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Introduction to Transfer Phenomena
in PEM Fuel Cells
Series Editor
Alain Dollet
Introduction to Transfer
Phenomena in PEM
Fuel Cells
Bilal Abderezzak
First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
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The rights of Bilal Abderezzak to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 978-1-78548-291-5
Printed and bound in the UK and US

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter 1. Introduction to Hydrogen Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. Hydrogen as an energy vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1. Production methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2. Storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.3. Distribution networks and associated risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4. Advantages and challenges to raise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2. Types of fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1. The different fuel cell technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2. Fuel cell and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.3. Advantages and issues to improve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3. The proton-exchange membrane fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.1. The basic structure of the PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.2. PEMFC design and configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.3.3. Operation and aging problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.3.4. The fuel cell and its technical system
entourage technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Chapter 2. Charge Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2. Thermodynamics and chemistry of
the PEM fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.1. The base reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.2. Heat reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.3. Electrical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vi Introduction to Transfer Phenomena in PEM Fuel Cells
2.2.4. Empty voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.2.5. Effect of pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.6. Effect of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.7. Theoretical efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3. The flow rates of reactants and products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1. Oxygen flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.2. Hydrogen flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.3.3. Amount of water produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4. Electrochemistry of the fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.1. Electrode kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4.2. Activation energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.4.3. Reaction rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4.4. Exchange current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4.5. Current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.5. Polarization phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5.1. Activation polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5.2. Ohmic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.5.3. Concentration polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.4. Real cell voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5.5. Polarization curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5.6. Optimum operating range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.6. Modeling of charge transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.7. Overview of analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.7.1. Simple analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.7.2. Complex analytical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.8. Empirical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.9. Current transport and charge conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chapter 3. Mass Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2. Flow of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3. Mass transfer by convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4. Mass transfer in porous diffusers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.1. Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.2. The conservation of species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.3. Some parametric laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5. Mass transfer in the catalyst layers (electrodes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5.1. Low current model (Butler–Volmer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5.2. Agglomerate model with strong current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Contents vii
3.6. Mass transfer in the membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

3.6.1. Schröeder’s paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.6.2. Microscopic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.6.3. Mesoscopic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6.4. Macroscopic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.6.5. Parametric laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Chapter 4. Heat Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2. Energy balances for a PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.1. Energy balance for a stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.2. Energy balance for compounds and gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.3. Energy balance for the gas phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.4. Energy balance for the solid structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3. The heat flow in the different layers of the PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.1. Heat transfer by conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.2. Heat dissipation by natural convection and radiation . . . . . . . . . 133
4.4. Thermal management in a PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.1. Cooling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.2. Convection cooling of the airflow at the cathode . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.3. The effect of temperature on the performance
of the PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5. Heat sources in the PEMFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5.1. In the polymer membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.5.2. At the electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.5.3. In the GDLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5.4. Water evaporation and condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.6. Temperature distribution between two
cathodes: case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Preface
The recognition of new sources of energy that are green and renewable is
a necessity for young audiences in the scientific and technical field. These
non-polluting energies contribute to a more protected environment against
dangerous emissions, such as greenhouse emissions or those that affect air
quality.
The operating principles of energy conversion devices that convert these

renewable sources into useful energy must be known and controlled.
This educational book develops a broad overview of the different

physical phenomena that take place within a fuel cell. This book is intended
for students and young researchers in technical fields. It is essentially
composed of five sections as follows.
Chapter 1 introduces hydrogen as an energy vector that can be produced

in different ways and used in many applications. The different fuel
cell technologies are presented in this chapter. A special interest in the
proton-exchange membrane fuel cell is presented at the end of this chapter.
In addition, a quiz specific to this introduction is provided as a good
summary of the principles of hydrogen technology and PEM fuel cells.
In Chapter 2, charge transfer phenomena are discussed. This chapter

covers the thermodynamic and chemistry aspects of a fuel cell, the flow rates
of the reactants and products as well as some electrochemical notions. At the
end of the chapter, polarization phenomena and an overview of charge
transfer models are described.
x Introduction to Transfer Phenomena in PEM Fuel Cells
Chapter 3 presents the mass transfer phenomena in the different layers of

a fuel cell and, at different scales, in the membrane.
In Chapter 4, heat transfer phenomena are discussed. A broad overview

of the energy balance equations is given for the overall fuel cell and also for
each of its layers. The identification of heat sources and the thermal
management of the fuel cell are presented at the end of this chapter.
At the end of each chapter, a conclusion will summarize the key

concepts.
At the end of the book, a rich collection of bibliographic references can

be found. Indeed, this includes the work of doctoral dissertations, the best
French and English-speaking books that the author has been able to translate,
masters dissertations and articles of scientific research.
All comments and suggestions are welcome, and it will be taken into
consideration for a potential improvement of this book in subsequent
editions.
Bilal ABDEREZZAK
June 2018
1
Introduction to Hydrogen Technology
Global issues such as pollution and global warming, as well as the

