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FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
GEOENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
UNDERSTANDING SOIL, WATER, AND
POLLUTANT INTERACTION
AND TRANSPORT

ABDEL-MOHSEN ONSY MOHAMED

Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

EVAN K. PALEOLOGOS
Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

In association with

VALERIA

GUIMARAES
~ S. RODRIGUES
University of São Paulo, São Carlos School of Engineering, São Carlos, Brazil

DEVENDRA NARAIN SINGH

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
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 Dedication

I dedicate this work to my divine wife, who has provided me with endless support over the last 35 years; and to our
two beloved daughters.
Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed

To my wife and to my daughters, without whom none of this would have been possible; and to my mother.
Evan K. Paleologos
 Contents

Preface xv 2.8 Pulp and Paper Industry \Vastes 54

2.9 Petrol eum Refining Industry Wastes 54
About the Authors xix
2.10 Paim �md Allied Industries \Va'ites. 57
2.11 Cement Industry \Vaste 57
I 2.12 Agricldwral \Vastc 57
2.13 Nuclear Industry Wastes 59
GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2.14 Summary and Concl u d ing Remarks 60
References 61

l. Geoenvironmental Engineering
in a Global Environment 3. Management of Wastes: Anlnternational
Prospective
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Scope of Environmental PIOblerns imd the Demographic 3.1 IntroductLon 63
Problem 4 3.2 Hazardous Waste Designation 63
1.2.1 Pollution of Ocean:; and International Rivers 7 3.2.1 United States of America 63
1.2.2 \'(Ia ter Resou rces II 3.2.1.1 Ignirabilitv 64
12.3 W;:tter Scarcity and Degradation 12 3.2.1.2 COcrOSiVlty 64
1.2.4 Chemicals in rhe Environmenr l3 3.2.l.3 Reactiviry 64
!.l.5 Trnns�boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes 16 3.2.104 Toxicity 65
1.2.6 Acid Rain 17 3.2.2 Canada 66
!.l.7 Deforesnnion and Lmd Degradation 19 3.2.3 European Union 66
!.l.B Desertification �H1d Soil Erosion 22 3.3 H�uardous Waste M.:.nagement 66
1.2.9 Global Warming and Climate Change 24 3.3.1 US Regulations 66
1.2. to Deple tion of the Ozone L::Jyer 27 3.3.1 . 1 Standards for Genemtor.s
l.2.11 Extinction of Species and Biooivcrsity 29 (Title 40 eFR Part 262) 68
1.2.12 Environmenrcd Pollut ion in Developing: 3.3.1.2 Standards for Transporrers
Countri e s 31 (Title 40 eFR Part 263) 68
1.3 Interconnection of Global Environmental Problems 33 3.3.1.3 Requirements for TreJ.tment, StOr�lge,
1.4 Geoenvironmenral Engineeri ng Aspects 34 :md Disrx)sal Fscililies
1.5 Actions Toward Restoring ,-he Environment 35 (Title 40 eFR Pan 264-268) 68
1.5.1 Comprehensive Policy Response 35 3.3.1.4 Waste Minirni2arion 68
1.5.2 EnvironmentHI Po li cy 35 3.3.1.5 Recyc ling and Reclamation 68
1.5.3 Environmental Ethics 37 3.3.1.6 Ha2ardous Waste Pretreatment
154 UNES 's Rondmap to Sustainable Development (Title 40 eFR Pact 268) 69
"From Green Economies. ro Green Soc ietie s" J7 3.3.17 Ha2ardom \Y/a�te Landfills 70
1.5.5 The 2030 Uni tL-"C! NJ.tions Geneml As.o;embly's 3.3.1.8 Groundwater Protection Standard 70
Agenda for Sustainable Oc.velopment: Transforming 3.3.1.9 Design Criteria 71
Our \X/orld 39 3.3.1.10 Different liner Systems 72
1.6 Summary and Conc luding Remarks 39 3.3.1.11 Closure Criteria 73
References 40 3.3.1.12 Incineration (§264.340-§264J51) 73
Further Reading 42 3.3.2 Canadian Regulations 74
3.3.3 Europe<1 rt Union Reg�Jl3tions 74
2_ Sources and Characteristics of Wastes 3.3.4 Comparison of the R egul atory Requirements
of {he United States a.nd the European Union 75
2.1 Introduction 43 3.4 Landfill Design Aspe ct s in Arid Regions 77
2.2 Sources of Wastes 43 3.4.1 Arid Region Londfills 77
2J M�lIlicipal Solid \'(Inste 44 3.4.2 Alternative ncepts and Marerials 77
2.4 Pesticide Industr�' Wastes 48 3.4.3 Landfill Caps in Arid Regions 78
2.5 Mining Wastes 49 3.4.3 . 1 Evapotranspiration Cover 78
2.6 Electroplating and Mcml Finishing Industry \Vastes 51 3.4..3.2 Capillary Barrier Co\'cr 78
2.7 Mewl S mel ting lOmd Refining Industries \Vastcs 52 3.4.3.3 Asphalt/Concrete Cap 79

vii
viii CONTENTS

410.9 Buffer I ndex 123

3.4.3.4 Su lfllr Concrete Cap 79
4.11 Charge Development in Soils 12J
3,5 Radioactive Waste Managel'nenr 79
4.11.1 Constant Surface Charge Minerals 123
3.5.1 Guiding Principles of R�ldioactive
4.11.2 Constant Surface Potential Minerals 123
\Y/aste Management 79
4.11.2.1 Proton(l(ion of Exposed OH Groups 123
3.5.2 Radioactive \V:-lste Management Pracr.ices 79
4.11.2.2 Deprocon<1rion of Exposed OH Groups 124
3.6 SlJInmary and Con.chJding Remarks. 82
4.11.2.3 Zero Point of Charge 124
References; 83
4.12 Surface Functional Groups 125
Further Rending 85
4.12.1 Lew is Acid Site 125
4.13 Summary ::lnd Concluding Remarks 125

II Reference� I2S
Further Reading 127

SOIL-WATER-POLLUTANT
5. Groundwater

4. The Soil System 5.1 Inrroduction 129

5.2 Flow of WOlter in the Subsurface Environment 130
4.1 imroduC(ion 89
5.2.1 Ba�ic Definitions 130
4.2 Soil Phases 89
5.2.2 Land Subsidence 131
4.2.1 The Gas Phase 89
5.2.3 Snit\v<trer hun.lsion L33
4.2.2 The Fluid Phase 91
5.2.4 Marine Groundwater 134
4.2.3 The Solid Phase 94
5.3 Groundwater Flow VelOCity 134
Mineral Composition 95
5.3.1 Darcy's Law 134
4.3.1 Primary and Secondary Minerals 95
5.3.2 HydrHulic CondlicUvity 137
4.3.2 Tmce Elem.ents in Soil Mioerals 96
5.3.3 FractlHed Flow (lnd Cubic Law 138
4.4 Soil Minerdl Transrormarions 97
5.4 Conservarion or Mass 140
4.5 Crystfll Chemistry of Silicates 98
5.4.1 Continuity Equation 140
4.6 Structural Components of Soil Clays 100
5.4.2 AnisOTropic Aqu ifers: Flow Parallel to Layers 141
4.6.1 Si lic a., Gibbsite, Hnd Brucite Sheets 100
5.4.3 Anisotropic Aq�lifers: Flow Pcrpendiculm to Layers 142
4.6.2 1: [ Layer SiliGl.ces 101
5.4.4 Effective HydnlUlic Conductivittcs for
4.6.3 2: 1 Layer Siliccltes 102
Heterogeneous Media 143
4.6.4 2: 1:1 Layer Silicates 103
5.5 One-Dimensional (I -D) Steady-State Flow in Confined
4.7 Propcrties of Layer Silicates 103
Aquifers 143
4.7.1 K,oiln:; 103
5.6 Regional Groundwater Flow Problem 144
4.7.2 Hydrous Mica (!lIne) 104
5.7 I�D Steady�State Flow in Unconfined Aquifers 145
4.7.3 Montmorillonite 104
5.8 Applications of I·D Steady�State Flow in Unconfined
4.7.4 VermiCldites and Chlorites 105
Aquifers 146
4.7.5 Sepiolire and Palygorskite. and Mixed�layer Clays 107
5.B.1 Flow Inside an Earth DJrn 146
4.76 Soil Clay , 107
5.8.2 Phreatic Aquifer Under Rain 147
4.8 M<1gneric Minerals J08
5.8.3 Groundwater Flow to Streams and olution for the
4.8.1 Aluminu.m, Iron Oxides, and Hydrous Oxides 109
Groundwatcr Divide 148
4.8.1.1 Gocchic" a-FeOO!-1 110
5.9 Time-Dependent (TmIlsienr) Flow 150
4.8.1.2 Lepidocrocire, y.FeOOH III
5.10 Inrroduclion TO \Vell Hyd rau lic s 151
4.8.1.3 Hem<Jtite, (l-Fc20) 111
5.10.1 Steady-State Unidirectional Flow to a \Vell in a
4,8.L4 Llmenire, FtTiOj 112
Confined Aquifer 1 51
4.8.1.5 Ferrihydrite, Fc10J.nl-hO 112
5.10.2 Stc:'ldy-Stflte Unidirectional Flow to a Well in an
4.8.1.6 Magneme, Fej04 [Ifld Maghemite, r�Fe20j 113
Unconfined Aquifer 152
4.8.2 Manganese Oxides 113
5.10.3 Ste<1dy-Sr<1te Unconfined Aquifer Flow to a
4.8.3 Titanium Oxidt:s 114
\Vell Near a River 153
4.8.4 Chromite 115
5.10.4 Ste<1dy-St<1re Drawdown in a Leaky AqUifer
4.9 Soil Organic Mauer 116
(De Glee', Solulion) 154
4.10 Chemical Properties of the Soil-Fluid Phase 117
5.11 Construction Dewatering 154
4.10.1 Ionic Product of Water 117
5.12 Summary and Concluding Rem arks 156
4.10.2 loni'wtlon of Acids and Bases !l7
References 156
4.10.3 Solubility Proouct 118
Furcher Reading 159
4.10.4 Amphoreric Hydroxides 119
4.10.5 Ion Activi TY Coefficients 119
4.10.6 The pH Olnd p(x) Concept 120
6. Soil-Water lnteraction
4.10.7 Logarithmic Concentration Diagrams 121 6.1 lnrroduction 161
4.10.8 Bu.ffers 121 6.2 lnteraction \Y/ith Soil Water 161
 CONTENTS TX

