Graphic Signs of Authority in Late

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Ildar Garipzanov
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

OX F O R D S T U D I E S I N M E D I E VA L
E U RO P E A N H I S TO RY

General Editors
joh n h . a rn old pat r i c k j . ge a ry
and
joh n wat ts
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

Graphic Signs of
Authority in Late
Antiquity and the Early
Middle Ages, 300–900
I L D A R G A R I P Z A N OV

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Ildar Garipzanov 2018
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

To Annika, Elvira, and Lenar

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

Acknowledgements
During my childhood, the first thing I saw waking up every day was a Central Asian
carpet hanging on the wall beside my bed. It was replete with various geometric
shapes and aniconic forms that were very distinct from the natural world and
saturated with colours absent in my immediate surroundings. Every morning, my
eyes browsed through this visual labyrinth and occasionally discovered new patterns
and discerned silhouettes of unfamiliar things. This wall carpet with its interlacing
lines and curves captivated my awakened imagination, and seemed infinite in the
number of shapes and figures it revealed to my contemplative gaze. These early
experiences of visual thinking no doubt contributed to my fascination with late
antique and early medieval aniconic graphic devices, which constitute the main
subject of this study.
The vast amount of surviving visual graphic evidence, most of which remains
unknown outside highly specialized disciplines and some of which has not been
studied at all, meant that it took much effort and external support to complete this
book. The generous funding of the Research Council of Norway (grant no. 217925
for 2012–17) financially supported my research and writing throughout, whilst
the highly supportive academic environment at the Department of Archaeology,
Conservation, and History at the University of Oslo, which I joined in 2012, made
my work on this project a highly productive process. My special thanks to my
departmental fellow historians Klaus Nathaus and Veronique Pouillard for helping
me to see my book project within a much broader perspective, and to Knut
Ødegård and Alf Storrud for their genial assistance during my research trips to
Rome and Istanbul. I also truly enjoyed the cordial atmosphere at the Norwegian
Institute in Rome, my research base during various Italian trips, and I am grateful
to Siri Sande, Anne Nicolaysen, and Manuela Michelloni for their unwavering
support on those occasions.
Visiting fellowships at Balliol College, Oxford and at Clare Hall, Cambridge as
well as a visiting membership at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton
have greatly contributed to the successful completion of this book, by allowing me
to write its various parts in vibrant and highly stimulating scholarly settings. I am
filled with sincere gratitude to Lesley Abrams, Jonathan Shepard, Rosamond
McKitterick, Anna Muthesius, Patrick Geary, Nicola di Cosmo, and Alan Stahl for
their generous support and hospitality during those academic stays. I am also
appreciative of companionship with other visiting historians and medievalists at
the Institute for Advanced Study in the autumn of 2016; social interactions and
conversations with most of them made my research stay there quite a unique
experience. The latter membership provided me with access to visual resources at
the Index of Christian Arts at Princeton University, and I am thankful to Catherine
Fernandez for her expert guidance through its card database, which has yet to be
fully digitized.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