increasing scarcity and depletion of fossil fuels, have highlighted the
urgency of resorting to green and renewable energy sources. Moreover, the
intermittency and irregularity of these sources have exposed the need to store
energy in a chemical form, for example, as hydrogen.
Hydrogen appears to be an interesting environmentally friendly

alternative to the oil or fuel that is currently used to produce energy. It is an
energy vector that can store and transport energy.
Hydrogen can be stored and/or transported in different forms. The main

method currently used to transport hydrogen between production and use
sites is to use liquid hydrogen flowing through pipelines. The most discussed
storage method currently concerns the use of hydrogen in embedded
applications.
In addition to its non-polluting character, it allows the production of

thermal and mechanical energy and electricity. However, the conversion of
hydrogen into energy is the subject of several studies and research. In this
initial part, we will present the hydrogen energy sector, with particular focus
on the technology of the PEM fuel cell [AFH 18, AUP 13, BOU 03,
GAR 00, GUP 08, MIS 13, RAJ 08, SAI 04].
2 Introduction to Transfer Phenomena in PEM Fuel Cells
1.1. Hydrogen as an energy vector
Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe.

Mixed with oxygen, it can burn by releasing energy. It has a large amount of
energy per unit mass; however, it contains a small amount of energy per unit
volume at room temperature and at atmospheric pressure.
Hydrogen is an energy vector virtually non-existent in nature at the

molecular level. This is why it must be produced by electrolysis, reforming
of vapors or natural gas, gasification of biomass, or by oxidation and
reforming of hydrocarbons or biomass. These methods are determined and
controlled before hydrogen is used or stored. Nearly 95% of the hydrogen
production is therefore derived from fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil or
even coal (see Figure 1.1). The majority is produced from natural gas (48%)
and it is used by industry for its chemical properties, particularly in ammonia
plants (50% of global consumption) and in petroleum refineries
(desulfurization of gasoline and diesel, production of methanol, etc.)
[CON 18a].
Figure 1.1. Main sources of hydrogen production [RAJ 08]
However, these processes do not help reduce our dependence on fossil

fuels. Compared with other fuels, hydrogen has a higher calorific value (see
Figure 1.2).
For further details, Table 1.1 shows a comparison of other elements

[GAR 00, MIS 13].
Introduction to Hydrogen Technology 3
Figure 1.2. Comparison of HCV and LCV for various fuels [AUP 13]
Properties Hydrogen Methane Methanol Ethanol Propane Gasoline

Molecular mass (g/mol) 2.016 16.043 32.04 46.06 44.1 ~107
3
Volumic mass (kg/m )
0.08375 0.6682 791 789 1.865 751
at 20°C
Boiling point (°C) −252.8 −161.5 64 78.5 −42.1 27-225
Flash point (°C) –253 −188 11 13 −104 −43
Flammability limits in air
4.0–75.0 5.0–15.0 6.7–36.0 3.3–19 2.1–10.1 1.0–7.6
(% volume)
CO2 produced per unit
0 1 1.5 180
energy
Auto-ignition temperature
585 540 385 423 490 230–480
in air (°C)
Higher calorific value
142 55.5 22.9 29.8 50.2 47.3
(MJ/kg)
Lower calorific value
120 50 20.1 27 46.3 44
(MJ/kg)
Table 1.1. Fuel comparison

Figure 1.3. Distribution of H2 consumption
The process is chosen according to many parameters (type of primary

energy, purity, flows, etc.); it also depends on the target sector that intends to
use this energy vector. Global consumption by application type is shown in
Figure 1.3.
Today, less than 4% of the total production capacity of hydrogen is

provided by electrolysis. This method is used only if the electricity is either
inevitable (for renewable sources such as wind or photovoltaic), or cheap
and/or if a high purity of the hydrogen is required. The increasing use of
renewable sources is leading to the development of electrolysis, an attractive
process for the development of these new energies [AFH 18].
There are even ways of producing hydrogen by wind energy, essentially

by the electrolysis of water using a process that preserves the environment.
Although the exploitation of wind energy and the electrolysis of water
have been widely used in the past, their combination has not been widely
applied at a commercial level. This production remains an efficient and safe
way to store wind energy, especially in times of low energy demand and
strong wind.
Hydrogen technologies applied to wind systems are still in the research

and development stage. They are confined to small-scale applications. This
energy sector can be considered as one of the most competitive energy
markets once it is used as a primary energy for various mobile applications.
The coupling of wind energy and the production of hydrogen are considered
as a means of energy storage with several advantages.
First, using hydrogen as an energy vector while taking into account safety
aspects is already understood, thanks to the numerous applications in
chemistry. Hydrogen is also well suited for seasonal energy storage without
energy loss over time. Still, water electrolyzers are able to process power
fluctuations due to the intermittent nature of wind energy. Finally, wind–
hydrogen systems have the potential for high-density energy storage with
low operating and maintenance costs [GUP 08].
In Germany, the installation of the Prenzlau hybrid power plant is a real

example to follow; it will not be long before the citizens become familiar
with the expression “I go to the pump, to fill up the wind, 50 liters …”. A
utopia? No, this is the first industrial hybrid plant in the world.
This project was supported by the German Chancellor Angela Merkel

