Hindu Khmers

Dr Uday Dokras
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Worshipping Vishnu in the Khmer Empire
When the Khmer Empire came to power in the ninth century AD, Hinduism was the official
religion. It had been the case in that part of the world for generations. Rulers of the great empire
worshipped Hindu gods such as Vishnu and Shiva, and dedicated the 12th-century temple of
Angkor Wat to these beliefs.
The Vaishnavite cult was adopted in Cambodia by Jayavarman II and his son Jayavarman III.
Under these rulers, the shaivite cult was merged with the Vaishnavite cult in the temples such as
the Thommannon, Beng Mealea, Chau Say Tevoda, Banteay Samre, and Angkor Wat.

When Angkor Wat was built, Cambodia was primarily Hindu and Khmer culture drew much of
its inspiration from India. The Khmer empire included modern-day Burma, Thailand and
Vietnam — the largest area ever covered by Cambodia — and laid the foundations for
Cambodian culture and art for centuries to come. In a sign of the temple’s importance, the king’s
palace was most likely on the temple grounds, although nothing of it remains today. About one
million men, women and children populated the Angkor area, according to an estimate by French
archaeologist Bernard-Philippe Groslier, making it the largest settlement in the preindustrial
world.

Most of the inscriptions at Angkor are in Sanskrit, and the nymph-like apsaras, or celestial
dancers, that grace the walls derive from Hindu mythology. Later, however, the Khmer kings
became interested in Buddhism, and Angkor Wat was converted into a Buddhist monastery
between the 12th and 15th centuries. The central statue of the innermost sanctuary — likely a
statue of Vishnu — was removed and a Buddhist image erected in its place. For several
centuries, the Khmer empire practiced a syncretic faith that combined Buddhism and Hinduism.

In many ways Angkor Wat is so much larger than life that the details of the temple get
overlooked amid the legends that surround it. It’s easy to forget that it contains nearly 2,000 feet
of the finest Khmer bas reliefs in the world. Its nearly 2,000 celestial apsaras represent the
apogee of Cambodia’s apsara-carving tradition and provide a detailed account of court dress and
female fashions during the period of its creation, the elaborate headdresses, heavy jewelry worn
on the arms and neck, and flowing skirts. Traditional Cambodian dance to this day imitates the
apsaras’ poses and costumes.

One of the most intricate reliefs decorating the walls of the temple’s first gallery depicts the
Churning of the Sea of Milk, a key event in Hindu cosmology in which the world was created by
an epic tug-of-war between gods and demons. Each side pulled on a giant five-headed snake
wrapped around Mount Mehru, and the subsequent twisting of the mountain and churning of the
seas gave birth to the apsaras that grace the walls of Angkor Wat, as well as an elixir of

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immortality over which the gods and demons subsequently dueled. In this story, Mount Mehru is
not only the center of the universe, but also the birthplace of the known world.

These Southeast Asian seafaring peoples engaged in extensive trade with India and China.
Which attracted the attention of the Mongols, Chinese and Japanese, as well as Islamic traders,
who reached the Aceh area of Sumatra in the 12th century. Indian scholars wrote about the
Dwipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC. "Yawadvipa" is
mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched
his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. It was hence referred to by the
Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island).

Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much
to the legacy of the Chola dynasty. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in
Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture.According to the
Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants
of the kings of the Chola Empire.Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes
there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.
The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of
Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Kalinga, as well
as from the kingdoms of South India. The Indianised Tarumanagara kingdom was established
in West Java around 400s, produced among the earliest inscriptions in Indonesian history. There
was a marked Buddhist influence starting about 425 in the region. Around the 6th
century, Kalingga Indianized kingdom was established on the northern coast of Central Java. The
kingdom name was derived from Kalinga east coast of India.
Some scholars have pointed out that the legends of Ikshvaku and Sumati may have their origin in
the Southeast-Asian myth of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd. The legend of Sumati, the
wife of King Sagar, tells that she produced offspring with the aid of a bitter gourd.
Sometimes here and sometimes there, the Khmer Kings and their Brahmanical advisors seem to
have been unable to decide on wheter to go for worshipping Shiva or Vishnu or perhaps they
thought that both were the same- as is the grain of some Hindu thought or they were equidistant
from esch other and the consequent holiness?

The reclining sculpture of Bhagwan Vishnu at Undavalli caves is one of a kind. Sculpted from a
single block of granite around the 4th cen C.E, this sculpture is a testament to the architectural
prowess of our ancestors.

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 Bronze Reclining Vishnu – West Mebon
by Andy Brouwer

The famous bronze statue of a reclining Vishnu Anantashayin at the National Museum in Phnom
Penh is due to travel to Paris, France in 2022 for restoration by experts at the Guimet Museum .
This dramatic sculptural masterpiece is currently on display at less than a third of its original six-
meter length. The makeover is expected to last nine months, after which the statue will be a
temporary exhibit at the museum before heading back to Phnom Penh.

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It was in December 1936 that a farmer living in the Angkor region is said to have had a dream in
which the Buddha appeared to him asking to be 'released' from the soil. He led École française
d'Extrême-Orient’s conservator, Maurice Glaize, to the West Mebon temple – in the middle of
the largest reservoir of the Angkor area - where at the end of a causeway, they unearthed not a
Buddha, but this magnificent statue of the god Vishnu in bronze. Following its excavation, it
eventually made its way to the National Museum by the end of 1950 and has remained on
permanent display ever since. The sculpture, among the museum's most-prized, has toured the
world appearing in exhibitions of Khmer art in the USA, Japan and Australia.
When the statue was cast sometime in the second-half of the 11th century or early 12th, it was
installed in the center of the Western Baray reservoir, part of the impressive hydraulic system
that maintained Angkor for many centuries, as the main feature of the West Mebon temple,
which has also been the subject of renovations over the past decade. The deity would’ve been
reclining on a serpent on the ocean, and the hollows of its eyes, eyebrows and above the lips
would've been inlaid with precious stones. A new-look for the museum’s reclining bronze
Vishnu is eagerly awaited.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and
its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast Asia entered the
historical period by producing their earliest inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE. Today,
Hindus in Southeast Asia are mainly Overseas Indians and Balinese. There are also Javanese (also
other minorities of Indonesia) and Cham minority in Cambodia and southern Vietnam who practices
Hinduism.
Hindu civilization, which itself formed from various distinct cultures and peoples, including also
early Southeast Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence, was adopted and assimilated into the
indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity. Through the
formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by petty chieftain were
transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It
gave birth to the former Champa civilisation in southern parts of Central
Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old
Kedah in the Malay Peninsula, the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang
Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire based in Java, Bali and parts of
the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India influenced the languages, scripts, written
tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and artistic aspects of these peoples and nations. A
reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because
Indian culture already some striking similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which
can be explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups) and Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence
on local Indian peoples. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi,
among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer
(Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of
western, eastern and indigenous traditions. Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during
the beginning of the Kingdom of Funan. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official
religions. Angkor Wat, the largest temple complex in the world (now Buddhist) was once a
Hindu temple. The main religion adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism, followed by
Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism as the main state
religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples.
Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara Vishnuloka in

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Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman II as Vishnu.
Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically only remained
among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class..
The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where sophisticated culture, art, and
architecture flourish. The Khmer king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management
and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as
canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays. Society was arranged in a hierarchy
reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners - rice farmers and fishermen — formed
the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas - royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and
warriors — formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes
included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and stonemasons, potters,
metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the lowest social level are slaves. The
extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The
state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as
possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or
Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult
enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic
monuments such as Angkor Wat and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.
The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada
Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the
13th century.[29] Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being replaced
by Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu rituals continue
to play an important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the ceremony of
coronation is conducted mostly by royal brahmins, during which the sovereign swears in front of
the idols of gods Vishnu and Shiva to maintain the ancient national traditions.

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to the

god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a
polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with
many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to
be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus
on a single different aspect of human life.
In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu he
preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death, which
then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the
course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme
god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the
popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this
comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and how
one is to best live one's life.

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The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers
and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his
realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The
Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was
viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a protector-
god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained more
adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by
decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the divine who had
also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple of
worship rather than a funerary site.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE, USING RELIGION, BY

DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.
While Vaishnavites (followers of Vaishnavism) worship Lord Vishnu (or his two reincarnations
– Lord Rama and Lord Krishna) as the primary deity, Shaivites (followers of Shaivism) consider
Lord Shiva as the Supreme God and worship him the most. Well, the division between
Vaishnavism and Shaivism has been very old, maybe as old as Hinduism becauae of egos of
humans- my God is better and bigger than your God. It was also fuelled by Kings ,one would
consider Vishnu as his favourite nd the other Shiva
Claiming the hydraulic network of Angkor with Viṣṇu: A multidisciplinary approach including the analysis of
archaeological remains, digital modelling and radiocarbon dating: With evidence for a 12th century
renovation of the West Mebon, MarnieFeneleyaDanPennybRolandFletcherb,Journal of Archaeological Science:
Reports, Volume 9, October 2016, Pages 275-292

“Flollowing quote from he relationship between cosmology, geography, hydraulics and

sovereignty has been important to the development of Southeast Asian societies' religious
practices and state formation. The hydraulic network of Angkor in Cambodia was developed by
the Khmer rulers to take both symbolic and physical control of this water, and to reinforce their
power. Sanctified water from the source on the Kulen Hills was fed into the channels of the
hydraulic network of Angkor and into the large reservoirs (baray) and moats of the temples.
The West Mebon is a water shrine that is generally considered to have been built in the 11th century by
Udayādityavarman II . It is unique in Khmer archaeology and its position within the hydraulic
landscape of Angkor makes it a very significant monument. The Mebon is located in the middle
of the vast Western Baray reservoir at Angkor. In the middle of this sanctuary is a large basin,
creating a pond approximately 100 m2. A causeway from the eastern gateway leads to a central
platform in this basin. The platform, which contains two shafts, was excavated in the 1930s and
1940s by the École Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO).

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In 1936 fragments of the exceptionally large bronze sculpture known as the West Mebon Viṣṇu,
and other artefacts, were found in the western shaft, seen here upon their discovery by French
archaeologists (Fig below ). This massive bronze sculpture may be that mentioned in the late
13th century when a Chinese envoy to Angkor, Zhou Daguan recorded that there was a large
reclining sculpture of Buddha located in the ‘East’ Baray.

According to his report water issued from the sculpture's navel (Zhou Daguan, trans Harris,
2007: 48). In his journal, Zhou Daguan locates this sculpture in the Eastern Baray. No evidence
has been found to indicate a large reclining Buddha in the Eastern or Western Baray, and it has
generally been assumed that the Chinese visitor was identifying the West Mebon Viṣṇu.

The West Mebon Viṣṇu upon discovery in 1936 (left to right): Henri Marchal, Maurice
Glaize and an unidentified Khmer man (EFEO).

Angkor Wat is ofcourse the quintessential VISHNU temple from A to Z. The name itself
points to the realm of VISHNU.The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama
Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu. built at the behest of the Khmer
King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, present-day Angkor), the
capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Angkor Wat combines
two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried
temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within
a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are
three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands
a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west;
scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and
harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its
walls. The modern name Angkor Wat, alternatively Nokor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City
of Temples" in Khmer. Angkor meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the

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word nokor (នគរ nôkôr), which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali word nagara (Devanāgarī:
नगर) Wat is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali vāṭa (Devanāgarī:
वाट), meaning "enclosure". The construction of Angkor Wat took place over a period of 28 years
from 1122 – 1150 CE during the reign of King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c.
1150). A brahmin by the name of Divākarapaṇḍita (1040 – c. 1120) was responsible for
urging Suryavarman II to construct the temple. According to a myth, the construction of Angkor
Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the
13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a
single night by a divine architect. Divākarapaṇḍita, original name Divākara, (born 1040,
Cambodia—died c. 1120), Hindu of the Brahman (priestly) caste who rose through religious and
administrative ranks to serve four Cambodian kings—Harshavarman II, Jayavarman VI,
Dharanindravarman I, and the great Suryavarman II—and who was the most trusted adviser to
three of them.

The highly opportunistic Divākara was able not only to survive the successive usurpations of
monarchies but also to ingratiate himself with each new sovereign. Divākarapaṇḍita played a
singular role in Cambodian history, for it was at his urging that Suryavarman II began
construction of the temple of Angkor Wat, one of the world’s largest religious edifices and
certainly one of the greatest achievements of ancient Khmer, or Cambodian, civilization. One of
the monuments of Angkor Wat commemorates this powerful Brahman. All of the original
religious motifs at Angkor Wat derived from Hinduism. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of
some of the previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. It was built as the
king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary
inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may
have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended
shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished. The
term Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka literally means "The king who has gone to the
supreme world of Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and intend to venerate
his glory and memory.
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by
the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new
king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and
the Bayon, respectively), a few kilometers north, dedicated to Buddhism, because the king
believed that the Hindu gods had failed him. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted
into a Buddhist site, and many Hindu sculptures were replaced by Buddhist art.
Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of
worship to Buddhism, which continues to the present day.[4] Angkor Wat is unusual among the
Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never
completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the
Angkor area, testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims that had established small settlements
alongside Khmer locals.[18] At that time, the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors to be the
famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha, which was originally located in the kingdom of Magadha,
India. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New
Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.

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One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese friar who
visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to
describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and
decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."In 1622, The Poem
of Angkor Wat composed in Khmer verse describes the beauty of Angkor Wat and creates a
legend around the construction of the complex, supposedly a divine castle built for legendary
Khmer king Preah Ket Mealea by Hindu god Preah Pisnukar (or Braḥ Bisṇukār, Vishvakarman),
as Suryavarman II had already vanished from people's minds.In 1860, with the help of French
missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux, the temple was effectively rediscovered by the
French naturalist and explorer Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the
publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo,
might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything
left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the
nation is now plunged
In 1861 German anthropologist Adolf Bastian undertook a four-year trip to Southeast Asia and
his account of this trip, The People of East Asia ran to six volumes. When Bastian finally
published the studies and observations during his Journey through Cambodia to Cochinchina in
Germany in 1868 - told in detail but uninspiredly, above all without a single one of his drawings
of the Angkorian sites - this work hardly made an impression, while everyone was talking
about Henri Mouhot's posthumous work with vivid descriptions of Angkor, Travels in the
Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos, published in 1864 through the Royal
Geographical Society.
There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement, including cooking
utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead, there is only
evidence of the monuments themselves
The artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led
directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to
take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern
corner of the country such as the areas of Siem Reap, Battambang and Sisophon which were
under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907. The Wat's aesthetics were on display in the plaster cast
museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero
Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.

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Banteay Srei or Banteay Srey is a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to
the Hindu god Shiva originally, it carried the name Tribhuvanamaheśvara—great lord of the
threefold world—in reference to the Shaivite linga that served as its central religious
image. However, the temple buildings appear to be divided along the central east–west axis
between those buildings located south of the axis, which are devoted to Śiva, and those north of
the axis, which are devoted to Viṣṇu. This was a common phenomena in Khmer worship
thatbthey did not fight over which God was greater Vishnu or Shiva but embraced them both
whereas in the Hindu lands of India Vaishnavites ( Vishnu Followers) and Shaivites( Shiva
Followers)
Located in the area of Angkor, it lies near the hill of Phnom Dei, 25 km (16 mi) north-east of the
main group of temples that once belonged to the medieval capitals of Yasodharapura and Angkor
Thom. Banteay Srei is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the elaborate
decorative wall carvings which are still observable today. The buildings themselves are
miniature in scale, unusually so when measured by the standards of Angkorian construction.
These factors have made the temple extremely popular with tourists, and have led to its being
widely praised as a "precious gem", or the "jewel of Khmer art." "Bantãy Srĕi" (Citadel of
Women) is the modern name of a 10th-century Khmer temple originally called
"Tribhuvanamaheśvara" (Great Lord of the Threefold World), an appellation of the god Siva.
Consecrated on 22 April 967 A.D., Bantãy Srĕi was the only major temple at Angkor not built by
a monarch; its construction is credited to the courtiers named Vishnukumara and Yajnavaraha,
Yajñavarāha, who served as a counsellor to king Rajendravarman II. The foundational stela says
that Yajnavaraha, grandson of king Harsavarman I, was a scholar and philanthropist who helped
those who suffered from illness, injustice, or poverty. His pupil was the future king Jayavarman
V (r. 968- ca. 1001). Originally, the temple was surrounded by a town called Īśvarapura.

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II

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 The Khmer Empire

Map of Asia and Europe circa 1200 C.E. and the golden age of Khmer Empire.

The Khmer empire was the largest continuous empire of South East Asia,
based in what is now Cambodia. The empire, which seceded from the kingdom
of Chenla around 800 C.E., at times ruled over or vassalized parts of modern-
day Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. During its formation, the Khmer Empire had
intensive cultural, political, and trade relations with Java, and later with
the Srivijaya empire that lay beyond the Khmer state's southern border. After
Thai invaders (Siamese) conquered Angkor in 1431, the Khmer capital moved
to Phnom Penh, which became an important trade center on the Mekong River.
Costly construction projects and conflicts within the royal family sealed the
end of the Khmer empire during the seventeenth century.

No written historical documentation of the Khmer Empire remains; knowledge

of the Khmer civilization is derived primarily from stone inscriptions in many
languages including Sanskrit, Pali, Birman, Japanese, and even Arabic, at
archaeological sites and from the reports of Chinese diplomats and traders. Its
greatest legacy is Angkor, which was the capital during the empire's zenith.
Angkor bears testimony to the Khmer empire's immense power and wealth, and
the variety of belief systems that it patronized over time. The empire's official
religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism,
until Theravada Buddhism prevailed after its introduction from Sri Lanka in

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the thirteenth century. Satellite imaging reveals Angkor to have been the
largest pre-industrial urban center in the world, larger than modern-day New
York.

The history of Angkor, as the central area of settlement in the historical

kingdom of Kambuja, is also the history of the Khmer people from the ninth to
the fifteenth centuries. No written records have survived from Kambuja or the
Angkor region, so current historical knowledge of the Khmer civilization is
derived primarily from :

 archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation

 inscriptions on stela and on stones in the temples, which report on the
political and religious deeds of the kings
 reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life
in the palace, market scenes and the everyday lives of the population
 reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travelers.

Jayavarman II - the founder of Khmer Empire

The era of the Khmer kingdom of Angkor started around 800 C.E., when King
Jayavarman II married into a local ruling family of that place. Jayavarman II
(reigned 802 to 850 C.E.), lived as a prince at the court of Sailendra dynasty
in Java (Indonesia), either as a hostage or in order to receive an education
there. He was probably influenced by the refined art and culture of Javan
Sailendra, including the concept of the divine Dewa-Raja (God-King) which was
prominent during the Sailendra dynasty. In 802, he returned to Cambodia,
declared himself the "universal monarch" (chakravartin), God-King (devaraja)
Jayavarman II, [1][2]and declared the independence of Kambujadesa (Cambodia)
from Java. Records of this declaration have given rise to speculation that
Cambodia, a group of politically independent principalities collectively known
to the Chinese as Chenla,[3][4] might have been the dependent vassal of Java for
some years before the reign of Jayavarman II.

Jayavarman II established his capital of Hariharalaya (now known as "Roluos")

at the northern end of Tonle Sap. Through a program of military campaigns,
alliances, marriages and land grants, he achieved a unification of the country
bordered by China (to the north), Champa (to the east), the ocean (to the south)
and a place identified by a stone inscription as "the land of cardamoms and
mangoes" (to the west).

There is speculation that Jayavarman II was probably linked to a legendary

king called Jayavarman Ibis, known from the inscriptions K. 103 (dated April
20, 770) and K. 134 (dated 781), who settled in the Angkor region and married
into a local ruling family, as corroborated by the inscriptions of Preah Ko (K.
713, dated Monday, January 25, 880), Bakong (K. 826, dated 881/82) and

14
Lolei (K. 324, dated Sunday, July 8, 893). All other information about this king,
including the date of his accession, is late and legendary, taken mainly from
the Sdok Kak Thom inscription (K. 235, dated February 8, 1053.

Yasodharapura - the First City of Khmer Empire

Jayavarman II's first three successors are also only known from the
inscriptions. Indravarman I (reigned 877 – 889) expanded the kingdom without
waging wars, and began extensive building projects, using wealth gained
through trade and agriculture. Foremost among these were the temple of Preah
Ko, dedicated on Monday, January 25, 880 and irrigation works.

In 889 C.E.., Yasovarman I ascended to the throne. A great king and an

accomplished builder, he was celebrated by one inscription as "a lion-man; he
tore the enemy with the claws of his grandeur; his teeth were his policies; his
eyes were the Veda." Near the old capital of Hariharalaya, Yasovarman
constructed a new city called Yasodharapura. In the tradition of his
predecessors, he also constructed a massive reservoir called the East Baray, a
massive water reservoir measuring roughly 7.5 by 1.8 kilometers.

The city's central temple was built on Phnom Bakheng (Sanskrit: Hemadri), a
hill which rises around 60 meters above the plain on which Angkor sits, and
surrounded by a moat fed from the baray. He also built numerous other Hindu
temples and ashramas, or retreats for ascetics.[7]

French map of Cambodia under Jayavarman VII.RIGHT A twelfth or thirteenth

century relief at the Bayon temple in Angkor depicts the Khmer army going to
war against the Cham.

At the beginning of the tenth century the kingdom split, and Jayavarman IV
established a new capital at Koh Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor.
Rajendravarman II (reigned 944 - 968) returned the royal palace to
15
Yasodharapura. He resumed the extensive building schemes of the earlier
kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area, including Pre Rup
and the East Mebon, on an island in the middle of the East Baray (dedicated
on the January 28, 953), and several Buddhist temples and monasteries. In
950, the first war took place between Kambuja and the kingdom of Champa to
the east (in the modern central Vietnam).

The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V, reigned from 968 to c. 1001.

After he had established himself as the new king over the other princes, his
rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and cultural flowering.
He established a new capital near Yashodharapura, Jayenanagari.
Philosophers, scholars and artists resided at the court of Jayavarman V. New
temples were also established: the most important of these are Banteay Srei,
considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the
first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone.

A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. A series of kings

reigned only for a few years, and were each violently replaced by his successor,
until Suryavarman I (reigned 1002 - 1049) gained the throne after a long war
against his rival king Jayaviravarman (r. 1002 - c. 1017). His rule was marked
by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and by military
conquests. In the west he extended the kingdom to the modern city of Lopburi
in Thailand, in the south to the Kra Isthmus. Under Suryavarman I,
construction of the West Baray, the second and even larger {8 by 2.2 km) water
reservoir after the Eastern Baray, began.

Between 900 and 1200 C.E., the Khmer Empire produced some of the world's
most magnificent architectural masterpieces in Angkor. In 2007 an
international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern
techniques concluded that the medieval settlement around the temple complex
Angkor had been the largest preindustrial city in the world with an urban
sprawl of 1,150 square miles. The closest rival to Angkor, the Mayan city
of Tikal in Guatemala, was roughly 50 square miles in total size.[8]

Suryavarman II

The eleventh century was a period of conflict and brutal power struggles. For a
few decades, under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113 - after 1145) the kingdom
was united internally and able to expand. Suryavarman ascended to the throne
after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says that in the
course of combat, Suryavarman lept onto his rival's war elephant and killed
him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.

Suryavarman II conquered the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya to the west (in

today's central Thailand), and the area further west to the border with the
kingdom of Bagan (modern Burma); in the south he took further parts of the
16
Malay peninsula down to the kingdom of Grahi (corresponding roughly to the
modern Thai province of Nakhon Si Thammarat; in the east, several provinces
of Champa; and the countries in the north as far as the southern border of
modern Laos. The last inscription, which mentions Suryavarman II's name in
connection with a planned invasion of Vietnam, is dated Wednesday, October
17, 1145. He probably died during a military expedition between 1145 and
1150, an event which weakened the kingdom considerably.

Another period of disturbances, in which kings reigned briefly and were

violently overthrown by rebellions or wars, followed the death of Suryavarman
II. Kambuja’s neighbors to the east, the Cham of what is now southern
Vietnam, took launched a seaborne invasion in 1177 up the Mekong River and
across Tonle Sap. The Cham forces sacked the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura
and killed the reigning king, incorporating Kambuja as a province of Champa.

Jayavarman VII - Angkor Thom

Following the death of Suryavarman around 1150 C.E., the kingdom fell into a
period of internal strife. However, a Khmer prince who was to become King
Jayavarman VII rallied his people and defeated the Cham in battles on the lake
and on the land. In 1181, Jayavarman assumed the throne. He was to be the
greatest of the Angkorian kings. Over the ruins of Yasodharapura,
Jayavarman constructed the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its
geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. Bas-reliefs at
the Bayon depict not only the king's battles with the Cham, but also scenes
from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. In addition, Jayavarman
constructed the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, dedicating
them to his parents. This massive program of construction coincided with a
transition in the state religion from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism, since
Jayavarman himself had adopted the latter as his personal faith. During
Jayavarman's reign, Hindu temples were altered to display images of
the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist shrine. Following his
death, a Hindu revival included a large-scale campaign of desecrating Buddhist
images, until Theravada Buddhism became established as the land's dominant
religion from the fourteenth century.[11]

The future king Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-after 1206) had already been a
military leader as a prince under previous kings. After the Cham had
conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and reclaimed the capital,
Yasodharapura. In 1181 he ascended the throne and continued the war
against the neighboring eastern kingdom for 22 years, until the Khmer
defeated Champa in 1203 and conquered large parts of its territory.

Jayavarman VII is regarded as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only
because of the successful war against the Cham, but because he was not a

17
tyrant like his immediate predecessors, unified the empire, and carried out a
number of building projects during his rule. Over the ruins of Yasodharapura,
Jayavarman constructed the walled city of Angkor Thom, as well as its
geographic and spiritual center, the temple known as the Bayon. Bas-reliefs at
the Bayon depict not only the king's battles with the Cham, but also scenes
from the life of Khmer villagers and courtiers. Its towers, each several meters
high and carved out of stone, bear faces which are often wrongly were identified
as those of the boddhisattva Lokeshvara (Avalokiteshvara). In addition,
Jayavarman constructed the well-known temples of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan,
dedicating them to his parents, and the reservoir of Srah Srang. This massive
program of construction coincided with a transition in the state religion
from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism, which Jayavarman had adopted as
his personal faith. During Jayavarman VII's reign, Hindu temples were altered
to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat briefly became a Buddhist
shrine. An extensive network of roads was laid down, connecting every town of
the empire. Beside these roads, 121 rest-houses were built for traders, officials
and travelers, and 102 hospitals were established.

The history of the kingdom after Jayavarman VII is unclear. In the year 1220
the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces they had previously taken
from Champa. One of the successors of Jayavarman VII, Indravarman II, died
in 1243. In the west, his Thai subjects rebelled, established the first Thai
kingdom at Sukhothai and pushed back the Khmer. During the next two
centuries, the Thai became the chief rivals of Kambuja. Indravarman II was
probably succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243 or 1267 - 1295).

During the thirteenth century most of the statues of Buddha statues in the
empire (archaeologists estimate the number at over 10,000, of which few traces
remain) were destroyed, and Buddhist temples were converted to Hindu
temples. During the same period the construction of the Angkor Wat probably
took place, sponsored by a king known only by his posthumous name,
Paramavishnuloka. From the outside, the empire was threatened in 1283 by
the Mongols under Kublai Khan's general Sagatu. The king avoided war with
his powerful opponent, who at that time ruled over all China, by paying annual
tribute to him. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by
his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295-1308). The new king was a
follower of Theravada Buddhism, a school of Buddhism which had arrived
in southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the
region.

In August of 1296, the Chinese diplomat representing Yuan Emperor

Chengzong Zhou Daguan arrived at Angkor, and remained at the court of King
Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese
representative to visit Kambuja, but his stay was notable because he later
wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor, which is one of the most important

18
sources of information about historical Angkor. His descriptions of several
great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat), contain the information
that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold), and the text also offers
valuable information on the everyday life and the habits of the inhabitants of
Angkor.

Zhou Daguan found what he took to be three separate religious groups in

Angkor. The dominant religion was that of Theravada Buddhism. Zhou
observed that the monks had shaven heads and wore yellow robes. The
Buddhist temples impressed Zhou with their simplicity; he noted that the
images of Buddha were made of gilded plaster. [13] The other two groups
identified by Zhou appear to have been those of the Brahmans and of
the Shaivites (lingam worshipers). About the Brahmans Zhou had little to say,
except that they were often employed as high officials. Of the Shaivites, whom
he called "Taoists," Zhou wrote, "the only image which they revere is a block of
stone analogous to the stone found in shrines of the god of the soil in China." [

DECLINE: There are few historical records from the time following
Srindravarman's reign. An inscription on a pillar mentions the accession of a
king in the year 1327 or 1267. No further large temples were established.
Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada
Buddhism, which did not require the construction of elaborate temples to the
gods. The western neighbor of the Empire, the first Thai kingdom of Sukhothai,
was conquered by another Thai kingdom, Ayutthaya, in 1350. After 1352
several assaults on Kambuja were repelled. In 1431, however, the superiority of
Ayutthaya was too great, and, according the [[Thailand}Thai]] chronicles, the
Thai army conquered Angkor.

The center of the residual Khmer kingdom was in the south, in the region of
today's Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not
completely abandoned, including evidence for the continued use of Angkor
Wat. King Ang Chand (reigned 1530-1566) ordered the covering of two hitherto
unfilled galleries of that temple with scenes from the Ramayana. Under the
rule of king Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566 - 1576), who temporarily
succeeded in driving back the Thai, the royal court was briefly returned to
Angkor. From the seventeenth century there are inscriptions which testify
to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-
known relates that Ukondafu Kazufusa celebrated the Khmer New Year there
in 1632.