viii Acknowledgements

Writing a book navigating through the worlds of late antiquity, early Byzantium,
and the early Middle Ages is a challenging task for a single author, and I have learnt
many positive lessons from scholarly collaboration and the productive exchange
of ideas within the Early Graphicacy network and during its conferences in Oslo,
Rome, and Istanbul. I would like to express special thanks to Caroline Goodson,
Henry Maguire, Patrick Geary, David Ganz, Larry Hurtado, Leslie Brubaker,
Michelle Brown, Ben Tilghman, Michael Squire, Brigitte Bedos-Rezak, Beatrice
Kitzinger, Richard Abdy, Jim Crow, and Chris Entwistle. I have also benefited
from presenting preliminary thoughts and some sections of this book at the Earlier
Middle Ages Seminar at the Institute of Historical Research in London, at the
Oliver Smithies Lecture Series at Oxford University, the Materialität und Medialität
des Geschriebenen Seminar at Heidelberg University, the Late Antique and Medieval
Seminars at Cambridge University, the Making a Mark Conference at Brown
University, and the Medieval Seminar at the Institute for Advanced Study at
Princeton. I am further greatly indebted to John Arnold for his valuable feedback
on the book’s original design and to Henry Maguire, Michelle Brown, Celia Chazelle,
Jinty Nelson, Rosamond McKitterick, Christoph Eger, Caroline Goodson, and
anonymous readers at Oxford University Press for casting an expert eye on its
earlier drafts or selected chapters and providing me with encouraging comments
and constructive criticism.
This book relies on a substantial number of images to make its narrative accessible
to readers, which necessitated the demanding task of acquiring relevant image
permissions from different institutions in Europe and North America, and I am
appreciative of the friendly efforts that Manuela Michelloni, Romy Wyche, and Alf
Storrud invested in communicating on my behalf with relevant collections and
authorities in Italy, France, and Turkey. I am also grateful to Svein Gullbekk and
Alan Stahl for their cordial support and assistance in providing this book with the
photos of relevant coins from their numismatic collections at the University of
Oslo and Princeton University. Furthermore, I am beholden to those museums
and libraries, such as the Metropolitan Museum of Arts in New York, the Walters
Art Museum in Baltimore, and the Herzog August Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel—to
name just a few—that facilitate current visual and material turns in humanities by
sharing images of their artefacts and manuscripts with researchers and the general
public under unlimited Creative Commons licenses. I hope that more museums
and libraries will choose this path of public service in the future.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Alice Hicklin and Albert Fenton for
their assistance in styling my text in British English and checking its various
technical aspects, as well as the editorial staff at Oxford University Press for their
sterling work in bringing my manuscript to its final form.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

Contents
List of Figures xiii
List of Charts xxi
List of Diagrams xxiii
List of Abbreviations xxv

Introduction 1
0.1 Graphic Signs, Graphic Visualization, and Early Graphicacy 3
0.2 Graphic Signs of Authority and Political Culture 8
0.3 Graphic Signs of Authority: Historiographic Trends 13
0.4 Cultural History of Graphic Signs of Authority 19

I . G R A P H I C S I G N S O F D I V I N E AU T H O R I T Y
I N L AT E A N T I Q U I T Y
1. The Origins of Early Christian Graphic Signs 27
1.1 The nomina sacra, Staurogram, and Chi-Rho 27
1.2 Early Christian Authors on Symbolic Meanings of Letters and
Christian Graphic Signs 31
1.3 Protective Seals and the Bruce Codex 35
1.4 ‘Magical’ Characters and their Early Christian Critics 41
1.5 Apotropaic Graphic Devices as a Symptomatic Feature of
Late Antique Culture 47

2. Christograms as Signs of Authority in the Late Roman Empire 50

2.1 Lactantius and Constantine I’s Victorious Sign in 312 50
2.2 Eusebius and the Appropriation of the Chi-Rho as an Imperial
Triumphant Symbol in the 320–40s 54
2.3 The Hierarchy of Christian Signs in the Visual Communication
of Imperial Authority in the Second Half of the Fourth and
Early Fifth Centuries 65
2.4 Christograms as Paradigmatic Christian Symbols at the Turn
of the Fifth Century 77

3. The Sign of the Cross in Late Antiquity 81

3.1 The Early Symbolism of the Cross and the Origins of the Cult
of the Holy Cross 81
3.2 The Sign of the Cross as a Late Antique Symbol of Authority 89
3.3 The Apotropaic Power of the Sign of the Cross in Late Antiquity 99
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

x Contents

I I . M O N O G R A M M AT I C C U LT U R E I N L AT E A N T I Q U I T Y
4. Monograms, Early Christians, and Late Antique Culture 109
4.1 Late Antique Epigraphic Culture and Monograms
as Epigraphic Devices 112
4.2 The Calendar of 354 and Fourth-Century Roman Aristocratic Culture 118
4.3 Monograms as Protective and Intercessory Devices 124
4.4 The Contemplative Process Involved in Understanding
Monograms and Late Antique Neoplatonism 127

5. Secular Monograms, Social Status, and Authority in the Late

Roman World and Early Byzantium 131
5.1 The Numismatic Monogram of Theodosius II: Monograms as
Signs of Imperial Authority in the Middle and Second Half
of the Fifth Century 133
5.2 Monograms as Signs of Authority on Silverware, Weights, Bricks,
and Consular Diptychs 138
5.3 Monograms as Visual Signs of Social Power, Noble Identity,
and Elevated Status: Rings, Dress Accessories, and Luxury Objects 147
5.4 Monograms as a Symptomatic Feature of Late Antique paideia 154