who laid the first stone on 21 April 2009 in Prenzlau near Berlin (see
Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4. The electrolyzer of the Prenzlau power plant [MIS 13]
On 25 October 2011, Brandenburg Minister-President Matthias Platzeck

inaugurated this first hybrid plant of its kind combining wind, hydrogen and
biogas in the presence of representatives of partner companies Enertrag AG,
Total Deutschland GmbH, Vattenfall and Deutsche Bahn.
This facility is able to transform wind energy into hydrogen as a storage

medium and energy vector! The hydrogen production capacity of the
electrolyzer installed is approximately 120 Nm3/h of hydrogen and 60 Nm3/h
of oxygen, with a purity of hydrogen reaching 99.997%. The pressure of the
flue gas is about 15–20 mbar.
A compression system is used to achieve the pressure of 42 bar, and a set

of five pressure vessels with a total capacity of 1,350 kg of hydrogen at the
same compressor outlet pressure [MIS 13].
This technology is an important advance for the energy sector, since it

allows the storage of wind power and its injection into the grid, according to
need (see Figure 1.5).
Since the end of 2011, energy in the form of hydrogen has been stored
and used at the Berlin–Brandenburg International Airport power station.
Figure 1.5. Schematic of the Prenzlau hybrid power plant [MIS 13]
This hybrid plant, which combines wind power, biogas and hydrogen, is
part of the overall policy of developing renewable energies, supply of
carbon-free energy, and better integration of intermittent renewable energies
into the electricity grid.
It presents a perfectly balanced system between the fluctuation in the

production of the different associated renewable energies and the actual
electricity needs. Three wind turbines produce electricity and they are used,
in part, to produce hydrogen. This CO2-free vector is stored and, in addition
to the biogas, can then be converted into electricity and heat in the event of
peak consumption. Hydrogen also offers a CO2-free flexible solution at total
power stations in Berlin and Hamburg. The investment is estimated at
approximately 21 million euros [MIS 13].
1.1.1. Production methods
Hydrogen is a good choice as a future non-polluting energy source for

many reasons. Here are some of these reasons:
– hydrogen can be produced using several sources. It is quite renewable
because the most abundant and clean starting element for producing
hydrogen is water;
– the hydrogen can be stored in the gaseous state, in the liquid state or in
the solid state. It can also be stored in different chemical substances such as
methanol, ethanol or metal hydrides;
– the hydrogen can be produced by means of an electrochemical
converter or efficiently converted into electricity;
– hydrogen can be transported and stored as safely as the fuels used
today.
The hydrogen sector, or in other words, the production and applications

of this very important energy vector, is composed of several variants. Figure
1.6 shows an overview of this sector. We can see three areas of application.
Indeed, in the field of transport, hydrogen can be used in internal combustion
engines and in electric motors powered by fuel cells.
Figure 1.6. Hydrogen technology sector
The building sector also benefits from hydrogen, as there are hydrogen
fuel cells suitable for commercial, residential, or even tertiary uses.
In industry, hydrogen can serve as the energy vector of several

applications such as cogeneration by hydrogen fuel cells, turbines, or even
internal combustion engines; its application in synthetic processes is also
possible.
Hydrogen can therefore provide energy for all sectors of the economy:
industry, homes, transport and portable devices. It can replace petroleum-
based fuels for vehicles and it is an interesting source of electricity for
communities. One of the main advantages of hydrogen, compared to fossil
fuels, is its impact on the environment. Its consumption (by combustion or
by electrochemical conversion) produces no pollutant and no carbon
emissions.
1.1.2. Storage technologies
To store hydrogen, it is necessary to design tanks that are compact,

lightweight, safe and inexpensive. This is decisive since it is precisely this
storage option that makes hydrogen particularly attractive compared to
electricity [CEA 18].
1.1.2.1. Storage of liquids

Storing hydrogen in liquid form is an attractive solution, and also in this
form it is used in the space sector. However, hydrogen is, after helium, the
most difficult gas to liquefy. This solution leads to high-energy expenditure
and high costs, making it more difficult for the general public to use.
1.1.2.2. Storage of high-pressure gas

The storage of hydrogen in gaseous form is a promising option. However,
the constraints are numerous. Light and bulky, the hydrogen must be
compressed to the maximum to reduce the size of the tanks. Progress has
been made: from 200 bar (pressure of industrial cylinders), the pressure has
risen to 350 bar today, and the developments now concern tanks that can
withstand pressures of 700 bar. This compression comes at a cost; even
compressed at 700 bar, 4.6 liters of hydrogen are still needed to produce as
much energy as with 1 liter of gasoline. The risk of hydrogen leakage must
also be taken into consideration with regard to the flammable and explosive
nature of this gas under certain conditions. Due to its small molecule size,
hydrogen is able to pass through many materials, including some metals.
This weakens some, making them brittle. The study of high-pressure storage
therefore consists of essentially testing the resistance of materials to
hydrogen under pressure. These materials must be resistant but relatively
light (transportability requirements). The metal tanks currently used are still
expensive and heavy compared to the amount of gas they can carry.
Reservoirs, not metallic but made of polymeric materials, are being
developed to meet these constraints.
1.1.2.3. Low-pressure storage

An alternative to using gas pressure tanks would be to store hydrogen in
certain carbonaceous materials or metal alloys capable of absorbing
hydrogen and releasing it when necessary. This storage mode is currently the
subject of many studies.
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no related content on Scribd:
Its management under the spoils system.
See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1901.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, at Washington.