6.2.1 Crystal Structure of Solid PartLdes 161

7.3.1.5 Constant Surface Charge 215
6.2.2 Adsorbed Potential-Determining Ions 162
7.3.1.6 Constant Surface Potential 215
6.2.3 Chemical Composition and Functional Groups 162
7.3. i.7 pHo 216
6.3 Bonding 163
7.3.1.8 Soil pH 216
6.3. 1 Interlllolecu1:;u Forces 163
7.3.1.9 Elec troly te Concent:nltion 216
6.3.1.1 The Inner-Sphere Surface Complex 164
7.3.1 10 COlJnterion Valence 217
6.3.1.2 The Ollter-Sphere Surf<lce Complex 166
7.3.1.11 Dielectric Constant of the Medium and
6.3.1.3 Diffuse-Ion Swarm (Double Layer) 166
Absolute Tempcmturc 217
6.3.2 Bonding of Soil Units 167
7.3.2 Stern Model 217
6.3.2.1 Inorganic Bonding 167
7.3.3 clm DOL Modified Model, 219
6.3.2.2 Organic Bonding 167
7.3.4 Surface Complexation Models 219
6.4 Theory of Energy of Interaction 168
7.3.4.1 Mathematical Description of SCMs 220
6.4.l lmemction Energy Ba:;ed on the Diffuse Double
7.3.4.2 Determination of Model Parameters. 221
Layer (DOL) Model 168
7.3.4.3 Application 222
6.4.2 Int eractio n Energy Based Oil the DLVO Model 170
7.4 Sorption Kinetics 222
6.4.3 Par tic le Inreraction Model 172
7.4.l First�Order Kindies 223
6.5 Soil·\\larer Potential 173
7.4.2 Second-Order Kinetics 223
6.5.1 TotClI Soil-Water Potenrial 173
7.5 Desorption aod Hy stere s is 224
6.5.2 Gravitational Potential 173
7.6 Metal Cation Adsorption 224
6.5.3 Pressure Potential 174
7.6.l Mewt Carlon Adsorption by Soil 224
6.5.4 Capillary Pressure 175
7.6.2 Metal Cation Adsorption by Soil Constimenrs 226
6.5.5 Osmotic Potential 177
7.6.3 Soil Attenuation of Chemicals 227
6.5.5.1 Soil-Mois.ture Charact.eristic Curve and
7.6.3.1 Adsorption 227
Hysteresis 178
7.6.3.2 Dis�lution 228
6.6 Soil-Water Movement and Flux D{';nsit�r Equations 180
7.6.3.3 Precipitation 230
6.7 \Vater Movement in Umatumted Soils 183
7.6.3.4 Complexation 230
6.7.1 Hydraulic Conductivity 183
7.6.3.5 Biological Processes 231
6.7.2 Unsaturated Flow Equation 185
7.7 Orgamc ponucam�Soil Organic Matter Interaction 232
6.7.3 Derenninarions of Unsaturated HydrJulic
7.8 Soil Organic. M<1tter�Soil Minerals Interaction 234
Conductivity and Diffllsivit�' 188
7.9 Summ,uy and Concluding Remarks 235
6.8 Water Movement Associated \'(Iirh 111crmai Grad ients 189
References 235
6.8.1 Development of Governing Equatioos 189
Further Reading 237
6.8.1.1 Derermination of Tt<lnsport Coefficients 192
6.9 Summa ry and Concluding Remnrks 201
Refer e nces ZOI 8. Fate and Effects of Pollutants on t he Land
Further Reading 203 Environment

7. Soil and Conraminant Interaction 8.1 Introduction 239

8.2 Pollutant Pathways 239
7.1 Imroduction 205 8.3 Environmental Fate 241
7.2 Adsorption Isotherrns. 205 8.3.1 Atmospheric Aerosols (Airborne Particles) 241
7.2.1 Freundlich lsorhenn 205 8.3.1.1 Current Environmemal Regulations 242
7.2.2 Langmuir Isotherm 206 8.3.1.2 Fugitive Dust Effect on Human Heal th 243
7.2.3 Adsorprion measuremenr.s 207 8.3.1.3 Fugitive Dust Effect on the Global
7.2.4 General Types of Isothernls Observed in Soils 208 Climate System 243
7.2.4.1 S�Cur\1e Isotherm 208 8.3.2 Surface Water Medium 245
7.2.4.2 L-Curve Isotherm 208 8.3.3 Soil Medium 246
7.2.4.3 1-I·Curve ISOTherm Z08 8.3.4 Sediment Medium 246
7.2.4.4 C�Curve Isotherm 209 8.4 Bio\.lvailabiliIY 247
7.2.5 Mulricomponenr Isotherms 209 8.4.1 Rete nt ion and Bioav<lilability of Inorg�mic
7.2.5.1 Multicomponent Langmuir model 209 and Organic Contaminants in Soils 248
7.2.5.2 Combin<Jtional Langmuir and Freundlich 8.4.2 Availability of Met<"lls 250
model, 210 8.4.3 AvaIl,lb,lity of Inorgm1lc Phosph.Hes 250
7.3 Molecular Adsorption Models 210 8.4.4 Availability of Organic Conramimmrs. 251
7.3.1 Electric Double�Layer Strucwre 210 8.5 Effect of Pol1urom.s 252
7.3.1.1 The Double Layer on Flat Layer Surfaces 210 8.5.1 Upnke of Pollut;lnrs 252
73.1.2 The Double Layer on r.he Edge Surfaces 8.5.2 Types of Pollu t a nt Effecr.s 253
of Clay Particles 211 8.6 Parameter Identification 253
7.3.1.3 GOlly-Chapman Model 2U 8.6.1 Physicochemical Parameters 254
7.3.1.4 Applicability of the Gouy�Chapman Model 215 8.6.2 Fate Parameters 256
x CONTENTS

8.6.3 Effect Parameters 257

8.6.3. L Direct Damage Effect 258
III
8.6.3.2 Bloi:KcuLllulation 259
8.6.4 Multimecli;l F�l.re Models. 260
EMERGING POLLUTANTS
8.7 Tiered Test Progml1l 260
8.8 HQ Risk Calcul:uion Tool for POPs 260
10. Emerging Pollutants: Fate, Pathways,
8.9 D.:1roage Assessment of Fugitive Dust 263
and BioavailabUlty
8.10 Summary and Concluding Remarks 274
References 275
10.1 lmroduction 327
Further Re::lding 280
10.1 General A<pemofEPs 317
10.3 Nanopolluw.m:;; NMs and N Ps 329
9. Subsurface Contamlnant Transport 10.3.1 Nanopol1utants Trarn.port in Media 331
10.3.2 Propertics of Nanopollu(Unts 333
9.1 Imroductlon 283
lOA Fate and Exposure Pathways of Nanopolluranrs. 336
9.2 Mocieling Process 283
lOA. 1 Fate and BehaVIor ofNPs in the EnvLronmem 336
9J Tmnsport Pwce&;es in Soils 284
10.4.2 Expo8ure Parhways of NPs 339
9.3.1 Advection 284
10.5 Bioavailability and Toxicity of Nanopol\ur:1ms in
9.3.2 Diffusion 284
Environment Media and Organisms 341
9.3.2.1 Effects of Soil Properties on the
10.6 Risk Assessment :md Exposure MCKIe! ofNanopollur;olms 345
Magnitude of D:> 285
10.7 Technologies for Nnnopollutflllts Adsorption!
9.3.3 Dispersion 287
Treatments 348
9.4 T rampart Equation 289
10.8 N8tlOtechnologics rmd Environmental Pollution OJnrrol 349
9.5 Solute TmnslXlrt Models 292
10.9 Sources and Transpore of Microplastics imo the
9,5.1 Coru;ervmive Tmccr 293
Environment 350
9.5. L 1 Diffus.ion 293
10. IO Summary and Conclud ing Remarks 355
95.L2 Advection-Dispersion 293
References 355
9.5.2 Reactive ChemiGli Species 295
Further Reading 358
9.5.3 Spill of Contarnin8nts 296
9.5.4 Conraminanr Plume 298
9.6 blborawry Methods for the Determimnion IV
of Flow Chamcteristics 300
9.6.1 Rigid Wall Permeamerer 300 MECHANICAL, HYDRAULIC,
9.6.2 Fte)(ible \Vall Permeameter 301 ELECTRICAL, MAGNETIC, AND
9.7 Laborawry McthcwJs for the Determination of
DIELECTRIC PERMITTIVITY
Adsorpcion Charnctcristics 302
9.7.1 Batch Equilibrium Tesr 302 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS AND
9.7.1.1 Test Procedures 302 THEIR IMPACT ON REMEDIAL
9.7.1.2 Analy<is 302
9.7.2 Leaching Column Test 303
TECHNOLOGIES
9.7.2.1 Test Procedures 303
97.2.2 Chemical Analysis 303
11. Stabllity and Safety of Englneered Barrler Systems
9.7.2.3 [}dta ExtnKCed From Le aching ColulTln
for Waste Containment
Tests 305
9.8 Esrimation of Sready�Stare Conraminant TrClnsporr.
I 1.1 ltl[rodUClion 361
P{ll1lmeters 308 1i.2 Engineered Barrier Svsterns 361
9.8,1 DecreaSing Source Concentration 308
11 .3 Engineered Covering Systems in Solid Wam:
9.8.2 Time-Lag Method 309
Management Industry 362
9.8.3 Root Time Method 310
11.3.1 Functions of Covering Systems 362
9.9 Estimation of Transiem State Comamimmt TI<msport
11.3.2 Types of Covering Systems 362
Parameters 3 11
11.3.3 Soil-Ba:;ed Covering Systems 363
9.10 Irreversible Thermodynamic Modding o(Comaminam
11.3.4 Top Layer 364
Transport 311
11.3.4.1 Physical Pawmetcrs 364
9.10.\ Aqlleolls-Pha.s.e liquid Transport 311
11.3.4.2 EnvirontneMal P<1ramerers 366
9.10.2 Nonaqueous-Phase Liquid Transport 314
11.3.5 Chemical P<lr'.:lIneters 367
9.10.2.1 Satumred Condition 314 11.3.6 Drainage Layer 368
9.10.2.2 Unsaturared Condition 317 11.3.7 Infiltration B:Olfrier Layer 369
9.11 Advanced Treatmems: The Stochastic Approach 317 11.3.7. I Physical Pammeters 371
9.12 Summary and Concluding Remarks 321 375
11.3.7.2 Chemical Panlmeters
References 321 11.3.8 Biotic Barriers 376
Further Reading 322
113
. .9 Stability of Covering Systems 376
 CONTENTS xi

