple was constructed in the early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with nearby
Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form of a 2
metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means "ruins".
Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct the temple,
as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan temples,
registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

23
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy, Indonesian
Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico and
portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu temple
compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller stupas, with
larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

II
The Time of the Twin Kingdoms
24
 The Pekalongan harbor that brought Hinduism & Buddhism to these plains

Sometimes Geography decides the harmony between people andm precipates a peaceful future in
their society and culture. This is a Tale of one such happening in Indonesia in the Kalingaa
Kingdom.

A depiction of the legend on an Indonesian stamp

Statue of Durga Mahisashuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cella of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

A local popular folklore it connects and explains the supernatural origin of Central Java's
famous archaeological sites; such as of the Ratu Boko palace, the Durga statue in northern
cella/chamber of the main Prambanan shrine, and the Sewu temple complex nearby. Although
the temples itself dated from circa 9th century, the legend was composed in later times, probably
during Mataram Sultanate era.
According to tradition, this thousandth temple is part of the Sewu temple compound
(sèwu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north cell of
the Shiva temple at Prambanan, still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.
Another interpretation mentioned that this legend could be a collective but vague local memory
about past historical events that happened in the area, staged around the 9th century struggle for
power between the Sailendra and the Sanjaya dynasty for control of Central Java. King Boko is

25
probably inspired by the King Samaratungga of Sailendra dynasty, Bandung Bondowoso
is Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya dynasty, and Rara Jongrang is Pramodhawardhani, wife of
Rakai Pikatan and the daughter of Sailendran king. The actual historical event was probably the
contest of power between Balaputradewa, the Sailendran heir, against his sister,
Pramodhawardhani, aided by her husband, Rakai Pikatan, which led to Pikatan as the victor, thus
ending the Sailendran rule on Central Java.
Port cities are a staple of world history. They are hubs of world commerce and also of
regional trade between coast and hinterland. They are facilitators of both immigration and
emigration. They are transit points for the spread of disease as well as goods and people. They
are also markers of patterns of colonialism and development. The capitals of most developing
countries betray their colonial roots, having ports as their capital and/or largest cities that today
remain the loci of virtually all post-colonial national administrative, educational, and medical
institutions. They are prime drivers of urban sprawl and slums as well as economic growth. Yet,
the tolerant, permissive and multicultural atmosphere of port cities in developing as well as
developed societies also make them rich centers of world culture,. The relationship between land
development and distance from the port shows that the areas with strong land development
intensity gradually moved from coastal to inland areas over time. Port shipping has a profound
influence on port city land use patterns. Industrial transfer drives the development of surrounding
towns during the metaphase. This trend was used to build a second port to realize the division of
transportation capacity, as the old port’s carrying capacity tended to become saturated.
Twin Kingdoms
This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in
a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The
kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and
serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese
came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the official religion in
China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in
Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga; 訶陵 Hēlíng or 闍婆 Dūpó in Chinese sources[1]) was a
6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the
oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact
location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-
day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern coast of Jepara
Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang regency shows that
Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an altered name of Pe-
Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce
and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.

26
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central Java .
Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records from China .
In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because this kingdom was
part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara Kingdoms which
Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong competitors of the
Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for communication
between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon, to the west, and
Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came under control of
the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in the 18th century, it
granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch built a fort in
Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as an internment
centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II. The structure has
continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the Pekalongan, (city) is the
capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah) situated on the northern coastal
plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan city
is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other goods.
Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s fertile
river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city, 17 square
miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was discovered

27
on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Kecamatan
Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava script in Sanskrit tells about a
clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue of holy Ganges's source in India.
The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu (water
jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are symbols
of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in
Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script
in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a ruler
named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian
historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that
later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a
Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest Javanese candis are
also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central Java, such as the Hindu
temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are probably built in later period,
during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old
kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra
of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining (會寧 Huìníng)
had arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the
assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition, one
day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed
truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to
them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally touched the bag
with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister
that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the prince's foot that touched the
bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through mutilation. [3] According to Carita
Parahyangan, a book composed in later period, Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the
king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom, and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps in
response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple
compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central

28
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a
thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic plain
that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and the Progo
River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta Special
Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).
The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many archaeological
sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as an important
religious, political, and urban center.