6. Public Monuments and the Monogrammatic Display of Authority

in the Post-Roman World 160
6.1 From Consular Diptychs to the Monumental Display of Authority:
Juliana Aniana and St Polyeuktos (c.506–27) 160
6.2 Justinian I, Theodora, and a Defensive Response: Sts Sergius
and Bacchus (c.527–32) 167
6.3 The Monogrammatic Display of Imperial Authority in
Hagia Sophia (532–7) 175
6.4 Monumental Monograms and Early Medieval Bishops 186

I I I . G R A P H I C S I G N S O F AU T H O R I T Y
I N E A R LY M E D I E VA L E U RO P E
7. Monogrammatic Culture in Pre-Carolingian Europe 199
7.1 Monograms as Royal Signs of Authority 199
7.2 Monograms as Signs of Social Status and Episcopal Authority
in Pre-Carolingian Europe 205
7.3 Invocational Graphic Devices in Pre-Carolingian Material and
Manuscript Culture 216
7.4 Christograms and the Sign of the Cross in Pre-Carolingian
Material and Manuscript Culture 223
7.5 Late Antique Monogrammatic Culture and the Origins of
Monogrammatic Lettering 235
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

Contents xi

8. Monogrammatic Revival in the Carolingian World 242

8.1 Monogrammatic Initials in Carolingian Gospel-Books and
Sacramentaries 243
8.2 Royal, Episcopal, and Papal Monograms as Signs of Authority
in the Carolingian World 255
8.3 A Monogrammatic Revival in Carolingian Manuscript Culture
and De inventione litterarum 272

9. The Power of the Cross and Cruciform Devices in the

Carolingian World 286
9.1 The Bible of San Paolo fuori le mura and Cruciform Invocations
in Carolingian Religious Manuscripts 286
9.2 The Sign of the Cross in Manuscript and Material Culture 292
9.3 Hrabanus Maurus’ In honorem sanctae crucis: The Sign of the
Cross as the Main Organizing Principle of Carolingian Graphicacy 303

Conclusion 313

Select Bibliography 321

Index of Manuscripts 359
General Index 363
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

List of Figures
1.1. Tau-rho and christograms: chi-rho, iota-eta, and iota-chi. 29
1.2. Christian graphic signs on third-century gems, based on Spier,
Late Antique and Early Christian Gems: a) the chi-rho (nos. 112–31);
b–c) the chi-tau (nos. 134–5); d) a monogram comprising
Χ, Ρ, Η, Τ, Υ (no. 133); e) a combination of a tau with an
eight-armed star (no. 137). 33
1.3. Jeu 5 diagram in the Bruce Codex. Oxford, Bodleian Library,
Bruce 96, p. 12 (above), and its graphic model (below). 37
1.4. Occult seals in the Bruce Codex, based on its edition in The Books of Jeu, ed.
Schmidt: a) for the fifty-fifth treasury (p. 39); b) for the fifty-seventh treasury
(p. 40); c) for the fifty-eighth treasury (p. 41); d) for the fifty-sixth treasury
(p. 40); e) for the sixtieth treasury (p. 43). 38
1.5. Baptismal seals in the Bruce Codex, based on its edition in The Books
of Jeu, ed. Schmidt: a) for baptism of water (p. 61); b) for baptism of fire
(p. 63); c) for the baptism of the Holy Spirit (p. 65). 38
1.6. Votive plaques from Water Newton, Cambridgeshire. London, BrM.
© The Trustees of the British Museum. 40
1.7. Magical text from Egypt, fourth century, P.Oslo I 1, c.7. Courtesy
of the University of Oslo Library Papyrus Collection. 43
1.8. Fifth- or sixth-century bronze amulet, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan,
Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, acc. no. 26119. 46
2.1. Obverse of Constantine I’s silver coin-medallion (Ticinum, 315).
The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. no. OH-A-ДР-15266.55
2.2. Dedication medallion in the basilica of Aquileia. 58
2.3. Optatianus, Poem 8, in Wolfenbüttel, HAB, Cod. Guelf. 9 Aug. 4,
fol. 11r. © HAB Wolfenbüttel <http://diglib.hab.de/mss/9-aug-4f/start.htm> 59
2.4. Optatianus, Poem 19, in Wolfenbüttel, HAB, Cod. Guelf. 9 Aug. 4, fol. 4r.
© HAB Wolfenbüttel <http://diglib.hab.de/mss/9-aug-4f/start.htm> 60
2.5. Copper coin of Constantine I (Constantinople, 327–8). London, BrM.
© The Trustees of the British Museum. 61
2.6. Silver coin of Constantine II (Siscia, 337–40). Oslo University, Museum
of Cultural History. 62
2.7. Gold glass with Sts Peter and Paul. New York, MMA, acc. no. 16.174.3. 64
2.8. Gold rings with chi-rhos, England, fourth century. London,
BrM, reg. nos. 1983,1003.1 and 1984,1001.1. © The Trustees of
the British Museum. 66
2.9. Mosaic from Hinton St Mary, England. London, BrM,
reg. no. 1965,0409.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 67
2.10. Copper coin of Magnentius (Lyons, 352–3). Oslo University, Museum
of Cultural History. 68
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