One line of Khmer kings probably remained in Angkor, while a second moved
to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would
then have been due to the transfer of economic, and therefore political,
significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade centre on the Mekong

19
River. Costly construction projects and conflicts within the royal family sealed
the end of the Khmer empire.

Water Reservoirs

The nature and importance of the massive water reservoirs

or baray surrounding the temples at Angkor has been a subject of debate
among scholars for decades. Some believe that the baray were used to secure a
steady supply of water to irrigate rice fields, making them central to the
Angkorean economy and essential to sustaining the population of Angkor. An
elaborate system of canals connecting to the reservoirs was used for trade,
travel and irrigation. They theorize that Angkor’s expanding population put
increased strain on the water system and caused seasonal flooding and water
shortages. Forests were cut down in the Kulen hills to make room for more rice
fields, and runoff from the rains began to carry sediment into the canal system.
When the baray became full of silt due to poor maintenance, the population at
Angkor could no longer be sustained, eventually leading to the abandonment of
the temple site at Angkor in favor of Phnom Penh, and the consequent decline
of the Angkorean Empire. This theory is known as the hydraulic paradigm.

However, recent research by W. J. Van Liere and Robert Acker suggests that
the baray could not have been used for large scale irrigation. Some
researchers, including Milton Osborne, have suggested that the baray may
have been symbolic in nature, representing the ocean surrounding Mount
Meru and fulfilling the Hindu mythological cosmos, which the Khmer God
Kings attempted to recreate on earth as a sign of their relationship with the
Hindu gods. Research efforts, such as the Greater Angkor Project, of the
University of Sydney, are still being conducted to confirm or reject the
hydraulic paradigm.

Timeline of rulers

Chronological listing with reign, title and posthumous title(s), where known.

 657-681: Jayavarman I
 c.700-c.713: Jayadevi
 770 and 781 Jayavarman Ibis, probably identical with Jayavarman II
 9th century: Jayavarman II (Parameshvara)
 9th century: Jayavarman III (Vishnuloka)
 9th century: Rudravarman (Rudreshvara)
 9th century-877: Prthivindravarman (Prthivindreshvara)
 877-889: Indravarman I (Isvaraloka)
 889-910: Yasovarman I (Paramasivaloka)
 910-923: Harshavarman I (Rudraloka)

20
 923-928: Isānavarman II (Paramarudraloka)
 921-941: Jayavarman IV (Paramasivapada)
 941-944: Harshavarman II (Vrahmaloka or Brahmaloka)
 944-968: Rājendravarman (Sivaloka)
 968-1001: Jayavarman V (Paramasivaloka)
 1001-1002?: Udayādityavarman I
 1002-1017?: Jayaviravarman
 1001-1049: Suryavarman I (Nirvanapada)
 1049-1067: Udayādityavarman II
 1066-1080?: Harshavarman III (Sadasivapada)
 1080-1113?: Jayavarman VI (Paramakaivalyapada)
 1107-1112/13: Dharanindravarman I (Paramanishkalapada)
 1113-1150: Suryavarman II (not known)
 1160-1165/6: Yasovarman II
 1166-1177: Tribhuvanāditya (Mahāparamanirvanapada)
 1181-1206?: Jayavarman VII (Mahāparamasaugata?)
 13th century-1243: Indravarman II
 13th century: not known (Paramavisnuloka)
 1243 or 1267-1295: Jayavarman VIII (abdicated) (Paramesvarapada)
 1295-1308: Srindravarman
 1308-1327?: Indrajayavarman

21
 CHAPTER III
The Khmer Civilization as an Integration of Cultures

A distinctive feature of Southeast Asia is its cultural diversity. There are ~1,000
languages spoken in the SEA countries. It is well known that migration into the region
had been dictated by proximity to river systems, especially the movement of tribal
groups from Southern China to the interior areas of the mainland. Linguistically, the
mainland is divided into three important families:

1. the Austro-Asiatic (Cambodian and Vietnamese),

2. Tai (Thai and Lao), and the
3. TibetoBurmese (including highland languages as well as Burmese).

Languages belonging to these families can also be found in the Northeastern parts of
India and Southwestern China. The language of the Tai people who live in different
parts of Northeast India, including in parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, has
some similarities with the language spoken in Thailand and Laos. They are all various
branches of the Tai–Kadai language family. Southeast Asia is also unique in the way in
which people have adapted to their local environments. In pre-modern times, many
itinerant groups lived in boats and were called “sea people”. The deep jungles provided
shelter to numerous small wandering groups, and tribes that survived in the further
interior regions also included headhunters. On the fertile plains of Java and mainland
Southeast Asia, sedentary communities grew

Mandala Empire of FUNAN

The rise and fall of great polities of the past came in different forms. For Southeast
Asia, the analogy is often one of dynamic “circles” of power that expand and contract.
These circles had a center or seed, be it a settlement or a royal palace, out of which
grew the loose Indic- influenced kingdoms, sometimes termed “mandalas.” In this
formative stage they carried pre-Indic indigenous names. These terms refer to the core
areas which gave rise to principalities, kingdoms, and empires and larger formations
became known by the Sanskrit term, mandala. But in terms of a regional
consciousness, of being part of a whole, the mandalic region’s adaptability meant that
it could adopt all that was originally ‘foreign’.” The same could be said of The
Khemers-having borrowed Hinduism from India, later on became a Buddhist country.
“The early states that inspired the title of this publication are misty entities about which,
to varying degrees, little is known beyond their names and what can be gleaned from a
scattering of early inscriptions and some field archaeology. Some bear Indic names,

22
such as Champa (Skt., Campā), Dvāravatī, Śrī Ksetra, and Śrīvijaya, while others, such
as Funan and Zhenla, are known by the names assigned to them in Chinese official
chronicles. The last two names are preserved only in Chinese sources and are assumed
to be phonetic renderings of unrecorded local names, although no evidence exists for
this idea; rather, they may simply have been names the Chinese historians assigned to
these distant and minor entities, with which they traded. Nonetheless, Chinese
commentators, uniquely for the period, did record precise geographic locations for the
polities, securing them in space and time. The premier names are Pyu, Dvāravatī,
Funan, Zhenla, Champa, and Śrīvijaya.”1B
The earliest forms of Hinduism, along with Buddhist influences, entered the Funan
kingdom with Hindu merchants. In later history, a second stream of Buddhism
entered Khmer culture during the Angkor empire when Cambodia absorbed the
various Buddhist traditions of the Mon kingdoms of Dvaravati and Haripunchai.
For the first thousand years of Khmer history, Cambodia was ruled by a series of
Hindu kings with an occasional Buddhist king, such as Jayavarman I of Funan, and
Suryvarman I. A variety of Buddhist traditions co-existed peacefully throughout
Cambodian lands, under the tolerant auspices of Hindu kings and the neighboring
Mon-Theravada kingdoms. Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple in Siem Reap, is the largest
temple complex in the world.

However let us not forget that highland tribal groups, most with their own local
religious systems were the earliest religious people in Cambodia. Hinduism came to
Cambodia mainly during the reign of the Chola king Raja Raja Chola in the 10th
century. Even before that, Buddhism had arrived in Cambodia. The Khmer Loeu have
been loosely described as animists, but most indigenous ethnic groups have their own
pantheon of local spirits. In general they see their world filled with various invisible
spirits (often called yang), some benevolent, others malevolent. They associate spirits
with rice, soil, water, fire, stones, paths, and so forth. Shamans, sorcerers or
specialists in each village contact these spirits and prescribe ways to appease them.

The first wave of Indians gives birth to Funan, Angkor's Ancestor

1.The first wave of Indians has been said to have migrated into Cambodia about 2000
years ago – at the beginning of the Modern Era. This migration gave birth to the
Khmer race, as the Indian merchants married into the local population.

2.The second wave occurred a few centuries later and began the Indianization of this
region re-invigorating Hindu influences with a fresh influx of Brahman priests
accompanying the merchants. This merger of the indigenous and Indian cultures gave
birth to the unique Khmer culture, a Kingdoms with centralized power began to pop
up in areas that had previously consisted of smaller tribal units.

3.The first of these Indianized kingdoms of mainland Southeast Asia was called
Funan- between the first to the 6th century of the Modern Era. Funan is thought to be
a Chinese alliteration of a Sanskrit term meaning Mountain Kingdom. Although the
kingdom was located near the coast, this name was presumably chosen because the

23
Funanese rulers believed themselves descended from the gods, who lived in the
mountains.

Funan's original capital a port city located 120 miles from the mouth of the Mekong
Rivermcalled Vyadhapura, likely in what is now Ba Phnum District in the province
of Prey Veng, Cambodia. Chinese reports indicated that it was about 120 miles from
the sea. 1
ALTERNATE NARRATIVE

Once upon a time, thousands of years back, came a Brahmin called ‘Kaundinya’ to
this place from India. There he married a local Nag princess and ruled the territory.
The seed of Indian culture sowed on this ground turned into a tree laden with fruits
and flowers. This is the anecdote which marks the beginning of Cambodia the original
‘Kambhuj Desh’. The Indian influence was so powerful that generations of kings
across several dynasties called themselves with Sanskrit names such as Jayvarman,
Yashowarman, Baladitya and their capital cities were Vyadhpura, Aninditpur,
Shambhupura and so on. Indian literature including Ramayan and Mahabharat along
with several pauranik stories became so popular, that they were written back in local
Khmer languages and found place in several carvings, folk arts and importantly in
peoples’ minds. The gods worshipped were Shiv, Vishnu, Uma, Durga, Ganesh and
Gautam Buddha. If Indian mythology made Gautam Buddha as Vishnu’s tenth
incarnation, it’s south east Asian variant made him brother of Shiva. Several large
temples and schools were built for learning of Sanskrit and other faculties such as
Nyaay, Mimansa, Kaavya. Several of the Cambodian kings were tutored in Indian
education system.

Their social rituals such as coronation, marriages etc were entirely based on our customs as written in
Smriti and Sutra literature. There are several inscriptions written in Sanksrit and that too as ‘VrittaBaddha
kavya’ – verses in metres. There was constant interaction with India, as scholars and merchants travelled
between the two lands. Present day Cambodia was the first Indian settlement dated around first century
AD. Funan, Chen-la and then Angkor were the prominent Khmer empires giving ‘them and us’ both, a
history to be proud of.

The success story of India Shining thus flourished around 2-3’rd century AD, came to an end around 14-
15’th century. The Buddhism took over more aggressively and the Chinese influence increased, shutting

24
the doors to Indian winds. Same time India was shackled by Mughal empire which also acted towards
neglect and dis-interest in keeping this south-east connection alive.

Vyadhapura

The Sanskrit for 'City of the Hunters' (Vyadh means one who lives by killing deer and
pura is city) Being at the center of land and sea routes that linked eastern India and
southern China to the islands of the South Seas. Vyadhapura was also conveniently
connected to the Gulf of Siam and inland cities by canals that utilized natural
channels. These canals were large enough for seagoing vessels contributing to the
origination of the Funan kingdom, whose prosperity was primarily based on trade.

They were the first Southeast Asian nation, but not the last, to be a commercial
empire. Funan was definitely the earliest phase of Khmer culture. The ethnic and
linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly
debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The
Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may
have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the
ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today
who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means
"below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonised by
Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.[15]
It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and
linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more
rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and
the north Indian Gupta Empire.[16] The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava
dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and
Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or
vernacular tongue of the Funanese.

Suvarnabhumi : Funan could have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient

Indian texts. The core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of
Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos,
Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. As per a Pre-Angkorian stone
inscription in dated to 633 CE -“The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and
bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is
the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their
heads”. This adds credence to the fact that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire. 2

25
Funan could even be considered a small empire- a classic mandala empire, no precise
boundaries, with influence and power spread by prestige and wealth rather than through
military strength. See my book MAZE OF THE MANDALA, Book V, Rajamandala, “ Circle of
Kings’ Indian Ocean Kingdoms and Diplomacy.”

The Influence of the Pallava Dynasty of Southern India

It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and
linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more
rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and
the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava
dynasty which, unfortunately, give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular
tongue of the Funanese As but one indication of this influence, the Cambodian kings
borrowed the honorific title ‘varman’ from the Pallavas to designate their king.
Bhadravarman, one of Funan’s early rulers, was the first Khmer king to add this suffix
to his name. Ruling in the 4th century, he was a contemporary of the Pallavas. He was
also a renowned scholar of the Vedas and authored several inscriptions in Sanskrit.
Significantly, he also invited some prominent Brahmins to live in his kingdom,
presumably to encourage the spread of Hinduism. He was not the last Khmer king to
extend this type of invitation.

The history of the Pallavas is very complex and covers about four centuries. The period
of Pallavas is significant as it completed the Aryanisation of southern India. The North
Indian Dharma Sastras gained full authority during the Pallavas’ reign. The University
of Kanchi was an important seat of education in the South. The Pallava dynasty was
an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of southern
India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the
Pallavas served as feudatories. They became a major power during the reign
of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and
dominated the Southern parts of Telugu Region and northern parts of the Tamil region
for about 600 years until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign they were
in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil
kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south. Pallavas were finally defeated by
the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century CE.

26
Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being
the Shore Temple, in Mamallapuram. The Pallava script gave rise to several other
southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during
Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

Khemer Script: As a further indication of the Pallava influence, the script that the
Khmer eventually adopted was derived from the ornate Grantha script of the Pallavas.
The cult of the 8-armed Vishnu also came from their kingdom. It is believed that
Angkor Wat was initially dedicated to this god. A freestanding larger than life size
statue of this god was originally housed in the uppermost tier of the temple. The
statue is now found at the entrance. Its stylistic features are nearly identical to its
South Indian counterpart. However, the interaction between the 2 cultures was not
one-sided. As evidence, some of the Pallava kings employed Khmer words in their
titles. Further, one of the Pallava kings actually lived for years in Funan before
ascending to the throne.

Coming back to how the Pallavas of South India and the royalty of the Khemer
area interacted, the story goes that in 731, the Pallava king Parameswaravarman-the
last ruler of the Simhavishnu line of Pallavas, died without any heir and hence the
Pallava Empire was without a king. To thwart their enemies from invading the
country, the military leaders, scholars and representatives of mercantile and
peasantry formed an entourage and undertook a long journey to reach the kingdom
of– modern day Cambodia and Vietnam– ruled by a certain Kadavesa Hari Varma, who
stemmed from the Pallava lineage and was 6th descendant of Bhimavarman, the
brother of the great Simhavishnu.
The Cambodian king Kadavesa Hari Verma had four sons. The first three
(Kshatriyamalla, Sangramamalla and Rajamalla) declined the offer. The last one
Pallava Malla Parameswara also known as Nandivarman, who was then 14 years old,
accepted the request. Nandivarman was an intellectual with aptitude in many arts like
writing, poetry, music and philosophy. Like his predecessor Rajasimha, he is credited
with augmenting temple dramatized dance worship like Kutiyattam and chakyar
koothu with many plays of his own. He is known to have composed the same in Tamil,
also, as can be seen from the poem “Nandikkalambakam” that celebrates his erudition
in Tamil, while also hailing his great conquests. The poem Nandikkalambakam, which
informs us of his great servitor ship to saivite tradition, also says that “ships from far
off continents, loaded with great wealth, creaking to the point of breaking, sailed into
the kingdom regularly.”

27
ANGKOR WAT
Cambodian art and culture was prolific during the rule of Pallavas (3rd – 9th AD) and
Cholas (9-13th AD) in South India. Among the Pallava kings, it is very well known that
the title Varman was honorific and so was borrowed by the Cambodian kings. You will
find almost all of them having the suffix ‘Varman’ starting with Bhadravarman in 4th
AD. He happened to be a scholar and well versed in Vedas and author of several
inscriptions in Sanskrit.

The Grantha called Pallava Grantha script traveled to Cambodia from Pallava. Some of
the titles of Pallava kings including Mahendravarman I appear to be in the Khmer
language.An archaic and ornamental variety of Grantha is sometimes referred to as
Pallava Grantha. They were used by the Pallava in some inscriptions. Mamallapuram
Inscriptions, Tiruchirapalli Rock Cut Cave Inscriptions, Kailasantha Inscription come
under this type.The Pallavas also produced a distinctive script separate from the
Grantha family.
Ashtabhuja Vishnu
Pallavas contributed the persuasion of Ashtabhuja Vishnu (eight-armed Vishnu) to
Cambodia. This persuasion originated around Mathura region in North India, spread
to Nagarjunakonda (Andhra) and from there to south to Kanchipuram. You will find
this form of deity enshrined in many temples in and around Kanchi especially at
Ashtabhuja Perumal Temple. You will find a similar eight armed Vishnu huge
monolithic figure in Angkor Wat. After Buddhism was embraced this deity was moved
out to the entrance where it still stands. It is said that this statue is identical to the
one in Ashtabhuja Perumal temple of Kanchi.

28
 8 armed VISHNU at Left and the one at Angkor Wat Temple

Another parallel is the ubiquitous presence of depiction of the Hindu mythology of

churning of cosmic ocean by the gods and demons. At Angkor you will find this
depiction everywhere including Bayon and Angkor Wat. You will see the entrance to
many temples having this. In India you will hardly see this mythology depicted in any
of the temples except at Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal in Karnataka. One
uncommon feature is the depiction of an incident in Mahabharata war. The bas-relief
of this war shows Bishma lying on the bed of arrows. Such representation of Bishma
is uncommon in South Indian art.( BELOW)

ANGKOR WAT ARCHITECTURE

There are many features in the architecture of Angkor Wat that are common with
Pallava and Chola temples. Like the Vaikunta Perumal Temple (Kanchi) and the
Sundara Varada Perumal Temple (Uttaramerur) of Pallavas, the Angkor Wat consists
of three levels or tiers; each of the upper tiers slightly smaller than the one below it
giving the structure the look of a pyramid; like Chola Brhaidsvara temple of
Thanjavur, Angkor Wat too was conceived to represent the sacred mount Meru in the
Himalayas. Damodar Pandita, A Brahmin scholar from Madhyadesa (Karnataka-
Orissa region) in India was the chief priest of Suryavarman II, the builder of the
Angkor Wat. It is said that the temple was built as per the guidelines provided by the
Indian priest.

29
Bhishma on a bed of arrows from Mahabharata- Angkor sculpture on top

The Kings of Funan and Chenla

One Funanese Prince may have migrated to South India but others ruled the land.
Funan’s most powerful king was Jayavarman. He ruled for 34 years from 480 CE ->
514 CE. ‘Jaya’ means victory in Sanskrit, while ‘varman’ signifies king. Hence,
Jayavarman means ‘victorious king’.He was the original Jayavarman. The second was
a Chenla king. The third founded the Angkor dynasty, which initiated the Khmer’s
golden age. As a reminder, the Khmer belong to an unbroken tradition beginning with
Funan and continuing to modern times. This chain includes both the kingdoms of

30
Chenla and Angkor. The third Jayavarman even named himself after the others to
establish a correspondence and continuity with these more ancient kingdoms of
Funan and Chenla.

Funan’s Jayavarman sent a mission to China to ask for aid in his war with the Cham.
While they sent no actual aid, the Chinese conferred an imperial title, which gave
prestige to his mandala kingdom. It also brought the more important Chinese
business and corresponding wealth. The Chinese visitors write about cockfights and
pig fights. They say that the Funanese worshipped Shiva, Vishnu and Buddha, all of
which came from India.

Kailashnathar Temple,India Example of Pallave architecture

Sanskrit inscriptions have been found which indicate that Funan’s capital city was Oc
Eo. Satellite photos indicate that the city was rectangular, approximately 2 miles by 1
mile. Surrounded by moats and mounds, the city was subdivided by canals, with
houses built on the canals’ edge. The canals were primarily the work of Tamil’s Indian
culture. They were constructed in the same tradition as their ancestors, who had done
such great work in controlling the flood waters of the Indus Valley so many thousands
of years before.

Rudravarman, referred to as the last king of the race of Soma - referring to the Naga
Princess, who gave birth to the Khmer race- replaced Jayavarman I. He ruled for 25
years - from 514 -> 539 CE. He also sent many diplomatic missions to China during
his reign. He moved the capital to Angkor Borei, which was linked to Oc Eo by canal.
Moving the capital was a major tradition of the Khmer kings. It happened so many
times that some writers claim that it was necessary to revitalize the Empire.How that
woukd create revitalization kis a mystery.

Rudravarman. After his death the Funan royal family married into the Chenla family.
The Khmer refer to this as the merger of the Solar race of inland Chenla with the
Lunar race of coastal Funan. Practically speaking, it meant that the Khmer moved
their center of power inland from the coast.

31
Bharavarman, the first king of Chenla, formed his new capital, Bhavapura, on the
northern shore of Tonle Sap Lake. Isanavarman, the next major king of Chenla, moved
his capital a short distance away to Isanapura in 611 CE. This was another
rectangular city. It was approximately 1 mile by 1 mile with double walls and a
reservoir - just like Oc Eo.

Either due to terrible floods or by a loss of prominence of its trading ports Funan
diminished in importance and the ingdom of Chenla ascended. The Srivijaya Empire
that controlled Indonesia had consolidated power by dominating sea lanes was
responsible for the gradual decline of Funan.( See my BookKINGDOM OF THE WINDS-
The Mysterious Srivijay Empire.) Thus while Funan was devastated by floods, it had
already been disappearing commercially, and hence politically.

China, Funan's best customer & historian

In contrast to the Chinese, the Khmer came to enjoy the permanence of stone.
Therefore, numerous Chinese records speak of Funan as a tribute paying nation.
During their early kingdoms, they were known for wood carving skills. In later times,
these sculptural talents were employed to create temples of stones profusely carved.
China’s written word from the same time continues to reveal much about the ancient
Funanese kingdom. Back at the Imperial court, the Chinese were amused by the
report of supernumerary gods - spirits of heaven and strange divinities with many
arms and heads, usually multiples of two – probably the Hindu influence. Maybe
Shiva, Vishnu or both merged with the local gods.

The Funanese believed their gods descended onto mountaintops to reside and
communicate with the mortal world. That’s why they themselves as the Mountain
Kingdom. Many Southeast Asian cultures, including the Khmer and the Javanese,
have the same belief.n Hence, it is not surprising that in later designs such as
Angkor, we find a temple type in which the sanctuary is built atop a stepped pyramid.
Archaeologists called these “temple- mountains.” Each important sovereign was
apparently obliged to build one in order to establish his power.Chinese envoy Zhou
Deng pic to RIGHT. Betweedn 1200-1300 approximately.

32
 Mount Meru

The Empire at Angkor: Khmer’s Golden Age

Jayavarman II is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Khmer Empire, a

powerful state which ruled much of mainland Southeast Asia from the 9th century AD
until the 15th century AD. As we have seen, this Khmer Empire was preceded by the
Chenla Kingdom, and during Jayavarman’s time, was marked by constant infighting
between the various local rulers. By conquering the various lords, Jayavarman
succeeded in reunifying the Chenla Kingdom. Additionally, outward territorial
expansion was also carried out by this ambitious ruler, hence making the Khmer
Empire a formidable entity on the Southeast Asian mainland. To top it all off,
Jayavarman proclaimed himself as ‘deva-raja’, which means ‘god-king’, and is claimed
to have turned the cult of the ruler into the official state religion.

33
In another theorey, in 790 CE he is said to have returned from the Sailendra court in
Java with some big plans. He claimed heritage from the ancient royal family of Funan.
In 802 he founded a capital on a hill called Phnom Kulen, the first of many hill
capitols. He even built a brick pyramid to support a temple-shrine. He called in artists
from Champa and Java to give new impetus to local traditions. After the decline of the
Khmer empire/kingdoms centered around first Funan and then Chenla, an
invigorated king moved the capitol to Angkor. This move initiated the beginning of the
Khmer’s classical period. The classic period, when the Khmer's hill capitols were
centered around Angkor, near present day Siem Riep, is considered the Golden Age of
the Khmer. It lasted from 802 CE -> 1432 CE - over 600 years - nearly 3 times longer
than the USA has been around.

Jayavarman was followed by a series of strong rulers. Indravarman I (877-889) laid

the foundation of the temple complex known as Angkor. It is 1700 yards by 1500
yards. Its well thought out plan was based upon a rectangular grid of reservoirs,
canals, and irrigation channels to control flooding and provide water for the growing
empire. This well developed irrigation system was one of the foundations of the Khmer
empire.

After dealing with the water for his new capital, Indravarman I built Bakong, a second
mountain top temple. The succeeding kings elaborated on this theme - further
enhancing the Angkor complex by building their own temple mountains in 893, 961,
1000, 1066 - each more elaborate and grandiose than the preceding. This temple
building spree culminated in 1100 with the construction of Angkor Wat by
Suryavarman II.

Following this efflorescence of art, the Khmer culture under Jayavarman VII suffered
an embarrassing loss to the Cham culture of South Vietnam. Marshaling his forces, he
eventually defeated them and extended the boundaries of the empire further than they
had ever been before - to Chang Mai in the north - to South Vietnam in the east - to
southern Thailand in the west.

With this renewal of energy, he then supervised the construction of Angkor Thom in
1200 - perhaps the most ambitious of all the temples in size and scope. The temple
was notable for its four sided Buddha heads. These heads represented the all-seeing

34
power of the Buddhist Lokesvara - Lord of this world - and his representative - the
king.This was the last of the temple building. The high standards of Khmer
craftsmanship were maintained; but there were no more huge works of art. After
Jayavarman VII, the culture at Angkor lasted about 200 more years. At this time, the
Mongol invasions of China created huge population pressures that pushed the Thai
out of Southern China and the Cham out of North Vietnam. As a result, the Khmer
civilization was attacked by the Thai from the west and the Cham from the east. 3

The Nagas and their Princess

The legend says that the prince was a foreigner, exiled from his homeland, while the princess was a naga
princess. On their wedding day, the father of the princess swallowed a part of the ocean, which in turn
formed the land of Cambodia. This land, Cambodia, was said to be their wedding gift.

At the beginning of the Common Era (circa 0 CE), people from the subcontinent of
India began migrating into Southeast Asia. The first wave of Indian immigrants
intermarried with the local tribes. This gave birth to the Khmer race of the historical
era. The local population continued speaking the Khmer language, but now had mixed
genetics, Indian and the indigenous culture.

This genetic mixture of the indigenous population with the Indians is reflected in their
mythology. According to legend, the Khmer are offspring of Kaundinya, a Hindu
warrior-prince, and a Naga princess named Soma. The Hindu prince, a semi-historical
character, had a dream that he was supposed to leave India with a merchant ship and
his bow and arrow. When he arrived, he found Soma in charge. Rather than fight, he
married her and became king. The Khmer are their children. They are of mixed
parentage - the Indians who came to trade and the indigenous population. Neither one
nor the other - but both.

35
 Naga sculptures in Thailand

There are many different attributes given to this legendary animal- NAGA or Snake.
Those creatures who look either humans, like giant snakes, or like a mix of both with
one, three, five, seven or more heads, are the nagas. The king of the snakes, the god of
the rain, of the rivers, of the rainbows. While stories tend to all agree that the naga is
associated with snake, water and is a divine being, legends vary a lot concerning its
shape, its deeds and its aspiration.

The word ‘naga’ is the Sanskrit word for cobra, and is etymologically connected to the
English word snake. One can hardly define when and where in India the first nagas
were imagined. They are already mentioned in the Indian epic tale of the Mahabharata
written more than 2500 years ago, but they could be way older. Present throughout
Hindu and Buddhist mythology, the legends of the Naga spread from India eastward
and soon became integrated in the culture of various civilizations across Asia.
Depiction of Naga are frequent in the 11th-12th century-built Baphuon, Angkor or
Bayon temples of the Khmer Empire), and in the old legends of Isan in Thailand.

To this day nagas are popular mythical creatures all across Southeast Asia. Their
representation and legends were made part of the traditional arts and folklore of each
country, associated and reinvented with local beliefs, to the point that not so many
people in Southeast Asia nowadays can tell that nagas originated from India. The naga
was completely adopted by the region. Contemporary Southeast Asian artists, artisans,
screenwriters and writers keep using the figure of the naga in their work as it is a
popular creature widely known and appreciated. In some works, naga are benevolent
creatures, in other they are evil, sometimes they help the gods and sometimes they
fight them. There are so many myths and variants of those myths that one could say
that the nagas mean something different for each person who knows about them. This
plurality of meanings makes the nagas fascinating and mysterious creatures as one
never knows when a naga appears if it is a good omen or not. Their appearance also
varies greatly from one country to another and through time. This myriad of meanings
and shapes regarding the nagas demonstrates that they are still alive in the cultures of
Southeast Asia. 6

A Naga princess named Soma? The mythical Naga serpent guards the Buddha at
Thailand's northern temples in Chiang Mai. Nine headed Nagas also guard the temples

36
of Angkor. Does the mythology suggest that Kaundinya, the Hindu prince, married a
snake to give birth to the Khmer race? If not, what is the connection?

Naga refers to ‘snake’ in Sanskrit while in Khmer it refers to ‘hill people’ - a seemingly
diverse set of references. Let’s look a little closer at the facts to gain some perspective.
According to historians, the kingdom of Burma had regular battles with the Nagas in
their hills. These battles did not occur in the distant past, but in the 19th century of
the modern era - just a few centuries ago.

This historical fact does not mean that the Nagas, the mythical serpents of the Khmer,
still live in the hills of Burma and stage regular uprisings that must be suppressed.
Instead, Naga is the name applied to at least 20 tribes living in the Naga Hills, part of
one the fingers of the Himalayas. Soaring to 12,500 feet, they form a mountain barrier
between India and Burma, present day Myanmar.

Although there are many individualized local traditions due to their isolation, Naga
refers to all the tribes in the area. Each tribe speaks a Tibeto-Burman dialect. Yet, the
dialects in each village are so different that they must communicate through English
or Hindi. After World War II they even petitioned to have their own country called
Nagaland. However, India persuaded them to become one of her states. Submitting to
political reality, the Nagas reluctantly agreed. Accordingly, Nagaland is a state in the
northeast corner of India that contains these Naga tribes.