29
 MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both the Medang i
Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram Sultanate in the
16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history and culture for over a
millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of historic significance. If
each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central Java period could be said
to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and hills around it is the
location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Adjacent to the complex to
the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple; to the east are
found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and further is
the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the south. The
discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that this area was
once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite the smaller scale
of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in this plain are
comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and Prambanan in particular,
are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central Java
Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan should be
treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring measured 30
square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies. The area includes
major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan temples. The sanctuary
is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor archaeological area in Cambodia,
which suggests that the government should prevent or regulate permits to construct any new
buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as well as BTS towers. This was meant to
protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern day visual obstructions and the
encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related buildings and businesses. There are
a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and Buddhist:

30
Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on each
chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple adorned
with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by Hindu
Mataram Kingdom.

31
 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top
with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure,
all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.

32
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name of
this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of
which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his
Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for a
buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope
of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the
roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children
or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under restoration
since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep. A
main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible.
Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and style with
Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground. Together
with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic
plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant location
33
in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of the Sailendra dynasty
as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the colonial Dutch East Indies period, the
Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which at that time covered what are now
the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon temple.
However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction is
impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been discovered,
which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.

34
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

35
Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates
nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples,
this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular
local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original name for the
temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

36
 CONSTRUCTION
Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4 no.
37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.
According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century at
the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King
Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king
who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple og Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes the
universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a prince
who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani. Most of his
subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism. The proximity of
the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu and Buddhist
communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built. And the scale of
the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple that served as an
important religious site.

37
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins were
not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the temple
were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and a cursed
princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of supernatural
origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created by a multitude
of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely the reason the
temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–1830). The local
villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to be haunted by
supernatural beings.
12. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons permission
to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report of this trip
contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan temples and in
the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann Cornelius unearthed the Sewu
temples.
13. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and used
in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
14. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch colonists
stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers used the
foundation stones as construction material.
15. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections abroad.
16. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
17. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made earlier by
Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that several Buddha
heads were missing.
18. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from the
site completely
19. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
20. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
21. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It was
de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
22. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are missing.
The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were completed in
1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris were

38
scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To prevent the
central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four corners and
attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site was reopened
for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the metal frame has been
removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by
BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

39
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Candi Sewu Layout

40
An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the
8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller

41
temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

42
As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and Prambanan
Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s architecture.
The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments that decorate parts
of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist principles, not only as
visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important. Ornaments are an artistic
component that is added to decoration in crafts, including architecture. Ornamentation cannot be
separated from the socio-cultural background of the community and the area of origin of the
ornament, because ornamentation is a means of communication to reduce culture from the
previous generation to the next generation. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the
evolution or development of the forms and meanings of architectural ornaments in the
archipelago with a time series of architectural developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and
traditional architecture, especially Java, following the location of the temple. The purpose of this
study is to examine the evolution of forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist
architectural ornaments found in Sewu Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese
architecture. This research uses descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a
1
relationship between Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case

Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities
Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

43
Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java. While
the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable
Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a
cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers
(seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the spread of
Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist communities found
great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The plethora of Buddhist
figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication, and the temple’s
massive scale points to elite patronage.

44
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due to
looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and Southeast
Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the regions. Candi
Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See, for
example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the lion at a
temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and mouth open,
and its head seems to support the structure above.

45
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time. Prominent
imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor deities), and
flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the temple. Bells and
billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs leads through a
vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semicircular
platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy person with sacred
fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-asian/sacred-sites-in-
southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

46
 The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located
within the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia.
The temple is located within Prambanan or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with
numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple,
visitors can go through the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest that
the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha complex), as
the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This suggestion is based
on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called Candi Gana that marking
the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western sides around 300 metres
from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however, the stones are too scarce to
reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of four vanguard temples placed
around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian
temple of southern direction, according to mandala and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins for
many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a Buddhist
temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram kingdom that ruled
Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related to Sewu temple which
is located around 300 metres to the north.[2] Bubrah temple believed was constructed around the
same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu and Lumbung temple, all three
being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built by Rakai Panangkaran hailed
as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to
be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu mandala as the southern shrine
dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah temple was constructed after the
reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which
means the temple was constructed in the early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with nearby
Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form of a 2
metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means "ruins".
Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct the temple,
as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan temples,
registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

47
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy, Indonesian
Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico and
portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu temple
compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller stupas, with
larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

PRAMBHANAN COMPLEX

48
 III
Sanjay and Shailedra Dynasties
The historical context surrounding the Mataram culture and civilization of the Mataram
Kingdom is not only interesting but a little confusing.
The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest Hindu temple of ancient
Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai Pikatan to establish power of Sanjay dynasty and
dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma Vishnu Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd
largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia.