xiv List of Figures

2.11. Semissis of Aelia Eudoxia (Constantinople, c.400). London, BrM,
reg. no. 1839,0311.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 73
2.12. Tremissis of Aelia Eudocia (Constantinople, c.423–43). Princeton
University Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and
Special Collections, Firestone Library. 73
2.13. Chi-rho on the eastern side of the Golden Gate, Constantinople.
Photo by James Crow. 75
2.14. ‘Sarcophagus of Stilicho’, Church of Sant’Ambrogio, Milan.
Norwegian Institute in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 76
2.15. Frontal side of the Encolpion of Empress Maria (398–407).
Paris, Musée du Louvre, acc. no. OA9523. Photo (C) RMN-Grand
Palais (musée du Louvre)/Droits réservés. 78
2.16. Triple chi-rho from Albenga Baptistery. Graphic drawing. 79
3.1. Floor mosaic in the Basilica of Aquileia. 84
3.2. Solidus of Theodosius II (Constantinople, 420–2). Princeton University
Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections,
Firestone Library. 88
3.3. Nummus of Theodosius II, Ae4 (Antioch, 408–50). Oslo University,
Museum of Cultural History. 90
3.4. Upper central side of the triumphant arch in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. 93
3.5. Central dome of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna. 94
3.6. Tremissis of Anthemius (Milan or Rome, 467–72). Oslo University,
Museum of Cultural History. 94
3.7. Gold crossbow brooch, second half of the fifth century. New York,
MMA, acc. no. 1995.97. 95
3.8. Early Frankish ring with a cross, c.450–525. New York, MMA,
acc. no. 17.192.229. 96
3.9. Solidus of Heraclius (Constantinople, 638–41). Princeton University
Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Firestone Library. 97
3.10. Tremissis of Heraclius (Byzantine Spania, 610–21). Oslo University,
Museum of Cultural History. 98
3.11. Early Byzantine gold pendant-cross. New York, MMA, acc. no. 2006.569. 100
3.12. Mould for an ankh amulet from the reign of Amenhotep III
(c.1390–53 bc). New York, MMA, acc. no. 11.215.711. 101
3.13. Funerary stela with an ankh-cross from Akhmim, Egypt. New York,
MMA, acc. no 10.176.29. 102
3.14. Late antique textual amulet from Egypt, fourth or fifth century, P.Oslo I 5.
Courtesy of the University of Oslo Library Papyrus Collection. 103
3.15. Magical text from Egypt, fourth century, P.Oslo I 1, c.8. Courtesy of
the University of Oslo Library Papyrus Collection. 104
4.1. Silver coin (four drachmas) of Alexander III with a monogram as a mintmark
(Babylon, 325–3 bc). Princeton University Numismatic Collection,
Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Firestone Library. 110
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