Since time immemorial the Hill Tribe cultures have worshipped serpents. Militant
cultures conquered these indigenous tribes and called them Nagas, referring to their
snake worship. Eventually, the inhabitants of these tribes were turned into snakes in
their myths and legends. In other words, Naga refers simultaneously to the actual
people who were snake worshippers and to the mythological snakes that they
worshipped.

In the Hindu classic, Mahabharata, which we will examine in more detail later, the
Nagas are powerful supernatural characters that must be respected in order to avoid
curses. They have their own supernatural kingdom but are not treated as evil. They
are reminiscent of shamans who have somehow tapped the powers of the Universe.The
legends refer to the father of the Khmer race as a Hindu prince and the mother as a
Naga princess. This marriage can be taken both symbolically and literally. The culture
of the Khmer kingdom/empire is based upon a merger of Indian and local traditions.
This merger is seen in the temples that have the Naga serpent guarding the Buddha,
the focal point of the shrine. The Naga is a friend and protector of the Buddha - not
his foe.

The Khmer civilization is an integration of cultures. Their rulers incorporated, rather

than rejected, the indigenous population’s Naga serpent. They merged the indigenous
religions of the Naga tribes with the Indian religions - incorporating both the artistry of
the tribal traditions with the civilizing influence of Indian culture.
The incorporation of the snake into Khmer mythology contrasts with the
relationship that the cultures have with the serpent. In each case, the ruling culture’s
sky god dominates the serpent. In the Vedic myths of India’s Aryan culture, their main
war god, Indra, must defeat Urta, the cosmic serpent or dragon, to turn the winds

37
around so that rain will come and fertilize the land for the farmers. Urta, the cosmic
serpent must be thwarted, not incorporated.

In contrast, the serpent is often associated with the earth and fertility. Some writers
have even suggested that it symbolizes the mysterious creative impulse connected to
art. Creativity is further connected to our sometimes chaotic intuitions. The emphasis
on fertility, creativity and art is at odds with the destructive nature of war. Further Art
intimidates Reason because he can't understand her. Due to the military orientiation,
the sky god's solution is to dominate or conquer the serpent, rather than cultivate her
talents. This mindset continues to be reflected in government spending in the West.
An unlimited amount of funds are allocated to military spending and science, while
the paltry amount allocated to the arts is continually threatened.

In contrast, the Khmer attempted to balance Art and Reason. This balance is seen
in their orderly yet artistic structures at Angkor. This balancing of opposites is further
substantiated by Harihara, the favorite god of Funan, the 1st Khmer kingdom. There
are many marvelous high quality free standing stone statues of this interesting god.
He has two faces - one Vishnu, the other Shiva. Vishnu is one of the main Aryan gods.
In contrast, historians suspect that Shiva is a remnant from the Harrapan civilization
of Mohenjo Daro, the ancient civilization that was brutally conquered by the invading
Aryan military culture. Their obsession with Harihara exhibits that Khmer culture is
inclusive, rather than exclusive. Rather than attempting to determine what's 'right'
and 'wrong', they seemed to celebrate Life's diversity.

Khmer’s flooding problem

At the beginning of the modern era, our Mon-Khmer clan was dominant on Southeast
Asia's mainland. The Thai were still in Southern China, their ancestral home. And the
Burmese were still in Tibet. The Austronesian speakers had infiltrated the islands,
but, we, the Mon-Khmer, pretty much had the run of the mainland. No one to bother
us, except the Hill Tribes, who pretty much hung to themselves. We viewed them more
as part of the flora and fauna rather than as a competing human culture. There was
lots of land and plentiful resources - so it wasn’t necessary to fight over limited space
or food.

The main problem was terrible floods. As an example of the terrible intensity and
volume of this regular melting and subsequent onslaught of water, the powerful
Mekong River backed up in the springtime because the water could not flow out fast
enough. This backlog of spring melt caused the Mekong’s tributaries to actually flow
backwards. This flooding was the only flaw in our nearly perfect environment. Then
the Indian merchants came to Southeast Asia to trade. Besides bringing their religion
and culture, they also brought their water technology with them. They set up irrigation
ditches, canals and reservoirs.

Marriage of Indian Prince & Khmer Princess marks the End of

Tribal Innocence

38
The influx of money from the Indian traders changed everything. One of their princes
married one of the Mon princesses. According to legend, this marriage marked the
beginning of the 1st Khmer kingdom. Prior to that there was no sense of national
identity. We were just a loose collection of tribes who traded together. Hinduism
bound them together as a political unit. Some scholars say that this marriage was
probably more symbolic than real. They postulate that it represented the humanizing
of a semi-primitive culture. There are certain accounts that our people didn’t even
wear clothes before the Indians came. The marriage represented the corruption of
tribal innocence.’

The native population were so impressed with the water technology of the Indians,
combined with the wealth and subsequent power that was coming their way that they
quickly abandoned their traditional ways to adopt the ‘civilized’ ways of Hinduism.
Khmer culture is a mixture of Indian and indigenous culture. This cultural mixture
began as the world entered the Common Era. Further, the intermarriage of the Indian
immigrants with the indigenous populations gave birth to the modern Khmer race.
Eventually this cultural blend of the Khmer race led to the magnificent flowering of the
Empire at Angkor.

Angkor Empire and the evolution of Chenla

Historical sources suggest that the Empire at Angkor evolved from the kingdom of
Chenla, which itself was derived from the kingdom of Funan. The Khmer race
populated each of these kingdoms. In other words, the Khmer belonged to a series of
kingdoms that existed in different locations. Rather than springing up on its own, the
empire at Angkor was preceded by Khmer kingdoms based first in Funan and then in
Chenla. The Khmer at Angkor were the most powerful dynasty in a thousand year old
tradition. The Khmer people populated and ruled the Funan kingdom, the Chenla
kingdom, and the Empire at Angkor. Further, each of these cultures had major
similarities.

Even more importantly, the Khmer of Angkor felt that they were continuing and
expanding upon a local tradition. They did not perceive themselves as invaders, who
were civilizing barbarians instead, they revived the ancient kingdom of Funan. The
founders of the Khmer Empire at Angkor consciously aligned themselves with the
prestige of the Golden Age of Funan.

This discussion has implied that the Khmer efflorescence in Cambodia was based
upon an unbroken chain of cultures from prehistoric times. First were the rice farmers
and bronze artisans of the early Neolithic. Then came the Megalithic stone cutting and
mountain building cultures that preceded the modern era. In turn, this prehistoric
culture was followed by the Khmer kingdoms of Funan, Chenla and Angkor. While this
is a convenient explanation, it is an oversimplification of a greater picture. Nothing
human - individual, tribal, or national, occurs in a vacuum. Because of the
interconnectedness of life, we are all subject to influences from everything that
surrounds us. The kingdoms of Southeast Asia are no exception to this rule.

The Indianized Kingdoms of the Khmer

39
When Indian traders arrived in the region of Southeast Asia that we currently call
Cambodia, they brought their political system. Prior to this point, individual tribes
populated the Cambodian territory. With the influx of Indian merchants, a kingdom
replaced this loose tribal structure. At the top of the political hierarchy was a king,
who ruled the local chieftains. The French and English might call them princes and
dukes. The Indians called them maharajas and rajahs.

While this type of hierarchical system tends to create privileged classes with a
philosophy of elitism, it is also a more fit political structure. Organization into larger
groups allows the smaller tribes to resist the predatory habits of other ‘kingdoms’ or
‘empires’. The hierarchy is inevitable as cultures attempt to protect themselves from
enslavement by other cultures. In the violent political world of humans, size is related
to strength. If enough people group together with common ends, they might be able to
protect themselves from other groups of people with hostile intent.

Hindu culture from India was the factor that transformed the decentralized tribes in
what is now Cambodia into a kingdom. There were so many regional differences
between the numerous small communities that they had no sense of unity. The sense
of national identity was found in Hinduism, especially its mythology - as we shall see.
The king propagates the feeling of a unified culture to inspire the population to join
together as one behind his leadership. Rather than using force to achieve this sense of
national identity the Khmer kings initiated collective art projects, which culminated in
Angkor. The Khmer seemed to be obsessed with creating art that would last forever. In
contrast, many countries in the west, including Germany, Britain and the US, created
fear and then a war to bind the nation together behind a common goal.

The Indianization of these kingdoms bonded the residents in a way that local
traditions couldn’t. However, tribal customs remained strong in those Southeast Asian
kingdoms that embraced Hinduism. In Thailand, Cambodia and Java, the Hindu
traditions were limited to the royal courts, but did not spread to the countryside. This
was probably due to the inherent elitism of Hinduism. Based as it was in the caste
system, it was primarily the religion of rulers and priests. In contrast, in the countries
that embraced Buddhism, such as Burma, even the local villagers were acquainted
with the Jataka (Buddha birth stories), which adorned local temples. Again this
probably had to do with the egalitarian nature of Buddhism, which stresses the
potential of enlightenment for everyone.

How Indian culture came to Southeast Asia

Hinduism was the glue that bonded the Khmer dynasties together as Indianized
kingdoms. But how did it get there? Already at the outset of the Common Era, there
was a commercial network stretching from the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean to
China. India and Southeast Asia were in the geographic middle of this trade network.
Southeast Asia includes both the mainland (Indo China) and the islands (the East
Indies).Initially the ruling classes of India - the warriors and the priests - didn’t
participate in trade. It was beneath their class. Warriors didn’t have to barter for what
they wanted; they just took it by force. Producing something useful and selling it was

40
considered a sign of weakness. This warrior mind-set of looking down on the merchant
class is still a major factor in global politics. This is evidenced by the Western
imperialism that continues to exploit native populations through military force rather
than negotiating in a congenial fashion. Hinduism, as the religion that rationalizes the
barbaric behavior of the military class, actually banned trade and travel for the ruling
caste.

Buddhism is the religion that emerged to address the needs of the merchant class in
the cities. With their growing prosperity, they surmounted the barrier of ethnic purity
and isolation erected by Hinduism. Buddhism taught that anyone could transcend
ignorance and reach truth through the 8-fold path. Truth was not the exclusive
privilege of the priestly class. Accordingly Buddhism, with its rejection of the caste
system, became very popular among traders. By deconstructing the walls of Hinduism,
Buddhism inspired Indian traders to travel to Southeast Asia to seek their material
fortunes. Ironically, Buddhism professes a belief in non-materialism.

As a result of this elimination of a cultural taboo combined with the potential for great
wealth from trade, waves of Indians migrated into Southeast Asia seeking their fortune
during the first 5 to 6 hundred years of the Common Era. Initially, they came overland
through Burma and Thailand. As the maritime technology improved, they came as sea
traders. The Indian merchants settled at their favorite spots along the trade routes,
which probably included the open-air marketplaces of native populations. As trade
increased, the population increased and cities were formed.

Indian influence spread in the wake of this trade. Part of this influence included
Buddhism, which stressed the importance of spreading light to those immersed in
darkness. This attitude resulted in missionary activity by monks. Because of the
geographical proximity with India, Burma became the main spreading center for
Buddhism on the mainland of Southeast Asia.

The egalitarian Burmese never accepted Hinduism and its caste system. They rejected
king worship and hereditary nobility. The Burmese influence spread into the Mon
kingdoms of Thailand to the west. Buddhist monasteries were set up with the
patronage of local kings. Eventually, the Burmese congealed into the Pyu kingdom of
the upper Irrawaddy River. Pagan, the capital of this Burmese kingdom, became an
international center of Theravada Buddhism. The Mon congealed into the Dvaravati
kingdom of Thailand and the lower Irrawaddy River. In these western kingdoms, the
king was considered to be the servant of Buddha, not his equal.

Hindu literature transforms Southeast Asian Culture

In contrast to the Buddhist influence in the western territories, the eastern

territories of Southeast Asia, which includes the present day territories of Cambodia
and Vietnam, embraced Hinduism. Why? No one really knows. We suggest two
plausible reasons: their books and their water technology. First we will explore the
influence of their books.

41
 While one aspect of the Indianized state is political, i.e. the hierarchy of the
kingdom, the other aspect is religious. The migration of Indian traders with their two
books, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, revolutionized religious practices in
Southeast Asia overall, but particularly in Cambodia.

Hydrolic Power: The transformative power of literature is well-documented.

Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several
millenniums through 12 the Harappan Civilisation (~ 3000 BC – 1500 BC) and the
Vedic period (~1500-500 BC. The hydrological, hydraulic and related engineering
knowledge that existed in ancient India, as discussed in contemporary literature and
in the recent explorations and findings. The Vedas, particularly, the Rigveda,
Yajurveda and Atharvaveda have many references to water cycle and associated
processes, including water quality, hydraulic machines and other structures and
nature-based solutions for water management. The Harappan Civilization epitomizes
the 20 level of development of water sciences in ancient India that includes
construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, wastewater disposal systems
based on centralized and decentralized concepts as well as methods for waste-water
treatments.7

The Mauryan empire (~ 322 BC – 185 BC) is credited as the first “hydraulic
civilization” characterised by construction of dams with spillways, reservoirs,
channels equipped with spillways, pynes and Ahars, understanding of water balance,
development of water pricing systems, measurement of rainfall and knowledge of the
various hydrological processes. As we investigate deeper into hydrologic references in
ancient 26 literature, including the Indian mythology, many fascinating dimensions of
the early scientific endeavours of Indians emerge.

8
Religious Novels, Ramayana and the Mahabharata, of Prime Importance

With the introduction of books into Southeast Asian Aristocracy, the

Kings,Royals, chiefs and ruling classes were infected with Hindu literature.
One effect of this trend was the rise of kingdoms and the other was the interest
in Hinduism. While the philosophical books like the Vedas and Upanishads
had limited influence, the Indian religious novels, especially
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, had a tremendous influence. The
philosophical literature was accessible only to those who could read - the
spiritual elite or the highly motivated. The stories had a much broader appeal.
Both novels dealt with universal themes that anyone could relate to. Both
novels presented plausible heroes and villains that could be held up as models
of virtue and vice. Because stories have an emotional component, they are
more easily assimilated into the individual’s psyche than are dry ideas. As
evidence, human memory tends to retain stories better than philosophy. The
Ramayana in Thailand, for instance, is known as Ramakien, prepared in 1797
under the supervision of (and partly written by) King Rama I. King Rama II

42
adapted parts of his father's version for Khon dance drama. Archaeological
evidence showing the Ramayana influence, he said, can be found in Southeast
Asian countries including Vietnam, Indonesia and Cambodia. The art forms of
Thailand and Bali, he added, also reference the Ramayana.

The second World Ramayana Conference was held late January 2020 in Jabalpur, a city in central India.
Photo: Narendra Kaushik

The kecak dance from Bali is about the battle between Shri Ram and Ravan. Similarly,
khon, a genre of dance-drama from Thailand, is based on the Ramakien, the Thai
Ramayana.The Ramayana-based folklore, bas-reliefs and art forms in Southeast Asian
countries certainly prove the close cultural connection between India and Southeast
Asia.

Reamker Cambodia, like many countries in mainland Southeast Asia, has a

population that predominantly follows Theravada Buddhism; therefore the Reamker
has many Buddhist influences. In it, Rama is known as Phreah Ream, and Sita is
known as Neang Seda. The Khmer text also contains unique episodes not included in
the original Hindu texts. For example, the encounter between Hanuman, the monkey
general, and Sovann Maccha, the mermaid, is a favorite in Cambodia. But perhaps a
key divergence to the original Hindu text is that after Neang Seda’s trial by fire, in
which she passes the test, she becomes deeply offended by her husband’s lack of
trust. Instead of reuniting with him to rule the kingdom of Ayodhya, she decides to
leave him and find refuge with Valmiki the wiseman (who is also attributed for writing
the oldest version of the Ramayana).

43
Practically speaking, these stories were told and retold in myriad variations and settings with
varying intent and emphasis. They were portrayed in drama, dance and the tangible arts. This
was not possible with Indian philosophy. These well written stories dealing with universal
themes were very inspirational to the Southeast Asian population. They were instrumental in
unifying and motivating the Khmer to create the wonderful temples at Angkor. The sculptures
that adorned the temples illustrate the characters and themes of the above novels. In short,
during the initial centuries of the modern era, the Indianization of Southeast Asia was well
under way. Kingdoms with centralized power began to pop up in areas that had previously
been primarily based in smaller tribal units. Kingdoms with a larger cultural gravity absorbed
tribes into their sphere.

Brahmin Priests: With the influx of Hindu businessmen and traders came the Brahmin priests
as well as minstrels to sing the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. These stories were quickly
assimilated and rewritten in the local vernacular.Temples as State Symbols were to be built left
and right- sometimes at a exalting pace. Feverish with ambition, these chiefs formed kingdoms
of which they were the head. The larger and more prestigious the kingdom, the greater the
demands on the local population. The agricultural peasantry were eventually persuaded or
coerced to grow three crops of rice a year to support the needs of the growing kingdoms.
Previously, one crop a year would suffice for their individual needs. The story of Indian
Brahmanas in Southeast Asia is significant in the repertoire of culture, faith, trade,
and perhaps most important, the language of Sanskrit, and its creation of so many
exquisite bridges between India and Southeast Asia. Their great influence lay as much
in the narratives they carried as the language that etched literature, philosophy, and
9
faith into elite and then popular belief.

Southeast Asia devoted themselves to the greater good of society, which included feeding the
artisans that were building our magnificent temples the Holy books Ramayana and
Mahabharatha a glue and an influence. Waves of Indians migrated this part of the world
in the first centuries of the modern era. Many were traders in search of fortune. They
came, stayed and intermarried with the indigenous population. On the mainland, this
racial blending gave birth to the modern race of the Khmer. The Indian immigrants
also brought their kingdom-based politics, their religions, their script and their
literature. The sophistication of these innovations blended with local traditions to
create Khmer culture. However, in the beginning at least, the Indian water technology
was more important to the Khmer than their culture.

Accompanying his traders were Indian craftsman and Brahmins, who brought India’s
traditions with them. This included the amazing script and literature of Sanskrit with
the accompanying Hindu mythology. Metaphysical ideologies integrated and
authenticated the lush mythology. Plus, India’s religion claimed to be a universal
cosmic frame of reference. As such, it also included the local religions rather than
excluding it Further, India’s mythology was so rich that one could easily identify
Indian deities with our local spirits. Also the Hindu philosophy of statecraft contained
the conceptual system of kingship, which was used to unify our diverse tribes and
centralize our cities into countries and kingdoms.

44
The more immediate and pressing need was for control of our devastating annual
floods. India’s people supplied a new technology of hydraulic engineering, which was
used for both flood control and irrigation. In many ways, this was more important
than all of the rest. In fact, this technological ability to control water lent so much
prestige to the Indian traders that we became more interested in the rest of their
culture. Impressed by the complexity of his technology. The Khemers accepted the
immigrant Tamilians.

The Importance of the Tamil culture to Southeast Asia

Tamils have played an important role in the transmission of Indian culture and
customs to that part of the world, as well as the rest of Southeast Asia. Thay have
been a spreading center for Buddhism and Jainism. Having a long history of cultural
achievement, including literature, art and architecture and knowledge of reservoirs,
water towers, and elaborate drainage systems- the Chola Empire, which spread all
over the islands of Southeast Asia, was also a Tamil dynasty. The Aryan culture of the
north has had much less influence on your people of Southeast Asia than have we
Tamils from the south. Tamil brought his political kingdoms, religions, and literature-
their marvelous attributes were essential ingredients of my magnificent Empire at
Angkor.

There has been a close religious and cultural link between Indian Tamils and
Southeast Asia over centuries and the economic globalisation is giving it new
relevance. Culturally, India's influence on Southeast Asia goes back to the earliest
days. Much of that influence emanated from South India, the Tamil components being
the most important. Ethnic business networks become the specialty of Indian groups
like the Parsees, Jains, Sindhis and Marwaris, as also Chettiars themselves a caste
group within the Tamil community. Ancient Tamil epic Manimekalai steeped in Hindu-
Buddhist- Jain tradition, alluded to the close religious and cultural links between the
Tamils of South India and the people of Southeast Asia over centuries and early
Sangam literature described the trade links between South India and Kadaaram on
the Malay Peninsula, now called Kedah. I-Tsing, a Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk who
spent much time studying Buddhism in Sumatra before going to India, reported
regular sailings of ships between Kedah and Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu.The date of
the record, AD 1088, corresponded with the reign of the Chola Emperor Kulottunga 1,
whose long and prosperous rule lasted nearly half a century. Under his reign, the
Chola Empire extended its influence into large parts of Southeast Asia and conducted
trade with Indo-China and China.

The people of Southern India were not a small isolated subset of Indians. There are
57 million of them India alone. At the bottom of the Indian peninsula, surrounded by
the Indian Ocean on three sides, they had long been prominent sea traders who
traversed the seas from Sri Lanka, to the Malay Peninsula, to East Africa, South
Africa, Fiji and the West Indies.

REFERENCES

45
1. The Devarāja Cult and Khmer Kingship at Angkor,Nidhi Aeusrivongsepp. 107-148 (42 pages), a Chapter from
the book- Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft,
authorsKenneth R. Hall and John K. Whitmore,University of Michigan Press, University of Michigan Center for
South East Asian Studies,/www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.19404.10

1A. Hall, D.G.E. (1981). A History of South-East Asia, Fourth Edition. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.
p. 25. ISBN 0-333-24163-0. See also-Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
Volume 1 Part 1 From early times to c. 1500. Cambridge, England, United Kingdom: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 184, 192. ISBN 0-521-66369-5.

2. Was Cambodia home to Asia’s ancient ‘Land of Gold, RINITH TAING, PHNOM PHEN POST JANUARY
2018,https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national-post-depth-arts-culture/was-cambodia-home-asias-
ancient-land-gold?amp;utm_campaign=df3646b64e-20180105&utm_medium=email&
3 Much of this part is based on what is written in
https://venkataramaniblog.wordpress.com/2016/09/16/the-intrigue-of-the-pallavas/
4.http://donlehmanjr.com/SEA/SEA5%20Chap/SEA5%20Ch6.htm
5A. https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_2013_num_85_1_4384
5. (Chiara Goia) By Joshua Hammer; Photographs Chiara Goia,SMITHSONIAN MAGAZINE 2016

6. https://amaelcognacq.medium.com/thai-and-khmer-nagas-33a170c2888a
7. Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India
Pushpendra Kumar Singh1, Pankaj Dey2, Sharad Kumar Jaina, and Pradeep P. Mujumdar.
https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4691/2020/
8. The Ramayanas of Southeast AsiaTHE HENRY M. JACKSON SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ,
South East Asia Center, University of Washington,
Southeast Asia Center, Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington.
https://jsis.washington.edu/seac/resources/educators/ramayanas-of-southeast-asia/
9. Reimagining India–Thailand Relations- Chapter 1 Southeast Asia: An Indian Imprint; Downloaded from
www.worldscientific.com

46
 CHAPTER IV
The Hindu Tradition of Coronation of Khemer kings

Mount Kulen from Afar

To the LEFT Coronation of Jayavarman II likely inspired by that of Shri Rama

The Coronation of Lord Rama and ots parallel to Jayavarman’s ceremony
on Mount Kulen
On this day, 4 th January, 7109 years back, King Dasaratha decided to anoint Rama
as Yuvaraja, crown prince. The date was 4th January 5089 BCE. Rama and His
brothers were born to King Dasaratha, quite late in life, after much penance, yagna.

47
When Rama had reached the age to be made the Yuvaraja, crown prince, King
Dasaratha, called in his courtiers, to express his intention to crown Rama as the
Crown Prince. In these discussions, Dasaratha mentions the month, the planetary
positions and expresses concern that they were malefic to him.
Fearing this, King Dasaratha, prefers to anoint Rama as his successor and the Crown
Prince, before something befalls him. While the later events may have proven this fear
to be true, the astrological predictions are not the focus here. We would like to see if
the planetary configurations mentioned here in the text can help us arrive at the date
when the event must have occurred.

King Dasaratha with his Courtiers

King Dasaratha told his courtiers –“This month of Chaitra is beautiful and holy. The
woods and trees are full of flowers. At this time coronation of Rama is most
appropriate.”- Ramayana 2.4.21-22. The month is Chaitra. In present understanding,
it is the month before the onset of summer. King Dasaratha summons Rama and
expresses his intention to Rama.

King Dasaratha with Rama

1. “Astrologers have told me that my nakshatra has been surrounded by malefic
planets like Sun, Mars and Rahu. Under such planetary configurations, the
king either dies or falls in some deep conspiracy. Thus, before I face any such
problem, you take over the kingship”.- Ramayana 2.4.18

48
 2. The Rasi, Zodiac sign, for King Dasaratha was Pisces. So, as per this Sloka,
Sun, Mars and Rahu node, were in the Pisces constellation, during this
conversation.
3. “Today the moon is on Punarvasu nakshatra and tomorrow it will meet the
Pushya nakshatra. In that Pushya nakshatra, I am eager to hand over the
kingdom to you.” – Ramayana 2.4.21-22
4. This indicates that the Moon was transiting from the star Punarvasu to Pushya
as part of its monthly 28 day transit from one Zodiac constellation to another.
5. If we enter these parameters in the planetarium software and look for when this
star configuration must have occurred in the sky, then we get to the star chart
and the date as, 4th January 5089 BCE.

Planets located together in Pisces constellation 4th January 5089 BCE

Coronation Eve
5.The elapse time between this date and Rama’s birth is 25 years. So Rama was 25
years when He was sent on exile. This tallies well with the internal textual information
of the text.

The significance of this event dawns on us, the historians, as we glance at the History
of the Hindu Kings of Cambodia and how assiduously they followed the Hindu religion,
its rituals and how inspired they were of the hindu cult figures like Ram and Krishna.
No one has thought before why Jayavarman II consecrated himself as Devaraja,
Parameshwars or whatever after his success in the many battles and after he had
assured himself and others that he was the KING and no one else. Was he following
the footsteps of Rama who returned 14 years after his banishment to the forest –back
to the capital Ayodhya after winning the wars on the Asuras and the Brahmin Demon
Ravana

49
INTRODUCTION : Archeologists combing the jungles of Southeast Asia found an
inscriptions on temple doors and walls that mentioned a warrior-priest monarch,
Jayavarman II, whose Kingdom had a splendid hilltop capital called Mahendraparvata
(the mountain of the great Indra, king of the gods).This inscription ( K. 235) is a 340-
line composition, in both Sanskrit and ancient Khmer, carved on a gray sandstone
stele 1.51 meters high that stood in the northeast corner of the temple's court. Dating
to 8 February 1053, talks about a Brahmin Family whose family members served the
Kings for over 250 years and were Head Priests to the King. In the form of poetry it
says: Bears witness to the Coronation or Rajyabhishekh of Jayavarman II on the
Mount Kulen or Mahendraparvata( Mountain of Mahendra) where kt is said he
crowned himsled as the King of the Gods- SHIVA>

Northeastern library. Photo c. 1980

"Homage to Śiva whose essence is highly proclaimed without words by the

subtle Śiva, His form, who pervades (everything) from within and who activates
the senses of living beings." It provides an account of twelve Khmer kings who
ruled over the course of the two and a half centuries. The earliest king
mentioned is Jayavarman II, The text includes the oft-cited detail that he came
from a country named Java which meanwhile by most scholars, such
as Charles Higham, was seen as a foreign people living in the east whose name
is derived probably from Sanskrit yavana (wise), perhaps referring to the
kingdom of Champa. The Khmer portion of the text goes on to say: “A Brahman
named Hiraṇyadāman, skilled in magic and science," was invited by the king
"to perform a ceremony that would make it impossible for this country of
the Kambuja to pay any allegiance to Java and that there should be, in this
5
country, one sole sovereign.”

Neither being (sat) nor non-being was as
yet. What was concealed?
And where? And in whose protection?…
Who really knows?
Who can declare it? Whence was it born,
and whence came this creation?
The devas (gods) were born later than
this world's creation,
so who knows from where it came into
existence? None can know from where
creation has arisen, and whether he has
or has not produced it.
He who surveys it in the highest
heavens,
Sdok Kak Thom inscription, written in
1052.AD( PIc Below LEFT)
"Then a brahman named Hiranyadama,
skilled in magic science, came from
Janapada, because H. M. Paramesvara
(King Jayavarman II) had invited him to
perform a ceremony that would make it
impossible for this country of Kambuja
to pay any allegiance to Java and that
there should be, in this country, one sole
sovereign, who should be cakravartin."
"Then H. M. Paramesvara came from

50
 He alone knows or perhaps He does not Java to be Kurung in the holy city of
know." Indrapura. The steng an Sivakaivalya,
— Rig Veda 10. 129 wise ancestor, was the guru, was the
rajapurohita of His Majesty
Paramesvara"

"Then His Majesty was Kurung on the

site of the royal city of Hariharalaya. The
steng an Sivakaivalya resided also in this
city. As for his family, they were made
pages of the King"

The inscription documents nine generations of the temple's priestly family, starting
with Śivakaivalya, Jayavarman II's chaplain. However scholars have paid special
attention to the inscription's account of the cult of the devarāja, a key part of the Khmer
court's religious ritual. “Hiraṇyadāma(n), the best of brahmins, with superior intelligence
like Brahmā, came, moved with compassion.

To the king Jayavarman II he carefully revealed a magic which had not been obtained
by other people,” the text reads. The king was instructed in four holy treatises. “After
carefully extracting the quintessence of the treatises by his experience and
understanding of the mysteries, this brahmin contrived the magic rites bearing the
name of Devarāja, for increasing the prosperity of the world.”

Devaraja means "king of the gods," in the sense that one god, generally Śiva, was
recognized as higher than others in the Hindu pantheon and through his authority
brought order to heaven.Depending on their favourites many Kings made this God the
Head Honcho over that and so on. That is why Vaisnavism and Shaivism existed in
Hindu lands of India Court religious ritual, as described repeatedly in the inscription,
focused on maintaining a linga, or holy shaft, in which Śiva's essence was believed to
reside.