Prambanan temple complex at night

Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty confusion is still there? both r
related? few say Sanjay as Shaiv & Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths interlinked and
overlapping too, in my opinion

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

It played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving rise to early kingdoms
such as Mataram. As the population of Java continues to increase and becomes more modern and
urban, the Indonesia of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical roots.The Mataram
society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism, along
with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the Mataram
Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his symbol, the
Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938 in Central Java, an island of
Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of Bali. It is also noted to be the world’s most
populous island in the world today.

Vande Mataram

The Mataram Kingdom, also called the Medang Kingdom, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist

49
kingdom. It was based in central and east Java and flourished between the 8th and 11th
centuries. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and was established by King Sanjaya.

Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm

Origins of the Mataram Kingdom

Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named itself so to give an ode to
the motherland. The first major kingdom of central Java was the Medang or Mataram Kingdom,
founded at the beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram Kingdom are
in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.
The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of Lord Shiva) in the
Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was raised
under the rule of King Sanjaya, the lord of Mataram.
According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna, who was known for his
wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya, the
nephew of king Sanna, ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and prosperity for
all his subjects.
However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly different account of the
same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of Sanna. It also states that Sanna was overthrown by
the king of Galuh and was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son, Sanjaya, later avenged his
father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally restored to the rightful heir, and
Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java, and Bali.
It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records of these events on the
Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know for sure.

50
Mataram Kingdom Name Origins
Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the island of Java. Indonesian
archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of Indonesia identify the kingdom as Mataram, based on a
geographical location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king Sanjaya’s full name was
“Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been another reason for the name of the
kingdom. The etymology of the name “Mataram” is derived from the Sanskrit term for “mother.”

The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some historians believe that the
Central Java period (732-929) was referred to as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period
(929-1006) was identified as Medang.
However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the capital was Mataram,
based on some phrases found in the inscriptions. Etymologically, the name Medang is an ancient
Javanese term that means “to gracefully appear.”

Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social Structure
The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the Hindu caste system. The
ancient Javanese society was divided into four classes:
 The royal family
 The religious authorities
 The commoners
Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that they strictly adhered
to. The royal family and their servants could be identified by their luxurious clothing and
intricate golden jewelry. All the priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The commoners,
who were also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely adorned any jewelry
or ornaments.

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism,
along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the
Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his
symbol, the Linga.
However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity. Many
temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs.
The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The Brahmins and the Sangha
Buddhists represented their respective religions and conducted the state’s religious ceremonies
together in the temples.
There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom which were possibly
motivated by the combined religious zeal of both religions.
In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java became a Muslim
sultanate.

Art in the Mataram Kingdom

The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various carvings found on the temple
walls during this era. These carvings gave rich portrayals of life during the ninth century.
The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period, and can still be seen

51
in their magnificent temples that exist even today.
There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the Javanese and
Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman culture. In addition to this, the most
famous Javanese arts were gamelan music and wayang puppet shows, which became traditional
arts.

History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus and the Buyddhists:
Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled Central Java together;
the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty was
characterized by peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the
relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to gain full control of
Central Java and became the overlords of the Sanjayas.

There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it signified a cultural renaissance
in the region. The kingdom saw rapid growth during the 9th century.
However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated the
Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end of
the Medang Kingdom. During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti temple
known today as Candi Prambanan.
Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java, where productivity in rice
cultivation was aided by the advent of the island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields created
the stable food source necessary for high population growth and an organized state society, led
by those who were in control of the upland water sources.
This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders on not only the public
infrastructure needed for water management, but the monumental Hindu-Buddhist religious
architecture that still dots much of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and Prambanan
temples.