llA Engl 11eered Covering Systems III the Mining 12.5 Therln,,1 Effects on the Mechan ical and H�'dra ul ic
Waste Industry 376 Properties 434
11.4 1 Dry Barrier Concept 376 12.5.1 Temperature-Induced Effects on Bentonite
11.4.2 Warer l1'lrTi er Concept .178 Clays used in Backfill :md Buffer Materials 435
11.4.3 Orga nic B:;lfrier Concept 379 125
. .11 Mineralogical Aspects 435
11.5 Types of Covering Material s 379 12.5.1.2 Hydrolytic Aspects 437
11.5.1 Nalliral Matenals 379 12.5.1.3 Cherno-MechaJ'llc;:I1 Aspects 438
1 t .5.2 Modified lis 379 12.5.1.4 Thermo-o.smosis 438
11.5.3 Symheric Marerials 380 t 2.5.1.5 Thermo-Diffusion 438
11.5.4 Was te Mo te ria ls 380 12.6 Performance Assessment Modeling 438
11.6 Isslles Conct.::rning the Performanct.:: Eval uation of 12.6.1 Pt.:: rfmm ance Prediction 438
Covering Sys.tems 380 12.6.2 Complexity of Clay Beh�vior and Modeling
lL7 Engineered Lining System.s in Solid \Vaste Approaches 440
Management Industry 381 12.6.3 11,ermo-Hydro-Mechanical Coupling: A Lesson
11.7.1 Classifkation of Limng Systems 381 From a Natul�l Analog 441
IL7.2 Clay Liners 381 12.7 Applicable Theories for Clay Barrier Behavior in HLW
1l.7.3 Desirable Propert ies of Clay Liners 382 Repositories 442
I 1.7A Required Properties of C!�v Liners 385 12.7.1 Modeling Beh�v ior for rhe Skeleton 443
11.7. S Facrors Conrrolling Properties of Clay Liners 386 12.7.2 Modeling Behavior for the Fluid Phase 444
11.7.5.1 CompositiontlI Factors 387 127.3 Modeling Be hav ior for Diffusion o( Heat and
11.7.5.2 Environmental E1Ctors 388 Radioactive Species 445
11.7.5.3 Post nstruction Changes 389 12.8 Development of a HLW Repository in Rock
11.7.5.4 Phy5.ic�1 Proce sses 389 Format.ions in the Unsaturar.ed Zone: The Yucca
11.7.5.5 Chemica! Processes 391 Mounwin Project 445
11.7.5.6 Biological Processes 396 12.9 Calibration/Validation of Mo del... 447
1l. 7.6 Other Types of Lining Systems 397 12.10 Available Mathematical Codes 447
1 L8 Types of Flexible Membrane Liners (FMLs) 407 12.11 Summary and Concl uding Re marks 448
11.8.1 Perfonnance ReqUirements of FMLs 408 References 449
11.9 Comrol and Monitoring of Waste D isposal Facilities 410 Further Reading 456
11.9.1 Meteorological Ddta 411
11.9.2 Surface Water, 0::l.5, and Leachare Sampling 412 13. Hydraulic Properties of Soils
11.9.3 Gr01l11dwater Monitoring 412
11.9-4 Topography of rhe Sire: Data on the 13.1 I ntroduct ion 459
Landfill Body 412 13.2 Mock-Is to Estimat.e H),draulic Conductivity 459
11.10 Summary and Concluding Remarks 414 13.2.1 Onrey's Law 459
References 415 13.2.2 Kmeny-Carman Model 460
Furthe r Read i ng 420 13.2. Clusrer Model 460
13.2.4 Kominc Mcx:lcl 461
12. Radioactive Waste Disposal: Hosting 13.3 Labomtory Methods to Estimate i-I yd wulie
Conduct.ivity 462
Environment, Engineered Barriers, and Challenges
13.3.1 Scale-Dependence of the Hydrauli C Conductivity 462
12.1 Introduction 423 13.3.2 Rigid Wa ll Penneallleter 463
12.2 Disposal of Short· Lived Low- and Intermediate-Lt.::vel 13.3.2.1 Specimen and Permeameter
R,ldioacti\'c \Y/astt.::" 424 Req uiremen ts 464
12.2.1 Engineered Ba rrier System Cotnponenrs and 13.3.22 Innuence of Wall Effect on Penne<lhility 465

FUIlCtlOIlS 425 13.3.3 Flexible \"al1 Permeameter 465

12.3 Disposal of Heat-Emitting High- Le vel Radioactive 13.4 Field Methods (Pumping Tests) to Estimate Hyd raulic
\Va"" (HL\V) 426 Conducrivity 466
12.3.1 I n te rim wrage and Spent Fuel Cont.'liners 426 135 P umpi ng Tesrs to E"timare Hydraulic Co nductivit y :
12.3.2 Permanent Disposa l F<tc ili ties 427 Ste;1dy-St;1te (Equilibrium) Radi;1\ Flow to a Well 467
12.4 Stages in the Developmenr of a HLW Repository 13.6 Pumping: Tests to Estimate Hydraulic. Conductivity:
in a Rock Formation in the Saturated Zone 431 Unsteady (Nonequilibrium) RadilJl Flow to a Well 468
12.4.1 Construction Stage; Hy drau lic and Mechanical 13.6.1 Theis Method for vHlfmed Aqutfers 468
Processes 432 13.6.2 Cooper and Jacob (1946) Me th od for Confined
12.4.2 Open�Drift St<tge: Hydr<luiic and Mechanical Aquifers 469
Proces:;es 432 13.6.3 Hantush-]acob Me.thcxl for Unsteddy Radi.al
12.43 ExplOitation Stag�; Thermal, Hydrau l ic , �md Flow in ::t Leaky Aquifer 471
Mechall ictll Process 433 13.6,4 Neuman Method for Unsteady Radial Flow
12.4.4 Postc!osure Stage; Thermal , H)'draulic, in an Unconfined Aquifer 472
Mechanica l. and Chemical Processes 433 13.6.5 Radi us of Influence 473
XII CONTENTS