The new building.
"By the act of April 15, 1886, the present site, one-quarter
of a mile south of east from the Capitol, was selected, its
acquisition by the United States provided for, and the
construction of a building authorized. During this long period
of discussion many schemes for attaining the desired end,
including a variety of plans for enlarging and occupying the
Capitol and many different sites in the city of Washington,
were considered. Several times did the legislation reach an
advanced state and fail through the pressure of more absorbing
interests. Finally the law referred to adopted sketch plans that
had been prepared by Messrs. Smithmeyer and Pelz, a firm of
Washington architects, but it fixed no limit of cost, nor did
it specify the materials of construction or character of
execution of the design other than to stipulate that the
building should be fireproof. A commission, composed of the
Secretary of the Interior, the Librarian of Congress, and the
Architect of the Capitol, was designated to conduct the
construction of the building. The site, comprising two city
squares—nearly nine acres, within the city building lines and
with the included streets—was purchased of the private owners,
the ground cleared of some seventy buildings occupying it, and
by the summer of 1888 about one-half of the foundation
footings for the building were laid. During that year,
however, Congress became dissatisfied with the progress that
had been made and the uncertainties involved in the operation
of the inadequate original law, and accordingly, on October 2,
modified it and lodged the entire control of the work, including
the preparation of new plans at a limited cost, in the hands
of Brigadier General Thomas Lincoln Casey, Chief of Engineers
of the United States Army. He immediately placed the writer in
local charge.
{293}
On March 2, 1889, Congress enacted that the building should be
erected at a total cost of $6,500,000, including previous
expenditures, according to a plan that had been prepared and
submitted by General Casey, pursuant to the previous act of
October 2, 1888. This plan was based on that adopted by the
original act, and provided a building of similar form,
dimensions, and architecture. The project embodied the
principal materials of construction and a detailed estimate of
the cost. Under these auspices operations were begun in the
spring of 1889 where the operations had left off the year
before, and the construction thence proceeded without
interruption until the building was finally completed, in the
spring of 1897. It was 470 feet in length by 340 feet in
width, having three stories and a subbasement, and fronts
west—toward the Capitol. … The foundations of the building are
of hydraulic cement concrete, 6 feet deep in ground which is a
mixture of clay and sand of very uniform character. The cellar
walls are of hard red brick; the exterior face of the
superstructure of a fine grained light blue granite from
Concord, New Hampshire; the stone of the rotunda and the
trimmings of the court walls a light blue granite from near
Woodstock, Maryland; the facing of the court walls enameled
brick from Leeds, England; and the backing and interior walls
as well as all of the vaulting of the basement and first
stories are of hard red brick. Most of the floors that are
flat ceiled are of terra cotta, and this material also forms
the covering and filling of the roofs and main dome, of which
the supporting members are of rolled steel in beams, girders,
and trusses. All of the floors are leveled up with concrete
and surfaced with tiles, terrazzo, or mosaic in the public
spaces, while in the office and working rooms they are covered
with a carpet of southern pine boards. The most important of
the strictly useful features of the building are the book
stacks, of which the design is largely original. The problem
was new, not only through the capacity to be provided but the
numerous other conditions to be met, such as light,
ventilation, adjustability to several uses, communication,
immunity from fire, cleanliness, durability, and simplicity.
It was also necessary that rapid mechanical transmission of
books between the shelving and the reading room should be
provided, coupled with a quick and reliable means of
communication, both written and oral. … The book carrier is a
pair of parallel, endless chains, running in a vertical shaft
in the middle of the stack; thence in a horizontal duct in the
cellar to a point below the central desk of the reading room,
where it turns upward and ascends vertically to the delivery
outlet at the desk. A series of equidistant book trays,
eighteen in number, are suspended between the chains. The
machine runs continuously and automatically takes on and
delivers books of the size of a quarto or less at its reading
room terminal and at each of the stack stories. The speed of
the carrier is about 100 feet per minute. The pneumatic
message tube is also convenient as a speaking tube. The great
rotunda or public reading room of the building, the main
staircase hall or foyer, the private reading rooms for the
members of Congress, the Librarian's office, the corridors
communicating with these, and the exhibition halls as well as
many portions of the exterior walls, especially the west main
pavilion, have received a good degree of artistic treatment
and embellishment, but all within strict architectural
requirements. Some forty sculptors and mural painters, about
equally divided in numbers, furnished the principal works of
art under the architects' supervision and direction. Many
appropriate quotations and names are inscribed on the walls in
the architectural tablets, friezes and panels, adding to the
general impressiveness and interest of the building. In all
ways and from all points of view the library building is
eminently instructive as an example of good design, good
appointment for its great purpose, good building and good
administration in the execution, and therefore the more
appropriate to house the nation's library. The unusual success
of the undertaking under Government auspices is almost wholly due
to the selection of a known competent, sturdy, and faithful
individual such as General Casey was, and giving him the sole
charge directly under Congress without an executive superior
liable to interfere and cause delays. The work went on
quietly, but with energy; and was completed within the
originally estimated time and well within the legal limit of
cost. The total cost of the building was $6,344,585.34—that of
the site, $585,000."
Bernard R. Green,
The Building for the Library of Congress
(Annual Report Smithsonian Institution, 1897, page 625).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Negotiation of peace with Japan.

CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Tour in Europe and America.

CHINA: A. D. 1896.
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Charged with being in Russian pay.

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JULY).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Acting Viceroy at Canton.

CHINA: A. D. 1899 (DECEMBER).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Attempt to open negotiations with allied Powers.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JULY).
LI HUNG-CHANG:
Chinese Plenipotentiary to negotiate with the allied Powers.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).
LIKIN, The Chinese taxes called.
"Chinese tariff rates, where they exist, average about 5 per

cent ad valorem. Many articles are admitted free of duty, and
on some the rates are higher than 5 per cent, but in general
terms this is about the average rate. To this, however, there
is a material addition where the goods are intended for
interior points. The Chinese Government, while it collects a
part of its revenue from customs, relies largely upon the
provinces to supply revenue, and arbitrarily names each year
the sum which each province must supply, leaving to the
officers of that province the methods by which this is
obtained. The consequence is that each province is permitted
to collect a tax on goods entering it from the adjacent
provinces, and this custom has been extended to the
subdivision of the provinces, so that goods in transit are
frequently compelled to pay taxes every few miles. As a
consequence, the interior taxes, known as 'likin,' became not
only the terror of importers, but sometimes almost
prohibitory. So serious was this system in its effects upon
attempts to introduce foreign goods that, upon the insistence
of foreign ministers, the Chinese Government announced that an
addition of 50 per cent to the rates paid at the custom-houses
would insure passage of the goods to any point in the interior
without the exaction of likin taxes.
{294}
This was gladly accepted by foreigners desiring to do business
in the interior of China. The additional 50 per cent on duties
was paid and 'transit passes' issued for the goods in question,
purporting to authorize their free transit to any point in the
Empire. Actual experience, however, shows that these transit
passes do not always accomplish what was expected. … Every 8
or 10 miles along the principal waterways or caravan routes a
likin station is found, where a tax is levied upon some
article or articles carried through by boat, pack animal, or
wheelbarrow. At some points every article is taxed. This is
the usual rule at the gates of cities. In some cases the tax
is as little as 2 per cent ad valorem; in others, such as
silk, satin, and native opium, much more, amounting at times
to 6, 8, or even 10 per cent. Between Shanghai and Soochow, a
distance of 84 miles, there are 8 likin stations. At the first
and last stations all goods are dutiable; at the rest all
goods must be examined, and there is scarcely a single article
that does not in that distance pay at least three taxes. It is
easily seen that under such a system foreign goods cannot be
carried very far from the coast before their prices become
prohibitive for ordinary people."
United States, Bureau of Statistics, Monthly Summary,

March, 1899, pages 2188, 2231.
LINCOLN PARTY, The.
See (in this volume).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER),
SILVER REPUBLICAN.
LIQUID AIR, The production of.

SCIENCE, RECENT: CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
LIQUOR SELLING, The regulation of.
Abolition of the Army Canteen.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY).
LIQUOR SELLING:
Dispensary Laws.

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1892-1899;
NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1897-1899;
SOUTH DAKOTA: A. D. 1899; and
ALABAMA: A. D. 1899.
LIQUOR SELLING:
International convention respecting the
liquor traffic in Africa.

AFRICA: A. D. 1899 (JUNE).
LIQUOR SELLING:
The question in American politics.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
LIQUOR SELLING:
The Raines Liquor Law.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1896-1897.
LISCUM, Colonel Emerson H.:

Death.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JULY).
LITTLE ENGLAND PARTY.
A name given by its opponents to the section of the Liberal

party in Great Britain which condemns the boundless
enlargement of British annexations, protectorates and spheres
of influence in all parts of the world, and which is critical
of expansive and imperialistic wars.
LIU KUN-YI, Viceroy at Nanking:

Admirable conduct during the Chinese outbreak.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-DECEMBER).
LOCH, Sir H. B.:

British High Commissioner in South Africa.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1894.
LOCKOUTS.

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES.
LOG OF THE MAYFLOWER, The so-called.

MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
LOGIA, Discovery of a fragment of the.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT; DISCOVERY OF A
FRAGMENT.
LOMBOK.