Mataram in Eastern Java

Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929, the center was shifted
to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the exact cause for this sudden shift, but believe it
may have been because of a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.
They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and destroyed the Kingdom’s
capital in Mataram. This expansion took place under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya
dynasty, Mpu Sindok.

What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?

Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in Central Java, Indonesia.
Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was an ongoing rivalry between the Sumatran
Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdoms, which became more hostile.
This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the Sailendra lands in Java.
This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra and his son, belonged to the Sailendra
dynasty. The collapse of the kingdom occurred in the tenth century.

52
In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most of the royal family.
With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of the capital, the kingdom finally collapsed.
However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had remained in exile.
Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under
the name of the kingdom of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed as Kediri.
Mataram Kingdom was an early Indianized kingdom emerging from native Javanese population.
Its languages wer: Old Javanese, Sanskrit; religion: Buddhism (Mahayana), Hinduism

Decline: Fell to Srivijaya, later reemerging as the Kediri Kingdom.

Today Indonesia is administered so that at first level subdivisions of Indonesia is Province. A
province is headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each province has its own regional assembly,
called Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (DPRD, literally "Regional People's Representative
Council"). Governors and representative members are elected by popular vote for five-year
terms. Provinces was formerly also known as Daerah Tingkat I (Level I Region).
State emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda
Pancasila. The main part of the coat of arms is the
golden mythical bird Garuda with a shield on its
chest and a scroll gripped by its leg bears the
national motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", roughly
means "Unity in Diversity".

The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the

five principles of Indonesia's national philosophy.
The numbers of feathers was meant to symbolize the
date of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence;
17 feathers on each wings, 8 tail feathers, 19 upper
tail feathers (under the shield, above the tail), and 45
neck feathers; all symbolize 17-8-1945; 17th August
1945. Adopted as national coat of arms on February
11, 1950.

The Bi-Polar Kingdom of Kediri

By the beginning of the 13 th Century, according to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-
chi written around 1225, the Southeast Asian archipelago had two powerful and rich kingdoms:
Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he found that people adhere two religions: Buddhism and the
religion of Brahmin (Hinduism). The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was
ruled by a maharaja, who ruled several colonies. Regarding Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that
Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves
from Srivijaya, and crowned their own king. The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on
the Malay Peninsula that liberated themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya
was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. According to
this source, in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and
western Java (Sunda).

53
Regarding Sunda, the book details that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) was excellent and
strategically located, and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people
worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the
country was infested with robbers and thieves.

The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought as the
continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan
into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic.
He died seven years later.It existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout
11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some
extent India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), numbers of
Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented this kingdom. Relations
with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or scholar) wrote literatures
that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana.

In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked

by Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king
of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than trade.
Later Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku.

Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan
Museum, East Java.//// Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century

Era of twin kingdoms

54
Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Mentioned in inscription
Çri Samaravijaya
of Pucangan (1041). Is the king of
1042- Dharmasuparnawahana
the Kediri kingdom after the event
1051 Teguh Uttunggadewa
of the division of the kingdom by
(Çri Samaravijaya)
king Airlangga to his two sons.

Çri Jitendrakara
1051- Wuryyawïryya Parakrama Mentioned in inscription of Mataji
1112 Bhakta inscription (1051).
(Çri Jitendrakara)

Çri Maharaja Rake sirikan çri Mentioned in inscription of

Paramecwara Padlegan I, Panumbangan
Sakalabhuwana inscription, Tangkilan inscription,
1112-
Tustikaranani waryyawïryya Besole inscription, Bameswara
1135
Parakrama inscription, Karanggayam
Digjayottunggadewa inscription, Geneng inscription,
(Çri Bamesvara) Pagiliran inscription.

Çri Maharaja Sang Mapanji

Jayabhaya çri
Mentioned in inscription
Dharmmeçwara
1135- of Hantang (1135), Jepun
Madhusudanawataranindita
1159 inscription (1144) and Talan
Suhrtsingha Parakrama
inscription (1058).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Jayabaya)

Çri Maharaja Rakai Sirikan

çri Sarwweçwara
Janardanawatara Wijaya Mentioned in inscription of
1159-
Agrajasama Singhadani Kahyunan and Padlegan II
1171
Waryawirya Parakrama inscription (1159).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Çri Sarvesvara)