13.7 EKtotS Affecting the Hydwulic Properties of Clays 474 1 4 6.6 Wet· Dry Cycles 512
\ 3 . 7 . L Marerial Facto� 474 14.6.7 Anisotrop y 512
In.1 . 1 Pamcle Size 474 l4.6.7.l El ecrric al Resistivity Box 513
1 3 . 7 . 1 . 2 Void Rorio 476 14.6.7.2 El ectrica l Resisrivity Probe 514
1 3 . 7. 1 .3 Heterogeneity 476 14.6.7.3 C.. libl1ltion of the ERB and ERP 515
1 3 . 7. 1 .4 Microstructure 476 14.6.8 Dissolved I norga n i c Substances 519
1 3 . 7 . 1 .5 Geo1oetry of Flow Channels 477 1 4.6.9 Age of Conra1n tnanrs 519
1 3 . 7 . 1 . 6 Soil Composition and Soil \
Varer 14.6. 1 0 Volarile Organic Concenrmtion (VOC) 520
Rclmionships 477 1 4 . 6.1 1 Biodegradation 520
1 3 . 7. 1 . 7 Excha ngeable Cations 480 1 4. 7 D e t erm inoti on of Aquifer Propenies 521
13.7.1.8 Adsorption Capacity 481 l4.7.1 Determination of PorOSity through the lnrrimic
13.7.2 Exptriment;)l F.ictorS 481 Formation FattOr Fi 521
13.7.2,1 Companion Mcthod for Remolded Soil 481 14,7.2 Octerminacion o f Hydmulic Conducti v ity 522
13.7.2.2 Dry DenSity 482 1 4.8 Other Methods for Elecrrical Resistivity Measlirements 522
13.7.23 Degree of Saturauon 482 14.8.1 IP Phenomenon 522
1 3 . 7.2.4 Hydraulic Gra.dients 482 14.8.2 Time Do,nain IP Measures 524
1 3 . 7.2.5 Inflow and Ourtlow Rates 482 1 4.8.2.1 Po[arizabi!ity 524
13.7.2.6 Temperature 483 1 4.8.2.2 Ch;1rgeabiliry 524
13.7.2.7 Desiccation 483 1 4 . 8.3 Freq ue ncy Domain IP Me as ures 525
13.7.2.8 Free«·Thaw 483 14.8.3.1 Frequency Effect 525
1 3 . 7 .3 Chemical Factors 484 14.8.3.2 Mem[ Faeror 525
13.7.3 . 1 lntrinsic Permeability 484 14.8.3.3 Phase Shift 525
13.7.3,2 Type of Per meant Solution 484 1 4.9 Summory and Conc lud i ng Remarks 527
1 3 . 7.3.3 Bioactivity 485 References 527
13.8 Effect of Inorganic ChemicaL.. on the Hydraulic Further Reading 533
Pmpc«i" of Clay, 485
13.9 Effect of Organic Chemicals on the Hydraulic 15. MagnetiC Properties of Soils
Properties of Clays 488
U.lO Effect of Organic Contaminants on the 1 5 . 1 Introduction 535
l-Iydwulic Properties of Geosynthetic Clay Liners 489 1 5 .2 Magnet i sm in Marter 535
1 3 . 1 1 Summary and Concluding RCln::lrks 490 1 5 .2.1 Magn e t ic Moments of Atoms 536
References 491 1 5 .2.2 Magneriz3tion and Magnelic Field Streng!:h 537
Further Reading 495 1 5 .2.3 ClassifIc<ltion of M<lgnetic Substances 538
1 5 .2.3.1 Diamagnetism 538
1 4. Electrical Properties of Soils 1 5 .2.3.2 Paramagncti;;m 539
1 5 .2.3.3 Ferromagnetism 539
14.1 I ntroduction 497 1 5.2.3.4 Antikrronwgnetisill ,md
14.2 Basic Theory of Electricity 497 Fcrrimagnctis1TI 540
14.3 Electrical Phenomena in Soils 499 1 5 .2.4 Characterization of }.'Iagneti c Properties 541
14.3.1 Elec£Tical Parameters Measured w i th Artificial 1 5 .2.4.1 I nduced Magnetization 541
Elecmcal Fields in Solutions and Soils 499 15.2.4.2 Remanent Magnetization 541
14.3.2 Electrical Phenomen<l under Art ificial Electric<I\ 1 5 . 2 .4.3 Viscous Remanent Magm:rizarion 541
Fields in Electrolytes 500 1 5 .2.5 Mag netic Hystetesis 542
[ 4.3.3 Eleerrical Pro p ert ies of Dispersed M ed i 8 and Soils 500 1 5 .2.6 Curie's Law 544
t4.4 Principles of So,1 Electric<ll Conducrivity 500 1 5 .2.7 Magnetic Property Measu(emenr 545
1 4.4.1 Apparent Soil Elec t r ical Conducrivir'l 501 1 5 .3 Techniques for Measuring Soil MagnetiC Pro()erties 549
14.4.2 Factors Influencing the Apparent Soil Electric<ll 1 5.3.1 Dete rminat io n of Soil Magnetic Parameters: 549
Conductivity 503 1 5 .3 . 1 . 1 Magnetic Susceptibility (x) 549
14.5 So il Electrical Resistivit:y 504 1 5 .3.1.2 Frequency� Dcpenden[ Susceptibility
1 4. 5 . 1 Poim Electrode Configur:1tions for Resistivity (xFD) 549
Measurements 504 1 5 .3.1.3 I so t herma l Remanent Magnetization 550
14.52 Re,istivity Measmement> U,ing EM Induc tion 505 15.3. 1.4 Saturation Isotherma l Remanent
14.5.3 Resistivity Measurements Using Titne Domain Magnetization 550
Reflectometr'l 506 15.3.1.5 51RMIx Ratio 550
14.6 Factors That Affect Soil Electrical Resistivity 508 1 5 J .1.6 Demagnet i",a(ion Paramet ers « BQ)CT'
14.6.1 Nature and Arrangem.ent of Solid Constituents 508 IRM.JSIRM, S) 550
[ 4.6.2 50i[ Type 509 1 5.3 . 1 .7 A nhystercc ic Remancm Magnecization 552
[ 4.6.3 Moisture Content 509 1 5 .3.1.8 Hysteresis Loops 552
[ 4.6.4 Pore Fluid Composition 5[0 [ 53.2 Soil Magnetic Property Conversion Factors 553
14.6.5 Temperature 5[[ 15.3.3 Analysis o f Soil MagnetiC Properties 553
 CONTENTS xiii

15.4 Magnetic Pmpertles of Soils 554

16.6.2. 1 linear MCKleis 599
15.4. 1 Magneti c Susceptibility of Soils 554
16.6.1.1 Cofnplex Refractive Index
15.4. 1 . 1 Effect of Iron Oxide Content 555
Model (CRTM) 599
1 5 .4. 1 .Z Effecr of M i nerology 558
16.6.2.3 Three-Phase Mixing Models 600
1 5 . 4. 1 .3 Effect of Grain Si'2e 559
1 6.6. 1.4 Four-Phase M i x ing Models 600
1 5.4.2 F<'Icrors Conrributing to M a gneric
1 6 6.15 Ad vanc:ed Models 600
Suscepnbility Enhancement 561
16.6.2.6 Ra)' lcigh Model 601
15.4.3 Chemis try of Fe, AI, and Mn and Relations to
16 6.27 BOttcher Model 601
Magnetic Susceptibility 562
16.6.1.8 Berentsve ig Model 601
15.5 M:1gneric Susceptibil lry a n d Electromagnetic
1 6 6. 1 9 O:unplex Refr<lc:tivc Index
Induuion 562
Model (CR1M) 602
15.6 Detection of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soils and
16.6. 2 . 1 0 Bruggeman-HanJi (BJ-I) Model 603
Sediments 565
16.6.2. 1 1 Validations 603
15.6. 1 Estimation of HeJvv Met al Pollution in Soils 565
16.7 Dielectric and Hyd ro-Geological P;:IHlmeters 605
1 5.6.2 Association of He3vy Metals Wlth Soli
1 6.8 lnfllience of Physi cochenlical Propemes on the
MagnetiC Properties of UrbJn Soils 567
Dielectric PermittiVity of Soils 606
1 5.6.3 Organic Pollutants and Soil M agnetiC
16.8.1 Bound Wafer Conrent 606
Properries 569
16.8.2 Capill(lry (lnd Free Water 607
1 5 .7 Chem ical and Microbiological Tr.:tnstonnations 570
16.8.3 Saline \X1arer 607
1 5 . 7 . 1 Types of M!.lgnellc B3cteri;) 570
16.8.4 Mineralogy 607
15.7.2 Growth of Exuacellular Bacterial Magnetite 571
16.8.5 Bentonite Content 608
15.8 Impact of Soil M:lgnetic Content on the
16.8.6 Soil Texture, Moisture Content, and Density 611
El ectromag netic Wave Properties 571
1 6.8 . 7 Cloy Effect 611
15.9 Soil Environmental Qu a lity 573
16.8.8 Natuml Clay Soils 613
1 5 . 1 0 Slimmary and Concluding Remarks 514
16.8.9 Volcanic Soils 615
References 574
1 6 .8 . 1 0 NonAqueous Phas e Liquids (NAPL) 615
Fu rthe r Read i ng 580
16.8. 10.1 Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (NAPL)
Soiurions 616
1 6 . Dielectric Permittivity and Moisture Content 16.8. 1 0.2 Sand Jnd Nonaqueous Phase Liqu id
(NAPL) Mixtures 616
1 6 . 1 Introduction 581
16.8.1 0.3 Sand ;m d Dense Nonaqueous Phase
1 6 . 2 TOR Soil Dielectrics 582
liquid (DNAPL) Mixtures 617
16.2. 1 Soil Dielectrlc Property 582
16.9 In Situ Dielectric Measurements 617
16. 2 . 1 . 1 Static Dielectric Constant 582
16.10 Petroleu m Explorl](ion 618
1 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 Comp lex Dielectr ic 583
16. 1 1 Shallow Subsurface Investigation 620
16.3 The TOR ystem 585
1 6. 1 2 Moi sture Content Prediction Models: 621
1 6.3 . 1 Basic Design 585
1 6 . 1 2 . 1 Empirical Models 622
16.3.2 Further Developments 586
1 6 . 1 2 . 2 Dielectric M i x ing and Physical Mcxlcls 623
16.3.3 S igna l Input and Output for TDR Sy6tems 588
16.13 Impact of Soil Parameters on Soi l Moisture Content
1 6.3.4 Effect of Design Geometric Factors 589
Prediclion 624
1 6 . 3 . 5 Probe Length 589
1 6 . 1 3.1 Soil Texture 614
l6.3.6 First Approach 590
16.13.1 Soil MOIsture 624
16.3 7 Second AppruJch 590
16.13.3 Soil Demity 62;
1 6.3.8 Spacing Bei.ween Probe Rods 591
1 6 . 1 3.4 Pore Fluid Saliniry 615
16.3.9 Rod Diameter 591
1 6 . 1 3 . 5 So il Telnperotllre 627
16.4 TOR Dielectric Property Determination 591
16.13.6 Soil Organ i C MJtter 628
1 6.4. t TDR Waveform and Waveform Analysis 592
16. 1 4 Summa ry and Concluding Remflrks 619
1 6.4.2 Apparent Dielectric Cons[ant 593
References 629
16.5 Laborar.ory Techniques 593
Fl lrther Re}lding 636
1 6. 5 . 1 Measurements WiTh Waveguide 594
1 6.5 . 2 Measurements with TDR 594
16.5.3 Determination of Frequency�Dcpendent 1 7 . Advances in the Determination of Soil
PennIttivity (rom TDR Measurements 594 Moisture Content
16.5.4 Determination of Frequency�Dependent
Pennin:ivity (rOin Freqllenc�'�D01n"in 1 7 . 1 Introduction 639
Measurements 597 1 7.2 ign:11 Analysis 639
1 6.5.5 r mpeda nce Measurements 598 1 7 . 2 . 1 Synthesis Merhods 640
16.6 Mixing Models (or Dielecrric Consta n t EV;1iuation 598 1 7 . 2 . 1 . 1 Signal Analys is With Pulses 640
16.6.1 Represema rion of a Layered Soil System 598 1 7 . 2 . 1 . 2 Signal Analysis With Sinusoids 640
16.6.2 Represenm lion of Various Mixing Model 599 1 7 .2.2 Decomposition Methods 641
XIV CONTENTS