List of Figures xv
4.2. Latin and Greek monograms of the Early Imperial period: a) monogram
Vespasianus used as his countermark on the coins of Nero c.88–9; b)
monogram Aurelius on late second- or early third-century balsamaria; c)
on the second-century jasper gem from the Ashmolean Museum; d–g) Greek
monograms on third-century eastern gems, based on Spier, Late Antique and
Early Christian Gems, correspondingly nos. M12, M14, M1, M23. 110
4.3. Third- and fourth-century monograms from Roman catacombs:
a) TP (ICUR, vol. 4, no. 10579); b) Πρῖμα? (ICUR, vol. 4, no. 10579);
c) Ἀγάπη (ICUR, vol. 5, no. 15148.h); d) Avite (ICUR, vol. 5, no. 14752.c);
e) Constans or Constantius (ICUR, vol. 5, no. 13277); f ) Alethius
(ICUR, vol. 3, no. 8748); g) Gaudentia (ICUR, vol. 5, no. 14752.a);
h) Πάστωρ? (ICUR, vol. 1, no. 2058); i) Πρίσκος (ICUR, vol. 4, no. 10713.q). 112
4.4. Fourth- and fifth-century monograms from Roman catacombs:
a) Agape (ICUR, vol. 7, no. 19427.c); b) Petronia? (ICUR, vol. 7, no. 17995);
c) Rusticius and Rufilla (ICUR, vol. 9, no. 25792); d) Navira (ICUR, vol. 5,
no. 14751); e) Eufentine? (ICUR, vol. 2, no. 6060); f ) Annes (ICUR, vol. 9,
no. 24236.a); g) Petrus in pace (ICUR, vol. 2, no. 4516); h) Palma et laurus.114
4.5. Obverse of a late Roman contorniate with the Palma et laurus monogram
in the field. London, BrM, reg. no. R.4814. © The Trustees of the
British Museum. 116
4.6. Marble plaque with the Palma et laurus monogram and the symbol of
the palm leaf accompanying on the inscription of Clodius Ablabius
Reginus from the Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, mid-fourth century. 117
4.7. Tabula of Eleuteria from Roman catacombs (a. 363). From ICUR,
vol. 1, no. 1426. 117
4.8. Dedication page in the Calendar of 354, in Vatican City, Codex
Vaticanus Barberini lat. 2154 (a. 1620). From Strzygowski,
Die Calenderbilder, fig. III. 119
4.9. Late antique monograms: a–b) from Roman catacombs, Bonifatius
(ICUR, vol. 3, no. 8332.e) and Leonis?, a. 386 (ICUR, vol. 8, no. 21609.c);
c) from silver plates in the Esquiline Treasure, Rome; d) νικᾷ ἡ τύχη τῶν
Πρασίνων monograms from Aphrodisias and Ephesos; e) monogram from
a marble tombstone in Villareggia. 121
4.10. Silver plate from the Esquiline Treasure. London, BrM,
reg. no. 1866,1229.14. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 122
4.11. Acclamatory monogram from Aphrodisias, νικᾷ ἡ τύχη τῶν Πρασίνων.
Photo by Ine Jacobs. 127
5.1. Consecratio panel, upper part. London, BrM, reg. no. 1857,1013.1.
© The Trustees of the British Museum. 132
5.2. Copper coin of Theodosius II, Ae4 (Nicomedia, c.445–50).
Oslo University, Museum of Cultural History. 134
5.3. Monogrammatic reverses of late Roman copper coins, Ae4:
a) of Marcian (450–7); b) of Leo I (457–74); c) of Zeno (474–91);
d) of Libius Severus (461–5). Oslo University, Museum of Cultural History,
and Princeton University Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare
Books and Special Collections, Firestone Library. 136
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