DUTCH EAST INDIES.
LONDON: A. D. 1894.
The Tower Bridge.
The Tower Bridge was formally opened on the 30th of June,

eight years after the beginning of the work. Its cost was
£1,250,000.
LONDON: A. D. 1897.
Great fire.
On November 19, 1897, occurred one of the largest fires in

London since 1606. Beginning in Aldersgate, it spread over six
acres of a densely populated quarter, destroying over 100
warehouses and buildings. The loss was estimated at
£2,000,000.
LONDON: A. D. 1899.
The London Government Act.
"The London Government Act is the most important measure

passed by Lord Salisbury's Government during the year 1899;
indeed, in some respects it is the most valuable reform
carried by the Parliament which [expired in 1000]. There was
urgent need for such a measure. The machinery of London
Government was hopelessly out of gear. It was both cumbrous
and intricate; it was controlled by a network of small local
authorities whose duties were ill-defined and often clashed
with each other. There was no uniformity or harmony in the
system." The old Roman wall, "built somewhere between A. D.
350 and A. D. 370 … played a most important part in the
history of London; and, indeed, it had a large share in
creating the problems with which Mr. Balfour had to deal in
1899. Little did its unknown builder dream that his wall, so
admirable in itself, would cause us trouble fifteen centuries
after his death. But such is the fact. He was a wise man, this
nameless benefactor of the infant municipality; he took care
that the wall should be thoroughly well built; and he allowed,
as he thought, ample room for later growth. The exact position of
this wall is well known to antiquaries. Many portions of it
still remain; it included in its ambit about a square mile of
territory, with wells and trees, gardens and pastures,
bordering on the great Roman roads. For a thousand years or
more this area was sufficient for all purposes. … So far as we
now can guess, it was not till the 16th century that any
Londoner felt cramped within the wall and craved more
elbow-room. Gradually the City expanded, and at first it
incorporated its extra-mural parishes, such as Bishopsgate and
Farringdon Without. The borough of Southwark was supposed for
some purposes to be annexed to the City; it was till last year
by a fiction regarded as a ward of the City—the ward of Bridge
Without. To this extent, then, the City spread outside its
wall. But here its natural expansion stopped. … The City
proper remained a compact town, well organized and well
governed, but the suburbs were treated as mere country
villages; their only local authority was the parish vestry,
and its only officers the churchwardens and the overseers.
{295}
"This state of things obviously could not last. It soon became

impossible for the parishioners to assemble in the vestry; no
room, indeed, would hold them. First one parish and then
another applied to Parliament for an Act creating what was
called a 'select vestry,' and many representative bodies were
thus formed with diverse and very miscellaneous powers. …
Where the parishes were small, instead of a select vestry a
district board was formed, under which several small parishes
were grouped. And so when the London Government Act was passed
there were 78 parishes and extra-parochial places within the
county, but outside the City of London. … These vestries and
boards were the sanitary authorities for their respective
areas: they superintended the removal of nuisances, and the
lighting, paving, watering, and cleansing of the streets; they
also attended to some minor works of drainage, ancillary to
the main system. … In 1855, the Metropolitan Board of Works
was created to control the main drainage, to carry out
improvements, to regulate the streets and bridges, and to
maintain and manage the Fire Brigade. But its members were
elected on a vicious system—by the various vestries and
boards, and not directly by the ratepayers. … Its place was
taken [in 1888] by the London County Council. But besides
these vestries, local boards, district boards, and the
Metropolitan Board, it was deemed necessary from time to time
to create many minor authorities to meet various pressing
needs; such were the Metropolitan Asylums Board, the Thames
Conservators, the Lee Conservators, the commissioners of baths
and washhouses, the commissioners of free libraries, the
burial boards, &c., in addition to 30 boards of guardians and
the London School Board. As the population of London outgrew
its existing institutions, the defects and shortcomings were
remedied by patchwork. …
"From this position of affairs we have been rescued by two

important measures, … the Local Government Act, 1888, and the
London Government Act, 1899. … The Local Government Act of
1888 abolished the Metropolitan Board of Works: it created the
administrative county of London; it called into existence the
London County Council. The London Government Act of 1899 has
done still more for London. It has abolished some 127 local
authorities, whose place will be taken by the 28 borough
councils which must be elected on November 1. The London
County Council, the City Corporation, the Metropolitan Asylums
Board, the boards of guardians, and the London School Board
remain practically untouched. But 73 vestries, 12 district
boards, the Woolwich Local Board of Health (the last of its
race), 12 burial boards, 19 boards of library commissioners,
and 10 boards of baths and washhouses commissioners, for all
purposes of civic government, cease to exist."
London Times, October 16, 1900.
LONDON CONVENTION (British-Boer), of 1884.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1884-1894.
LONGEVITY, Human:
The Nineteenth Century increase of.
See (in this vol.)

NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE LENGTHENED AVERAGE.
LOOTING, in China.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST 5-16, and 15-28).
"LOS VON ROM" MOVEMENT, The.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1899-1900.
LOUBET, Émile: Election to the Presidency of the French Republic.