1 7 . 3 Freq llenq Domello AniJlysis of Signals. 642

1 7 .5.2.3 Case 3 : Nonswelling Clay Content, Soil
J 7 .3.1 Fourier Transform 642
Density, <,,,�d ael Concentration 661
17 J.2 Nurmalization Technique 642
1 7 .5.2.4 Case 4: Detection o( Organic Pollutants 665
1 7 .4 TOR and Fourier Spectral Analysis 643
1 7 .6 Neuro-Fl.lzzy Logic 670
1 7 A.l Materi.d and Methods 643
1 7 .6.1 Structure of Fuzzy Logic 670
[ 7.4.2 Experi mental Results 644
l 7 .6.2 Fuzzy Logic in fere nce Process 672
17.4.3 Sign:;!l An;:dy:m 644
1 7 .6 . 2 . 1 Rule Aggregacion 673
17.4.4 Determination of Soil Moisrure Content and
1 7 .6.2.2 Result Com!XJSition 673
NaCI Conccnr.rar.ions. 646
1 7 .6.2.3 Result Aggregarion 674
1 7 .5 Eigen-[)ecomposition of TOR Waveforms 648
1 7 .6.3 Fuzzy Logic Defuzzificfltion Process 674
1 7 . 5 " 1 Theory 648
17.6.4 Optimbuion of the Rules' Degree of Support 674
17 . 5 . 1 . 1 ALJton:gre�ive Mod eli ng 649
1 7 .6.5 Lea rning FuzzifiC<ltion and Defuzzification 674
1 7 . 5 . 1 . 2 Singular ValLle Decomposition
1 7 .6.6 Fuzzy Syste m Programs 675
(SVD) 651
l7.6,7 Neuw-Fllny Logic C,llibration and Prediction 676
1 7 S IJ Solonon by Use ofSVD 651
17.6.7.1. Cahbrdrion 676
1 7 . 5 . L .4 Power Spectrum Estimation 652
1 H 7.2 Prediction 677
1 7 . 5 . 2 Applications 653
1 7 . 7 Summary :lnd Concluding Re m a rks 678
1 7 . 5 . 2 . 1 C"1se \ : Saline Conce ntrat ion 653
References 679
1 7 .5.2.2 Case 2: EffecT of Bentonite COnl:cm, Soil
Furrher Reading 680
Density, and Solute
Concentrations 655
Index 681
 Preface

The last quarter of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century have witnessed a quantitative and qual-
itative change in the scope and scale of human activities and their effects on the planet. Human populations have
always altered their surroundings and the diminishing of the great forests in Europe to make room for agricultural
land attests to the prevalent notion that nature was unlimited, and humankind was free to modify it for its purposes.
Engineering solutions and technological progress were celebrated as triumphs of the human spirit that allowed small
communities to improve their living conditions, provide clean water, dispose waste in a sanitary manner, thus, reduc-
ing the risk of epidemics that decimated families, and transform wilderness into useful human spaces. Underlying
these was a small human population that had reached one billion during the 19th century, and which saw cities, such
as Washington, DC having a population of less than 75,000 people, and countries, such as United States having a pop-
ulation of about 31 million, less than one-tenth its current population, before the American Civil War. Thus, the late
19th and early 20th centuries were characterized by large infrastructure engineering projects, to dam reservoirs to pro-
vide clean water and electricity to urban populations, to construct sewage systems that would isolate groundwater
resources from liquid waste, and to drain wetlands eradicating diseases and providing farmland, to mention a few.
The doubling of the population to two billion by the 1930s and its increase to three billion by the 1960s was the result
of tremendous improvements in sanitation conditions, and revolutionary changes in the medical, agricultural, and
technological fields. It is hard, perhaps, to realize that three generations back standard appliances, such as refrigera-
tors, stoves, washing, and drying machines existed in only a few households, and that electrification of the countryside
constituted a major priority of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s policies.
Together with the agricultural revolution though came the use of fertilizers and pesticides that started polluting the
air, water, and soil. Expansion of manufacturing and chemical activities introduced man-made products into the envi-
ronment, which by their nature and quantities could not be diminished in concentration, by dilution or dispersion into
air and water bodies, and could not be degraded by the soil, but persisted over long time spans. At this stage and by the
early 1970s, most of the environmental problems remained primarily local in their impact. In response to the rising
awareness and to provide solutions to this new type of problems, most civil and chemical engineering programs dur-
ing that decade, at least in the United States, were transformed to include an environmental component to their name
and their curriculum of studies.
Since that time, the scale of human activities and the rate of change and extent of transformation of the environment
have expanded from the local to the regional scale, and even to the point of reaching a global scale. Developing coun-
tries are conducting megaprojects, experiments that alter drastically the landscape, not only affecting, but irrevocably
altering the functions of the environment and ecosystems. Industrial aerosols emitted in a country, such as China or
India, have the potential to affect the air quality, and to alter the regional rainfall patterns in Arabian Gulf countries.
Discarded plastic weathered by its transport on land and the sea, or deposited by air has been concentrating on the
Great Pacific and North Atlantic garbage patches, and the Mediterranean Sea, and microplastic is found in the water
column and the sediments, thousands of meters below the sea surface. At the same time, nanotechnology has created
new materials, many of which have found applications even in common personal-care products, prescription and non-
prescription drugs, household items, and new-generation pesticides and industrial products. Together with their
potential, nanomaterials can pass through cell membranes, affect seed germination and growth, remain suspended
in the air and travel long distances, pass and carry pollutants through small soil pores in the ground, and become
available to ecosystems posing serious environmental and health threats. Electronic and pharmaceutical wastes
have become mainstream topics of waste management conferences, but did not appear in scientific discussions
15–20 years ago.
At the same time, apart from the magnitude, the complexity of the environmental problems has increased dramat-
ically, requiring the consideration not only of a single, but of multiple physical, chemical, and biological processes, as
well as of the interrelationship between them. Climate change is perhaps the quintessential environmental problem of
our times encapsulating the complexity and the far-reaching effects of our activities on a planetary scale. Recognition
of the extent of these activities on the environment has led many professional societies, such as the American Society of