xvi List of Figures

5.4. Pentanummis of Justin II and Sophia (Antioch, 565–78). Princeton
University Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and
Special Collections, Firestone Library. 138
5.5. Late antique weights with monograms: a) copper-alloy weight,
London, BrM, reg. no. OA.821. © The Trustees of the British Museum;
b) early Byzantine glass weight, New York, MMA, acc. no. 81.10.148. 140
5.6. Monograms from early sixth-century consular diptychs: a) from the
consular diptych of Clementinus (Constantinople, 513); b) from
the consular diptych of Orestes (Rome, 530). 143
5.7. Diptych of Areobindus (Constantinople, 506). The State Hermitage
Museum, St Petersburg, inv. no. W-12. 145
5.8. Diptych of Areobindus (Constantinople, 506). Paris, Musée du Louvre,
acc. no. 85-001669 EE. Photo (C) RMN-Grand Palais (musée du
Louvre)/Daniel Arnaudet. 146
5.9. Late antique rings with monograms: a) gold ring of Khan Kubrat
from Malaja Pereshchepina, The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg,
inv. no. W-1052; b) silver ring, Baltimore, WAM, acc. no. 57.2104. 148
5.10. Early Byzantine gold bracelet (c.500). New York, MMA,
acc. no. 17.190.2054. 149
5.11. Monograms on sixth-century objects, graphic drawings: a)
from Italy (c.500); b) from the Moselle area; c) crossbow fibula from
Yenikape, Istanbul. Drawing by Arwa Darwich-Eger; d) the central
medallion of the silver plate of kandidatos Nektarios from Staatliche
Museen zu Berlin, mid-sixth century. 150
5.12. Early Byzantine belt buckle, found in Hamas, Syria. Baltimore, WAM,
acc. no. 57.545. 152
5.13. Early Byzantine silver plate (610–13). New York, MMA, acc. no. 52.25.2. 153
5.14. Late antique silver spoon. New York, MMA, acc. no. 2005.39. 155
5.15. Silver spoons from the Lampsakus Treasure, view from above. London,
BrM © The Trustees of the British Museum. 157
5.16. Silver spoon from the Kaper Koraon Treasure, Baltimore, WAM,
acc. no. 57.649. 158
6.1. Pilastri acritani outside San Marco, Venice. 164
6.2. a–b) Ἁγίου Πολυεύκτου monograms on the pilastri acritani; c)
undeciphered monogram on the pilastri acritani; d) monogram on a
capital from St Polyeuktos, reused in the Papadopoli Gardens in Venice. 165
6.3. Monumental monograms from: a) Rome; b) Ravenna; c) Aphrodisias. 165
6.4. Sts Sergius and Bacchus, Istanbul, inner view. 169
6.5. Monumental monograms on the ground level of Sts Sergius and Bacchus:
a) southern bay; b–c) north-western bay; d) north-eastern bay; e–f )
additional columns in southern bay. 171
6.6. ΒΑCΙΛΕΩC and ΙΟΥCΤΙΝΙΑΝΟΥ monograms on the gallery level
of Sts Sergius and Bacchus: a–b) south-eastern side; c–d) southern side; e–f )
south-western side; g–h) north-western side. 173
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

List of Figures xvii

6.7. Monumental monograms on the gallery level of Sts Sergius and Bacchus:
a–c) ΘΕΟΔΩΡΑC monograms; d) ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΑC monogram. 174
6.8. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, inner view. 177
6.9. Imperial monograms in Hagia Sophia: a) ΒΑCΙΛΕΩC;
b) ΙΟΥCΤΙΝΙΑΝΟΥ; c) ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΑC; d) ΘΕΟΔΩΡΑC.178
6.10. Theodora’s monumental monograms: 1. in Sts Sergius and Bacchus;
2. in the southern side of Hagia Sophia (2a–c: ground floor; 2d–g: gallery);
3. in the northern side of Hagia Sophia (3a–e: ground floor; 3f–g: gallery);
4. in Hagia Irena; 5. on a capital from the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul,
originally from Hebdoman; 6. in St John of Ephesos; 7. on bronze plaques
in Hagia Sophia. 179
6.11. Fragment of a chancel screen with Constantine’s monogram reused in
Hagia Irene, Istanbul. 181
6.12. Imperial monograms in Hagia Irene, Istanbul: a) ΒΑCΙΛΕΩC;
b) ΙΟΥCΤΙΝΙΑΝΟΥ; c) ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΑC; d) ΘΕΟΔΩΡΑC.184
6.13. Chancel screen in San Clemente, Rome. Norwegian Institute in
Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 187
6.14. Monumental monograms in churches: a–b) Zvart’nots; c–d)
San Vitale, Ravenna; e) Eufrasian Basilica, Poreč; f ) Solin;
g) Grado Baptistery; h) of Bishop Maximian from an impost
fragment in Ravenna; i–j) Archiepiscopal Chapel, Ravenna. 189
6.15. Monogram of Bishop Elias on floor mosaic in the ‘Mausoleum of
St Eufemia’, Grado Cathedral. 191
6.16. Monumental episcopal monograms in the mosaics of the Neonian
Baptistery, Ravenna: a) of Bishop Neon; b–c) of Bishop Maximian. 193
6.17. Archiepiscopal Chapel, Ravenna. © Vanni Archive/Art Resource, NY. 194
7.1. a) Reverse of a quarter-siliqua with Theodoric’s monogram (Ravenna,
493–526), Oslo University, Museum of Cultural History; b) reverse of
a half-siliqua with Athalaric’s monogram, Princeton University Numismatic
Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Firestone
Library; c) reverse of a Lombard gold coin with Perctarit’s monogram,
Oslo University, Museum of Cultural History. 201
7.2. Solidus of Theoderic in the name of Emperor Anastasius with a
monogrammatic mintmark on the reverse (Rome, 491–516). London,
BrM, reg. no. 1867,0101.1014. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 202
7.3. a) Theodebald’s numismatic monogram (548–55); b) design
of the signet-ring of Bertildis (628–38); c) diplomatic monogram
of Clovis II (654). 203
7.4. Merovingian ring, seventh century. New York, MMA, acc. no. 17.191.93. 206
7.5. Horse bit from Visigothic Spain. New York, MMA, acc. no. 47.100.24. 207
7.6. a) Theodemir’s monumental monogram from Pla de Nadal;
b) monumental monograms from Santa María de Lara at Quintanilla
de las Viñas; c) monumental monograms of Justinian II from the Land
Wall of Constantinople. 209
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 26/02/18, SPi