1171- Çri maharaja rakai hino çri Mentioned in inscription of Waleri

1181 Aryyeçwara Madhusudand and Angin inscription (1171).
watdrdrijalyamukha
Sakalabhuwana ritiniwiryya

55
 Perio
d of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Parakramottunggadewa
(Çri Aryesvara)

Çri maharaja çri

Kroncarryadipa
Handabhuwanapalaka
1181- Mentioned in inscription of Jaring
Parakramanindita
1182 inscription.
Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra
(Çri Gandra)

Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri

Kameçvara
Sakalabhuvanatustikarana Mentioned in inscription of
1182-
Sarvanivaryyaviryya Semanding (1182) and Ceker
1194
Parakrama inscription (1185).
Digjayottunggadeva
(Kameçvara)

Çri maharaja çri Mentioned in inscription of Sapu

Sarwweçwara Angin inscription, Galunggung
Triwikramawataranindita inscription, Kamulan inscription,
1194-
Çrngga lancana Palah inscription, Biri inscription,
1222
Digwijayottunggadewa Lawadan
inscription, Nagarakretagama), fall
(Kertajaya) in 1144 Shaka (1222).

Jayakatwang's rebellion from Gelang-gelang or Gegelang which revived the

short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri.

1292- Çri Jayakatwang Mentioned in inscription

1293 (Jayakatwang) of Nagarakretagama (1365).[2]: 168

See also
The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya. His royal
seal was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha, the same as Airlangga's. he reigned from 1042-

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1051 and succeeded by Çri Jitendrakara Parakrama Bakta in 1051-1112.
It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom.
The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala,
the symbol of Shiva. During the reign of Maharaja Çri Bamesvara himself, there were at least
ten inscriptions containing the development of Java in the eastern part around 1112-1135.
Jayabhaya (reigned 1135-1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri
Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was Narasinghavatara depicts one
of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a human with
a lion's head tearing the stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The
name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of
the Mahabharata, written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh.
Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhaya's reign was considered the
golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to
Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a
white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be glorious again. The
Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a recurring popular figure in Javanese
folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri.
Jayabhaya's successor was Sarwweçwara/Sarvesvara (reigned from 1159 to 1171) the royal
symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana, wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end there is a
crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles.
followed by Aryyeçwara/Aryesvara (reigned 1171-1181), who uses Ganesha the elephant-
headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the
Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in the inscription.
The next monarch was king Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri
Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra. An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption of
animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah, Menjangan Puguh, Lembu
Agra, Gajah Kuning, and Macan Putih. Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in the
inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala, or laksmana, a title reserved for navy generals,
which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign.
The eighth king was Kameçvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri
Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa.
He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under the name Kamecwaralancana. During his
reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation
of Kamajaya, the god of love, and his capital city Dahana was admired throughout the known
world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of
love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia
as far as Siam.
The last king of Kediri was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya ruled
Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga
lancana Digwijayottunggadewa. He used a Crnggalancana picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two
horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above. The presence of a dominant horns makes
this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge. In 1222 he was forced to surrender his throne
to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari. This
was the result of his defeat at the battle of Ganter. This event marked the end of Kediri era, and

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the beginning of the Singhasari era.

Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD

According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-f
Agastya
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents an
edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom.

The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java), which
the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines".Yawadwipa ("Java island"), and had

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long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity after his
death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna) ascended to the
throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military prowess. After the
conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land of
Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage on
Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan, a
book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same historical
person.

The main temple of the Penataran complex took the form of a stepped pyramid.
Penataran or Panataran (Indonesian: Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu
temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located in Penataran, Blitar Regency, roughly
12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang. Believed to have
been constructed between the 12th century to the 15th century, the temple played a significant
role in the Majapahit Kingdom, especially under King Hayam Wuruk. He considered his favorite
sanctuary. Penataran dates from the Kediri era. This temple was identified
in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during
his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on the World Heritage list
of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to the world. However, on 2015, the site was
pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites.
Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest
Indonesian collection of reliefs showing life stories of Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar. In
particular, the temple site include the Rama story in the Javanese version of the epic Ramayana,
as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem. Comparative studies of
reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple (Yogyakarta) complexes have
attracted the attention of archaeologists.[

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The dated temple in the Penataran complex. The Penataran Temple is a temple that is four centuries old
because it was built and developed by several kingdoms at once, from the Kingdom of Kediri to Majapahit.