xv
xvi PREFACE

Civil Engineers (ASCE) and the American Institute of Architects (AIA) to adjust their professional code of ethics to
include sections on environmental ethics, obligations of their professional members to the well-being of the environ-
ment. This qualitative change is also reflected by the passage from single investigator research studies, which were
prevalent 30 years ago, to the current multidisciplinary, large-team investigators’ studies, which are put together
to assess the multicomponent impacts of current environmental challenges.
It is our firm belief that modern environmental problems require a new adjustment in, at least, the academic pro-
grams of studies, where the traditional boundaries between the related science and engineering disciplines are
removed, and both the knowledge base and the professional practice of the scientist and the engineer working in
the environmental field are merged. This has been the experience of the authors of this book, and of thousands of envi-
ronmental professionals, who had to expand their scientific knowledge and venture into disciplines beyond their orig-
inal training. We believe that this need to move across disciplines has become more urgent in our days, especially with
the accelerated pace that new information becomes available and the emergence of new tools, including satellite mis-
sions, which shed light and provide data on different facets of the multiple processes that enter environmental prob-
lems. As the picture of environmental problems becomes increasingly more complex, there is the need for individuals
with broad and insightful expertise, who would be able to put the pieces of the puzzle together and recognize the
interconnectedness of these pieces.
The purpose of the current book is therefore to bridge the gap between science and engineering and to expose grad-
uate students and professionals to scientific knowledge and to recent information from various allied scientific disci-
plines, such as hydrology, soil physics, geotechnical engineering, geochemistry, geology, geophysics, and their
corresponding mathematical, physical, and chemical background. It is our hope that despite any shortcomings an
advanced reader will find our exposition useful and will obtain a broader understanding of the topics detailed.
This book is organized as follows: Chapter 1 provides a global overview of the major environmental challenges of
our times, which include the pollution of oceans and large river systems, the entry of chemicals and hazardous waste in
the environment, of air pollution, and of issues of land degradation, deforestation, desertification, and water scarcity in
several parts of the world. Global warming and climate change, as well as acid rain, and depletion of the ozone layer
constitute large-scale, global problems that are discussed here. The chapter contains references and exposition of the
main points of international conventions related to each environmental problem, as well as of United Nations’ and
other international bodies’ environmental declarations. Chapter 2 presents the major economic activities/sources
and the various types of waste they generate that enter the environment. These include municipal, agricultural, min-
ing, oil refining, electroplating, metal smelting, and metal finishing waste products, as well as liquid, gaseous, and
solid wastes from the cement, paint, and pulp and paper industries. Several case studies from various countries
are detailed to illustrate the impact of each type of waste on the environment. Its companion Chapter 3 addresses
the issues of waste management with reference to the United States, Canadian, and European regulations. The clas-
sification of hazardous waste, the standards for pretreatment, transportation, and disposal, together with the design,
closure, and monitoring criteria of hazardous waste landfills are presented through the US Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), and the European Union Directives on the
waste and their landfills. Finally, some criteria and guidelines for landfills of waste in arid regions are provided.
Chapters 4–7 deal with the soil, the water, and the chemicals in the subsurface environment and their interaction.
Chapter 4 discusses the gas, fluid, and solid phases of soils, their mineral composition and transformation, and then the
structural components and properties of different types of clay. A large section is devoted to some minerals and their
oxides because of their magnetic or electrical properties, which can attract or repel ions. The chapter concludes with
some basic background on water chemistry. Chapter 5 provides the mathematics of water flow in soils. The relation
between groundwater overdraft and land subsidence, as well as coastal saltwater intrusion is discussed. Flow in frac-
tured rocks and through earth dams, and some basic solutions from well hydraulics appropriate also for construction
dewatering are presented. Chapter 6 describes the molecular forces that govern the adsorption processes in the soil-
water system, the types of bonds created, and the various theories of energy interaction between ions or molecules and
the charged surfaces of clay platelets. The chapter continues with elements of the potential theory and describes the
capillary pressure, the soil-moisture characteristic curve and hysteresis, and some basic equations regarding the flow
of water in unsaturated soils and due to thermal gradients. Chapter 7 provides the details of the interactions between
the soil constituents and the chemicals that enter the soil. It begins with the methods to determine the amount of a
solute bound by a matrix surface and with a description of various isotherm expressions. The theories to determine
the electrical charges on the surface of clays, of the Stern layer, and of the diffuse layer are presented together with the
calculations. Subsequently, sorption kinetics, metal cation adsorption, and organic contaminant/soil interactions are
presented.
 PREFACE xvii
Chapters 8–10 present the pathways and the fate of the contaminants through different media, the physics and
mathematics of their transport in the subsurface environment, and some recent emerging pollutants, such as the nano-
materials. Chapter 8 discusses the pathways of various pollutants, such as atmospheric aerosols and their effects, the
retention, bioavailability, and bioaccumulation of contaminants, fate models and dose–response relationships, and
presents detailed hazard quotient risk calculations for POPs. Chapter 9 presents the physics and mathematics of con-
taminant transport in subsurface media. The advection–dispersion equation and different applications of it are pre-
sented, as well as the laboratory methods to determine adsorption characteristics and contaminant transport
parameters. The chapter concludes with the mathematics of aqueous- and nonaqueous-phase liquid transport in sat-
urated and unsaturated conditions. Chapter 10 discusses the recent scientific findings on emerging pollutants, such as
nanomaterials. These have a high surface area for their size, and are very reactive, which is utilized in several appli-
cations, but at the same time makes them a serious environmental and health threat because nanoparticles can pass
through cell membranes, affect seed germination, travel long distances in air, and carry pollutants through small
soil pores.
Chapters 11 and 12 deal with the engineering barriers put in place in landfills of hazardous waste and in
disposal sites of radioactive waste to stop or retard the migration of potential releases. Chapter 11 initially details
the functions and types of covering systems, their desired physical, chemical, and environmental attributes, and
potential problems. More specifics are provided on the engineered systems appropriate for mining industry
wastes. The chapter discusses the different types of liners, their properties and design and construction require-
ments, and concludes with the control and monitoring of waste disposal facilities. Chapter 12 provides an over-
view of the issues related to the disposal of radioactive waste, which includes the various geologic environments
and technological solutions that are used in several countries, and the canisters to be used for transportation and
burial. Some advanced discussion is given on the thermal effects of heat-emitting waste on the hydraulic and
mechanical behavior of the rock where the waste will be emplaced and on the backfill clay material to be used
to seal the repositories.
Chapters 13–15 expound the hydraulic, electric, and magnetic properties of soils. Chapter 13 returns to the material
of Chapter 5 with some advanced treatment on scale effects, the discrepancy between laboratory and field estimates of
hydraulic conductivity, and on field tests, through the pumping of wells in aquifers. It also discusses the physical and
chemical factors that influence the hydraulic properties of clay mixtures used as engineered barriers, and the effect that
inorganic and organic contaminants have on the hydraulic properties of soil-engineered barriers. Chapter 14 discusses
the electric and electromagnetic methods to evaluate the electrical properties of soils. The basics of electricity are pre-
sented to develop the concept and the factors affecting soil electrical conductivity together with several methods to
determine it. Finally, the extraction of aquifer hydraulic properties from measured electrical properties of soils is dis-
cussed. Chapter 15 discusses the several classes of magnetic soil material, the methods to measure magnetic param-
eters, and the effect of several factors on them. The relations between soil contamination, by heavy metals and organic
pollutants, and magnetic properties of soils are detailed, as well as the function of magnetotactic bacteria in the pres-
ence of contaminants and their impact on natural soil remediation.
Finally, Chapters 16 and 17 present the experimental methods and analytical tools to measure and interpret the
response of soils to high-frequency electromagnetic fields through the concept of the dielectric permittivity of soils.
The time domain reflectometry (TDR) technique and the design apparatus are discussed in detail together with ana-
lyses of the waveforms obtained. The relations between dielectric estimates from TDR data and hydrogeologic param-
eters and the effect of physicochemical soil parameters on soil dielectric measurements are extensively discussed. The
final chapter, Chapter 17, presents some advanced material on signal analysis, decomposition techniques, TDR and
Fourier spectral analyses, and neuro-fuzzy logic and illustrates the use of these methods in several case studies and
applications to predict the moisture content and to detect organic pollutants in soils.
The authors are indebted to their graduate students, and their colleagues for their valuable and timely input into the
development of much of the material contained in this book.

Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed

Zayed University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Evan K. Paleologos
Abu Dhabi University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
 About the Authors

Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed is currently employed by Zayed University as associate provost and chief academic
officer. He earned his PhD in Civil Engineering from McGill University, Canada. He was then employed by McGill
University as the associate director of the Geotechnical Research Centre and as lecturer in the Department of Civil
Engineering and Applied Mechanics. He has also held many senior positions in the United Arab Emirates, including
United Arab Emirates University (Deputy Assistant Provost for Research, Research Director, Director of Research Sup-
port and Services Unit, and Professor of Geotechnical and Geo-Environmental Engineering) and Abu Dhabi University
(Dean of College of Research and Graduate Studies).
Over the years, he was granted 10 patents, filed/published 8 patents; authored and coauthored 7 books; edited 11
books—published by Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, Balkema, A.A. and J. Ross Publishing. In addition, he has also pub-
lished more than 250 papers in refereed journals and international refereed conference proceedings. Furthermore, he
has been the recipient of several university and nationwide research accolades.
He is currently the editor-in-chief of Developments in Arid Regions Research Series Published by Taylor & Francis;
editorial board member of “Environmental Geotechnics”, a Journal Published by the Institution of Civil Engineers,
ICE, United Kingdom; executive board member of Arab Healthy Water Association, and of the International Associa-
tion for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics; editorial board member, International Journal of Recent
Patents on Engineering; and the former editor-in-chief of the Emirates Journal for Engineering Research.

Evan K. Paleologos is professor and chair of Civil Engineering, and director of the Center in Sustainable Built Envi-
ronment at Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates. He received his PhD from the department of Hydrology and
Water Resources, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA. His expertise is in the flow of water and the transport
of contaminants in porous media. He is the author of two books on environmental risk analysis by McGraw-Hill and
the Geological Society of America, and of more than 100 journals and refereed proceedings papers. He is the recipient
of numerous awards and honors in the United States, while at the University of South Carolina, which include the
“Researcher of Carolina” and the “Initializer” awards for founding the USC Center for Water Research and Policy;
in Greece, at the Technical University of Crete, as Science Advisor to the Minister of Environment, and as Deputy
Chairman of the Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Co., and currently in the United Arab Emirates, the “2014–15
Ambassador”, “2015–16 Distinguished Faculty”, and the “2016–17 Research” university-wide awards. He is an asso-
ciate editor of the Springer Journal Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment.

Valeria Guimarães Silvestre Rodrigues is a geologist from the University of São Paulo, Brazil (1998). She has a PhD in
Sciences from the University of São Paulo, Brazil (2007) and a postdoctorate from the São Paulo State University—
UNESP, Brazil (2010). Currently, she is a professor and researcher at the São Carlos School of Engineering, University
of São Paulo (Geotechnical Department), São Carlos, Brazil. She has experience in geosciences, focusing on environ-
mental geology and environmental geotechnics.