xviii List of Figures

7.7. Lower frontal part of Maximian’s throne, Ravenna. Norwegian Institute
in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 210
7.8. Early Byzantine copper-alloy polycandelon. London, BrM,
reg. no. 1994,0610.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum. 211
7.9. Monograms on early medieval objects from Italy: a) on the ‘Pegasus’
lamp from Crypta Balbi, Rome; b) on the strap-end from Castel Trosino,
grave 126; c) on the strap-end from Castel Trosino, grave 9. 213
7.10. Copper-alloy belt buckle from Visigothic Spain, seventh century.
New York, MMA, acc. no. 66.152.2. 214
7.11. a) Ostrogothic copper coin with the monogram of Ravenna, Oslo
University, Museum of Cultural History; b) the reverse of a Merovingian
silver coin from Clermont with the urban monogram ARV[ernum],
Princeton University Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books
and Special Collections, Firestone Library. 215
7.12. Early graffito from late antique Aphrodisias. Photo by Angelos Chaniotis. 217
7.13. Early Byzantine gold pendant with the ΦΩΣ–ΖΩΗ monogram.
New York, MMA, acc. no. 17.190.1660. 218
7.14. a) Ora pro me device from St Petersburg, National Library of Russia,
Lat.Q.v.I.3, fol. 192r; b) Ora pro me device from Würzburg, UB,
M.p.th.f.68, fol. 170v: c) Amen device from Wolfenbüttel, HAB, Cod.
Guelf. 64 Weiss, fol. 67v; d) Θεοτόκε βοήθει monogram on the
strap-end from Mersin, Cilicia; e) Θεοτόκε βοήθει τῶ σῶ δούλω device
from early Byzantine seals; f ) ΜΙΧΑΗΛ monogrammatic tattoo on
a mummified body from et-Tereif, Sudan; g) Η ΑΓΙΑ ΜΑΡΙΑ
monograms on icons from Mount Sinai. 219
7.15. Bottom of the ewer of Zenobios. New York, MMA, acc. no. 17.190.1704. 222
7.16. Sarcophagus of Bishop Theodorus from Ravenna, fifth century.
Norwegian Institute in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 224
7.17. Carmen figuratum of Venantius Fortunatus, late sixth century, from
Venantius Fortunatus, Opera poetica, ed. Leo, p. 116. 226
7.18. Marble decoration in Sts Sergius and Bacchus, Istanbul. 227
7.19. Apse mosaic in San Vitale, Ravenna. 228
7.20. Mosaic from the presbytery of San Vitale. 230
7.21. Monogrammatic cross in Paris, BnF, Ms. lat. 10439, fol. 1v. 231
7.22. a–b) Reverse of copper and silver coins of Justinian I from Ravenna
(c.555–65), Oslo University, Museum of Cultural History; c) reverse
of a Merovingian tremissis (Veuves, c.620–40), Princeton University
Numismatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special
Collections, Firestone Library. 231
7.23. Monogrammatic initials and lettering from late antique manuscripts:
a–b) Paris, BnF, Ms. lat. 12097, fols 89v and 97v; c–e) in the palimpsest
from León, Archivio Cathedralico, Ms. 15; f ) Paris, BnF, Ms.
lat. 17226, fol. 91r; g) Uppsala, Universitetsbibliothek, Sign. DG.1. 232
7.24. Codex Valerianus, Munich, BSB, Clm. 6224, fol. 202r. 233
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 06/03/18, SPi