FRANCE: A. D. 1899 (FEBRUARY-JUNE).
LOUISIANA: A. D. 1898.
New State Constitution.
An educational qualification of the suffrage which applies
to all negroes and few whites.
The framing of a new constitution for the State was completed

in May. Its distinctive feature is an educational
qualification of the suffrage which does not apply to men who
were qualified in any State to vote at the beginning of the
year 1867, nor to the sons and grandsons of such men, nor to
foreigners naturalized before the 1st of January, 1898. The
amendment is as follows:
"SECTION 3.
He (the voter) shall be able to read and write, and shall
demonstrate his ability to do so when he applies for
registration, by making, under oath administered by the
registration officer or his deputy, written application
therefor, in the English language, or his mother tongue, which
application shall contain the essential facts necessary to
show that he is entitled to register and vote, and shall be
entirely written, dated, and signed by him, in the presence of
the registration officer or his deputy, without assistance or
suggestion from any person or memorandum whatever, except the
form of application hereinafter set forth: Provided, however,
That if the applicant be unable to write his application in
the English language, he shall have the right, if he so
demands, to write the same in his mother tongue from the
dictation of an interpreter; and if the applicant is unable to
write his application by reason of physical disability, the
same shall be written at his dictation by the registration
officer or his deputy, upon his oath of such disability. The
application for registration, above provided for, shall be a
copy of the following form, with the proper names, dates, and
numbers substituted for the blanks appearing therein, to wit:
"I am a citizen of the State of Louisiana. My name is --. I

was born in the State (or country) of --, parish (or county)
of --, on the -- day of --, in the year --. I am now -- years
-- months and -- days of age. I have resided in this State
since --, and am not disfranchised by any provision of the
constitution of this State.
"SECTION 4.
If he be not able to read and write, as provided by section 3
of this article, then he shall be entitled to register and
vote if he shall, at the time he offers to register, be the
bona fide owner of property assessed to him in this State at a
valuation of not less than $300 on the assessment roll of the
current year, if the roll of the current year shall then have
been completed and filed, and on which, if such property be
personal only, all taxes due shall have been paid.
"SECTION 5.
No male person who was on January 1, 1867, or at any date
prior thereto, entitled to vote under the constitution or
statute of any State of the United States, wherein he then
resided, and no son or grandson of any such person not less
than 21 years of age at the date of the adoption of this
constitution, and no male person of foreign birth, who was
naturalized prior to the first day of January, 1898, shall be
denied the right to register and vote in this State by reason
of his failure to possess the educational or property
qualifications prescribed by this constitution: Provided, He
shall have resided in this State for five years next preceding
the date at which he shall apply for registration, and shall
have registered in accordance with the terms of this article
prior to September 1, 1898; and no person shall be entitled to
register under this section after said date."
{296}
LOW, Seth:
Citizens' Union candidate for Mayor of Greater New York.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1897 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER.)
LOW, Seth:
American commissioner to the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
LÜBECK: A. D. 1900.
The Elbe and Trave Canal.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (JUNE).
LUDLOW, General William:

Military Governor of Havana.

CUBA: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-OCTOBER).
LUEGER, Dr.:
Anti-Semitic agitation in Vienna.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1895-1896.
LUXEMBOURG: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
LUZON.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
LYNCH LAW, in the United States.
Statistics, compiled by the "Chicago Tribune," of the cases of

mob-murder, called "lynchings," which were reported in the
newspapers as having occurred in the United States during the
year 1899, showed a total of 107, being 20 less than a similar
record for 1898 had shown. Of the reported cases, 3 were in
Kansas, 1 in Pennsylvania, and 103 in Southern States. Georgia
led in the latter list, being credited with 20 executions
under lynch law. Mississippi followed with 14, Louisiana with
13, Arkansas with 11, and other States of the South with
lesser numbers. Of the victims (mostly colored) 44 were
accused of murder; 11 of complicity in murder; 11 with rape or
attempted rape; 1 with rape and murder.
The "Political Science Quarterly," in its Record of Political

Events between November 11, 1897, and May 10, 1898, cites 31
incidents of lynching, exclusive of a mob-murder committed at
Lake City, South Carolina, where a negro postmaster and one of
his children were killed, his wife and three other children
wounded, and their house burned down. Of these incidents, 23
were reported from the South, the victims in every case being
black; 8 were from northwestern States, the victims being
white.
For 1897, the "Buffalo Express" compiled statistics of

reported lynchings from its news columns, which showed 38
between January 1 and June 8, and 77 during the remainder of
the year, making a total of 115.
M.
MACARTHUR, General:
Military operations in the Philippine Islands.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).
MACDONALD, Sir Claude:
British Minister at Peking.

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY), and after.
MACEDONIA, Impending revolt in.

TURKEY: A. D. 1899-1901; and
BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
MACEO, Antonio:
Death of the Cuban leader.

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
MACHADADORP:
Temporary seat of Transvaal government.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1900 (MAY-JUNE).
MACKENZIE, The district of.

CANADA: A. D. 1895.
MCKINLEY, William:
Election and reelection to the Presidency of the United States.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
MCKINLEY, William:
Administration.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (MARCH), and after.
MCKINLEY, William:
Message on the condition of Cuba in 1897.

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
MCKINLEY, William:
Message on the destruction of the battleship Maine.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-
MARCH).
MCKINLEY, William:
Message asking for power to intervene in Cuba.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (MARCH-APRIL).
MCKINLEY, William:
Message announcing state of war with Spain.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL).
MCKINLEY, William:
Civil Service order in 1899.