The inscription is also key to understanding important events in Khmer history, such
as the late 9th Century relocation of the capital from the area around the present-day
village of Roluos. “Again, the skillful Vāmaśiva was the preceptor of Śrī Yaśovardhana,
bearing as king the name Śrī Yaśovarman,” the Sanskrit text states. “Invited by the
king, he erected a liṅga Mount Yaśodhara, which was like the king of mountains
(Meru) in beauty.” French scholars initially believed that Śrī Yaśodharagiri was the
mountain-like Bayon temple. But it is now established that the Bayon was built
almost three centuries later than the event described in the inscription and that the
linga was in fact placed in the newly constructed Phnom Bakheng temple, which
stands about two kilometers south of the Bayon atop a hill.

The Vedic Ceremony of The rājyābhiṣeka or coronation also refers to anointing

government officials, particularly heads of state, at the time of taking power or to mark
a signal achievement. Coronations in Asia in the strict sense are and historically were
rare, as only few monarchies, primarily in Western Asia, ever adopted the concept that
the placement of a crown symbolised the monarch's investiture. Instead, most

51
monarchies in Asia used a form of acclamation or enthronement ceremony, in which
the monarch formally ascends to the throne, and may be presented with certain
regalia, and may receive homage from his or her subjects. This article covers both
coronations and enthronement.
It is also called Indrabhishek such as of of Shivaji Maharaj. The Maratha King in
India by Gaga Bhatt in the court.
Cambodia

Norodom Sihanouk in coronation regalia, November 1941//// Coronation of King

Bhumibol of Thailand, 5 May 1950.

Today, if the King of Cambodia is crowned in a ceremony it will combine

Brahmanic and Buddhist elements. The new monarch begins his coronation rite
inside the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh by placing two wreaths of jasmine atop a
golden pillow. Then, bowing before the offerings, he lights a bundle of incense sticks
and placed them around the table before taking a seat on the red-carpeted floor.
Prayers are read, punctuated by the sound of conch-shell horns. The ruler then enters
the Tevea Venichhay Throne Hall, where he lights a stout candle encased in gold-
gilded glass. This candle, which represents victory throughout the king's reign, is left
burning until the final day of the coronation festival. Nine Buddhist monks then
shower the King with jasmine buds. Finally, the monarch makes his way to the
throne, bowing three times to it before retreating to his private area of the palace.
Location. Mahendraparvata is located 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Angkor Wat
complex, 45 kilometres (28 mi) north of Siem Reap, on the slopes of Phnom Kulen
mountain in Siem Reap Province. Mount Kulen: Phnom Kulen or . 'Mountain of
Lychees', also called Kulen Mountain, is a mountain range and a part of Phnom Kulen
National Park in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. Rather than a hill range, Phnom
Kulen is an isolated chain of small mountain plateaux of moderate height lying
south of the Dângrêk Mountains. The range stretches for about 40 kilometres
(25 mi) in a WNW–ESE direction and is located some 48 kilometres (30 mi)

52
north of Siem Reap.Its highest point is 487 metres (1,598 ft) and its height is
quite regular, averaging 400 metres (1,300 ft) all along the range.Geologically
Phnom Kulen is formed of sandstone. It was important as a quarry in
Angkorian times, the major quarries being located in the southeastern angle of
the massif.
The Phnom Kulen mountain range is located 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwards
from Angkor Wat. Its name means "mountain of the lychees".There is a sacred hilltop
site on top of the range.Phnom Kulen is considered a holy mountain in Cambodia, of
special religious significance to Hindus and Buddhists who come to the mountain in
pilgrimage.Near these mountains is Preah Ang Thom, a 16th-century Buddhist
monastery notable for the giant reclining Buddha, the country's largest.
The Samré tribe was formerly living at the edge of Phnom Kulen, quarrying sandstone
and transporting it to the royal sites.

Cliffs overlooking Phnom Kulen

Phnom Kulen has major symbolic importance for Cambodia as the birthplace of the
ancient Khmer Empire, for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed
independence from Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated the Devaraja cult of the
king, a linga cult, in what is dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from
Java of whom the Khmer had been a vassalage state (whether this is actually "Java",
the Khmer chvea used to describe Champa, or "Lava" (a Lao kingdom) is debated, as
well as the legend that he was earlier held as a ransom of the kingdom in Java. See
Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for more information about the debate). During
the Angkorian era the relief was known as Mahendraparvata (the mountain of
Great Indra).
Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II, who made
it the capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as
the 1000 Lingas at Kbal Spean. At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than
modern-day Phnom Penh and one of the largest cities in the 11th-century world. It
would later be eclipsed by Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the
entire region.

53
Shiva linga at Temple on Kuen///Waterfall at Phnom Kulen

Chup Preah is a stream flowing into the mountain's valley. Kulen Mountain has two
waterfalls. The first is between 4–5 metres (13–16 ft) high and 20–25 metres (66–82 ft)
wide. There is a shallow pond below it. The second waterfall is 15–20 metres (49–66 ft)
high and 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) wide. This pours into a larger area of water which is
popular to visit and swim in. These sizes apply to the dry and rainy seasons although
the current will be weaker in the dry season.
Kbal Spean is known for its carvings representing fertility and its waters which hold
special significance to Hindus. Just 5 centimetres (2.0 in) under the water's surface
over 1000 small linga carvings are etched into the sandstone riverbed. The waters are
regarded as holy, given that Jayavarman II chose to bathe in the river, and had the
river diverted so that the stone bed could be carved. Carvings include a stone
representation of the Hindu god Vishnu lying on his serpent Ananta, with his
wife Lakshmi at his feet.[5] A lotus flower protrudes from his navel bearing the
god Brahma. The river then ends with a waterfall and a pool.

Stairway to Preah Ang Thom on Kulen

54
Preah Ang Thom houses a large statue of Buddha. It was built in the 16th century
and is 8 metres (26 ft) high. Preah Ang Thom is the sacred and worshipping god for
Kulen Mountain. There are also two large Cham Pa trees nearby. Besides Preah Ang
Thom, Chhok Ruot, footprints of Preah Bat Choan Tuk, Peung Chhok, Peung Ey So
and Peung Ey Sey, can also be seen.
The Linga is along the river of Siem Reap and has a lot of figures of Yoni and Linga
spreading out at the bottom of the river.
The Terrace of Sdach Kum Ling has a small brick-built ruined temple in its centre. It
was covered by lava for hundreds of years.
Srah Damrei is a large, sandstone sculpture of an elephant. It is joined by several
other smaller sculptures which have been dated to the 8th or 9th centuries. It is
accessible by motor bike and take approximately one hour from the waterfall.
Peung Tbal is a large rock site which has carvings of the Hindu gods Vishnu, Shiva,
Brahma, and Ganesh. This site was made around the time of the 8th or 9th centuries.
The site is near to the village of Anlong Thom.
Peung Aysey is another site located inside of the jungle of Kulen and contains more
rock carvings of Hindu gods and is said to have been a meditation place for rishis.
Since the time of Jayavardan II, Mount Kulen has been the most divine spot for
this crowning ceremony.
In fact Jayavarman crowned himself DEVARAJA here. Though not Chakravartin as
that was done posthumously probably by his son Jayavarman III but also on Kulen.
An abhiṣeka is conducted by priests by bathing the image of the deity being
worshipped, amidst the chanting of mantras. Usually, offerings such
as milk, yogurt, ghee, honey, panchamrita, sesame oil, rose water, sandalwood paste
may be poured among other offerings depending on the type of abhishekam being
performed. This rite is routinely performed in Hindu temples. A Rudrābhiṣeka or
abhiṣeka of Rudra is performed on lingams. A Kumbhabhishekam is a consecration
ritual for a Hindu temple.The following day commences with the new king taking a
ritual bath in water drawn from the Kulen Mountains, whose water is believed by
Cambodian royals to be exceptionally pure. The bath is said to wash away the king's
impurities, and increase his prestige. The new monarch is carried into the Preah
Thineang Dheva Vinnichay, or Throne Hall, of the Palace on a gold chair, at the head of
a large procession. Orange-clad Buddhist monks, one for every year of the king's life
plus one, chant blessings. The king prays before statues of his ancestors inside the
Hall. While priests blow on conch shells outside, the ruler next takes a formal oath to
observe the constitution and to rule in the country's best interests. Following this, he
receives various items of the royal regalia, including a calico cat, golden slippers, and
the jewel-encrusted gold crown and sword. In Hinduism, the god Rama performed
abhiṣheka after installing a jyotirlinga in Rameswaram which is now
the Ramanathaswamy Temple. It is said that the Shivaling should be kept facing the
facing towards the north. Keeping the Shivling in the north direction of the house has
great benefits. It is said that if money is coming and going, then to control it, keep
Shivling in the north direction of the house. This Jyotirlinga or Jyotirlingam, is a
devotional representation of the Hindu god Shiva. The word is a Sanskrit compound
of jyotis 'radiance' and linga. Śiva Mahāpurāṇa (also called Shiva Purana) mentions 64

55
original Jyotirlinga shrines in India, 12 of which are most sacred and they are called
the Maha Jyotirlingam (The Great Jyotirlingas).

Shiva Purana's sanskrit shloka about 12 Maha Jyotirlingas

The following shloka (द्वा दश ज् यो ति र्लिं ग स् तो त्र म् Dvādaśa Jyotirliṅga Stotram) describes
the 12 Jyotirlingas:

Sanskrit transliteration translation

Saurāṣṭre
सौराष्ट्रे सोमनाथं च Somanāthaṃ ca Somnath in Saurashtra and
श्रीशैले म ल्लि का र्जु न म् । Śrīśaile Sri Mallikarjuna in Srisailam;
Mallikārjunam

Ujjayinyāṃ
उज् ज यि न् यां Mahākālam Mahakala (Mahakaleshwara) in
म हा का ल मो ङ्का र म म ले श् Omkāram Ujjain, Omkareshwara in (Khandwa);
व र म् ॥ Mamaleśwaram

Parlyam
प र ल् यां वै द्य ना थम् च Vaidyanāthaṃ cha Baidyanath in Deoghar
डा कि न् यां भीमशङ्करम्। Ḍākinyāṃ and Bhimashankara in Dakinya;
Bhīmaśaṅkaram

Ramesham (Rameshwara) in
Setubandhe tu
सेतुबन्धे तु रा मे शं Sethubandh,
Rāmeśaṃ Nāgeśaṃ
ना गे शं दा रुका व ने ॥ (Nagesham) Nageshwara in Daruka-
Dārukāvane
Vana;

Vārāṇasyāṃ tu Vishwesham (Vishweshwara) in

वा रा णस् यां तु वि श्वे शं Viśveśaṃ Varanasi, Tryambakam
त्र् य म् ब कं गौ तमी तटे । Tryambakaṃ (Trayambakeshwara) at bank of the
Gautamītaṭe river Gautami (Godavari);

Himālaye tu
Kedar (Kedarnath) in the Himalayas
हि मा ल ये तु के दारं Kedāraṃ
and Ghushmesh (Ghrishneshwar) in
घुश्मे शंच शिवालये॥ Ghuśmeśaṃ ca
Shivalaya (Verul).
Śivālaye

56
 etāni jyotirliṅgāni
ए ता नि ज्योतिर्लिङ्गानि One who recites these Jyotirlingas every
sāyaṃ prātaḥ
सायं प्रातः पठेन्नरः। evening and morning
paṭhennaraḥ

saptajanmakṛtaṃ
सप्तजन्मकृतं पापं is relieved of all sins committed in past
pāpaṃ smaraṇena
स्मरणेन वि न श्यति ॥ seven lives.
vinaśyati

eteṣāṃ
एतेषां दर्शना दे व पातकं darśanādeva One who visits these, gets all his wishes
नै व ति ष्ठ ति । pātakaṃ naiva fulfilled
tiṣṭhati

karmakṣayo
कर्मक्षयो भवेत्तस्य य स् य तुष्टो and one's karma gets eliminated as
bhavettasya yasya
म हे श्व राः ॥: Maheshwara gets satisfied to the worship.
tuṣṭo maheśvarāḥ

The last such ceremony was held in 2004 for the current monarch, Norodom
Sihamoni. Unlike some previous Cambodian rulers, Sihamoni chose not to wear the
crown during his coronation. One of the key components of this ceremony is the
anointing of the Lingal- the symbol of creation in Hindu Religion.As is seen in the
painting on RIGHT below, Jayavarman II is anointing the Lingam on his concecration
day

Shiva Lingam

The Shiva Lingam represents the divine being Shiva, and is used as a symbol of the
power of fertility and strength. Shivalinga (Sivalinga) is the most important and a
popular symbolic representation of Lord Shiva (Siva) in Hinduism. It represents God

57
Himself in His all the three aspects – Creator, Sustainer or Protector and Destroyer
(Dissolutor).[
Meaning
The word ‘Shivalinga’ is a combination of the words ‘Shiva’ (auspiciousness) and linga
(sign or symbol). Thus ‘Shivalinga’ is a representation of God in His all-auspicious
aspect. Again ‘Shiva’ also means ‘One in Whom all creation sleeps after dissolution’.
‘Linga’ also means the place of dissolution of the disintegrated universe.[2] The Shiva
linga represents the supreme creator, the cause behind the creation, protection, and
destruction of everything visible and invisible and the god shiva.
Types
Based on the mobility of the object of worship, Shivalingas are broadly divided into two
categories – ‘Cala’ and ‘Acala
1. Cala Shivalingas

These are made of stone, crystal, metals, clay, rice, dough, etc. These can be
moved from one place to another.
2. Acala Shivalingas

The sacred texts describe many types of shiva linga based on variations in the
proportions. The following is the description of sarvatobhadra shiva lingam preferably
constructed in black spotless hard stone which can be worshiped by every living
being. These Shivlingas are installed in temples and are fixed to ground or a base.
They are usually made of stones or metals. The sacred texts suggest that the shiva
linga must have three parts. A bottom most 1/3rd part that is in the earth - Brahma
bhaagam (represents Brahma, the Creator of the World) it is rectangular in cross
section.[3] A middle 1/3rd part is called Vishnu Bhaagam or Vishnu Bhaga (it
represents Vishnu, the Protector and sustainer of the world ); it is octagonal in cross
section. Both the Brahma bhaagam and Vishnu Bhaagam are embedded in peetham
(the ornamental pedestal). visible 1/3rd Shiva Pooja bhaagam or Pooja bhaga( also
known as Rudra bhaagam or Rudra bhaga) which is top most part which is worshiped.
It is circular in cross section and cylindrical in shape. It represents Rudra (Shiva), the
Dissoluter or Destroyer of the World. It is known as Pooja bhaagam because this part
is worshipped. Brahmasutras: These are certain essential lines present on the Rudra
bhaagam (Rudra bhaga). Without them a Shivlinga is unfit to be worshipped. [4] The
Shiva linga is at the level of ground and easily accessible to the worshipers irrespective
of their caste, social or economic status.
Laos
These rites included rituals in which the king made a symbolic payment to
representatives of his people for their land, with them in turn acknowledging his
legitimacy. The last King of Laos, Savang Vatthana, was not crowned due to a
communist insurgency which led to the abolition of the Laotian monarchy in 1975.
Thailand
Thailand holds a coronation ceremony for its king upon his accession to the throne.
This ceremony included several ancient Buddhist and Brahmanic rites, including the
presentation of a nine-tiered umbrella (symbol of royal authority) and other items of

58
the royal regalia to the sovereign. Without this, no Thai king can assume the title of
"Phrabat" or use the umbrella.
Vajiralongkorn's coronation began with a ceremonial bath, following which the new
king put on the white robes of a Brahmin monk, and had sacred water poured over his
shoulders while a "gong of victory" was struck by the court astrologer. Afterwards, he
received and is anointed from nine pitchers filled with sacred water, drawn from
eighteen different sites in Thailand, by a senior Brahmin and representatives of the
government and the royal family. The nine-tiered umbrella was then presented,
followed by five other items of the royal regalia: the Great Crown of Victory, the Sword
of Victory, the Royal Staff, the Whisk of the Tail Hairs of a White Elephant, a Small
Flat Fan, and a pair of Golden Slippers. In accordance with Thai tradition,
Vajiralongkorn placed the crown upon his own head, then received a special golden
Ring of Kingship as a gun salute was fired by artillery.

King Bhumibol Adulyadej receiving the water of anointment on the Octagonal throne./
Dancing Shiva

After this, the new Thai ruler seated himself upon the Bhatarabit Throne at the Grand
Palace, where he pronounced the Oath of Accession, promising that he would reign for
the benefit and happiness of his people. He also poured ceremonial water to symbolize
his complete dedication to his royal responsibilities, in accordance with the "Tenfold
Moral Principles of the Sovereign": alms-giving and charity, strict moral standards,
self-sacrifice, honesty and integrity, courtesy and kindness, austerity in his habits,
harboring no anger or hatred, practicing and promoting non-violence, exuding
patience, forbearance and tolerance, and displaying impartiality to all. After this,
Vajiralongkorn elevated his wife, Suthida, to be the Queen of Thailand. Finally, the
royal couple visited the Temple of the Emerald Buddha where he made a solemn vow
to protect the Buddhist religion, followed by a short memorial service.

59
India

The enthronement of Shivaji

In Indian monarchy, the royal enthronement ceremony is called rajyabhishek

Abhisheka (Abhiṣeka) in Sanskrit means "bathing of the divinity to whom worship is
offered." It is a religious rite or method of prayer in which a devotee pours a liquid
offering on an image or murti of a God or Goddess. Abhisheka is common to Indian
religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Rajya-Abhisheka the combination of these two words would mean the rite performed
on a Raja or King

Mahendraparvata: 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Angkor Wat complex, 45

kilometres (28 mi) north of Siem Reap, on the slopes of Phnom Kulen mountain
in Siem Reap Province. is the ancient city of the Khmer Empire era in Cambodia. The
existence of the city has been known for decades, but much of it lay concealed by
forest and earth. The city was uncovered by an archaeological expedition led by Jean-
Baptiste Chevance and Damian Evans in 2012 with the aid of airborne laser scanning
technology called LIDAR IMAGING.
The name Mahendraparvata means "Mountain of the Great Indra". It is derived from
the Sanskrit words म हे न् द्र (Great Indra, a title of the Hindu god Indra)
and पर्वत (mountain) and is a reference to the sacred hill top site commonly known as
"Phnom Kulen" today where Jayavarman II was consecrated as the first king of the
Khmer Empire in 802. The name is attested in inscriptions on the Angkor-area Ak
Yum temple.
The city's origins date to the reign of Jayavarman II, considered the founder of
the Khmer Empire. His reign was consecrated on the sacred mountain of
Mahendraparvata, known as Phnom Kulen in contemporary Cambodian.[4]:99–101[5] The

60
 city he founded at Mahendraparvata was one of three capitals, or courts, of
Jayavarman II's reign, the others being Amarendrapura and Hariharalaya. All this
came out from the LIDAR IMAGING though, in 1936 expedition of French
archaeologist and art historian Philippe Stern had also explored the Phnom Kulen
highlands. He discovered some previously unknown temples and Vishnu statues and
described the area as the first true temple mountain. But the area, while being the
source of rivers flowing south to the Tonle Sap, was remote. Later in his reign,
Jayavarman II moved to Hariharalaya where he died in 835 AD.

'Lost' Medieval City Discovered Beneath Cambodian Jungle

By Jeanna Bryner June 18, 2013


Here, the lost city of Mahendraparvata revealed in a shaded relief map of terrain beneath
the vegetation in the Phnom Kulen acquisition area, with elevation derived from the
lidar digital terrain model at 0.5 meter resolution and 4x vertical exaggeration. Green

61
denotes previously documented archaeological features; areas shaded red contain newly
documented features indicative of an extensive urban layout. (Image credit: Archaeology and
Development Foundation - Phnom Kulen Program)

This 1,200 years old ciyy was uncovered using airborne laser scanning. The previously
undocumented cityscape, called Mahendraparvata, is hidden beneath a dense forest
on the holy mountain Phnom Kulen, which means "Mountain of the Lychees."
The cityscape came into clear view, along with a vast expanse of ancient urban spaces
that made up Greater Angkor, the large area where one of the largest religious
monuments ever constructed — Angkor Wat, meaning "temple city" — was built
between A.D. 1113 and 1150. [See Images of Angkor Wat, New Temple City]

Traces of temples
In a series of archaeological mapping projects, scientists had previously used remote
sensing to map subtle traces of Angkor. Even so, dense vegetation now veils much of
the complex, impenetrable to conventional remote-sensing techniques, the researchers
noted.
In the new study, led by the Archaeology and Development Foundation's (ADF) Phnom
Kulen program, the team relied on airborne laser scanning, or LiDAR (light detection
and ranging), to survey about 140 square miles (363 square kilometers) in
northwestern Cambodia in 2012.
"LiDAR provides an unparalleled ability to penetrate dense vegetation cover and map
archaeological remains on the forest floor," the researchers wrote in an accepted
manuscript submitted to the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The survey revealed, "with exceptional clarity," traces of planned urban spaces hidden
beneath the dense forest surrounding the major temples of Angkor, they wrote. In
addition, the researchers confirmed the existence of "a vast, low-density urban
periphery stretching far beyond the major Angkorian temples."
This low-density urban area suggests that rather than Angkor Thom being the central,
walled-in city that some have suggested, it is just part of a more dispersed city with a
densely populated area at its center.
"It's the same sort of configuration as Los Angeles — so, a dense middle, but it
consists of huge, sprawling suburbs connected by giant roads and canals in exactly
the same way as the freeways link up Los Angeles," said Roland Fletcher, of the
University of Sydney.

Lost medieval city

To the north of central Angkor, the LiDAR data revealed a previously unknown city
hidden beneath the forest, its roadways, temples and other urban infrastructure,
etched into the surface of the holy Phnom Kulen mountain. The newfound cityscape
would have existed between the eighth and ninth centuries (well before Angkor Wat)
and seems to correspond to Mahendraparvata, one of the first capitals of the Khmer
Empire. Until now, Mahendraparvata was known only from written inscriptions dating
to A.D. 802, the researchers said.

When the LiDAR data revealed the elevation beneath Phnom Kulen's dense vegetation,
the researchers knew they had found something big.
"With this instrument — bang — all of a sudden, we saw an immediate picture of an
entire city that no one knew existed, which is just remarkable," Damien Evans,

62
director of the University of Sydney's archaeological research center in Cambodia, The
LiDAR also revealed an entirely new class of Angkorian architecture, Fletcher said.
To the south of the Angkor Wat complex and dating to the 12th century, "there is a set
of absolutely unique, very strange features, which we call rectilinear coils," Fletcher
told LiveScience. "They are like enormous embankments of sand with channels
between them. They have no counterpart anywhere in Angkor; we've never seen the
design of this sort before, and they've never been seen before in Angkorian
architecture."
Fletcher thinks the embankments represent gardens, but their exact purpose remains
unknown. The channels would have carried water to the various plants and trees
growing in the gardens, he suggested.
The research also involved French archaeologist and ADF program director Jean--
Baptiste Chevance, Christophe Pottier of the French School of the Far East (EFEO),
and other scientists. Above portion written by Jeanna
Bryner https://www.livescience.com/37520-lost-medieval-city-discovered-beneath-
cambodian-jungle.html

The Significance of Mahendraparvata and Jayavarman II- He established a series of

capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River east of Kâmpóng (Kompong)
Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya, southeast of present-day Siĕmréab
(Siem Reap); and then at Mahendraparvata, in the region just north of the Tonle
Sap (Great Lake), not far from Angkor, the next seat of the Khmer empire, which
remained its capital for 600 years. Mahendraparvata was founded in 802 CE.This
history of Mahendraparvata is based on several written inscriptions, the most well-
known being an 11th century CE inscription found in eastern Thailand. The
inscription, dated to 1052 CE, tells about a private family serving successive Khmer
Kings for 250 years, the first mentioned being King Jayavarman II.The main historical
and geographical significance of the Phnom Kulen plateau lies in its role as Angkor’s
source of water.

Now, a team of archaeologists led by Dr Dan Penny from the University of Sydney
examined soil cores and vegetation samples from one of the ancient reservoirs in the
Phnom Kulen region for evidence of intensive land use during the occupation and
abandonment of MahendraparvataOn an analysis new data suggest that the Phnom Kulen
plateau was flooded in the mid to late 8th century CE, but the age of the reservoir remains
inconclusive.The reservoir operated for about 400 years and that settlements were intensive enough to
trigger extensive soil erosion within the reservoir over a span of approximately 250 years beginning in the
middle of the 9th century CE. The last and largest episode of erosion occurred in the late 11th century CE,
and this event reflects a change in reservoir operation and management. The study also suggests a change
in water management practices from the 12th century.This is the first indication that settlement in
Mahendraparvata was not only extensive, but also intensive and enduring, with a marked environmental
impact, according to the team.

Ritualistic celebration of Coronation of Lord Sri Rama

Is known as Pattabishekam a ceremony held in the historic Sri Sitaramachandra
Swamy temple in Bhadrachalam even today to mark that ancient ritual when
Rama was crowned KING after his many trials and tribulations and his return
from Sri Lanks( Lanka) with his wife and brother Laxman... The annual fete

63
turned out to be a low-key event with the usual festival exuberance associated
with it evidently missing in the absence of devotees.
The coronavirus-induced lockdown has kept the temple out of bounds for
devotees.
The temple priests conducted the 'Kirita Dharana' ceremony in adhrence
to the prescribed rituals within the precincts of the 17th Century temple
on Friday, a day after the Sri Rama Navami festival.
A select few persons mostly comprising the officials of the Endowments
Department and the temple staff were present.

Coronation of Rama and Sita.Painting-ca. 1820 - ca. 1825 (painted)

What Jayavarman II knew in all likelyhood: Rama pattabhisheka,

1.Shri Rama kills Ravana.

2.That enraged Rama, stretching his bow well and with an attentive mind,
hurled that arrow which can tear off the vitals, towards Ravana.That arrow,
which was inviolable as a thunderbolt hurled by the arms of Indra and
irresistible as Yama the lord of Death, fell upon Ravana's chest.
3.After Agni Pravesha Shri Rama along with Mata Sita and Lakshmana leave to
Ayodhya.They ascend Pushpaka and leave to Ayodhya.The generous minded
Rama along with Lakshmana felt amazed to see the aforesaid aerial car,

64
 Pushpaka, which resembled a mountain and which could travel everywhere at
will, arrived on that occasion.Shri Rama shows different places to Mata Sita on
the journey. They both once visit Sage Bharadwaja hermitage.Anjaneya informs
Bharata about Raghu Rama’s returning. Bharata was very glad to hear
that.After everyone met Bharata start to make the arrangements for
CORONATION.
4.On the special occasion, Ayodhya was filled with the brightness of Million
suns.

Scene from the Hindu epic poem the Ramayana - the return of the victors (chromolitho)

The return of Rama to Ayodhya was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rama
pattabhisheka, and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule. It
is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness
with diyas (lamps), and the festival of Diwali is connected with Rama's return.
Upon Rama's accession as king, rumors emerge that Sita may have gone willingly
when she was with Ravana; Sita protests that her capture was forced. Rama responds
to public gossip by renouncing his wife and asking her to undergo a test
before Agni (fire). She does and passes the test. Rama and Sita live happily together in
Ayodhya, have twin sons named Luv and Kush, in the Ramayana and other major
texts. However, in some revisions, the story is different and tragic, with Sita dying of
sorrow for her husband not trusting her, making Sita a moral heroine and leaving the
reader with moral questions about Rama. In these revisions, the death of Sita leads
Rama to drown himself. Through death, he joins her in afterlife. Rama dying by
drowning himself is found in the Myanmar version of Rama's life story called Thiri
Rama.
SHRI RAMA PATTABISHEKHAM :

"O Rama! Today, let the world see you when crowned, like the sun with its glowing
splendour, shining brilliantly at noon.May you wake-up to the sounds of an ensemble
of musical instruments, the tinkling of ornaments strung with tiny bells and worn
around the waist and anklets as well as sweet invocation of songs.

65
Look after, you, lordship of world here, as long as the stellar sphere revolves and so far
as the earth is spread out."

Now the auspicious event starts.

Thereafter, on instructions from Shatrughna, skilled barbers with gentle hands who
can do their work with a good speed, encircled Rama all round.

Bharata, having bathed first, the mighty Lakshmana, Sugreeva the lord of monkeys
and Vibhishana the king of demons took bath. Rama had his matted locks
disentangled and bathed. He stood there, shining with splendour, adorned with
picturesque garlands, smeared with sandal pastes of various colours and clothed in
costly raiment.

Shatrughna, the valiant and charming man, the promoter of Ikshvaku dynasty made
arrangements for personal adornment of Rama and Lakshmana.

Then, all the noble-minded widows of Dasaratha indeed themselves personally

adorned Seetha beautifully.

Thereupon, the delightful Kausalya, who was affectionate of her sons, adorned with
zeal all the wives of monkeys.

Later, on the orders of Shatrughna, the charioteer by name Sumantra made his
appearance, yoking chariot to horses which were completely beautiful in all respects.

Seeing the charming chariot, which emitted immaculate splendour like that of the
sun, standing before him, the mighty armed Rama, the conqueror of hostile cities,
ascended it.

Sugreeva and Hanuma, having splendour similar to that of Indra the lord of celestials,
after taking their bat, wore beautiful raiment as well as sparkling ear rings and
started.

Endowed with all types of ornaments as well as charming ear-rings, those wives of
Sugreeva together with Seetha moved out, longing as they were, to see the city.

Bharata took up the reins. Shatrughna held the parasol on Rama's head. Lakshmana
winnowed a fan. Vibhishana, the king of demons standing nearby, held a white fan,
shining brilliantly like the moon.

Ayodhya was full of happiness.

Rama, the foremost among men, accompanied by sounds of conches buzzing in the
ears and sounds of kettle-drums, proceeded to the city of Ayodhya, having a series of
palaces.