Candi Penataran, the Largest Ancient Hindu Temple Compound in East Java
Swirling tongues of fire welcomed erstwhile royal families and priests who ascended the stairs of
Palah, a late 12th-century Hindu temple located on the southwestern slopes of Mount Kelud. The
volcano was so active and unpredictable that a temple was deemed necessary to appease
Acalapati, the mountain god, so he would spare the surrounding settlements from his erratic
wrath. Inspired by Krishnayana (Krishna’s life told in an epic poem), the upper walls of the
temple were encrusted with bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the epic. One panel portrayed
Krishna’s escape from Kalayawana (Kalayavana), a ruthless king who was killed by
Muchukunda through his burning gaze (another version of the story refers to
Wiswamitra/Vishvamitra as the killer of Kalayavana). The flames were indeed a metaphor for

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Kelud’s volcanic eruptions.

More than eight centuries later, I find myself looking at the same weathered relief, carved on
andesite rock on the second level of the stone platform. The motif itself is not instantly
recognizable, but on a closer inspection the outline of the flames is clearly the centerpiece of the
ornately-carved panel. Penataran, as Palah is known today, was commissioned by the king of
Kediri, a kingdom that emerged as a prominent power in eastern Java during the mid-11th
century.

Two centuries before the construction of Penataran, Java was already home to great Hindu and
Buddhist temples, including Borobudur and Prambanan, both built by the Central Javanese rulers
of the Medang kingdom. As the center of power on the island gradually shifted to the east in the
decades that followed, new temples were commissioned around the new capital. However, unlike
most Central Javanese temples which followed a concentric layout (also known as mandala,
representing the Hindu-Buddhist universe) with the most important structure located at the center
of the temple compound, Penataran – the largest Hindu temple in East Java – was constructed in
a linear layout where the sanctum is situated at the back of the compound. This centuries-old
layout is in fact still used in Bali to build Balinese Hindu temples known as pura.
For three centuries since its completion, new structures were added to Penataran temple complex
by different rulers of East Java. Candi Naga, ‘dragon temple’, was commissioned in the 13th
century when this part of Java was controlled by the kingdom of Singhasari. Named after its
distinctive serpentine carvings, held by nine figures clad in opulent costumes, the temple is
believed to have functioned as a reliquary for sacred weapons. In front of Candi Naga lies Candi
Candra Sengkala, a 14th-century tall and slender addition to the temple compound. Constructed
in a typical East Javanese architectural style, the temple was built under the rule of Hayam
Wuruk, the greatest of all Majapahit kings. Majapahit itself was the last great Hindu kingdom to
ever rule much of Java.

Candi Naga, Named after the Mythical Serpent Carved around the Structure’s Walls//
The Story of Sri Tanjung, Popular in the 13th-Century East Java

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The Slender and Distinctively East Javanese Candi Candra Sengkala

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Ever-Menacing Kala above Candi Candra Sengkala’s Doorway

Candi Naga, South Side

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Candi Naga, North Side

Candi Penataran, the Main Structure in the Compound

Following the decline of Majapahit as more and more people on the island converted to Islam,
Penataran’s importance gradually diminished until it was completely abandoned. In the span of
centuries, neglect and natural disasters caused heavy damage to the formerly imposing temple.
The rediscovery of Penataran is credited to Thomas Stamford Raffles, a British colonial governor
at a time when Java was briefly occupied by the British. The ruins of the temple were first
mentioned in a 1815 account, although reconstruction work did not begin in earnest until many
years later.
Further studies revealed that the lower walls of the three-tiered main temple were adorned with
stories from the Ramayana, one of the greatest and most well-known Hindu epics alongside the
Mahabharata. The Ramayana had inspired ancient Javanese sculptors to immortalize figures,
animals, plants and other motifs from the epic on andesite rock – widely available in volcanic
Java – which were then used to decorate a plethora of Hindu temples on the island. However,
Penataran’s medallions – depicting real and mythical animals – are unique to the temple as they
aren’t found on any Central Javanese temple.