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1899.
MCKINLEY, William:
Negotiation of peace with Spain.
Instructions to and correspondence with Commissioners at Paris.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).
MCKINLEY, William:
Instructions to the military commander and
to the two commissions in the Philippines.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS:
A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-JANUARY);
1899 (JANUARY); and 1900 (APRIL).
MADAGASCAR.
The island of Madagascar, which stretches through more than

thirteen degrees of latitude, in close neighborhood to the
eastern African coast, opposite Mozambique, though often
called "the great African island," is more Malayan than
African in its population. The dominant tribe is the Hova. For
more than a century the French have been covetous of the
island, and since 1883, when they opened a war with its Hova
rulers, they have pursued a steady policy toward the end of
making it their own. The result of the war of 1886 was a
treaty under which the French claimed a certain protectorate
or control of Malagasy foreign relations,—a claim concerning
which there remained much dispute. In 1890 the British
government recognized the French protectorate, but the native
government continued steadily to refuse acknowledgment that
the treaty had given any such rights.
{297}
MADAGASCAR:
Subjugation of the island by the French.
Anti-foreign and anti-Christian risings.
Revival of idolatry.
Final possession of the island by France proclaimed.
Submissive Declaration of the Queen.
In 1894 the French government took decisive measures looking

toward the subjugation of the island, and, early in 1895, a
strong expedition under General Duchesne was landed on the
coast. The Malagasy were much divided among themselves, and
they were poorly prepared for war. They made feeble resistance
to the invaders; but the latter had a difficult and costly
campaign, notwithstanding, on account of the nature of the
country and the absence of roads, which they were obliged to
construct as they advanced. They are said to have lost only 20
men killed in action, but 6,000 by disease. They reached
Antananarivo, the Hova capital, at the end of September.
"Immediately on the arrival of General Duchesne a treaty was
signed by the Malagasy authorities, by which the whole power
of the country was ceded to the French. The queen remained in
her place, and the Hova Prime Minister was also allowed to be
nominally at the head of affairs. Part of this arrangement was
found impracticable after a short time; the Prime Minister had
enjoyed unlimited power for too long a period to accept a
subordinate position, and General Duchesne was forced to
remove him. According]y, he was taken to a house of his own at
a short distance from the capital, where he was kept under
surveillance for two or three months, but as he was still
supposed to be plotting he was deported to Algiers, in which
country he died after a very short exile.
"It seemed at first as if the change of masters in the island

was to be accomplished without any serious disturbance. … In
the early part of November (1895), however, this satisfactory
state of affairs was rudely interrupted. A paltry quarrel
between two clans about a piece of ground, which each claimed,
gradually developed into a serious rising. The two parties

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Ammonia Fuel Cells 1st Edition Ibrahim Dincer

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Inamuddin

Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: From Fundamentals to Applied

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: From Electrolyte-Based to

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: From Electrolyte-Based to

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: From Electrolyte-Based to

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Printed and bound in the UK and US

Chapter 1. Introduction to Hydrogen Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2. Charge Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.2.4. Empty voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 3. Mass Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.6. Mass transfer in the membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Chapter 4. Heat Transfer Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

The operating principles of energy conversion devices that convert these

This educational book develops a broad overview of the different

Chapter 1 introduces hydrogen as an energy vector that can be produced

In Chapter 2, charge transfer phenomena are discussed. This chapter

Chapter 3 presents the mass transfer phenomena in the different layers of

In Chapter 4, heat transfer phenomena are discussed. A broad overview

At the end of each chapter, a conclusion will summarize the key

At the end of the book, a rich collection of bibliographic references can

Introduction to Hydrogen Technology

Global issues such as pollution and global warming, as well as the

Hydrogen appears to be an interesting environmentally friendly

Hydrogen can be stored and/or transported in different forms. The main

In addition to its non-polluting character, it allows the production of

1.1. Hydrogen as an energy vector

Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe.

Hydrogen is an energy vector virtually non-existent in nature at the

Figure 1.1. Main sources of hydrogen production [RAJ 08]

However, these processes do not help reduce our dependence on fossil

For further details, Table 1.1 shows a comparison of other elements

Properties Hydrogen Methane Methanol Ethanol Propane Gasoline

Table 1.1. Fuel comparison

Figure 1.3. Distribution of H2 consumption

The process is chosen according to many parameters (type of primary

Today, less than 4% of the total production capacity of hydrogen is

There are even ways of producing hydrogen by wind energy, essentially

Hydrogen technologies applied to wind systems are still in the research

In Germany, the installation of the Prenzlau hybrid power plant is a real

This project was supported by the German Chancellor Angela Merkel

On 25 October 2011, Brandenburg Minister-President Matthias Platzeck

This facility is able to transform wind energy into hydrogen as a storage

A compression system is used to achieve the pressure of 42 bar, and a set

This technology is an important advance for the energy sector, since it

It presents a perfectly balanced system between the fluctuation in the

1.1.1. Production methods

Hydrogen is a good choice as a future non-polluting energy source for

The hydrogen sector, or in other words, the production and applications

Figure 1.6. Hydrogen technology sector

In industry, hydrogen can serve as the energy vector of several

1.1.2. Storage technologies

To store hydrogen, it is necessary to design tanks that are compact,

1.1.2.1. Storage of liquids

1.1.2.2. Storage of high-pressure gas