List of Figures xix

7.25. Paris, BnF, Ms. lat. 1625, fol. 1v. 235
7.26. Christi initial in the Echternach Gospels, BnF, Ms. lat. 9389, fol. 19r. 238
7.27. LIBer generationis initial in the Echternach Gospels, BnF, Ms. lat. 9389,
fol. 20r. 239
8.1. LIber generationis initial in Wolfenbüttel, HAB, Cod. Guelf.
16 Aug. 2°, fol. 5r. © HAB Wolfenbüttel <http://diglib.hab.de/mss/
16-aug-2f/start.htm>244
8.2. IN principio initial in London, BL, Egerton Ms. 768, fol. 63r. 245
8.3. Initials in St Gallen, SB, Cod. Sang. 348: a) Vere dignum (p. 367);
b) Te igitur (p. 368). 248
8.4. Vere dignum initial in Berlin, SBB, Ms. Phill. 1667, fol. 103r. 250
8.5. Vere dignum and Te igitur initials in Autun, BM, Ms. 19 bis, fols 8v–9r.
© IRHT. 251
8.6. Te igitur initial in Le Mans, BM, Ms. 77, fol. 9v–10r. © IRHT. 254
8.7. Inhabited initials in St Gallen, SB, Cod. Sang. 731: a) p. 113; b) p. 111. 258
8.8. Carolingian diplomatic monograms, based on DK: a) of Charlemagne;
b) of Louis the Pious in Aquitaine (808–14); c) of Louis the Pious in
Aachen (814–40); d) of Lothar I; e) of Pippin I of Aquitaine; f ) of Odo;
g) of Rudolf; h) of Louis IV; i) Lothar III. 260
8.9. Scribal colophon in Valenciennes, BM, Ms. 59, fol. 181v. © IRHT. 261
8.10. a) Monogram of Benedict of Aniane in Munich, BSB, Clm. 28118, fol. 18r;
b) East Frankish diplomatic monograms in St Gallen, SB,
Cod. Sang. 397, p. 51; c) monograms of Bishop Hanto in Munich,
BSB, Clm. 23631, fol. 245r. 263
8.11. Introductory monograms in Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum,
Ms. Ludwig II 1, fol. 3v. 266
8.12. a) Greek monogram of Charlemagne on Ravennate coins (792/3–814);
b) monogram of Duke Sico on Beneventan coins; c) ROMA monogram
on ninth-century papal coins; d) monogram of Pope Nicholas I
(858–67) on papal coinage; e) epistolary monogram of Bishop John
(a. 827/8) from ChLA, vol. 58, no. 14. 267
8.13. Fragmentary funerary epitaph of Bishop Lopicenus from Modena.
Norwegian Institute in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 268
8.14. Monograms of Pope Paschal I in Santa Prassede, Rome. 269
8.15. Monograms of Pope Leo IV on epigraphic tabula ansata from
Civitavecchia (a. 854): a) left side; b) right side. Norwegian Institute
in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 270
8.16. Monogram of Bishop Handegis from the Cathedral of Pola.
Norwegian Institute in Rome, H. P. L’Orange Photo Archive. 271
8.17. a) urban monogram (Dorobernia civitas) on the pennies of Canterbury
during the episcopate of Archbishop Wulfred (805–32); b) urban
monogram of London on pennies of Alfred the Great; c–d) box monograms
from London, BL, Cotton Ms. Vespasian A. I., fols 153r–v; e) monogram of
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