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In front of Candi Candra Sengkala is Batur Pendapa, where it is believed that devotees once
placed offerings in religious ceremonies. Modern-day visitors would likely notice the strange
look of the main sanctum, Batur Pendapa, as well as Bale Agung – also located at the front part
of the compound – for they all seem to have lost their upper structures. Believed to be made from
perishable materials – possibly wood and ijuk (palm fiber) – these structures have long
succumbed to the power of nature. Fortunately some relief panels at the lower part of the main
temple suggest how the whole structure used to look, which unsurprisingly reminds me of some
Hindu temples in Bali given the fact that many Javanese royals fled to the neighboring island
following the decline of Hinduism in Java.

Candi Penataran’s Unique Medallions and Relief Panels

A Scene from the Ramayana

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Each Panel Has Its Own Style

A Centuries-Old Masterpiece

Straight Lines and Curves

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Ancient Javanese Architecture
Apart from the architecture, what stays the same is the activity of Mount Kelud itself. Unlike
most accounts about volcanic eruptions across the archipelago which were exclusively written by
the Europeans during the colonial period, Kelud’s eruption was mentioned in a 14th-century epic
Javanese poem. The volcano erupted in the same year when Hayam Wuruk was born, perceived
by the locals as a divine sign of great things the baby would accomplish in his life – Majapahit
was in fact at its peak during Hayam Wuruk’s rule. Interestingly, centuries after the island’s
conversion to Islam and the arrival of Christianity from Europe, the Javanese reverence toward
volcanoes has barely changed.

In 1901, Kelud erupted again with a mighty explosion (heard hundreds of kilometers away) and
an ash cloud that reached as far as West Java. Two weeks later, a baby boy was born, and as goes
with tradition, the locals saw this as an omen of something great about to happen to him. Less
than five decades later, the same boy had grown up to become none other than the first president
of Indonesia. Even in the 21st century, volcanic eruptions are often interpreted as a prelude to
major political events. But when no such thing occurs following an eruption, the locals will still
tell you stories about Mount Kelud with a sense of veneration, pride and astonishment.

“When Kelud erupted in 2014, Yogyakarta was covered in thick ash,” a local tells me in
reference to Kelud’s latest major eruption which paralyzed the city, more than 200 km away to
the west of the volcano. The ash forced the closure of major airports across Java, causing weeks-
long travel disruptions. “But strangely, Blitar was safe,” he adds, referring to the nearest city to
the volcano. As tempting it is to explain the phenomenon from a scientific perspective, to him
and many other people Penataran seems to serve its purpose after all. It has been protecting the
surrounding areas from the wrath of the mountain god, more than eight centuries since its
completion.

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A Metaphorical Depiction of Mount Kelud///A Small Asian Elephant along with Foreign-
Looking Soldiers

Winged Lions and Serpents//An Artistic Creation during the Peak of Hinduism in East Java

A Fierce-Looking Winged Snake//A Guardian of Batur Pendapa

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An Intricately-Decorated Pond at the Back of the Main Temple

Penataran is still not very well known among Indonesians – when we returned to Jakarta and I
told my coworkers about it, none of them had ever heard of the temple.
As for the why Penataran is not that well-known even among Indonesians, I think it’s
because of its location which is not as easily accessible from big cities as Borobudur or
Prambanan.https://harindabama.com/2017/07/30/penataran-appeasing-the-mountain-god/

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 ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
6
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 x6
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records
700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.

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 3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories for
having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor
laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English- SPOTLIGHT 7”-
and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a
copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic
Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm, SWEDEN and
President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various
magazines and literary Fora.

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World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an
individual-world-record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-
number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-
world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-
articles-on-dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an

Individual
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-
number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-
world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World
%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book
%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu

Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including
Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary

endeavours) published by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of
world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing

highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of
_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to
Dr Uday Dokras for his prolific writings on historiography of
Jainism and Jain religious structures and contributing erudite
articles to numerous Jain Journals such as Nagabharana:
Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras

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Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges
contribution of Dr. Uday to design elements of New
Parliament House of India vis-a-vis Dwarpals or door
guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_I
NDIA_inspired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?
usp=sharing

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 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

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Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of
Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU
TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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 Meditation Center Project
for HARIOM Cow Shelter by
Dr Uday Dokras

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 Design Consultant to
OCTAGONAL Meditation Center for REIKI MASTER-
Mrs.Tracey Stanfield,Fish Creek, AUSTRALIA

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