Approaching and entering the palace of the great-souled father, Rama the prince
offered salutation to Kausalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi and spoke the following sweet and
meaningful words to Bharata,

66
They bought water from 500 rivers.

Jambavan, Hanuma, a monkey called Vegadarshi and Rishabha brought water-jars

filled with water. They brought water from five hundred rivers with those jars.

With those pure water he was made the ruler. He was crowned

With which crown, long ago, Manu the emperor was adorned while he was consecrated
and with which, the kings followed in his line were successively adorned while they
were coronated, that crown studded with precious jewels, fashioned by Brahma at the
beginning of creation and dazzling with splendour, being kept according to practice on
a throne adorned with many kinds of precious stones in the council-hall, studded with
gold, graced with abundant riches, decorated and shiningly made with most charming
jewels of various kinds, and thereafter Rama duly adorned by that crown as well as
jewels by the great-souled Vasishta and other priests officiating at the coronation-
ceremony.

Ayodhya was shining brightly and resembled Indra’s abode. All gods started flowering
from and it was like a FESTIVAL.

In short, Shri Ram is believed to be around 39 years that time. The royal sages chose
and auspicious day and hence Shri Ram’s coronation was done, which marked the era
of Ram-Rajya that is still exemplified as the form of perfect governance. I would not be
surprised if all cambodians knew this story and Jayavarman II and later Cambodian
Kings played the field in crowning themselves in Rama’s fashion and thereafter calling
their rule as RAMRAJYA. Or the Rule of Ram ( perfect rule where people live in harmony
cared to by their king

67
 V
Tantric Buddhism in Khmer Empire

Religious and social practices associated with Hinduism spread into Nepal and Sri Lanka, where
they blended with local religious and social systems. They also spread into Southeast Asia,
carried across the Indian Ocean by merchants and sailors on ships. After about 100 CE, Indian
priests and officials travelled to Southeast Asia as well, where they married into powerful
families and were appointed as advisers by rulers attempting to build up their authority on the
Indian model. In these Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia, imported traditions fused with
local ones. Some groups understood themselves to be members of specific Indian castes,
especially lineages within the Kshatriyas warrior caste. Huge stone temples were built to Hindu
deities, but rituals also continued to indigenous gods and spirits, who retained their power over
the rice harvest, daily life, and cosmic order. Other than among South Asian migrants, the impact
of caste was limited, and locally-created social hierarchies.

Likewise Buddhism an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom
of Magadha (now in Bihar, India), and is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha spread
outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime. During the reign of
the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka The Great, the Buddhist community split into two branches:
the Mahāsāṃghika and the Sthaviravāda, each of which spread throughout India and split into
numerous sub-sects. In modern times, two major branches of Buddhism exist:
the Theravada in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, and the Mahayana throughout
the Himalayas and East Asia. The Buddhist tradition of Vajrayana is sometimes classified as a
part of Mahayana Buddhism, but some scholars consider it to be a different branch altogether.

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The practice of Buddhism lost influence in India around the 7th century CE, after the collapse of
the Gupta Empire. The last large state to support Buddhism—the Pala Empire—fell in the 12th
century. By the end of the 12th century, Buddhism had largely disappeared from India with the
exception of the Himalayan region and isolated remnants in parts of south India. However, since
the 19th century, modern revivals of Buddhism have included the Maha Bodhi Society,
the Vipassana movement, and the Dalit Buddhist movement spearheaded by B. R. Ambedkar.
There has also been a growth in Tibetan Buddhism with the arrival of the Tibetan diaspora and
the Tibetan government in exile in India, following the Chinese annexation of Tibet in 1950.
According to the 2011 Census there are 8.4 million Buddhists in India (0.70% of the total
population).

Despite being the birthplace of Buddhism, due to missionary zeal of monarchs who were stepped
in Buddhism as well as foreign invasions, the number of people who believe in Buddhism in
India was not much in ancient times after the death of the Buddha particularly as Hinduism had
strong roots. This spread of Buddhism occurred during the period of Emperor Ashoka and King
Kanishka, as Emperor Ashoka spread the teachings and beliefs of Buddha in India and other
parts of Asia. Kanishka used the Silk Road to spread teachings and beliefs of Buddhism in the
central part of Asia, which greatly triggered the spread of the influence of Buddhism in major
parts of Asia.

Buddhism as well as its esoteric counterpart of Buddhist traditions had developed and spread
across Maritime Asia from the seventh to the thirteenth centuries CE through a peripatetic net of
human agents (‘Masters’), textual sources (‘Texts’) and images (‘Icons’) Buddhism was spread
outside India through the efforts of missionaries, scholars, trade, emigration, and communication
networks. Foreign monks who travelled along the silk route between India and China were
responsible for the spread of Buddhism at sub-elite levels. Buddhism is a religion and philosophy
founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama (also known as Buddha) in 525 BC. Today, there are
more than 500 million Buddhists globally. Take the case of China, according to scholars such as
Henrik Sørensen, Esoteric Buddhism emerged in India out of Mahayana Buddhist ritual and
magical practices. Esoteric teachings followed the Silk Road and the Southeast Asian Maritime
trade routes into China, linking Chinese Buddhism with Indian, South Asian and Indonesian
Esoteric Buddhism. The use of mantras and dhāraṇīs dates at least to the 2nd century. Tantric
materials with mantras and dharanis begin to appear in China during the fifth century. Early
Chinese Buddhists include the like of Zhu Lüyan, who translated the first text containing
dhāraṇīs, the Modengqie jing (T.D. no. 1300). Others such as Fotudeng (d. 348) served Chinese
emperors with mantras and rituals.
The use of mandalas in China as goes back to the sixth century. While these elements were
present, it is with the rise of esoteric Buddhism during the Tang dynasty that a full ritual system
arose. Buddhism is divided into three schools: one is Theravada or Theravada in Southeast Asia
and Sri Lanka, the second one is Mahayana in China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, and the third
one is Vajrayana which is located in Bhutan, Mongolia, Tibet and some parts of Russia.

Spread of Buddhism in India: In the fifth century BC, during economic development, several
people became traders and merchants. These traders and merchants became attached to the
teachings of Buddhism, and Buddhism became a very important part of these traders and

69
merchants’ communities. This way, Buddhism spread throughout the entire Mauryan empire.
The Mauryan Empire, which was the first empire that almost covered the entire Indian peninsula,
was once the greatest empire in Indian history. Buddhism spread throughout the entire Mauryan
empire through commercial connections and trade routes. Buddhism also spread to different
parts of Central Asia through the Silk Road.

The Mauryan empire was at its peak at the time of the emperor Ashoka. Ashoka converted to
Buddhism after the Battle of Kalinga, with many of his followers also converting to Buddhism.
After the battle, there was a long period of stability under this Buddhist empire. The power of the
Mauryan empire was large, and many ambassadors of the empire were sent to different countries
to spread Buddhism. Some people speculated that Ashoka was overwhelmed by guilt after the
battle of Kalinga, so much so that he became a Buddhist. Ashoka was one of the first emperors to
accept Buddhism as his faith; many other emperors also did so, such as Menander, who was the
famous Bactrian king who ruled from Taxila. The Parthians also converted to Buddhism; the
Kanishka emperor of the Kushan Empire also became Buddhist – this empire controlled parts of
northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.Buddhism also flourished in the era of Pala and Sena,
and their kings also converted to Buddhism; it was controlled and spread in the modern-day
Bihar and Bengal regions. So there were lots of other emperors who converted or followed the
teachings of Buddha.

Silk Road Transmission of Buddhism:

At the beginning of the first and second centuries BC, Buddhism was introduced to China
through the Silk Road, brought by the missionaries of the Kushan empire who was sent by King
Kanishka who ruled parts of northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia, which was
mainly China. He encouraged the spread of Buddhism in Central Asia. It is well documented that
the transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia and China corresponded with the development of
the silk routes as channels for intercultural exchanges. After a Buddhist community was
established in the Chinese capital at Loyang by the second century C.E., Buddhist monasteries
emerged near irrigated oases at Khotan, Kucha, Turfan, and Dunhuang on the northern and
southern branches of the silk routes.

Stupas, cave paintings, and manuscripts reflect the movement of Buddhism across Central Asia
on the silk routs. Stupas at Buddhist sites on the southern route in the Tarim Basin adopted
northwestern Indian architectural features. Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts from the 2nd-6th
centuries C.E. found at northern silk route Buddhist centers generally belonged to Shravakayana
(Hinayana) schools, but Mahayana manuscripts were prevalent in southern silk route centers
also. With the exceptions of the surviving Buddhist traditions in Tibet and Mongolia, Buddhism
disappeared from the Silk Road regions of Central Asia in the 2nd millennium C.E.

Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to forge strong ties with South Asian
kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the warrior goddess Durga as a way to
increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal rituals led by Saiva "royal gurus"
in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and thus became the earthly
representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a variety of protection and
destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom and the king. Tantric

70
Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by the Somavamshis of Odisha,
the Kalachuris, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (in Bundelkhand). There is also evidence of
state support from the Cambodian Khmer Empire. As noted by Samuel, in spite of the increased
depiction of female goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "male-
directed and male-controlled."
During the "Tantric Age", Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist
mainstream and was studied at the great universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, from
which it spread to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new
Tantric Buddhism was supported by the Pala Dynasty (8th–12th century) which supported these
centers of learning. The later Khmer kings and the Indonesian Srivijaya kingdom also supported
tantric Buddhism. While the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly undertaken in
symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic contexts, it seems
that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually performed.

Shiva as Tribhuvaneshwar
The Concept of the Sacred Phallus and the Lord of the 3 realms
swarga (heaven), prithvi (earth) and patala (netherworld)

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The idea of being the Lord of Patala- the realm of that w hich is below the feet, denotes the
subterranean realms of the universe – which are located under the earthly dimension pointing
towards the underworld or netherworld and opposite of Swarga or Heaven In Hindu cosmology,
the universe is divided into the three worlds: Svarga, Prithvi or Martya (earth/mortal plane) and
Patala (gross dimensions, the underworld). Patala is composed of seven realms/dimensions
or lokas, the seventh and lowest of them is also called Patala or Naga-loka, the region of the
Nagas. The Danavas (demon sons of Danu), Daityas (demon sons of Diti), Yakshas and the
snake-people Nagas (Serpent-human formed sons of Kadru), live in the realms of Patala.
In Vajrayana Buddhism, caves inhabited by asuras are entrances to Patala; these asuras,
particularly female asuras, are often "tamed" (converted to Buddhism)
as dharmapala or dakinis by famous Buddhist figures such as Padmasambhava
Chok Gargyar/Koh Ker: Angkor city dedicated to Lord Shiva as Tribhuvaneshwara

Lord Shiva as Tribhuvaneshwara: Devotion to Lord Shiva and veneration of the

sacred phallus, the lingam, was the base of establishment of the Civilization of
Khmer–right from its foundation in 802 CE. Phallus worship started when
Jayavarman II, founder of Khmer Kingdoms or the first mighty Lord of the Khmer
tribes consecrated himself king on top of Mahendraparvata, announcing his lordship
over the country and sovereignty of Cambodia- by a Rajyabhishekh- or Coronation.

This CORONATION or CONSECRATION was not what normally is coronation in

other civilizations that are non –hindu. In Hinduism it is “taking over the reigns”
and celebratory practices that follow this. To conduct this ceremonyBrahmins or
Hindu priests are invited and Jayavarman II had as per inscriptions called forward a
Priest named Hiranyadama. In this ceremony this Hiranyadama , sanctified a royal
lingam symbolising the temporal authority of Jayavarman II
as Chakravartin (universal monarch). After his death, Jayavarman II was given the
posthumous title Paramesvara (Supreme Lord), one of the many manifestations of
Lord Shiva.

Over the next century, every new ruler on the occasion of his rajyabhiseka would
consecrate the royal lingam, thus establishing his divine authority, and taking on the
responsibilities of kingship as the Devaraja (God-King). The royal lingam was
ceremonially installed in a mountain-temple, which formed the nucleus of an urban
settlement. During the period of Harshavarman I (r. 910–923) and his successor
Ishanavaraman II (r. 923–928), Angkor was ruled from the twin cities
Yashodharapura and Hariharalaya. However, mere installation of a lingam with
magical powers neither ensured peace and stability nor longevity of the ruler.
Rulers had to be eternally vigilant and be ready to thwart rivals and quell
rebellions.

In 921 CE, an inscription describes the establishment of a rival power at a remote

location, 127 km northeast of Yashodharapura. This challenger, Jayavarman IV, was
a maternal uncle to Ishanavarman II. Jayavarman IV named his seat of power Chok

72
Gargyar and on December 12, 921 CE, conducted a grand consecration ceremony of
the royal lingam as Tribhuvaneshwara.

This specially chosen manifestation of Lord Shiva as the Supreme Lord of Three
Realms, i.e. swarga (heaven), prithvi (earth) and patala (netherworld), was an
appropriate metaphor for the new king’s ambitions. This city of Chok Gargyor was
located roughly midway on a highway connecting Yashodharapura to Preah Vihear.
From Preah Vihear, the road split in two directions: one went towards Phimai in
Thailand, and the other to Wat Phu in Laos; both crucial outposts of the empire.
This gave Jayavarman IV strategic edge, allowing him to boss over Angkor. In 928
CE, Isanavarman II’s chaotic reign ended, and Jayavarman IV’s moment of glory
arrived. He crowned himself Chakravartin.

RELOCATION

Jayavarman IV set about commissioning grand construction projects to encourage

new settlers and establish his writ as absolute monarch. He shifted the seat of power
to Chok Gargyar, and set out planning a new city worthy of its status as capital of
the most powerful empire in Southeast Asia. Jayavarman IV was acutely aware of
Chok Gargyar’s Achilles’ heel, its disadvantageous location in a hot, dry region
with few natural water resources. To address this problem, the largest project
undertaken at Chok Gargyar was the construction of a vast baray (water harvesting
tank), called the Rahal. Measuring 1185 m x 548 m, the Rahal met the daily water
requirements of a large population and helped in irrigation of agricultural
fields. According to UNESCO:

Koh Ker: Archeological site of Ancient Lingapura Or Chok Gargyar

“ Koh Ker or Chok Gargyar, as it is known in Old Khmer inscriptions, is a 10th-century temple
complex and former capital of the Khmer Empire, situated in northern Cambodia. The name of
the site, Chok Gargyar, is in itself unique, as it is the only site we know of to be named in the
Old Khmer language (Khmer ancient capital are usually named in Sanskrit) and referring to a
natural feature, namely the tree now known as Koki or iron wood tree (Hopea odorata) which
can reach up to 45 m and is valued for its dense wood quality that is water and termite-resistant.
The densely forested site containing a total of 169 archaeological remains, including 76 temples,
as well as civil structures, ponds, dykes, and ancient roads, is located centrally between three
other Cambodian World Heritage Sites - Preah Vihear, Angkor, and Sambor Prei Kuk. It stands
at a distance of 102 km to the north-east of Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, 126 km to the south of
Preah Vihear Temple Site, and north-west to Sambor Prei Kuk Site at a distance of 171 km.
Situated between the slopes of the Dangrek and Kulen mountains, Koh Ker has a landscape
characterized by rolling hills of variable heights ranging from 70 m to 110 m, forming a gentle
slope from South to North, and coinciding with the watershed of the Steung Sen River.
Koh Ker was the capital of the Khmer Empire for a brief period, between 928-941 C.E. under its
founder King Jayavarman IV. As yet, the only authentic, contemporary information about the
political ideology of Angkor comes from the Koh Ker inscription which establishes a clear shift

73
of Khmer political ideology from ‘rāja’ or king, to ‘rājya’ or the kingdom and its people. In
support of this new ideology, no war was waged by Jayavarman IV; his reign was the most
peaceful phase of the Khmer Empire, which enabled a cultural resurgence. This time of peace
allowed Jayavarman IV to carry out projects of regional, social, economic and architectural
development, town planning and rural infrastructure, of which the ensemble of monuments at
Koh Ker bear testimony. The art and architecture of Koh Ker was also developed to reflect and
affirm the dominance and uniqueness of Jayavarman IV’s political identity, particularly with the
use of a monumentality of scale in architecture, and dynamism in sculpture, both of which is
unmatched in other Khmer legacies.
Justification of Outstanding Universal Value
Koh Ker represents a unique vision in the arts, architecture and introduces new technologies,
which changed urban planning for the coming centuries. The most important monuments of the
capital are situated close to and in the immediate vicinity of the Prasat Thom complex, where the
seven-tiered pyramid, also known as Prasat Prang, the only one in Southeast Asia, forms the
apotheosis of an eccentric building style known only in Koh Ker. Prasat Thom complex is also
the central axis around which the capital is geometrically formed.
Another exceptional characteristic of Koh Ker is the development of water management
techniques. The water management system at Koh Ker was a hybrid one, combining elements of
a highland system of damming river valleys with elements of the classical lowland system of
huge reservoirs, canals and bunded fields. An earlier form of this system may be observed at the
World Heritage Site of Sambor Prei Kuk (6 th-7th centuries C.E.), while a far more elaborated
system was later in use in Angkor. Koh Ker thus served as a huge laboratory for what was to
come, situating itself perfectly between early drainage (Oc-Eo) and catchment trials (Sambor
Prei Kuk) and the far more sophisticated hydrological system can be observed in the later
Angkor period. Along with management of water, the structures of Koh Ker, particularly the
Lingas and the Rahal were planned using the natural terrain in such a way that the flow of water
through the site becomes an act of sacralising.

The Hindu character of the site is best revealed through its monumental art of which the
sculptures are the most prominent, executed in the ronde-bosse technique. Drawing on earlier
styles, its creators soon developed a distinct art, advancing sculpting techniques while inventing
the hybrid figure. The best examples are the Dancing Shiva with a presumed height of 6 m at
Prasat Kraham and the recently discovered ensembles at Prasat Chen depicting scenes of the
Mahabharata (the last fight in the battle of Kurukshetra between Bhima and Duryodhana) and the
Ramayana (the fight between Valin and Sugriva). Scenes like these may well be found at other
temple sites but is the first time and also last that they have been brought alive through
monumental sculpture formations, whether in and outside the Khmer Empire. Its iconography is
unique and is currently referred to as the Koh Ker style.

Koh Ker’s sphere of influence too was secured through a well developed network of cultural
routes that connected it not only to every corner of the Khmer Empire but beyond, to
subcontinental Asia. Cultural sharing enabled by Royal Roads ensured that the buildings,
artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh Ker and surrounding temples constitute the
most significant and comprehensive early expression of a distinct Khmer culture that drew upon
and adapted Indian religious concepts and iconography and their accompanying artistic and

74
architectural styles. The site is thus an outstanding example of how influences from Indian
architecture and artworks were assimilated and refined in the distinctive Koh Ker style. The
Indian concepts were modified to meet the specific needs of this emergent empire and its social,
religious and agrarian order, which ultimately evolved into a distinct Khmer culture that
constitutes a milestone in urban planning and the plastic arts in Southeast Asia.
Criterion (ii): Koh Ker: Archaeological Site of Ancient Lingapura or Chok Gargyar is an
outstanding example of ideas and values expressed through the monumental arts in the early
10th century C.E. in Cambodia. As evidenced by the site, the political structure, religious
practices and material culture marked important advances that had a lasting impact in the country
and region. The buildings, artwork, inscriptions and landscape design of Koh Ker and other
surrounding temples constitute the most significant and complete early expression of a distinct
Khmer culture that drew upon and adapted Indian religious concepts and iconography and their
accompanying artistic and architectural styles. The site is an outstanding example of how
influences from India in terms of architecture and artwork were assimilated and refined in the
distinctive Koh Ker style. The Indian concepts were modified to meet the specific needs of this
emergent empire and its social, religious and agrarian order, which ultimately evolved into a
distinct Khmer culture that constitutes a milestone in urban planning and the plastic arts in the
Southeast Asia region.
Its outstanding architecture, a distinct and original adaptation of Indian influence, introduces to
the Southeast Asia region colossal-sized statues and construction in new aesthetic forms. This
shows a creative idea and concept that originated at Koh Ker, giving rise to the so-called Koh
Ker style. The scenes of Mahabharata and Ramayana were narrated in the form of individual
characters carved in stone rather than carvings in the form of bas-relief. The extraordinary
architecture of the religious shrines is apparent in the stepped-pyramid temple of Prasat Thom
and other temples dedicated to Shiva.
Criterion (iv): Koh Ker: Archaeological Site of Ancient Lingapura or Chok Gargyar embodies
the remains of a very well-organized urban complex, the capital of a unique past civilization. The
ancient capital city is an exceptional testimony of a cultural tradition with centralized political
power, bearing Hindu religious features. Its civilization was deeply influenced by the Indian
subcontinent in terms of social institutions, religion and art which were assimilated into
indigenous customs, ideology and artistic expressions. Koh Ker marks the time when a
distinctive Khmer culture/identity emerged from this cross ‐cultural exchange. It is at Koh Ker
that we find the first evidence of the giant-size infrastructure symbolizing powerful elements in
Cambodian and Southeast Asian history. The infrastructure was the biggest not only in
Cambodia, but in Southeast Asia. Jayavarman IV introduced the first artificial giant structure in
his capital, where he established the stepped pyramid of Prasat Thom, as well as its giant
sculptures. The uniqueness of the architecture and sculpture in Koh Ker represents the
technological prowess exhibited in Khmer art.

PRASAT PRANG - City Crowned by the Tribhuvaneshwara Linga,

Jayavarman IV further executed his imperial vision through the temple-mountain he

commissioned, which surpassed all previous temple-mountains in scale and size.
Prasat Prang —as the pyramidal structure is now called— rose to a height of 120

75
feet and was crowned by the Tribhuvaneshwara Linga, which, according to French
archaeologist Henri Parmentier, stood 14-feet tall. This was the largest lingam ever
made in Angkor, and lifting it to the top of the pyramid was a monumental feat of
engineering and manpower, recorded in inscriptions with great joy and relief on its
successful installation.

Before Koh Ker became capital of the Khmer empire (928 AD), numerous sanctuaries with
Shiva-lingas existed already. Koh Ker was a cult site where Shiva had been worshipped a long
time. Also Jayavarman IV was an ardent worshipper of this Hindu god. As later kings (whose
residence was not in Koh Ker) changed from Hinduism to Buddhism they gave orders to make
the necessary adjustments at their temples. Because of its remoteness, the sanctuaries at Koh Ker
were spared from these interventions. Several inscriptions were found which mention Koh Ker as
capital of the empire in Siem Reap, Battambang, Takeo and Kampong Cham (city). From
inscriptions discovered at Koh Ker, it is estimated that more than ten thousand people lived at
Koh Ker when it was the capital (928 – 944 AD). The inscriptions explain how manpower was
organised: taxes in form of rice were raised in the whole country and served to provide for the
workers who came from different provinces. An inscription at Prasat Damrei says that the shrine
on the top of the state temple (Prang) houses a lingam of about 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) and that the
erection of this Shiva-symbol gave a lot of problems". A Sanskrit inscription at Prasat Thom
gives evidence of the consecration of a Shiva-lingam 921 AD which was worshipped under the
name of Tribhuvaneshvara ("Lord of the Threefold World").

The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank). Inscriptions
say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman IV. Past
researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected the town.
But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker were dykes of
ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no artefacts are found.
MATERIALS: Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker.
Laterite and sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of Koh
Ker, so the transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small,
regular and very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly
some form of plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are in a
much better condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had a wood
construction and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the wooden girders are
found. The main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not standing in the
middle of the ancient city.

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Statue of Brahma, Koh Ker style, 925-950 ca., Musée Guimet, Paris RIGHT PIC . linga
(Phallic Emblem of Shiva) with Architectural Base,Period: Angkor period.Date: ca.
975,Culture: Cambodia,Medium: Stone.

In India and other countries influenced by Hindu theology, including Cambodia, adoration
of the linga is understood to be worship of the great generative principle of the universe,
conceptualized as an aspect of Shiva. Because some of the Khmer kings identified
themselves with Shiva, they placed a linga at the summit of their most important temples as
part of their royal paraphernalia.

Jayavarman IV’s intent to scale up things was also evident in statues produced
during this period. A dancing Shiva (Nataraja SEE BELOW PIC) installed in Prasat
Kraham was 4 meters tall! A giant statue of Garuda —two metres tall— was
recovered from the site, which now welcome visitors at the National Museum at
Phnom Penh. Monolithic lingams were carved in the bedrock, meaning they were
not installed by any person but existed naturally. These in situ lingams are similar
in concept to the 12 sacred Jyotirlingams of India, which are also swayambhu (self-
manifested). Ornamental pediments make their debut at temple entrances and
sculptures anticipate dynamism and fluidity, qualities which reach their apogee in
the later artwork of Banteay Srei.
Tantric Style?

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The lively and famous carving on this pediment represents Shiva Nataraja, the Dancing
Shiva, his ten arms splayed out in a dance of death and destruction on Mount Kailash in
front of several others gods, including Ganesh, Brahma and Vishnu. Nataraja (literally,
The Lord (or King) of Dance, Sanskrit: नटराज) is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as
the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe and make
preparations for god Brahma to start the process of creation.

None of the immense, expressive and beautiful sculptures are left at the site. Numerous of them
were stolen and are standing now in museums and also in private collections. Some statues were
put away by government organizations to protect them from looters. Many masterpieces of Koh
Ker are now in the collection of the National Museum in Phnom Penh.
The center of the ancient city was in the north-east corner of the baray (water-tank). Inscriptions
say at least ten thousand inhabitants lived there during the rule of Jayavarman IV. Past
researchers believed a square wall with a side length of 1.2 km (1,312 yd) protected the town.
But new research indicates that the linear structures found in this part of Koh Ker were dykes of
ancient canals. Concerning the wooden buildings of the Khmer time no artefacts are found.
Laterite, sandstone and brick were used as construction materials in Koh Ker. Laterite and
sandstone of excellent quality were quarried in great quantities in the region of Koh Ker, so the
transport of the stones to the site was no problem. The bricks produced were small, regular and
very solid. A thin layer of organic mortar of unknown formula was used, possibly some form of
plant sap. After more than a millennium the brick sanctuaries in Koh Ker are in a much better
condition than the laterite ones. The roofs of some temples in Koh Ker had a wood construction

78
and were covered with tiles. In these monuments, holes for the wooden girders are found. The
main sanctuary (the temple-complex Prasat Thom/Prang) was not standing in the middle of the
ancient city.
BARAYS- water Tanks
Rahal
The huge Baray (water-tank) called Rahal is the largest object at the site of the ancient capital
Koh Ker. Its length is about 1,200 m (1,312 yd) and its breath about 560 m (612 yd). The water-
tank has three dams covered by steps of laterite. The orientation of the Rahal is not from east to
west like the huge water-reservoirs in Angkor; it follows an orientation of North 15° West.
Because the most important monuments at Koh Ker have the same orientation it is thought that
the Baray was constructed first and the rest of the structures were laid out around it. The Rahal
was carved out partly of the stone ground but it is not clear if a natural hollow was the reason for
its orientation. These days most parts of the Baray are dried out and covered by grass. Some
puddles can be seen in the corner next to the double-sanctuary.
Trapeang Andong Preng
200 m (219 yd) south of the double-sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang is a basin dug into the earth
with a length of 40 m (44 yd). It has steps of laterite on all sides. During the rainy season the
water is standing to a depth of 7 m (23 ft 0 in). The Trapeang Andong Preng does not belong to a
temple, but it could have been a royal bath, because near this place was once the wooden palace
of the king.

Trapeang Khnar

Trapeang Khnar is a village that lies in the Nitean Commun

Complex of the double sanctuary Prasat Thom/Prang

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Linear plan
The complex of the main monument in Koh Ker has a linear plan and is about 800 metres
(875 yd) long. Its orientation is E15°N, that is parallel to the Baray. The parking area cuts the
complex in two parts. On the east side of the parking are two structures, called palaces. On the
west side are the other monuments. They are standing behind the restaurants and are from east to
west: an immense entrance pavilion, two towers, a red brick entrance-tower (Prasat Krahom), a
surrounding wall with two courts (in the eastern court is the temple-complex Prasat Thom with a
moat, in the western court stands the seven tiered pyramid, named Prang). Behind the enclosure
is an artificial hill, the so-called Tomb of the White Elephant. Except the Prasat Krahom and
the Prang (pyramid). This temple-complex is in a bad condition.
Palaces
At the east side of the parking area are two structures the so-called palaces. Each consists of four
rectangular buildings surrounding a court. All eight buildings have three rooms, some have a
patio with pillars. Possibly these palaces served as meditation- or prayer-rooms for the king or
nobles.
Entrance pavilion and laterite towers
Between the palaces and the closest monument is a distance of 185 metres (607 ft). On the left
side of the parking area (behind the restaurants) is the entrance pavilion made of sandstone. It
stands 45 metres (148 ft) away from the double sanctuary and has a cruciform ground-plan. The
crossbar is 60 metres (197 ft) long; the stringer has a length of 30 metres (98 ft). Parallel to the
cross-bar are two halls. Directly behind the entrance-pavilion are the ruins of two huge laterite
towers.

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Prasat Krahom once housed a statue of the Dancing Shiva with five heads and ten arms. The
sculpture had a height of 3.50 metres (11 ft 6 in), but is now broken completely. A fragment of a
hand of 0.5 metres (20 in) can be seen in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. Prasat Khrom
lies behind the ruins of the entrance-pavilion and the laterite towersand is a red brick tower,
(krahom = red), which gives entrance to the enclosed monuments. It has a cruciform plan, is in a
good condition.
Outer enclosure
The outer enclosure has a length of 328 metres (1,076 ft) and a breadth of 151 metres (495 ft) An
additional wall divides the inner area in two. In the eastern court are a moat and the temple-
complex Prasat Thom; in the western court is the pyramid, called Prang. The eastern court with
a length of 153 metres (502 ft) is nearly square, the western court has a length of 171 metres
(561 ft).

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Moat
The moat in the eastern court is about 47 metres (154 ft) wide. It borders the Prasat Thom. Lined
by trees it looks very picturesque. Two dams, one at the east side, the other at the west side are
leading to the ground within the moat. The dams are flanked by Naga-balustrades. On the eastern
dam between the Nagas was additionally a colonnade with pillars. Behind each Naga of the east
side was standing a huge Garuda.
Prasat Thom
Probably some parts of the Prasat Thom including the moat and the 1. (inner) enclosure were
built before 921 AD. The sanctuary was expanded under the reign of Jayavarman IV and has
now two surrounding walls inside of the moat. The first wall (inner wall) is made of brick; the
second wall (outer wall) with a length of 66 m (217 ft) and a breath of 55 m (180 ft) is made of
laterite. Two doors are in the east and in the west. The doors of the second wall have a cruciform
plan. The doors of the first wall are smaller and not of cruciform layout. The plane between the
first and second wall is completely overbuilt with rectangular structures, possibly later additions.
In the center court is the sanctuary and opposite it are two so-called libraries. Behind the
sanctuary on a rectangular platform stand nine towers in two rows (one of five, one four towers).
Twelve smaller prasats in groups of three surround the platform. All 21 towers once housed
lingas.[1]: 27–29
Prang
The seven-tiered pyramid called Prang was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably
stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the
north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. The original stairs are in a very
bad condition as is the bamboo-ladder which was constructed in the 20th century, so it is
forbidden to climb to the top of the pyramid via this route. There is however a new staircase
which can be used to ascend to the top tit of the pyramid. Concerning the seventh tier some
scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas
were made. There is just one Khmer temple which resembles the temple Baksei Chamkrong in
Angkor. But the four-tiered monument there is much smaller and has a staircase on each of the
four sides. On the platform on the top of the Baksei Chamkrong is a prasat in a good condition.
Tomb of the White Elephant
Behind the court with the seven-tiered pyramid is an artificial hill of exact circle form covered
with trees. It is named Tomb of the White elephant. "The white Elephant" is a very well-known
legend in southeast Asia. There are different theories about the hill. Some say that this structure
could be the foundation of a second pyramid. Others say that it could be the grave of Jayavarman
IV. The steep path leading to the top of the hill is closed now because of security reasons.[1]: 7–8
Sanctuaries along the access road

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Prasat Pram

Prasat Pram
The most south sanctuary of this group is the Prasat Pram on the west side of the road. A small
(300 metres (328 yd)) long path leads to the monument. It has five towers or prasats (pram =
five). Three brick towers stand in a row on the same platform. They face east. The central one is
a bit taller than the others. In each of these prasats, once stood a lingam. These and the
beautifully carved lintels were looted. Two prasats (faced west) are standing in front of the
platform. One is built of brick and has diamond-shaped holes in the upper part. This fact
indicates that this tower once served as a fire sanctuary (fire cults were very important during the
era of the Khmer kings). The other building is small, made of laterite and (in comparison with
the brick towers) in bad condition. The bricks of small regular size are held together with an
organic mortar of unknown composition (plant sap?). Originally the towers were covered by
white stucco; remains of it can still be seen. Two of the towers are pictorially covered by roots.
The five towers are surrounded by an enclosure. The collapsed entrance door (gopuram) is at the
east side. Two artefacts of the Prasat Pram can be seen in the National Museum in Phnom Penh:
A damaged lion statue and fragments of a standing four-armed Vishnu.
Prasat Neang Khmau

Prasat Neang Khmau showing fire-scarred walls

Located 12.5 km (7.8 mi) to the south of the main Koh Ker pyramid and built of sandstone and
brick.[9] An early 10th century temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva. The temple's fire
damaged (black) outer surface probably gave it its name (Neang Khmau means the "Black Lady"
in Khmer).
The name of the temple is also said mean "Black Virgin" and legend says it might once have
been heaven to Kali, the Dark Goddess of Destruction.

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Another legend about the temple says that many years ago a powerful king Preah Bat Sorya
Teyong lived at the Chiso mountain. One day his daughter Neang Khmao, went to Tonle Protron
and met a handsome man, Bandit Srey, who instantly fell in love with her and who used magic to
make her fall in love with him. When the king heard about this he ordered his daughter be exiled
and he built two temples for her to live in. Whilst in exile she fell in love with a monk who
subsequently fell in love with her and gave up being a monk to live with the princess in the
temple since which it has been known as Neang Khmao Temple
Prasat Bak
More north than the Prasat Neang Khmau and on the west side of the road is the Prasat Bak, a
small square sanctuary built of laterite; one side measures only 5 m (16 ft). The temple which is
in a very bad condition today housed till 1960 a colossal statue of Ganesha (Ganesha is a Hindu
god, son of Shiva and Uma. He is depicted with a human body and an elephant's head). It is
known, that the sculpture with the sitting Ganesha now is in a collection outside of Cambodia.[
Prasat Chen
This sanctuary is the most north of this group and lies too on the west side of the street. It has
two enclosures. The main entrance door (now collapsed) was itself a sanctuary with a square
central room (one side measured 4 m (13 ft)). Three laterite towers (partially collapsed) stand on
the same platform. In front of them are the remains of two brick libraries. The statue of the two
fighting monkey kings Sugriva and Valin (figures of the Hindu epic Ramayana) was found at
this site and is now in the National Museum in Phnom Penh. A fragment of a multi-armed statue
of Vishnu was found in front of the tower in the middle. In this temple are five inscriptions. They
mention the names of all the numerous peoples connected to the temple site and their function.
Monuments along the ring-road

Ruins of Prasat Krachap

Prasat Balang (Prasat Leung Moi)
The Prasat Balang is the first of three Linga-Shrines standing along the ring-road. It is a
square laterite building standing on a platform and has one doorway and an open roof. In the
sanctuary is an impressive lingam standing on yoni. The phallus-symbol is about 2 m (7 ft) high,
has a diameter of nearly 1 m (39 in) and a weight of several tons. Together with the yoni it was
carved out of the bedrock at this place. The lingam is in a good condition. The yoni is about 1 m
(39 in) high and looks like an altar. On all four sides once were carved reliefs. In each of the four
corners stood a beautiful chiselled Garudu with raised arms giving the impression these mythical
figures would bear the yoni. Unfortunately the reliefs and the Garudas were looted. Around the

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Yoni there is just a small space giving room for some priests to perform the prescribed rituals.
The water they put on the lingam became holy by touching the symbol of Shiva, run down and
was collected in a ditch of the yoni. Then via a spout (with is still intact) it flowed to the outside
of the shrine where believers could touch the blessed water.

Sansakrit-writing (ancient) right -forgotten giant

Prasat Thneng (Prasat Leung Pee)

The Prasat Thneng is very similar to the Prasat Balang. Unfortunately looters tried to hack away
the impressive lingam but were not successful. A notch of about a depth of half a meter (20 in) is
left but the Shicva-symbol is still standing unshakeable at its place on the damaged yoni.
Leung Bye
Prasat Leung Bon
Prasat Andong Kuk (Prasat Sralau)
A Buddhist temple built late 12th century/early 13th century in the reign of Jayavarman VII, it
was one of more than 100 of hospital-sanctuaries he built. The modern name Sralau refers to a
species of tree.

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Prasat Krachap
Sometimes written Prasat Kra Chap, today the site has well preserved entrance gate and the ruins
of 5 towers arranged in a quincunx. From inscriptions around the doors it has been established
that the temple was dedicated in 928 to Tribhuvanadeva, a linga representation of Shiva. [
Prasat Bantaey Pee Chean

Banteay Peechean
Prasat Chrap
A temple comprising 3 towers built of laterite. Today all towers are badly damaged; the interiors
with fire damage and the west facades destroyed suggesting damage was deliberate or due to a
common design flaw. There are no surviving inscriptions to date the temple nor to identify which
gods it was dedicated to.
Prasat Damrei
A small path leads from the ring-road to the Prasat Damrei (damrei = elephant). This sanctuary
has an enclosure and stands on a high platform. On each of its four sides is a staircase with about
ten steps. Eight stone lions once flanked the stairs but only one remains in its original place. A
beautiful elephant sculpture once stood at each of the four corners of the platform but only two
remain. The sanctuary is built of brick and is in good condition. A Sanskrit inscription found at
the temple offers evidence that an erstwhile lingam was once erected on the top of the pyramid
(Prang).

Jayavarman IV may have ruled for only 13 years, not enough time to fully realise
his ideas but he was given the posthumous title Paramasivapada (Devoted servant at
the feet of Shiva), further emphasising his loyalty to Lord Shiva. During his period,
many Shiva temples were built at Chok Gargyar,

French explorers rediscovered the site and the old name was revived in a new avatar
—Koh Ker. Covered by thick forests and left unguarded, wanton destruction was
unleashed on Koh Ker. Cambodia in the nineteenth century was a shadow of its
glorious past and was relegated to a rump state dependant on protection by the
French. The French colonialists, taking full advantage of a weak and poor country,
plundered Angkor sites, digging up monuments hoping to find hidden treasure.

86
Precious artworks were smuggled out to fill museums in France, like the Guimet
Museum in Paris that has in its collection a statue of Jayavarman IV paying homage
to Yama—the Hindu God of Death—taken from Koh Ker.

In the 1970s, Cambodia plunged into a civil war unleashed by the ultra-left Khmer
Rouge regime. After the war ended, Koh Ker was painstakingly de-mined and more
than 180 monuments identified. In comparison to temples at Angkor, little
restoration has happened at Koh Ker. Many ruined monuments are on the verge of
collapse; some are supported by wooden frames while others are tied up with wire.
Although the site has been pillaged of all standing artwork, it continues to be
targeted by gangs of thieves.

Koh Ker needs better protection and conservation. Since 1992, it has been on
the UNESCO tentative world heritage list, but has not been recognised yet. During
its short period as capital of Angkor, Koh Ker ushered in a golden age of Hindu
culture in Cambodia and laid the foundation of a renaissance which followed in the
immediate period. The site fully deserves the UNESCO World Heritage Site status,
which it should hopefully get in the near future. https://www.sahapedia.org/chok-
gargyarkoh-ker-angkor-city-dedicated-lord-shiva-tribhuvaneshwara
SOFT TRANTRISM
In the 10th and 11th centuries, both Shaiva and Buddhist tantra evolved into more tame,
philosophical, and liberation-oriented religions. This transformation saw a move from external
and transgressive rituals towards a more internalized yogic practice focused on attaining spiritual
insight. This recasting also made tantric religions much less open to attack by other groups. In
Shaivism, this development is often associated with the Kashmiri master Abhinavagupta (c. 950
– 1016 CE) and his followers, as well the movements which were influenced by their work, like
the Sri Vidya tradition (which spread as far as South India, and has been referred to as "high"
tantra).
In Buddhism, this taming of tantra is associated with the adoption of tantra by Buddhist
monastics who sought to incorporate it within the Buddhist Mahayana scholastic framework.
Buddhist tantras were written down and scholars like Abhayakaragupta wrote commentaries on
them. Another important figure, the Bengali teacher Atisha, wrote a treatise which placed tantra
as the culmination of a graduated Mahayana path to awakening, the Bodhipathapradīpa. In his
view, one needed to first begin practicing non-tantric Mahayana, and then later one might be
ready for tantra. This system became the model for tantric practice among some Tibetan
Buddhist schools, like the Gelug. In Tibet, the transgressive and sexual practices of tantra
became much less central and tantric practice was seen as suitable only for a small elite
group. New tantras continued to be composed during this later period as well, such as
the Kalachakra (c. 11th century), which seems to be concerned with converting Buddhists and
non-Buddhists alike, and uniting them together against Islam.
The Kalachakra teaches sexual yoga, but also warns not to introduce the practice of ingesting
impure substances to beginners, since this is only for advanced yogis. This tantra also seems to
want to minimize the impact of the transgressive practices, since it advises tantrikas to outwardly
follow the customs of their country.

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 HATHA YOGA
Another influential development during this period was the codification of tantric yogic
techniques that would later become the separate movement known as Hatha Yoga. According to
James Mallinson, the original "source text" for Hatha Yoga is the Vajrayana
Buddhist Amṛtasiddhi (11th century CE) attributed to the mahasiddha Virupa. This text was later
adopted by Saiva yogic traditions (such as the Naths) and is quoted in their texts.
Another tradition of Hindu Tantra developed among the Vaishnavas, this was called
the Pāñcarātra Agama tradition. This tradition avoided the transgressive and sexual elements that
were embraced by the Saivas and the Buddhists. There is also a smaller tantric tradition
associated with Surya, the sun god. Jainism also seems to have developed a substantial Tantra
corpus based on the Saura tradition, with rituals based on yakshas and yakshinis. However, this
Jain tantrism was mainly used for pragmatic purposes like protection, and was not used to attain
liberation. Complete manuscripts of these Jain tantras have not survived. The Jains also seem to
have adopted some of the subtle body practices of tantra, but not sexual yoga.
The Svetambara thinker Hemacandra (c. 1089–1172) discusses tantric practices extensively, such
as internal meditations on chakras, which betray Kaula and Nath influences.
The earliest date for the Tantra texts related to Tantric practices is 600 CE, though most of
them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards. Very little is known about who
created the Tantras, nor much is known about the social status of these and medieval era
Tantrikas.
The pioneers of Tantra may have been ascetics who lived at the cremation grounds, possibly
from "above low-caste groups", and were probably non-Brahmanical and possibly part of an
ancient tradition. By the early medieval times, their practices may have included the imitation of
deities such as Kali and Bhairava, with offerings of non-vegetarian food, alcohol and sexual
substances. According to this theory, these practitioners would have invited their deities to enter
them, then reverted the role in order to control that deity and gain its power.These ascetics would
have been supported by low castes living at the cremation places.
Samuel states that transgressive and antinomian tantric practices developed in both Buddhist and
Brahmanical (mainly Śaiva ascetics like the Kapalikas) contexts and that "Śaivas and Buddhists
borrowed extensively from each other, with varying degrees of acknowledgement." According to
Samuel, these deliberately transgressive practices included, "night time orgies in charnel
grounds, involving the eating of human flesh, the use of ornaments, bowls and musical
instruments made from human bones, sexual relations while seated on corpses, and the like."[
Another key element of in the development of tantra was "the gradual transformation of local
and regional deity cults through which fierce male and, particularly, female deities came to take
a leading role in the place of the yaksa deities." Samuel states that this took place between the
fifth to eighth centuries CE. According to some, there are two main scholarly opinions on these
terrifying goddesses which became incorporated into Śaiva and Buddhist Tantra. The first view
is that they originate out of a pan-Indian religious substrate that was not Vedic. Another opinion
is to see these fierce goddesses as developing out of the Vedic religion.
There is an argument that tantric practices originally developed in a Śaiva milieu and was later
adopted by Buddhists. He cites numerous elements that are found in the
Śaiva Vidyapitha literature, including whole passages and lists of pithas, that seem to have been

88
directly borrowed by Vajrayana texts. This has been criticized by Ronald M. Davidson however,
due to the uncertain date of the Vidyapitha texts. Davidson argues that the pithas seem to have
been neither uniquely Buddhist nor Śaiva, but frequented by both groups. He also states that the
Śaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of local deities and that tantra may have
been influenced by tribal Indian religions and their deities. Samuel writes that "the female
divinities may well best be understood in terms of a distinct Śākta milieu from which both Śaivas
and Buddhists were borrowing," but that other elements, like the Kapalika style practices, are
more clearly derived from a Śaiva tradition.
Samuel writes that the Saiva Tantra tradition appears to have originated as ritual sorcery carried
out by hereditary caste groups (kulas) and associated with sex, death and fierce goddesses. The
initiation rituals involved the consumption of the mixed sexual secretions (the clan essence) of a
male guru and his consort. These practices were adopted by Kapalika styled ascetics and
influenced the early Nath siddhas. Overtime, the more extreme external elements were replaced
by internalized yogas that make use of the subtle body. Sexual ritual became a way to reach the
liberating wisdom taught in the tradition.
The Buddhists developed their own corpus of Tantras, which also drew on various Mahayana
doctrines and practices, as well as on elements of the fierce goddess tradition and also on
elements from the Śaiva traditions (such as deities like Bhairava, which were seen as having
been subjugated and converted to Buddhism). Some Buddhist tantras (sometimes called "lower"
or "outer" tantras) which are earlier works, do not make use of transgression, sex and fierce
deities. These earlier Buddhist tantras mainly reflect a development of Mahayana theory and
practice (like deity visualization) and a focus on ritual and purity. Between the eighth and tenth
centuries, new tantras emerged which included fierce deities, kula style sexual initiations, subtle
body practices and sexual yoga. The later Buddhist tantras are known as the "inner" or
"unsurpassed yoga" (Anuttarayoga or "Yogini") tantras. According to Samuel, it seems that these
sexual practices were not initially practiced by Buddhist monastics and instead developed outside
of the monastic establishments among traveling siddhas.
Tantric practices also included secret initiation ceremonies in which individuals would enter the
tantric family (kula) and receive the secret mantras of the tantric deities. These initiations
included the consumption of the sexual substances (semen and female sexual secretions)
produced through ritual sex between the guru and his consort. These substances were seen as
spiritually powerful and were also used as offerings for tantric deities. For both Śaivas and
Buddhists, tantric practices often took place at important sacred sites (pithas) associated with
fierce goddesses. Samuel writes that "we do not have a clear picture of how this network of
pilgrimage sites arose." Whatever the case, it seems that it was in these ritual spaces visited by
both Buddhists and Śaivas that the practice of Kaula and Anuttarayoga Tantra developed during
the eighth and ninth centuries. Besides the practices outlined above, these sites also saw the
practice of animal sacrifice as blood offerings to Śākta goddesses like Kamakhya. This practice
is mentioned in Śākta texts like the Kālikāpurāṇa and the Yoginītantra. In some of these sites,
such as Kamakhya Pitha, animal sacrifice is still widely practiced by Śāktas.
Another key and innovative feature of medieval tantric systems was the development of internal
yogas based on elements of the subtle body (sūkṣma śarīra). This subtle anatomy held that there
were channels in the body (nadis) through which certain substances or energies (such
as vayu, prana, kundalini, and shakti) flowed. These yogas involved moving these energies
through the body to clear out certain knots or blockages (granthi) and to direct the energies to the

89
central channel (avadhuti, sushumna). These yogic practices are also closely related to the
practice of sexual yoga, since sexual intercourse was seen as being involved in the stimulation of
the flow of these energies. Samuel thinks that these subtle body practices may have been
influenced by Chinese Daoist practices.
One of the earliest mentions of sexual yoga practice is in the
Buddhist Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra of Asanga (c. 5th century), which states "Supreme self-control
is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the
untrammelled vision of one's spouse." According to David Snellgrove, the text's mention of a
'reversal of sexual intercourse' might indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation. Snellgrove
states that it is possible that sexual yoga was already being practiced in Buddhist circles at this
time, and that Asanga saw it as a valid practice. Likewise, Samuel thinks that there is a
possibility that sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries (though not in the same
transgressive tantric contexts where it was later practiced).
It is only in the seventh and eighth centuries however that we find substantial evidence for these
sexual yogas. Unlike previous Upanishadic sexual rituals however, which seem to have been
associated with Vedic sacrifice and mundane ends like childbirth, these sexual yogas were
associated with the movement of subtle body energies (like Kundalini and Chandali, which were
also seen as goddesses), and also with spiritual ends. These practices seemed to have developed
at around the same time in both Saiva and Buddhist circles, and are associated with figures such
as Tirumülar, Gorakhnath, Virupa, Naropa. The tantric mahasiddhas developed yogic systems
with subtle body and sexual elements which could lead to magical powers (siddhis), immortality,
as well as spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana). Sexual yoga was seen as one way of producing
a blissful expansion of consciousness that could lead to liberation.
According to Jacob Dalton, ritualized sexual yoga (along with the sexual elements of the tantric
initiation ritual, like the consumption of sexual fluids) first appears in Buddhist works
called Mahayoga tantras (which include the Guhyagarbha and Ghuyasamaja). These texts
"focused on the body's interior, on the anatomical details of the male and female sexual organs
and the pleasure generated through sexual union." In these texts, sexual energy was also seen as
a powerful force that could be harnessed for spiritual practice and according to Samuel "perhaps
create the state of bliss and loss of personal identity which is homologised with liberating
insight." These sexual yogas continued to develop further into more complex systems which are
found in texts dating from about the ninth or tenth century, including the
Saiva Kaulajñānanirṇaya and Kubjikātantra as well as the Buddhist Hevajra,
and Cakrasamvara tantras which make use of charnel ground symbolism and fierce goddesses.
Samuel writes that these later texts also combine the sexual yoga with a system of controlling the
energies of the subtle body.

Tantricism of the Kbal Spean?

Kbal Spean ("Bridge Head") is an Angkorian era archaeological site on the southwest slopes of
the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor in Banteay srei, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. It is
situated along a 150m stretch of the Stung Kbal Spean River, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the
main Angkor group of monuments, which lie downstream.

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The site consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone formations of the river bed
and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or "The River of a Thousand
Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingams (phallic symbol
of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a sandstone
bed rock, and lingam-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological motifs, including
depictions of the gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman, as well as
animals (cows and frogs).
Kbal Spean is described as "a spectacularly carved riverbed, set deep in the jungle to the
northeast of Angkor".The river over which the bridge head exists is also known as Stung Kbal
Spean, a tributary of the Siem Reap River that rises in the Kulein mountains north of Banteay
Srei. The river bed cuts through sandstone formations, and the many architectural sculptures of
Hindu mythology have been carved within the sandstone. The archaeological site occurs in a
stretch of the river starting from 150 metres (490 ft) upstream north of the bridge head to the falls
downstream.[1] The river, being sanctified by flowing over the religious sculptures, flows
downstream, bifurcating into the Siem Reap River and Puok River, which eventually flows into
the Tonlé Sap Lake after passing through the plains and the Angkor temple complex.
The archaeological site is in the western part of the Kulein mountains within the Phnom Kulen
National Park. Approach is from the Banteay Srei temple by a road which is about 5 kilometres
(3.1 mi) from an army camp. Thereafter, it is a 40-minute walk through the forest for about 2
kilometres (1.2 mi) uphill along a path before reaching the first site, a water fall, where the
carved sculptures start appearing in the river bed.
The carving of vestiges began with the reign of King Suryavarman I and ended with the reign
of King Udayadityavarman II; these two kings ruled between the 11th and 12th centuries. The
1,000 lingas, but not other sculptures, are attributed to a minister of Suryavarman I during the
11th century, and these were carved by hermits who lived in the area. Inscriptions at the site
testify to the fact that most of the sculpting was done during the reign of Udayadityavarman II. It
is also mentioned that King Udayadityavarman II consecrated a golden ling here in 1059 AD. [1]
[3]
It is believed that the Siem Reap River flowing into Angkor is blessed by the sacred lingas
over which it flows.
The archaeological site was discovered in 1969 by Jean Boulbet, an ethnologist, but further
exploration was cut off due to the Cambodian Civil War. The site regained prominence for safe
visits from 1989.[

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Left: Sahasralingas or 1000 lingas in the rocky bed of Kbal Spean River. Right: A grid
pattern layout with the channel flowing out representing Yoni
The bridge is a natural sandstone arch 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Siem Reap River. Just
after the monsoon season, when the water level in the river starts dropping, the carvings are
visible in a 150 metres (490 ft) stretch upstream of the bridge and from the bridge downstream
up to the falls. The 11th century carvings in this stretch of the river are a galaxy of gods,
the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva or Maheswara and celestial beings; several carvings of
Vishnu with Lakshmi reclining on the serpent Ananta, Shiva with consort Uma, known
as Umamaheswar Brahma on a lotus petal over a plant stem rising from the navel of
Vishnu, Rama and Hanuman are the sculptures seen not only in the river bed but also on the river
banks.
Sequentially, while walking along a path which skirts the eroded channel of the river-formed
natural stone bridge, one can see a pair of Vishnu sculptures with Lakshmi seated at his feet in a
reclining pose. Upstream of the bridge, there is a sculpture of Shiva and Uma mounted on the
bull. Approximately 30 metres (98 ft) downstream of the bridge, there are additional Vishnu
sculptures. Further downstream up to the water fall and till the water pool are the Sahasra
lingas in Sanskrit language with English equivalent name of "Thousand Lingas".[1] The sculpted
lingams in the coarse sandstone river bed outcrops are seen from about 6 metres (20 ft)
downstream of the bridge. According to the journalist Teppo Tukki of Phnom Penh Post who
visited the site in 1995, the lingams, some of which date back to the 9th century, are about 25
centimetres (9.8 in) square and 10 centimetres (3.9 in) deep and lined in a perfect grid pattern.
The river runs over them, covering them with 5 centimetres (2.0 in) of pristine water. The holy
objects are designed to create a "power path for the Khmer Kings".
After the carvings, the river falls by 15 centimetres (5.9 in) to a clear water pool. As it flows over
the holy lingams, the river attains a sanctified status and passes through the temples that are
downstream.[5] The visible lingams are in a rectangular enclosure with a channel flowing out,
which is interpreted to represent the yoni as the "female principle". Beyond these lingams, the
river stretch of about 40–50 metres (130–160 ft) includes a small rocky island and ends over a

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fall into a pool. In this stretch of the river, there are bas reliefs on the rock faces. It has been
inferred that one of the bas reliefs in this stretch, the central figure, unrecognizably damaged,
could be that of Shiva as an ascetic, similar to the bas relief seen in Angkor Wat temple. The
meaning of the crocodile carving seen here has not been ascertained. Near to this location, a
boulder has been carved as a frog. The pond, in a rectangular shape, filled with water at all times,
has many "Reclining Vishnu" carvings on the walls, and here again, a pair of crocodiles are
carved but with their tail held by women. The small island formed in this stretch of the river has
carvings of Shiva and Uma mounted on a bull.

Lord Vishnu in a reclining repose lying on the serpent god Ananta, with Goddess Lakshmi at his
feet and Lord Brahma on a lotus petal, in Kbal Spean River bank
The sculptures carved in the river bed and banks depict many Hindu mythological scenes and
symbols. There are also inscriptions which get exposed as the water level in the river decreases.
The common theme of these sculptures emphasizes creation as defined in Hindu mythology in
the form of Lord Vishnu lying on a serpent in a reclining repose on the ocean of milk in
meditation, the lotus flower emerging from Vishnu’s navel which bears god Brahma, the creator.
Following these sculptures seen carved on the banks of the river, the river flows through several
sculpted reliefs of Shiva the destroyer shown in the universal symbol of the Linga; 1000 such
lingas have been carved in the bed of the river which gives the name to the river valley formed
by the river as "valley of 1000 lingas". Vishnu is also carved to match the contours of the river
bed and banks. A carving of Shiva with his consort Uma is also visible.
Though the sculptures have been vandalized and damaged, the carved idols still retain their
original grandeur. Under the supervision of archaeologists, the graduates of Artisans
d'Angkor have been able to reproduce some portions of Kbal Spean's missing bas-relief carvings.
Preah Kahn

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Preah Khan, one of the temples in Cambodia, was built by King Jayavarman VII in the twelfth
century and attracts followers of both Hinduism and Buddhism. The name Preah Khan translates
to Holy Sword. The temple was dedicated to about a hundred gods and served as a venue for
eighteen grand festivals.

Apart from being a holy place, this place was also a university teaching element of Buddhist,
Vaishnava, and Shiva worship which can be glimpsed while visiting the galleries and the two
libraries inside the large complex. Visitors feel awed while exploring the Prasat Preah Stung, a
central tower with 4 ornate Bayon-like carvings.

Pre Rup is one of the Cambodia temples which was built in the 9th century to serve as the
king’s state temple. This Hindu temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is entirely made of brick and
grey.sandstone.
The temple is also associated with funerary rituals. Though a major part of the temple has been
ruined over the years, its extrinsic carvings can still be viewed on some of the towers,

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especially on the South-west side. The temple attracts visitors especially during the sunrise or
the sunset for its spectacular view.

The final squared pyramid, measuring 50 m at its base, rises in three steep tiers a dozen
metres in height to a 35 m square platform at the summit. The lowest tier is symmetrically
surrounded by 12 small shrines. At the top, five towers are arranged in a quincunx, one at
each corner of the square and one in the center. Deities carved as bas-reliefs stand guard at
either side of the central tower's eastern door; its other doors are false doors. The southwest
tower once contained a statue of Lakshmi, the northwest tower a statue of Uma, the
southeast tower a statue of Vishnu and the northeast tower a statue of Shiva. The last one
has an inscription on doorjambs that dates from Jayavarman VI and is the only proof of his
reign at Angkor.

Internal corridors of famous Pre Rup temple viewed through an ancient stone doorway
and dark mysterious corridor Angkor Cambodia

IV

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 Vishnu and the king of Khmer Empire
The builder of Angkor Wat was a king named Suryavarman II. A usurper, he came to power in his
teenage years by killing his great uncle, Dharanindravarman I, while he was riding an elephant. An
inscription says that Suryavarman killed the man "as Garuda [a mythical bird] on a mountain ledge would
kill a serpent." Suryavarman's bloodlust would continue into his rule; he launched attacks into Vietnam in
an effort to gain control over the territory. He also made peaceful diplomatic advances, re-opening
relations with China.

He venerated the god Vishnu, a deity often depicted as a protector, and installed a statue of the god in
Angkor Wat's central tower. This devotion can also be seen in one of the most remarkable reliefs at
Angkor Wat, located in the southeast of the temple. The relief shows a chapter in the Hindu story of
creation known as the "churning of the sea of milk."
A relief describes how the devas (gods) and the asuras (demons) churned the ocean under the aegis of
Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of immortality. Scholars consider this relief to be one of the finest art
pieces at Angkor Wat.
Suryavarman's devotion to Vishnu is also shown in the posthumous name he was given,
"Paramavishnuloka" which, according to researcher Hélène Legendre-De Koninck, means "he who is in
the supreme abode of Vishnu." ("Angkor Wat: A Royal Temple," VDG, 2001).
An eight armed Vishnu statue at Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat was built for King Suryavarman II (ruled
1113-50) in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. How many temples Angkor have?

Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the remains of several hundred
additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape beyond.
Among them he is known as the “Protector.” The major patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II,
whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.” Many scholars believe that Angkor Wat was not
only a temple dedicated to Vishnu but that it was also intended to serve as the king’s mausoleum in

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death. Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat was built in the first half of the 12th century (113-5BC). Estimated
construction time of the temple is 30 years by King Suryavarman II. He was one of the greatest ones
from Khmer Empire. It was build as a state temple. Although originally build as a Hindu temple
dedicated to Supreme Lord Vishnu, later on it got converted as Buddhist temple, when Khmers adopted
Buddhism as a state religion.

At the western entrance of Angkor Wat stands 5 meters tall statue of Lord Vishnu, known locally as Ta
Reach. It is carved from a single piece of sandstone and is draped with colorful clothing and offerings
from pilgrims visiting the site. This standing stone statue has eight arms and the head of Buddha. When
Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple, the head of Lord Vishnu was replaced with the head of Buddha.
At the western entrance of Angkor Wat stands this 5 meters tall statue of Vishnu, known locally as Ta
Reach, revered by Hindus and Buddhists alike for its representation of the “King of the ancestors and
spirits”. It is carved from a single piece of sandstone and is draped with colorful clothing andand
offerings from pilgrims visiting the site. Angkor Wat was dedicated to Vishnu who is the supreme God in
the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism and venerated as one of the five primary forms of God . This
standing stone statue has eight arms and the head of Buddha. When Angkor Wat became a Buddhist
temple, the head of Vishnu was eplaced with the head of Buddha.

In my impression, Angkor Wat has several basic colors – green for the trees, light brown for their roots,
blackish grey for the stones. What I like in these photos is the contrast between the dark monochromatic
body of the statute and the bright colors on the clothes and the parasol. The bright colors really stood out
from the whole setting!

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 A statue in Bangkok depicting Vishnu on his vahana Garuda, the eagle. One of the oldest discovered Hindu-style
statues of Vishnu in Thailand is from Wat Sala Tung in Surat Thani Province and has been dated to ~400 CE.

Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and the central tower surrounded by four
smaller towers. Built between roughly A.D. 1113 and 1150, and encompassing an area of about 500 acres
(200 hectares), Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious monuments ever constructed. Its name means
"temple city." Originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, it was converted into a
Buddhist temple in the 14th century, and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork.
Sometime later it was turned into a military fortification. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that
scientists are struggling to preserve.
Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure
walls, a layout that recreates the image of Mount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu mythology that is said
to lie beyond the Himalayas and be the home of the gods.

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The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the
capital of the Khmer Empire.It was the “mythical” abode of God Vishnu. Both the King and the King of
Gods lived there. One in the palace and the other in the temple of Angkor. In fact Angkor was called This
city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been over 1 million people. It was easily
the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution. Angkor had an urban core that could easily
have held 500,000 people and a vast hinterland that had many more inhabitants airborne laser scanning
(lidar) research has shown. Researchers have also identified a "lost" city called Mahendraparvata, which
is located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Angkor Wat.

The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka
meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu

LAYOUT: Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a
perimeter of more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize
the temple's foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low.
Angkor Wat's main entrance was to the west (a direction associated with Vishnu) across a stone
causeway, with guardian lions marking the way. Recently, archaeologists found the remains of eight
towers made of sandstone and laterite by the western gateway. These towers may be the remains of
shrines that were in use before Angkor Wat was fully constructed. To the east of the temple was a second,
more modest, entrance.
The heart of the temple was the central tower, entered by way of a steep staircase, a statue of Vishnu at
top. This tower "was at once the symbolic center of the nation and the actual center where secular and
sacred power joined forces," writes researcher Eleanor Mannikka in the book "Angkor: Celestial Temples
of the Khmer Empire" (Abbeville Press, 2002). "From that unparalleled space, Vishnu and the king ruled
over the Khmer people."

Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. One question
is whether the ashes of Suryavarman II were interred in the monument, perhaps in the same chamber
where the deposits were found. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary meaning.
Eleanor Mannikka has noted that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the
north-south axis of the central tower's chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not an
accident. "In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also
placed along the axis of the earth," she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was round.
In addition, in her writing, Mannikka notes a dozen lunar alignments with Angkor Wat's towers,
suggesting that it served an important astronomical role. "During the long and clear Cambodian nights,
when the stars filled every inch of the black sky, the astronomer-priests stood on the long western
causeway ... and recorded the movements of the moon against the towers in the top two galleries of the
temple."

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Patron Saint of Angkor….VISHNU

RELATIONSHIPS WITH DIETIES

Lakshmi

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Vishnu with Lakshmi (Laxminarayan).///Harihara-Half Vishnu and half Shiva/// Vishnu and his avatars
(Vaikuntha Chaturmurti): Vishnu himself or Krishna in human form, Narasimha as a lion, Varaha as
a boar. Art of Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum.

Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity (both material and spiritual), is the wife
and active energy of Vishnu. She is also called Sri. When Vishnu incarnated on the Earth as
the avatars Rama and Krishna, Lakshmi incarnated as his respective consorts: Sita (Rama's wife)
and Rukmini (Krishna's wife). Variouss regional beliefs consider Lakshmi manifested as various
goddesses, who are considered Vishnu's wives. In many Southern Indian culture, Lakshmi is seen in two
forms — Shridevi and Bhudevi. At Tirupati, Venkateshwara (identified as an avatar of Vishnu) os
depicted with consorts Lakshmi and Padmavathi

Garuda
Vishnu's mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders.
Garuda is also considered as Vedas on which Vishnu travels. Garuda is a sacred bird in Vaishnavism.
In Garuda Purana, Garuda carries Vishnu to save the Elephant Gajendra.[122][123]

Vishvaksena

Vishvaksena, also known as Senadhipathi (both meaning 'army-chief'), is the commander-in-chief of the
army of Vishnu.

Harihara and Harirudra

Shiva and Vishnu are both viewed as the ultimate form of god in different Hindu denominations. Harihara
is a composite of half Vishnu and half Shiva, mentioned in literature such as the Vamana Purana (chapter
36), and in artwork found from mid 1st millennium CE, such as in the cave 1 and cave 3 of the 6th-
century Badami cave temples. Another half Vishnu half Shiva form, which is also called Harirudra, is
mentioned in Mahabharata

Sikhism
Vishnu is referred to as Gorakh in the scriptures of Sikhism.[128] For example, in verse 5 of Japji Sahib,
the Guru ('teacher') is praised as who gives the word and shows the wisdom, and through whom the
awareness of immanence is gained. Guru Nanak, according to Shackle and Mandair (2013), teaches that
the Guru are "Shiva (isar), Vishnu (gorakh), Brahma (barma) and mother Parvati (parbati)," yet the one
who is all and true cannot be described

The Chaubis Avtar lists the 24 avatars of Vishnu, including Krishna, Rama, and Buddha. Similarly,
the Dasam Granth includes Vishnu mythology that mirrors that found in the Vaishnav tradition. The
latter is of particular importance to Sanatan Sikhs, including Udasis, Nirmalas, Nanakpanthis, Sahajdhari,
and Keshdhari/Khalsa sects of Sikhism; however, the Khalsa Sikhs disagree with the Sanatan Sikhs.
According to Sanatan Sikh writers, the Gurus of Sikhism were avatars of Vishnu, because the Gurus
brought light in the age of darkness and saved people in a time of evil Mughal-era persecution.

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Buddhism

Uthpalawarna Vishnu Devalaya in Devinuwara, Matara, Sri Lanka.

While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate
Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism.

Vishnu is also known as Upulvan or Upalavarṇā, meaning 'Blue Lotus coloured'. Some postulate that
Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Utpalavarṇā
was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic Hinduism. According to the
chronicles of Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and folklore in Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the
custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra (Indra), who delegated
this task of custodianship to Vishnu. Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri
Lanka. In addition to specific Vishnu Kovils or Devalayas, all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine
rooms (Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu. .

John Holt states that Vishnu was one of the several Hindu gods and goddesses who were integrated into
the Sinhala Buddhist religious culture, such as the 14th and 15th-
century Lankatilaka and Gadaladeniya Buddhist temples. He states that the medieval Sinhala tradition
encouraged Visnu worship (puja) as a part of Theravada Buddhism just like Hindu tradition incorporated
the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu, but contemporary Theravada monks are attempting to purge the
Vishnu worship practice from Buddhist temples. According to Holt, the veneration of Vishnu in Sri
Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other
ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed
by Kandyan kings in the early 1700s, Holt states that Vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous
ruins in the medieval capital Polonnaruwa.

Vishnu iconography such as statues and etchings have been found in archaeological sites of Southeast
Asia, now predominantly of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. In Thailand, for example, statues of four-

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armed Vishnu have been found in provinces near Malaysia and dated to be from the 4th to 9th-century,
and this mirror those found in ancient India Similarly, Vishnu statues have been discovered from the 6th
to 8th century eastern Prachinburi Province and central Phetchabun Province of Thailand and
southern Đồng Tháp Province and An Giang Province of Vietnam Krishna statues dated to the early 7th
century to 9th century have been discovered in Takéo Province and other provinces of Cambodia.
Archeological studies have uncovered Vishnu statues on the islands of Indonesia, and these have been
dated to the 5th century and thereafter. In addition to statues, inscriptions and carvings of Vishnu, such as
those related to the "three steps of Vishnu" (Trivikrama) have been found in many parts of Buddhist
southeast Asia. In some iconography, the symbolism of Surya, Vishnu and Buddha are fused.[145]
In Japanese Buddhist pantheon, Vishnu is known as Bichū-tenand he appears in Japanese texts such as
the 13th century compositions of Nichiren.

In science
4034 Vishnu is an asteroid discovered by Eleanor F. Helin.[147] Vishnu rocks are a type of
volcanic sediment found in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA. Consequently, mass formations are known
as Vishnu's temples.

The front-view of Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

Some of the earliest surviving grand Vishnu temples in India have been dated to the Gupta Empire period.
The Sarvatobhadra temple in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, for example, is dated to the early 6th century and
features the ten avatars of Vishnu. Its design based on a square layout and Vishnu iconography broadly
follows the 1st millennium Hindu texts on architecture and construction such as the Brihat
Samhita and Visnudharmottarapurana.

Archaeological evidence suggest that Vishnu temples and iconography probably were already in
existence by the 1st century BCE. ] The most significant Vishnu-related epigraphy and archaeological
remains are the two 1st century BCE inscriptions in Rajasthan which refer to temples of Sankarshana and
Vasudeva, the Besnagar Garuda column of 100 BCE which mentions a Bhagavata temple, another
inscription in Naneghat cave in Maharashtra by a Queen Naganika that also mentions Sankarshana,
Vasudeva along with other major Hindu deities and several discoveries in Mathura relating to Vishnu, all
dated to about the start of the common era.

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The Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, is dedicated to Vishnu. The temple has
attracted huge donations in gold and precious stones over its long history.

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu located in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil
Nadu, India. The temple occupies an area of 156 acres (630,000 m2) with a perimeter of 4,116 m (13,504 ft)
making it the largest temple in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, Vishnu or Wisnu (Indonesian spelling) is a well-known figure in the world

of wayang (Indonesian Puppetry), Wisnu is often referred to as the title Sanghyang Batara Wisnu. Wisnu
is the god of justice or welfare, wisnu was the fifth son of Batara Guru and Batari Uma. He is the most
powerful son of all the sons of Batara Guru.

Wisnu is described as a god who has bluish black or dark blue skin, has four arms, each of which holds a
weapon, namely a mace, a lotus, a trumpet and a Cakra. He can also do tiwikrama, become an infinitely
large giant.

According to Javanese mythology, Wisnu first came down to the world and became a king with the title
Srimaharaja Suman. The country is called Medangpura, located in the present-day Central Java region.
Then changed its name to Sri Maharaja Matsyapati. In addition, according to the Javanese wayang puppet
version, Batara Wisnu also incarnates Srimaharaja Kanwa, Resi Wisnungkara, Prabu Arjunasasrabahu,
Sri Ramawijaya, Sri Batara Kresna, Prabu Airlangga, Prabu Jayabaya, Prabu Anglingdarma.
In Javanese mythology, Wisnu also incarnated as a matswa (fish) to kill the giant Hargragiwa who stole
the Veda. Become Narasingha (human with a tiger head) to destroy King Hiranyakashipu. He once
intended to become a Wimana (dwarf) to defeat Ditya Bali. Batara Wisnu also incarnated in Ramaparasu
to destroy gandarwa. Menitis in Arjunasasra / Arjunawijaya to defeat King Rahwana. The last one was for
King Krishna to become the great Pandavas parampara or advisor to get rid of greed and evil committed
by the Kauravas.

Sang Hyang Wisnu has a mount in the form of a giant garuda named Bhirawan. Because of his affection
for the garuda he rode, Bhirawan was then adopted as son-in-law, married to one of his daughters named
Dewi Kastapi

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 Vishnu wayang
(puppetry) figures from Indonesia/ 5th-century Vishnu at Udayagiri Caves./11th-century Vishnu
sculpture. The edges show reliefs of Vishnu avatars Varaha, Narasimha, Balarama, Rama, and others.
Also shown is Brahma. (Brooklyn Museum)[

The mythologies of Vishnu avatar Krishna are extensive, such as baby Krishna stealing butter, or
playing the flute. These themes appear in ancient and medieval coins of South Asia, and the motifs
described by 3rd-century poet Hala 14th-century Vishnu, Thailand.,9th century Vishnu statue
in Prambanan Temple, Indonesia. the statue of Vishnu, found in Bandung, Indonesia, 1989.

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 Harihara statue from the Majapahit kingdom in Java, Indonesia. the first king of Majapahit (Raden
Wijaya) who is believed to be the incarnation of Vishnu.

India has many Bhagwan Vishnu temples but the GWK Cultural Park in Bali, Indonesia houses the
world's largest statue of Bhagwan Garuda Vishnu.

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Unknown Vishnu statute to LEFT and Angkor diety resembling VISHNU

107
 Angkor Wat the Vishnu temple

The maraprabhu (Tree Lord) statue near the Guruvayur Temple, Kerala. BOTTOM

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Vishnu with the Goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati (playing Ālāpiṇī vīṇā), 9th-12th century C.E., found at Bangladesh, now
at the Chicago Art Institute.

VISHNU & SHIVA ( also another form of VISHNU) temples in Cambodia

There are around 4000 temples in Cambodia, out of which most of them are located at Siem Reap,
Battambang, Preah Vihar, and Kampong thom.

Angkor Wat, Bayon, Banteay Srei, Angkor Thom, Preah Khan, Pre Rup, Phnom Krom, Beng
Mealea, Koh Ker, Ta Prohm, Preah Vihear Temple, Banteay Samré, Phimeanakas Temple, West
Mebon, Baksei Chamkrong being some of them.

Ancient Cambodia is famous for its beautiful temples which give a glimpse of Hinduism and Buddhism
religion. Every year, millions of people across the world travel to the country to take a look at the
beautiful architecture of the Cambodia temples built between 9th to 15th centuries. Some of these temples
are Angkor Thom, Phnom Krom, Koh Ker, and many more.

The most famous temples in Cambodia are the Angkorian temples. The star attraction is the Angkor Wat
complex which has 72 temples inside. The main temple is called Angkor Wat. Some of the other Angkor
temples are Pre Rup, Ta Prohm, Banteay Srei and many more.

The unique fusion of Buddhist and Hindu religious sites makes the temples like Preah Khan or Banteay
Samré more interesting. Moreover, some of them like Bayon, Beng Mealea etc. have been constructed in
the deep jungles that add to the attraction.Apart from Angkor there are:

Banteay Srei (Location: Siem Reap, Cambodia.)

Banteay Srei, or the Temple of Women, is a known jewel of Khmer art which dates back to the 10th
century. This Hindu temple, having a smaller size compared to other temples, will mesmerize you with its
artistry which you will find in the motifs, figures of gods, and also in the detailed carving.

This temple, which is dedicated to Lord Shiva, has reliefs which depicts many mythological Hindu events
such as the duel between the monkey princes, King Bali, and his brother Sugreeva; Narasimha's slaying
of the demon Hiranyakasipu; and the great burning of the Khandava Forest.

Pre Rup (Location: Angkor Archaeological Park, Krong Siem Reap 17000, Cambodia.)

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Pre Rup is one of the Cambodia temples which was built in the 9th century to serve as the king’s state
temple. This Hindu temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is entirely made of brick and grey sandstone. Pre
Rup was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, and it is probably located on a former shivaite ashram, built
by Yasovarman I in the previous century.
The temple is also associated with funerary rituals. Though a major part of the temple has been ruined
over the years, its extrinsic carvings can still be viewed on some of the towers, especially on the South-
west side. The temple attracts visitors especially during the sunrise or the sunset for its spectacular view.
Vietnam
Phnom Krom (Location: On top of Phnom Krom mountain in Siem Reap, Cambodia.)

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The temple ruins of Phnom Krom on top of a hill is one of the temples in Cambodia. The temple dates
back to the 9 century and is dedicated to Hindu gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. The climb to the top of
the hilltop can be steep but while climbing, the visitors are mesmerized with the spectacular views of the
surrounding villages on the way and are often rewarded with sights of mountain goats and water buffalos.
While on the top, visitors get the stunning view of nearby Tonle Sap Lake and vicinity.

Beng Mealea (Location: On the ancient royal highway to Preah Khan Kompong Svay)

Another impressive monument to Vishnu is the Beng Mealea, also known as Boeng Mealea. It is one of
the temples in Cambodia from the Angkor Wat period. This ancient ruin is ideal for those looking for a
bit of jungle adventure as you get to walk and climb the very large mossy stones of the ruins as you
wish.Carved out of red sandstone, Beng Mealea is a temple in miniature. The doorways are very low and
uncomfortably pass through, even for a kid but the place is known for having some beautiful detailed and
intricate carvings which make it worth visiting.

Preah Vihear Temple (Location: Preah Vihear Province Cambodia.)

The Temple of Preah Vihear is located atop a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains and is dedicated
to the Hindu god Shiva. It has been called an “outstanding masterpiece of Khmer architecture” by
UNESCO. The construction of the temple took place between the 9th to 12th century. The unique

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architectural complex is actually a series of sanctuaries. These sanctuaries are linked by a system of
pavements and staircases which are intended to represent Mt Meru of Hindu and Buddhist ideology.

Banteay Srei is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Siva that was built during the tenth century A.D. It
was constructed by Yajnyavaraha during the reign of two Khmer kings whom he served as councillor:
Rajendravarman and Jayavarman V. The name Banteay Srei means "Citadel of Women."

ad Less
Phimeanakas Temple (Location: Royal Palace, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap, Cambodia.)

The Phimeanakas Temple, also known as Vimeanakas, is one of the Hindu Cambodia temples in the
Khleang style. The temple was built at the end of the 10th century, during the reign of Rajendravarman,
then completed by Suryavarman I and is located within the royal palace compound.

The name 'Phimeanakas' derives from the Sanskrit words 'vimana' and 'akasha' which together mean
'celestial palace of the gods'. The temple is in the shape of a three-tier pyramid and is made mostly of
laterite through the upper gallery.

West Mebon (Location: Krong Siem Reap, Cambodia.)

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 1936 pic at discovery of temple

The West Mebon is a small temple in ruins which is located on the central Man-made island of the
reservoir West Baray. The temple can be accessed by motorboats from the southern dam of the Baray.

It was built by King Udai Adityavarman II in the eleventh century and had three tower-passages on each
side with stone carvings. The temple compound encompasses a large square pond with a sandstone
platform in the center. There was a gigantic bronze Vishnu statue which was excavated in 1936 to
National Museum in Phnom Penh.

Baksei Chamkrong (Siem Reap, Cambodia )

Baksei Chamkrong is a small Hindu temple located in the Angkor complex. It is dedicated to
Shiva and used to hold a golden image of him. The temple can be seen on the left side when
entering Angkor Thom at the southern gate. It was dedicated to Yasovarman by his son, King
Harshavarman I. Chamkrong is a small Hindu temple located on the left side of the southern gate

113
of Angkor complex. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and initially had a golden image of
him. The temple was built by King Harshavarman I for his father Yasovarman.

The temple has an architecture of a very steep pyramidal temple topped with a single Prasat
tower. In the east of the temple, visitors can explore parts of the remains of a brick wall and a
gopura with statues of guardian lions, one of which remains.
The iconography of Hindu god Vishnu has been widespread in history.

Vishnu icons across cultures

180 BCE Indo-Greek coin
of Agathocles.

Vishnu Nicolo Seal, 4th–

6th century CE, Gandhara. India

13th century Cambodian Vishnu.//

Myanmar

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 Indonesia

Vedas
Vishnu is a Rigvedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni and others.. Just 5 out
of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda are dedicated to Vishnu, although He is mentioned in other hymns. Vishnu
is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in the Vedas, thereafter his profile rises and over the history of
Indian mythology, states Jan Gonda, Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the
Supreme Being..

Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in
various hymns of Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3.[51] In these hymns, the Vedic mythology
asserts that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed Atman (Self) reside, an assertion that may
have been the reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu soteriology. He is also
described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth.

तदस्य प्रियमभि पाथो अश्यां नरो यत्र देवयवो मदन्ति । 5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where men
उरुक्रमस्य स हि बन्धुरित्था विष्णोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सः ॥ seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that is the bond
५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५ to the wide-striding one: the wellspring of honey in the
highest step of Viṣṇu.
—RV. 1.154.5 —translated by Stephanie Jamison, 2020
आहं पितॄन्सुविदत्राँ अवित्सि नपातं च विक्रमणं च 3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and the
विष्णोः । grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu.
बर्हिषदो ये स्वधया सुतस्य भजन्त पित्वस्त Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the pressed
इहागमिष्ठाः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१५-३ soma and the food at (the cry of) “svadhā,” they are the most
welcome arrivals here.
—RV 10.15.13

In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing
the symbol of evil named Vritra.. His distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light.

115
Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed
as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the
deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana.
Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and
Agni, wherein different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and
impel them to go about their daily activities..

In hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu is equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that
this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. [57] In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a close
friend of Indra.[58] Elsewhere in Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts, Vishnu is equivalent to
Prajapati, both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb, and according to Klaus
Klostermaier, this may be the root behind the post-Vedic fusion of all the attributes of the
Vedic Prajapati unto the avatars of Vishnu.

In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.13.1), "Narayana sukta", Narayana is mentioned as the supreme
being. The first verse of "Narayana Suktam" mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean
'highest post' and may be understood as the 'supreme abode for all Selfs'. This is also known as Param
Dhama, Paramapadam, or Vaikuntha. Rigveda 1.22.20 also mentions the same paramam padam. In
the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean
appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names. In post-Vedic mythology, this legend
becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar
of Vishnu..

O00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

VII
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 The History of the Khmer Empire
By NicholasMorlin

Jan 1, 802-Jayavarman II founds Khmer Empire

Possibly of Khmer descent, Jayavarman II came from Java, where he had been
in captivity or exile, to succeed to the throne as Java’s vassal around 800. An
unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and asserted Khmer independence in
802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as devarāja, or god-king. He
established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River
east of Kâmpóng (Kompong) Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya,
southeast of present-day Siĕmréab (S
Period: Jan 1, 802 to Jan 1, 1431-The History of the Khmer Empire-Oct 17,
877.Indravarman I builds Preah Ko, Bakong Temples and the Indrtaka

While Jayavarman II was credited for the founding of the Khmer Empire ca.
800 AD, Indravarman I was credited for an extensive building program. He set
the foundations for the future Angkorian kings to follow. The king's first act
was to performed a public service for his subjects by building an irrigation
network for the rice fields. The goal was usually achieved by constructing a
large reservoir to retain water during the Monsoon season.
Oct 17, 910- Harshavarman I reigns

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Harshavarman was a son of King Yasovarman I and his Queen, who was a
sister of Jayavarman IV. Grandparents of Harshavarman were King
Indravarman I and his wife Indradevi. Harshavarman had a younger brother,
Ishanavarman II. His queen was Kambujarajalakshmi. They were the maternal
grandparents of Jayavarman VII. His grandson was Yajnavaraha. He was a
knowledgeable teacher.
Oct 17, 944- Rajendravarman II Reigns

Rajendravarman II was a nephew of former king Yasovarman I. His principal

monuments, located in the Angkor region of Cambodia's Siem Reap province,
are Pre Rup and East Mebon. The king claimed links to the royal line of the

118
Chenla state that had its capital at Bhavapura (the city's location is debated)
and predates the start of the Khmer empire in 802 AD. Inscriptions say that
the Khmer empire under his tutelage extended to southern Vietnam, Laos.
Oct 17, 1002- Civil War

The king died. A civil war ensued between Jayaviravarman and Suryavarman I,
both of whom claimed the throne.
Oct 17, 1011- Suryavarman I founds Dynasty of the Sun

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After nine years of war, Suryavarman I won the throne. Suryavarman I
established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja
Chola I.
Oct 17, 1080- Jayavarman VI founds the Mahidharapura Dynasty
Coming from Phimai area, in Mun River Valley, he appears as an usurper and
the founder of a new dynasty, the Mahidharapura, from the name of his
family's ancestral home. In inscriptions at the beginning of his reign, he
claimed to be a descendant of the mythical couple of princess Sage Kambu
Swayambhuva and his sister (and wife) Mera, rather than having real ancestors
of royal lineage.
Oct 17, 1113- Suryavarman II Reigns

He was a king of the Khmer Empire from 1113 AD to 1145-1150 AD and the
builder of Angkor Wat, which he dedicated to the Supreme God Vishnu. His
reign's monumental architecture, numerous military campaigns and
restoration of strong government have led historians to rank Suryavarman as
one of the empire's greatest kings.
Oct 17, 1181-Jayavarman VII Reigns

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Was king (reigned c.1181-1218) of the Khmer Empire in present day Siem
Reap, Cambodia. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150-1160)
and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. He married Jayarajadevi and then, after her
death, married her sister Indradevi. The two women are commonly thought to
have been a great inspiration to him, particularly in his unusual devotion to
Buddhism, as only one prior Khmer king was a Buddhist.
Oct 17, 1220- Indravarman II Reigns

Indravarman II (Khmer: ឥន្វរ្ម័នទី២) was a ruler of the Khmer Empire, son of

Jayavarman VII. There is some dispute regarding the actual period of his reign,
even because his successor, Jayavarman VIII, probably destroyed historical
records about him, but the only inscription which directly mention him reports
that he died in 1243.He was a Buddhist and was also credited with having
enlarged (or completed) some of Jayavarman VII's temple.
Oct 17, 1243- Jayavarman VIII Reigns

Jayavarman VIII (Khmer: ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៨) was one of the kings of the Khmer empire.
His rule lasted from 1243 till 1295, when he abdicated.

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It was during the reign of Jayavarman VIII that the Mongol forces under the
command of Kublai Khan attacked the Angkor empire in 1283. In 1281,
Jayavarman VIII had imprisoned emissaries of the Mongol generalissimo in
Champa. In 1283, he decided to pay tribute and buy peace and thus his rule
survived. In 1290, the Mon people regained their independence.

Oct 17, 1413- The Thai Enslave

The Thai sack Angkor, enslaving thousands and causing Khmer to move it's
capitsl to Phnon Penh region.

https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/the-history-of-the-khmer-empire--2

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 VIII
The Many Pur(as )of the Khmer Empire

Today, no city in Cambodia is called a pura. But all major cities in the ancient
Empires of Angkor and many in Funan and Chenla were “puras”

Pur means a town or settlement. Why the suffix pur has been translated as …PURA is not
understandable. It shows lack of knowledge of Sanskrit or other related languages.TheChams,
for instance, had the earliest pur..Simhapura (605-757) Virapura (757-875) Indrapura (875–982)
and without the suffix towns such as Vijaya (982–1471) Kauthara polity (757–1653) Panduranga
polity (1471–1832).
Archaeological excavations at TraKieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that the
common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa with
ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South Indian Pallava
dynasty, and the Mediterranean. The Gupta and Pallavaofcourse were Hindu Kingdoms in what
is today the territory of India.

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The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to 413.
At MỹSơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a
combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The worship of the
original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries
that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C. 174, c. 4th–5th century AD)
at TraKieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving text of any Southeast Asian
language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have spanned from nowadays Quảng
Nam to ChợDinh, PhúYên, near the ĐàRằng river.
TràKiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura, from
the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world since the
late 19th century Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. BửuChâu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura.There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else entirely.
TràKiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household use
and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic roof
tiles with faces on them.There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing on the
tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at TràKiệu began carving
faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker who introduced
and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives
further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.

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At MỹSơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code named C.
96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty

Ruins of the MỹSơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of Champa
in Simhapura (TraKieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?) and Rudravarman
I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the Simhapura dynasty. He
embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in the south, and by 658 AD
the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from QuảngBình province in the north to
present-day NinhHòa city, KhánhHòa province in the south, was unified under one ruler for the
first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
[52]
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at MỹSơn. One structure is
amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling a
theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653, 654,
669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The seventh
century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief tributary state of
the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast and Baekje in the
East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at MỹSơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at MỹSơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period MỹSơn E1, in reference to a
particular edifice at MỹSơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important surviving
works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as the MỹSơn
E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing from the navel of
the sleeping Vishnu.

125
Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (TràKiệu style)

In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at MỹSơn, King Prakasadharma, who took on
the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother from
the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of the Khmer of
Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of Champa with the
Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the king's dedication of a
monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents the king's almost mystical
devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life, difficult to attain; whose true
nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose image, identical with the universe,
is manifested by his forms."
Temporary pre-eminence of Kauthara
Kathur means Hard and Cruel in Sanskrit. Katha means narrative or story. Kathura also means
head-quarters in Harnavi. What exactly was the pronounciation of Kathura and did it lead to
another (second) name with pur as the suffix is not known.The city of Pandurang means
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from MỹSơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara,centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern NhaTrang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar.In 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off the
image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and defeated them
in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring that he had regained
control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders destroyed a temple
dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga.Pandurang is the name of Shiva and is a manifestation. He is
generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or his avatar, Krishna.

Purs in FUNAN

Even earlier to the Chams were cities suffixed with Pur in Funan (perhaps a Chinese
transcription of pnom, “mountain”) which was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Vyādhapura, (Sanskrit: “City of the Hunters”), capital city of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Funan, which flourished from the 1st to the 6th century ad in an area that comprises modern
Cambodia and Vietnam.

126
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the
word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan. Later Han pronunciations represents
a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges
Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were
transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a
mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the
Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the
conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the
character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean
"South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast
Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques
proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as >
1.Bhavapura,
2.Aninditapura,
3.Shresthapura and
4.Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the
region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the
names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
INDIANIZATION of FUNAN

Gupta and Pallava Dynasties: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society,
including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization
advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic PallavaGrantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a
scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These
inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among the Khmer
Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient
Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia
including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra
and other parts of Indonesia.
In December 2017, Dr VongSotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-
Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi
was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of
glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is
the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”

127
 The Capital City of Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧 , pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧 , pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian
town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on
a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧 , pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter."
PUR of ANGKOR

Hall, K. R. (2019). In his book Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast
Asia. United States: University of Hawaii Press talks about Suryavarman I who established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor RajarajaChola I. It seems that the

128
Khmer king Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola
Emperor RajendraChola against the Tambralinga kingdom
And during his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer Empire.
Some of these names would never be known and some difficult to find on the knowledgebase of
the Internert. Angkor. ('Capital city'), was also known as Yasodharapura and was the capital city
of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from approximately the 9th to the 15th
centuries.

 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

 Lingapura: Koh Ker (9th cent.).Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the
Khmer empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or
ChokGargyar (translated as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
 Yasodharapura(Angkor) (928–944)

Names in ancient Sanskrit of Khmer cities and sites have been changed to Khmer or Cambodian
language today:

 Phnom Kulen.
 Preah Khan of Kampong Svay.
 BengMealea.
 The Ancient City of Koh Ker.
 BanteayChhmar.
 PrasatPreahVihear.
 Kompong Thom: SamborPreiKuk.
 Oudong.

1. Sambalpur,
2. Berhampur,
3. Rairangpur,
4. Subarnapur,
5. Nagpur
6. Kanpur
7. Jamshedpur and many more far too many in fact.

In fact the word Pur and the word Nagar which means CITY is Sanskrit are inter-changeable but
the fact is that historically when one name was given it was seldom changed because it created a
geographic entity and point of reference where travellers could travel to and remember those
days people travelled by horses, on foot or other animals( including humans).

129
130
 IX
The Many VARMANS of the Khmer Lands
Dr Uday Dokras

The Khmer Empire was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia, centered around hydraulic
cities in what is now northern Cambodia. Known as Kambuja by its inhabitants, it grew out of
the former civilisation of Chenla and lasted from 802 to 1431. Historians call this period
of Cambodian history the Angkor period, after the empire's most well-known capital, Angkor.
The Khmer Empire ruled or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia and stretched as far
north as southern China. At its peak, the Empire was larger than the Byzantine Empire, which
existed around the same time.
The beginning of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802,
when Khmer prince Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin (lit. 'universal ruler', a title
equivalent to 'emperor') in the Phnom Kulen mountains. Although the end of the Khmer Empire
has traditionally been marked with the Fall of Angkor to the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in
1431, the reasons for the empire's collapse is still debated amongst scholars. Researchers have
determined that a period of strong monsoon rains was followed by a severe drought in the region,
which caused damage to the empire's hydraulic infrastructure. Variability between droughts and
flooding was also a problem, which may have caused residents to migrate southward and away
from the empire's major cities.
The site of Angkor is perhaps the empire's most notable legacy, as it was the capital during the
empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear
testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture,
architectural technique, aesthetic achievements, and variety of belief systems that it patronised
over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to the 13th
centuries, was the most extensive pre-industrial urban complex in the world. [9][10] Researchers
have also concluded that the Khmer Empire invented the world's first healthcare system, which
included 102 hospitals.
Modern scholars often refer to the empire as the "Khmer Empire" (Khmer: ចក្ភពខ្រ) or the
"Angkor Empire" (Khmer: ចក្ភពអង្គរ), the latter named after the capital Angkor.The empire
referred to itself as Kambuja (Sanskrit: कम्बुज; Old Khmer: កម្វុជ; Khmer: កម្ពុជ)
or Kambujadeśa (Sanskrit: कम्बुजदेश, lit. 'country of Kambuja'; Old Khmer: កម្វុជទេឝ; Khmer:
កម្ពុជទេស), which were pre-modern predecessors to the modern name Kampuchea.No written
records of the Angkor period have survived other than stone inscriptions. Current knowledge of
the historical Khmer civilisation is derived primarily from:

 Archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation

 Stone inscriptions (the most important of which are foundation steles of temples), which
report on the political and religious deeds of the kings
 Reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of daily life, market scenes, military
marches, and palace life
 Reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders, and travellers

131
Much of what is known about Kambuja comes from the bas-reliefs of Angkor's temples and the
first-hand accounts of Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan (The Customs of Cambodia), which
provide information on 13th-century Cambodia and earlier. The bas-reliefs, such as those in
the Bayon, describe everyday life in the ancient Khmer kingdom, including scenes of palace life,
naval battles on the river and lakes, and common scenes of the marketplace. There is a definite
connection between South India and Khmer empire across a spectrum of years. The shared
civilisational and historical connections between India and Cambodia reflect a peaceful
coexistence and convergence of culture. From the Cambodian perspective, Indian culture and
tradition were not in conflict with but complementary to the preexisting local customs. Through
the assimilation and conventionalisation process, Indian ideas and traditions were remoulded into
Khmer national character. The religious transition from Brahmanism to Buddhism and from
Mahayana to Theravada happened in a peaceful process, thanks to the syncretisation of new and
old cultures asserting an underlying unity and inclusivity and the bond of true compatibility of
Indian culture and the indigenous mindset or psyche. The cultural similarity and affinity between
the two civilisations enabled the Khmer to absorb more advanced ideas and customs of India
apparently without resistance. The Khmer culture owes its richness and enrichment to the Indian
subcontinent. In contemporary times.

The Varman dynasty (350–650) was the first historical dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom. It
was established by Pushyavarman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. The earlier Varmans were
subordinates of the Gupta Empire, but as the power of the Guptas
waned, Mahendravarman (470–494) performed two horse sacrifices and the status of Kamarupa
as an independent state remained unimpaired. As per the Apsad Inscription of Adityasen,
Susthivarman was defeated by Mahasengupta on the bank of Lauhitya. The first of the three
Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the Mlechchha and then the Pala dynasties.
The first king in this dynasty was Pushyavarman, possibly a contemporary of Samudragupta (c.
335/350-375 CE). The kingdom which he established with much effort, grew in the periphery of
the Gupta Empire, adopted the north Indian political model, and its kings took on names and
titles of the Gupta kings and queens.[9] Nothing much is known directly about the initial kings till
the sixth king, Mahendravarman, who established a rock temple and assumed the title
of Maharajadhiraja (king-of-kings) in the last quarter of the fifth century. The dynastic line from
Pushyavarman first appear in the 7th century, in Dubi and Nidhanpur copperplate inscriptions
issued by Bhaskaravarman and in the Harshacharita and not earlier in any inscription from his
ancestors. In these inscriptions Bhaskaravarman claims that he was a descendant
of Narakasur, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta. Modern scholars consider this claim to be a
fabrication, jae-eun shin suggests that this genealogy was created in the context of
Bharkarvarman's alliance with Harshavardhana, to help legitimise his sovereignty. The use of
Naraka/Bhagadatta lineage to establish sovereignty continued under the Mlechchha and
the Pala dynasties, a practice which is in keeping with the trend in the post-Gupta period in India.
She-Kia-Fang-Che claiming him to be a kshatriya whose ancestors came from China Though
some modern scholars have opined that the Varman dynasty is probably of Indo-Aryan descent,
[11][12]
it is now believed that the Varmans were originally non-Indo-Aryans. Suniti Kumar
Chatterjee calls Bhaskaravarman a Hinduised Mlechcha king of Indo-Mongoloid origin. Hugh B.
Urban also infers that the Varmans descended from non-Aryan tribes.

132
The name "Kāmarūpa" in later Brahmi script, in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta (350-375
CE). / Relics of Pragjyotishpura, the capital of Varmans
The capital was moved at least once, the last time by Sthitavarman (566-590) with the older city
not named but presumed to be Pragjyotishpura,[ located at the south-eastern slope of the
Narakasur hill near Dispur. The new capital was possibly some location in Guwahati. Though the
claim is not supported by any archaeological findings.The Varman's modeled themselves after
the Gupta's and named themselves after the Gupta kings and queens
The dynastic line, as given in the Dubi and Nidhanpur copperplate inscriptions:

South-Asia-400-450 CE- KALABHRAS

Location of the Varmans and neighbouring polities circa 400-450 CE

Reign Name succession Queen

1 350-374 Pushyavarman (unknown)
2 374-398 Samudravarman son of Pushyavarman Dattadevi
3 398-422 Balavarman son of Samudravarman Ratnavati
4 422-446 Kalyanavarman son of Balavarman Gandharavati
5 446-470 Ganapativarman son of Kalyanavarman Yajnavati
6 470-494 Mahendravarman son of Ganapativarman Suvrata
7 494-518 Narayanavarman son of Mahendravarman Devavati
8 518-542 Bhutivarman son of Narayanavarman Vijnayavati

133
 9 542-566 Chandramukhavarman son of Bhutivarman Bhogavati
10 566-590 Sthitavarman son of Chandramukhavarman Nayanadevi
11 590-595 Susthitavarman son of Sthitavarman Syamadevi
12 595-600 Supratisthitavarman son of Susthitavarman (Bachelor)
13 600-650 Bhaskaravarman brother of Supratisthitavarman (Bachelor)
14 650-655 Unknown (unknown) (unknown)

----------------------------------------------------
Name Varman
Meaning : Lord Vishnu
Gender : Male
Origin : Hindu
Letter : 6
Varman Astrology Info
Rashi/Zodiac : Vrishabha/Taurus (B, V, U, W)

Nakshatra : Rohini (O, BA, BI, BU, Vee, VA, VI, VU, Bee)
Varman Numerology Info
Numerology Number : 6

Motivation Number : 2

Destiny Number : 6

Inner Dream Number : 4

Soul Urge Number : 2

Heart's Desire
: 2
Number

Personality Number : 4

Number of Vowels : 2

134
Number of
: 4
Consonants
About Varman Name
Meaning of Varman is Lord Vishnu. Varman is Baby Boy name. The Rashi/Zodiac of Name
Varman is Vrishabha/Taurus (B, V, U, W) and Nakshatra is Rohini (O, BA, BI, BU, Vee, VA,
VI, VU, Bee). Numerology details of Varman name is Numerology Number 6, Motivation
Number 2, Destiny Number 6, Inner Dream Number 4, Soul Urge Number 2, Heart's Desire
Number 2 & Personality Number 4. The letter in Varman name is 6. Varman Name Number of
Vowels is 2 & Number of Consonants 4.

Common Questions & Answers for Varman Name

What is the meaning of Varman Name?
The Varman Name meaning is Lord Vishnu.
What is the Rashi/Zodiac of Varman Name?
The Varman Name Rashi/Zodiac is Vrishabha/Taurus (B, V, U, W).
What is the Nakshatra of Varman Name?
The Varman Name Nakshatra is Rohini (O, BA, BI, BU, Vee, VA, VI, VU, Bee).
What is the Numerology details of Varman Name?
The Varman Name Numerology details is Numerology Number 6, Destiny Number 6,
Inner Dream Number 4, Soul Urge Number 2, Personality Number 4 & Heart's Desire
Number 2.
How many Vowels & Consonants in Name Varman?
There are 2 Vowels & 4 Consonants in Name Varman.
What is the Origin of Varman Name?
The Origin of the Name Varman is Indian.
What is the Length of Varman Name?
The Name Varman contains 1 Word and 6 Alphabets.

What is the meaning of the name Ishan? The name Ishan is primarily a male name of Indian
origin that means Son; Lord Of Wealth. East Indian/Sanskrit -From the Hindi element "ish," an
invisible power that rules the universe. The name of a part of Shiva.
Ishvara is primarily an epithet of Lord Shiva. In Shaivism and for most of the Hindus, Ishvara is
synonymous with Shiva. For many Vaishnavites, it is also synonymous with Vishnu. In
traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-
devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such
as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God. In
the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".
Varman or its variants, Varma, Verma, Varman, Burman or Barman, are surnames that are used
in India and South-East Asia. According to Avvai Su Duraisamy, it is derived from
the Tamil word Varamban as in the royal titles "Vaana Varamban" (One whose kingdom bounds
the sky) and Imaya Varamban (an epithet of the Chera king Nedum Cheralathan). According
to Radhakanta Deb, the surname is derived from the Sanskrit word for "Shield, Defensive
armour". Ishanavarman would mean- THE SHIELD OF SHIV and ISHANAPURA would mean
the City of Shiva.

135
The Varman Dynasty in Cambodia was established by King Kaundinyavarmandeva, who
married Queen Soma (Khmer: សោមា), who ruled the indigenous kingdom and established her
spouse as the king of the Nokor Phnom or Funan kingdom, forming the Varman dynasty. There
is evidence in the Sanskrit stone inscription mentioning that the Brahmin Kaundinya who
received the magic spear from the Brahmin Ashwatthama (Sanskrit: अश्वत्थामा, Roman:
Aśvatthāmā), the son of Drona (Sanskrit: द्रोण), had arrived in the kingdom of the Nāga (IAST:
nāga; Devanāgarī: नाग) tribe and had finally waged a war and negotiated with them peacefully.
Through marriage, Kaundinya Brahmin therefore was established as King
Kaundinyavarmandeva , the first King of the Varman Dynasty.
Zhou Daguan, the Chinese diplomat during the reign Emperor Nian Chengzong of the Nguyen
dynasty traveled to Angkor in 1296 to record the traditions and places, including the royal family and
court traditions which corresponds to the reign of King Indravarman III. Zhou Daquan was not the first
Chinese to enter the kingdom but made the most detailed record of the lives of the Angkorians known as
Zhenla Feng Tuji (Chenla Tradition Record). This record is an important record about Angkor and the
Khmer Empire. In addition to the stone inscriptions and other documents depicting the daily lives of the
residents of Angkor. From this record, the order of kings in the Varman dynasty is known in detail, which
later became the original version of the Cambodian royal chronicles.

Monarchs of the Varman dynasty

Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

Funan late 1st

Queen Soma (Liu-Yeh)
Kingdom cent.

Funan late 1st

Kaundinyavarmandeva
Kingdom cent.

Founder of Vyadhapura,
Funan late 2nd
Hun P'an-huang Fàn dynasty "city of the hunter
Kingdom cent.
king"[4]

Funan Srei Meara (Fàn He was the first king

205–225 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom Shīmàn) from Fàn dynasty.

Funan
Fàn Jīnshēng 225 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom

136
Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

Funan
Fàn Zhān 225–244 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom

Funan
Fàn Chāng 244 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom

Funan
Fàn Xún 244–289 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom

Funan
Fàn Tiānzhú 289–357 Fàn dynasty
Kingdom

Funan Chandana (Chu Chān-

357–410 Murunda
Kingdom t’án)

Funan
Kaundinya II 410~434 Kaundinya
Kingdom

Funan
Srindravarman 434~478 Kaundinya
Kingdom

Funan
Kaundinyajayavarman 478 - 514 Kaundinya
Kingdom

Funan
Rudravarman I 514—540 Kaundinya The last Funan King
Kingdom

Funan Claimed to the throne

Queen Kulaprabhavati 514—517 Kaundinya
Kingdom (529—550)

Sreshthapura Srutavarman 550–555 Kambuj

137
Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

Sreshthapura Sreshthavarman 555–560 Kambuj

Sreshthapura Kambujarajalakshmi 575–580 Kambuj

Bhavapura Viravarman 560–575 Bhavapura

Chenla First King of the Chenla

Bhavavarman I 550—590 Bhavapura
Kingdom Kingdom

Chenla
Mahendravarman 590—611 Bhavapura
Kingdom

He reigned at the same

Chenla
Hiranyavarman I ~611 Bhavapura time as
Kingdom
Mahendravarman.

Chenla Isanapura was found in

Kingdom Isanavarman I 611–640 Vyadhapura 618 AD. Annexation of
(Isanapura) Funan was complete.

Chenla
Bhavavarman II 639–657 Vyadhapura
Kingdom

Chenla
Jayavarman I 640—681 Vyadhapura
Kingdom

Chenla
Jayadevi 690—713 Vyadhapura
Kingdom

Sambhupura Sambhuvarman I 713–716 Sambhupura

138
Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

Aninditapura Baladítya Unknown Baladityapura Founder of Baladityapura

Aninditapura Visvarupa Unknown Baladityapura

Aninditapura Nripatindravarman Unknown Baladityapura

Aninditapura Indraloka 716–730 Baladityapura

Aninditapura Sambhuvarman II 730–760 Baladityapura

Sambhupura Rajendravarman I 760–790 Baladityapura

Javanese Kingdom
Sambhupura Mahipativarman 790-802 Baladityapura occupied the Chenla
Kingdom.

First King of Khmer

Khmer Empire House of Empire, declared himself
Jayavarman II 802—850
(Indrapura) Sambhupura as Emperor at
Mahendraparvata.

He reigned the throne at

Khmer Empire Jayavardhana 850–877 Sambhupura
Hariharalaya.

He reigned the throne at

Khmer Empire Indravarman I 877–889 Baladityapura
Hariharalaya.

Founder
Khmer Empire Yasovarman I 889—910 Yasodharapura
of Yasodharapura

139
Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

Khmer Empire Harshavarman I 910–925 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Ishanavarman II 925–928 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Jayavarman IV 928–941 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Harshavarman II 941–944 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Rajendravarman II 944–968 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Jayavarman V 968–1001 Yasodharapura

Khmer Empire Udayadityavarman I 1001–1002 Yasodharapura

Suryavarman I was son

Jayaviravarman 1002— of King Jivaka of
Khmer Empire Yasodharapura
(Narapativiravarman) 1010 Shailendra dynasty, who
usurped the throne.

His father was Jivaka

(Sujitaraja), King
of Tam-bralinga. He
Suryavarman I 1002—
Khmer Empire Shailendra claimed the throne
(Kambojaraja) 1050
through his mother, a
royal member descended
from Fàn dynasty.

Khmer Empire Udayadityavarman II 1050-1066 Shailendra

Khmer Empire Harshavarman III 1066-1088 Shailendra

140
Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

He was the last king from

Khmer Empire Nripatindravarman 1088–1113 Shailendra
Shailendra dynasty.

He usurped the throne

from Vimayapura.
House
He was the first king
Khmer Empire Jayavarman VI 1082–1107 of Mahidharapur
from the House of
a
Mahidharapura. He built
Prasat Phimai.

He reigned the throne

Khmer Empire Dharanindravarman I 1107–1113 Mahidharapura
from Vimayapura.

He was the first king

from the House of
Khmer Empire Suryavarman II 1113–1145 Mahidharapura Mahidharapura, who
reigned in
Yasodharapura.

Khmer Empire Dharanindravarman II 1150–1160 Mahidharapura

He was seized the throne

House of by King
Khmer Empire Yasovarman II 1160–1165
Mahidharapura Tribhuvanadityavarman,
a Chinese nobleman.

He was executed during

Khmer Empire Tribhuvanadityavarman 1165–1177 Champa attacked
Angkor.

He successfully expelled
House of Champa and established
Khmer Empire Jayavarman VII 1181~1215
Mahidharapura Angkor Thom as the
capital.

141
 Kingdom Title Reign Royal House Notes

~1215-
Khmer Empire Indravarman II Mahidharapura
1243

Khmer Empire Jayavarman VIII 1243–1295 Mahidharapura

Khmer Empire Srindravarman 1295–1307 Mahidharapura

Khmer Empire Srindrajayavarman 1308–1327 Mahidharapura

The last King of

Cambodia whose name
Jayavarman House of appears on a Sanskrit
Khmer Empire 1327–1336
Paramesvara Mahidharapura stone inscription
End of rule by the House
of Mahidharapura

List of monarchs of Cambodia and Monarchs' family tree

Reign King Capital Information and events

Proclaimed the independence of

Kambuja from Java. Claimed
Mahendraparvata, H
802–835 Jayavarman II as Chakravartin through sacred Hindu
ariharalaya
ritual on Phnom Kulen and
initiating Devaraja cult in Cambodia.

835–877 Jayavarman III Hariharalaya Son of Jayavarman II

877–889 Indravarman I Hariharalaya Nephew of Jayavarman II. Built Preah

Ko dedicated to Jayavarman II, also for
his father and his grand father.

142
 Reign King Capital Information and events

Constructed temple mountain Bakong.

Son of Indravarman I. Built Indratataka

Baray and Lolei. Moved the capital to
Hariharalaya, Yaśod
889–910 Yasovarman I Yaśodharapura centred around Phnom
harapura
Bakheng, and also
built Yashodharatataka.

Son of Yasovarman I. Involved in a

power struggle against his maternal
910–923 Harshavarman I Yaśodharapura
uncle Jayavarman IV. Built Baksei
Chamkrong.

Son of Yasovarman I, brother of

Harshavarman I. Involved in a power
923–928 Ishanavarman II Yaśodharapura
struggle against his maternal uncle
Jayavarman IV. Built Prasat Kravan.

Son of King Indravarman I's daughter,

Mahendradevi, married to Yasovarman
928–941 Jayavarman IV Koh Ker
I sister, claim the throne through
maternal line. Ruled from Koh Ker.

941–944 Harshavarman II Koh Ker Son of Jayavarman IV.

Uncle and first cousin of Harshavarman

II and wrestle power from him. Transfer
Rajendravarman Angkor (Yaśodhara
944–968 the capital back to Angkor, Built Pre
II pura)
Rup and East Mebon. War against
Champa in 946.

Son of Rajendravarman II. Built a new

Jayendranagari
968–1001 Jayavarman V capital Jayendranagari and Ta Keo in its
in Angkor
centre.

143
 Reign King Capital Information and events

Udayadityavarma
n I, Period of chaos, three kings rule
1001–1006 Angkor
Jayaviravarman, simultaneously as antagonist.
Suryavarman I

Took the throne. Alliance

with Chola and conflict
1006–1050 Suryavarman I Angkor with Tambralinga kingdom. Built Preah
Khan Kompong Svay. The king adhered
to Mahayana Buddhism.

Took the throne, descendant of

Udayadityavarma Yaśodharapura II Yasovarman I's spouse.
1050–1066
n II (Angkor) Built Baphuon, West Baray and West
Mebon, also Sdok Kok Thom.

Succeeded his elder brother

Yaśodharapura II Udayadityavarman II, capital at
1066–1080 Harshavarman III
(Angkor) Baphuon. Champa invasion in 1074 and
1080.

Usurper from Vimayapura.

1090–1107 Jayavarman VI Angkor
Built Phimai.

Dharanindravarm Succeeded his younger brother,

1107–1113 Angkor
an I Jayavarman VI.

Usurped and killed his great uncle.

Built Angkor Wat, Banteay
1113–1145 Suryavarman II Angkor Samre, Thommanon, Chau Say
Tevoda and Beng Mealea. Invade Đại
Việt and Champa.

Dharanindravarm
1150–1160 Angkor Succeeded his cousin Suryavarman II
an II

144
 Reign King Capital Information and events

Overthrown by his minister

1160–1167 Yasovarman II Angkor
Tribhuvanadityavarman

Cham invasion in 1177 and 1178 led by

Tribhuvanadityav
1167–1177 Angkor Jaya Indravarman IV, looted the Khmer
arman
capital.

1178–1181 Cham occupation, led by Champa king Jaya Indravarman IV

Led Khmer army against Cham invaders

thus liberated Cambodia. Led the
conquest of Champa (1190–1191).
Yaśodharapura (An Major infrastructure constructions; built
1181–1218 Jayavarman VII
gkor) hospitals, rest houses, reservoirs, and
temples including Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Bayon in Angkor Thom city,
and Neak Pean.

Son of Jayavarman VII. Lost control

1219–1243 Indravarman II Angkor of Champa and lost western territories
to Siamese Sukhothai Kingdom.

Mongol invasion led by Kublai Khan in

1283 and war with Sukhothai. Built
1243–1295 Jayavarman VIII Angkor
Mangalartha. He was a zealous Shivaite
and eradicated Buddhist influences.

Overthrew his father in law Jayavarman

VIII. Made Theravada Buddhism the
1295–1308 Indravarman III Angkor
state religion. Received Yuan Chinese
diplomat Zhou Daguan (1296–1297).

1308–1327 Indrajayavarman Angkor

1327–1336 Jayavarmadipara Angkor Last Sanskrit inscription (1327).

145
 Reign King Capital Information and events

mesvara
(Jayavarman IX)

1336–1340 Trosok Peam Angkor

1340–1346 Nippean Bat Angkor

1346–1351 Lompong Racha Angkor

1352–1357 Siamese Ayutthaya invasion led by Uthong

1357–1363 Soryavong Angkor

1363–1373 Borom Reachea I Angkor

1373–1393 Thomma Saok Angkor

1393 Siamese Ayutthaya invasion led by Ramesuan

1394–c. 1421 In Reachea Angkor

Abandon Angkor (1431).

1405–1431 Barom Reachea II Chaktomuk

List of architectural styles during Angkor period

146
 Styles Dates Rulers Temples Chief Characteristics

Continuation of pre-Angkorean but a

period of innovation and borrowing
such as from Cham temples. Tower
Jayavarma
Kulen 825–875 Damrei Krap mainly square and relatively high.
n II
Mainly brick with laterite walls and
stone door surrounds. Square and
octagonal colonettes begin to appear.

Simple plan: one or more square brick

towers on a single base. First
Indravarm appearance of concentric enclosures
Preah
Preah an and of gopura and libraries.
877–886 Ko, Bakong, Lole
Ko I Jayavarm Decorative 'flying palaces' replaced
i
an III by dvarapalas and devatas in niches.
First major temple
mountain at Bakong.

Phnom
Yasovarm Bakheng, Phnom Development of the temple mountain.
an Krom, Phnom More use of stone, particularly for
Bakheng 889–923
I Harshava Bok, Baksei major temples and more decorative
rman I Chamkrong (trans stone carving.
.)

Scale of buildings diminishes toward

Jayavarma Group of Koh
Koh Ker 921–944 center. Brick still main material but
n IV Ker temples
sandstone also used.

Transitional between Koh

Pre Rup, East Ker and Banteay Srei. Long halls
Rajendrav
Pre Rup 944–968 Mebon, Bat partly enclose sanctuary. The last great
arman
Chum, Kutisvara monuments in plastered brick,
increasing use of sandstone.

Banteay 967–1000 Jayavarma Banteay Srei Ornate, superposed pediments,

Srei nV sweeping gable ends, rich and deep
carving. Plasterd brick replaced by
stone and laterite. Appearance of
scenes in pediments. Voluptuous

147
 devatas with gentle expressions.

Ta Keo,
First use of galleries. Cruciform
Jayavarma The Khleangs, Ph
Khleang 968–1010 gopuras. Octagonal colonettes.
nV imeanakas, Royal
Restrained decorative carving.
Palace

A return to rich carving: floral motifs

but also lintels with
scenes. Nagas without head-
Baphuo Udayadity Baphuon, West
1050–1080 dress. Bas-reliefs appear at Baphuon
n avarman II Mebon
temple, carving with lively scenes
enclosed in small panels, often in
narritive sequence.

The high classical style of Khmer

Angkor
architecture. Fully developed conical
Wat, Banteay
towers with carving profile. Galleries
Samré, Thomman
Suryavarm wider and with half galleries on one
on, Chau Say
Angkor an side. Concentric enclosures connected
1113–1175 Tevoda, Beng
Wat II Yasovar by axial galleries. Nagas with head-
Mealea, some
man II dress, naga balustrades raised off the
of Preah
ground. Invention of cross-shaped
Pithu, Phimai and
terrace. Richly carved lintels and other
Phnom Rung
decorations. Bas-reliefs, Apsaras.

Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Neak
The last great style. Hurried
Pean, Ta Som, Ta
construction, often in laterite not
Nei, Angkor
stone, carving less elegant. Complex
Thom, Prasat
plans, huge temples. In Cambodia,
Jayavarma Chrung, Bayon, E
face-towers and historical narrative
n lephant
Bayon 1181–1243 bas-reliefs. Three periods: 1. large
VII Indrav terrace, Ta Prohm
complex temples on a single level, 2.
arman II Kel, Krol
face-towers and avenues of giants
Ko, Prasat Suor
carrying nagas, 3. decline of the
Prat, Banteay
building standards, devatas acquire
Chhmar,
Angkor Wat style diadem.
Hospital Chaples,
Jayatataka baray

Post 1243–15th c. Jayavarma Terrace of the Inversion of cross-shaped terrace,

Bayon n VIII and Leper

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 King, Preah
Pithu, Preah
others causeways on columns, low or high.
Palilay (modificat
ions to temples)

ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS 6
Highest number of research Papers and Books written

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 Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 x6
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records

700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.

3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.
Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories for
having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor
laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English- SPOTLIGHT 7”-
and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a
copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic

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Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm, SWEDEN and
President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing

highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of
_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras

156
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://drive.google.com/file/d/
1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

164
Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of

Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU
TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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