Devendra Narain Singh is an institute chair professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology Bombay, India. His major area of research and practice is Environmental Geotechnology. He is the editor-in-chief
of “Environmental Geotechnics”, a journal published by the Institution of Civil Engineers, ICE, United Kingdom. He is
a recipient of Young Teachers’ Award (instituted by the AICTE, New Delhi), 2003 SP Research Award (instituted by
Shamsher Prakash Foundation, Rolla, MO, United States); John R. Booker Excellence Award-2011 (instituted by IAC-
MAG, United States), and Richard Feynman Prize 2014 (instituted by the ICE, United Kingdom). He is a fellow of
the Indian National Academy of Engineering, New Delhi, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and Institution
of Civil Engineers (ICE), London, United Kingdom.

xix
 C H A P T E R

1
Geoenvironmental Engineering
in a Global Environment

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In providing the foundations for the advancement of human life, it is inevitable that we have to work with the land.
Land is a broader concept and is defined as:
1. Interactional Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1976):
“An area of the Earth ’s surface, the characteristics of which embrace all reasonably stable, or predictably cyclic, attributes of the biosphere
vertically above and below this area, including those of the atmosphere, the soil and the underlying geology, the hydrogeology, the plant
and animal populations and the results of past and present human activity, to the extent that these attributes exert a significant influence
on present and future uses of the land by man.”

2. UN Convention to Combat Desertification, Chapter 10 (UN, 1994):

“Land is a delineable area of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this
surface including those of the near-surface climate the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes,
and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human
settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads,
buildings, etc.).”

The above definitions conform to:

(a) The definition of a natural land unit that is distinctive from an administrative land unit, which can be of any size
(individual holding, municipality, province, state, etc.), and which normally encompasses a number of natural
units or parts of them.
(b) Land system units and landscape-ecological units that are building blocks of a watershed or a phytogeographic
unit (biome). The repeated reference to “land and land resources” of Chapter 10, UN, 1994, may be taken to mean
land and its individual land components.
(c) The components of a natural land unit can be termed as land resources, including physical, bionic, environmental,
infrastructural, social, and economic components, in as much as they are fixed to the land unit. Surface and
near-surface freshwater bodies (or aquifers) are included in the land resources. Part of these may move through
successive land units, but then the local flow characteristics can be considered as part of the land unit.
(d) The linkages between water and land are so intimate at the management level that the water elements cannot be
excluded (land as a unit intermixed with water, with the land use in part depending on access to that water,
and the unit at the same time affecting the quality and quantity of the passing water).
In this holistic approach, a natural unit of land has both a vertical aspect—from atmospheric climate down to
hydrosphere (groundwater resources), and a horizontal aspect—an identifiable sequence of soil, terrain, hydrological,
and vegetative (geosphere also termed as lithosphere) and land use elements, i.e., living organisms (biosphere).
The entire unit could be considered as geo-micro-biosphere.
Therefore the above definition requires full interaction between the four ecosystems, i.e., atmosphere, hydrosphere,
geosphere, and biosphere that constitute the land, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The atmosphere is the envelope of gasses surrounding Earth and can be further subdivided into regions on the basis
of altitude (Linsley, 1987; Parker and Corbitt, 1993). Hydrosphere refers to water in various forms: oceans, lakes,

Fundamentals of Geoenvironmental Engineering 3 © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804830-6.00001-6
4 1. GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING IN A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

FIG. 1.1 Land environment components and

their interactions. Atmosphere
(gasses around the earth)

Transpiration, Gasses due to anthropogenic activities

Transpiration,
evaporation evaporation
Precipitation, uptake

Biosphere
(living organisms and the
environment)
Precipitation Precipitation

Effluent discharges,
accidents
Hydrosphere
Geosphere
(water forms)
(soil system)
Oceans, lakes, streams,
Minerals, organic matter, pore
snowpack, glaciers, polar ice
fluid, pore air
caps and groundwater
Water discharge,
runoff
Seepage

streams, snowpack, glaciers, polar ice caps, and water under the ground (groundwater) (Friedman, 1987; Parker and
Corbitt, 1993). Geosphere refers to the complex and variable mixture of minerals, organic matter, pore fluid, and air
that make up the soil. Finally, the term biosphere refers to living organisms (flora and fauna) and their environments
on the surface of the Earth (Manahan, 1991).
The movement of pollutants within the land has a profound effect upon their bioavailability, the mass transfer,
and uptake of contaminants by organisms (Mohamed and Antia, 1998; Anderson and Hillwalker, 2012). The rates
of transfer are important and can affect the land livabi1ity. The physical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological
processes that determine the portion of bioavailable contaminants may involve the soil, the air, or the water and
can be absorbed into the body through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact, posing health threats to all.
In approaching the creation of a new environment, which is related to the land, the problems of waste management
and restoration of the environment, that are haunting the present-day civilization, must be considered from a global
environmental viewpoint. Solutions to the complex problems confronted by the waste management and environmen-
tal restoration industries are currently handled by geoenvironmental engineering professionals, consisting of geotechni-
cal, environmental, and chemical engineers; geologists; geochemists; microbiologists; biotechnologists; material
scientists; and soil scientists. These professionals employ a synergy of information developed in a variety of disciplines
to solve the challenging environmental problems. In this context, geoenvironmental engineering, a blend of geotech-
nical and environmental engineering, can be defined as the application of earth science principles to the solution of land
environmental problems (Mohamed and Antia, 1998).
In seeking solutions to restore the degradation of the environment, we need to consider the interconnecting nature
of the various ecosystems. This means that a cooperative and holistic global effort should be employed in developing
viable solutions to global environmental problems. Therefore it is necessary for a geoenvironmental engineer to
be aware of the developments in various allied disciplines and how these may impact on his or her approach in
implementing sound engineering solutions to various environmental problems. The global environmental problems,
which are the focus of the geoenvironmental engineering practice, and the actions toward restoration of the environ-
ment are the subjects of this chapter.

1.2 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC PROBLEM

Human activity (mainly population explosion and industrialization) is bringing about significant changes in the
global environment at an unprecedented pace. It is not an exaggeration to say that the survival of humanity itself
is threatened by changes in the composition of the atmosphere, the rain which falls on the ground surface, and the
amount of vegetation, which embraces the land. These changes are historically relatively recent. The expanding scope
of human activity, pursuant to the industrial revolution, has steadily overtasked the global environment and natural

I. GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 1.2 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND THE DEMOGRAPHIC PROBLEM 5
resources. The situation has been made all the more serious by the expansion of the global economy and the increase in
population since World War II as a result of advancements in agriculture, industrialization, medicine, and science.
Human population, which stood at a few hundred million until the Middle Ages reached one billion during the first
decades of the 19th century, doubled by the 1930s, increased to three billion by the 1960s, and has exceeded recently the
seven billion people mark (Fig. 1.2).
Projections of the global as well as regional populations by the United Nations (UN, 2004, 2015) paint a bleak picture
(Fig. 1.3), where even under a best-case scenario the global population, after increasing to 9 billion by the middle of this
century, may stabilize to about 7 billion by 2100 (Fig. 1.3).
The 2013 and expected 2050 population per continent are shown in Fig. 1.4 and Table 1.1 (http://www.
worldometers.info/world-population/).
The relatively high rates of population increase in urban areas of developing regions require rapid infrastructure
development. Unfortunately, the gross national products (GNPs) of most of these countries are not growing at a pace
that is compatible with their infrastructural needs. Adequate programs have not been implemented to control waste
and protect human health. In most cities of the developing world, services associated with waste management are not
provided to about 30% of the population (Bartone and Bemstein, 1992). Furthermore, less than 5% of the solid waste
management budget is typically allocated to waste disposal. In contrast, industrialized countries devote 25%–30% of
such budgets to waste disposal. Wastes generated in industrialized countries are more toxic and greater in quantity per
capita than in developing countries.

FIG. 1.2 World population since the 14th century.

World population (million)
12000
UN projections
10000
Population (million)

8000
2nd Industrial Revolution (1870-1920)
1st Medical Revolution Digital Revolution
6000 (1975-present)
(1800-1860)
Industrial Revolution Science/Technical Revolution
4000
(1760-1840) (1940-1970)
Black Death Green Revolution (1930-1960)
2000
(1346-1353)
2nd Medicall Revolution (1900-1960)
0
1340 1600 1800 1960 1987 2012 2030 2100
Year

FIG. 1.3 Probabilistic projections of global

population to 2100 (UN, 2015).

I. GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Another random document with
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fled in fright, treacherous too, because of your father’s misfortunes.
Jacques was a born retainer of Nançay, as his fathers had been
before him; but for a long time he had had this shop, being so expert
a clockmaker that the marquis—God rest his soul—set him up here
many, many years ago. But Jacques had been married to me, and I
had been madame’s maid and yours. In my arms were you laid when
you were born; and a beautiful baby you were, Péron; a fine,
straight-limbed child, and so red that the marquise was worried. But
see how beautiful your skin is now! Well, I was there that night with
you and Jacques; we were up in the Tour de l’Horloge looking for
Archambault, for he had gone to Poissy for tidings. It was moonlight,
and presently we saw him. He was little and fat, even then; we saw
him running like mad across the fields, and we knew that something
was wrong. He came in gasping, his round eyes starting from his
head, and told us that M. de Marsou, who is now called Marquis de
Nançay, had sent a band of desperate men to Poissy, and they were
coming to Nançay; and Archambault had, too, a message from Père
Antoine telling us to save the child from his father’s enemy. We had
not a moment to lose, and we decided in a moment what to do.
Archambault was as famous then as a cook as he is now; there was
a full larder, for we three had not cared to eat, and the cellar was full
of wine. He said, M. de Marsou’s ruffians were drinking at Poissy and
might be late, thinking their prey certain; and down he went and
began to cook and set out a feast while Jacques carried up wine
from below, and I packed all I could into the three chests. We had
one good horse—it belonged to Jacques—yet in the stable and a
cart; and presently he and I carried out the three chests and put
them into the cart while Archambault cooked and cooked. Oh, what a
night it was! We dared not start right off, for we should surely meet
them, and we had no place to hide but in Paris, and they were
between us and the city. You were asleep, and we wrapped you in
blankets and carried you out to the cart, and then Jacques drove us
off to the woods and hid us among the thick trees and went back to
help Archambault. I sat in the cart with you on my lap and prayed. It
was a long time, and I could just see the château. By the sudden
illumination, I knew they had come, and it seemed to me that they
must hear my heart beat in the woods. Mère de Dieu, how afraid I
was that you would wake up and cry! But you were an angel,
Monsieur Jehan, and you slept on, out there in the forest, poor,
fatherless baby, with no one but a weak woman to defend you. After
a long, long time—so long that I was cramped and weary, and the
horse, I think, was asleep—I heard some one coming through the
underbrush and I was half dead with fear; but it was Jacques, and
without a word he sprang into the cart and began to pick his way out
of the woods. I did not dare to speak, I only bent my head down on
yours and prayed. It was hard work to get down through the brush to
the road, out of sight of the house, and it was not until we were
driving fast on the highway to Poissy that Jacques spoke. ‘They are
drunk,’ he said, ‘every mother’s son of them, and filled with the feast,
and Archambault is watching them. We pretended to be false to the
dead marquis, and that we had prepared a feast for M. de Marsou.
They think us traitors, and that we have disposed of the child. Mon
Dieu!’ he added after a minute, ‘Archambault has lied so this night
that I was afraid of him; I thought I smelled sulphur!’ Well, that is
really all,” she said, smiling tearfully as she looked at Péron’s grave
and attentive face; “we drove straight through Poissy, and at St.
Germain-en-Laye Jacques spread the report that the late M. de
Nançay’s boy was dead. Père Antoine met us on the road near
Paris, and for two years we hid you, in constant fear of M. de
Marsou; but after a while, I think he really believed you dead.”
After she ceased speaking Péron was silent for a moment, and then
he spoke with emotion:
“All that you have told me only increases my gratitude,” he said.
As he spoke Jacques des Horloges came in from the shop and his
wife told him that the cardinal had divined their carefully concealed
secret and revealed it to Péron. The clockmaker listened to the
young soldier’s earnest thanks with strong feeling showing in his
rugged face, but he made light of what he had done.
“Monsieur Jehan,” he said bluntly, “but for your family, mine might
have remained in the ditch. What I am I owe to the late marquis. I
had a plain duty to perform toward his child, nothing more. It has
been on my mind often, of late, to tell you the truth; but Père Antoine
was fearful that you might be tempted to commit some rash act and
so fall victim to the intrigues of Pilâtre de Nançay, as he is pleased to
call himself.”
They sat for a while longer talking of old times and of the future, the
clockmaker and his wife manifestly disappointed that the cardinal
had not immediately set up the new Marquis de Nançay. Péron
forbore to tell them of M. de Nançay’s arrest, keeping that as
monsignor’s secret.
The time drew near for the young musketeer to report for
instructions, as directed by Father Joseph, and bidding his two
humble friends an affectionate adieu, he set out for the palace. But
he did not go directly there; he turned out of his way to the Rue de
Bethisi and climbed the stairs to the lodgings of Père Antoine. He
knew that the priest was at home, for he saw a light shining under
his door. Péron tapped on it three times, using the signal of his
childhood, and immediately Père Antoine opened it and stood with
outstretched hands on the threshold. His hair was snow white now
and his gentle face was lined with care. His figure looked tall and thin
in the simple black habit of his order, and he stooped a little more
with the weight of added years. Péron told him the story of the
cardinal’s revelation, and from him he did not withhold the news of
M. de Nançay’s arrest. Père Antoine listened with a grave face to the
story of the clock and the struggle.
“And you did not use your weapon?” he asked quickly.
“Nay, not with such advantage upon my side,” Péron replied.
“I am thankful,” said the priest, in a tone of relief; “I would have you a
brave man and no coward. I cannot imagine how M. de Nançay
permitted himself to be taken in the toils.”
“You have not been in the household of the cardinal, as I have been,
father,” Péron rejoined smiling. “Had you been, you would not have
been surprised. Richelieu’s arm is long, and he has all the adroit
diplomacy, the subtlety of the Italian. I have heard it said that a cat
will charm the bird it intends to devour; that the bird comes to it,
fluttering its wings in its desire to escape, yet drawn by irresistible
fascination. I know not whether this be true or not, but it is much like
this with monsignor. In the years I have been with him, I have seen
many an obstinate traitor tell his own secret. They say it was thus
Chalais was lost; and there have been many others—how many no
one knows but the guards of the cardinal and the keepers of the
Châtelet.”
Père Antoine shook his head thoughtfully.
“The cardinal is a great man,” he said. “To you I will admit that I do
not like his methods, but I believe that the state is safe under his
guidance. His heart is single in its love of France. And I believe that
he loves justice well enough to see you righted; it has ever been my
prayer that I might be spared to see you in your father’s place.”
Péron did not immediately reply; he stood looking thoughtfully at the
floor, and Père Antoine was beside him, his hand resting on the
young man’s shoulder. After a moment’s pause Péron looked up into
the priest’s clear blue eyes.
“You were with my father at the last,” he said in a low voice; “did he
think of me at that hour, was there any message?”
“He spoke many times of his little boy,” Père Antoine answered
gently, “and at the last, when we walked hand in hand toward the
scaffold, he sent you his blessing and bade me bring you up a
Christian and a brave man, as your sainted mother would have
wished. After that we said a prayer together, and he ascended the
scaffold, repeating the hundred and twenty-ninth psalm:
“‘Du fond de l’abîme, Seigneur, je pousse des cris vers vous;
Seigneur, écoutez ma voix. Que vos oreilles soient attentives à la
voix de ma prière. Si vous tenez un compte exact des iniquités, Ô
mon Dieu, qui pourra, Seigneur, subsister devant vous?
“‘Mais vous êtes plein de miséricorde; et j’espère en vous, Seigneur,
à cause de votre loi. Mon âme attend l’effet de vos promesses, mon
âme a mis toute sa confiance dans le Seigneur.’”
There was a pause, and then Père Antoine added: “He was a
handsome man always, but on that morning I thought that his face
wore more than earthly beauty; he died with perfect fortitude and at
peace with God and man. The example of his life, clean and
courageous, is before you, Jehan de Calvisson, and, please God,
you shall follow it.”
 CHAPTER XIII
THE CARDINAL’S INSTRUCTIONS

IN the morning, Péron waited upon the cardinal for his instructions,
and they were not only unexpected but also unwelcome. Richelieu
was alone when he summoned his musketeer, and was walking up
and down the salon; his red robe and cape were edged with fur, and
on his breast he wore the broad ribbon and star of the order of Saint
Esprit. His face was very pale, but his eyes burned with the fire of his
restless spirit; he was in the mood to pursue a purpose with
relentless energy. His orders to Péron were distinct and brief.
“You will get three or four stout knaves,” he said; “I do not wish my
men employed, and you will not wear your uniform. There is a
sufficient sum on the table to pay the hire of half a dozen men-at-
arms, if they be needed. Take them, go to the Hôtel de Nançay, and
give Mademoiselle de Nançay this letter. When she has read it, she
will probably go of her own free will; if not, you will take her, and any
female attendant she may select, and ride to Poissy. I do not wish
you to reach there before nightfall. Once there you will readily find a
house that stands not two hundred yards from the Golden Pigeon;
’tis a tall house, and over the door is the statue of the Virgin. The
house is commonly called the Image de Notre Dame. Here you will
take mademoiselle and her woman, but you will not permit them to
go to either door or window. In the upper story you will find a party of
my men. Before ten o’clock there will come to the door a company of
not less than a dozen men, who will use a password, ‘Dieu et le roi;’
admit them and detain all as prisoners. There will be a fight,
therefore take the precaution to put the women out of danger before
they come. The mission has its perils, but I believe that you would
prefer it to a more easy one.”
Richelieu paused and looked keenly at the young man, whose face
had flushed and paled alternately during the cardinal’s long speech.
“Monsignor,” he said, with hesitation, “I love an enterprise which is
perilous and honorable, but I fear I cannot induce Mademoiselle de
Nançay to go with me.”
“The letter will, I think, remove her objections,” the cardinal replied;
“if not, it is for you to find means to induce her to go of her own will.
Otherwise,” he added dryly, “I must find some one who has not your
scruples.”
Péron bowed gravely. “I will do my best to execute your orders,
monsignor,” he said.
“You have the purse and the letter,” continued the cardinal, “that is all
then; I trust that you will successfully fulfil your commission.”
Péron had almost reached the door, when monsignor recalled him.
“Sieur de Calvisson,” he said, “is it your wish to present a petition to
his Majesty for the restoration of your estates and title, in view of the
recent revelations?”
“No, monsignor,” Péron replied; “for the present I am content to bear
my father’s name without making any effort to obtain his estates. I
would not be known as a claimant to the title of Nançay.”
Richelieu gave him a searching look.
“This is strange,” he remarked. “Yesterday you were justly incensed
against the marquis; to-day you have on a coat of another color.”
The musketeer flushed. “My lord cardinal,” he said, “the sudden
change would entail much misery for others,—chiefly for the
innocent,—and I, who have been a musketeer so long, am content to
wait awhile longer until I see my way more plainly, though I am
deeply grateful for the interest your eminence has shown in my
affairs.”
“Ah, I see,” said the cardinal, “the house on the Rue St. Thomas du
Louvre has a witchcraft of its own. Beware, M. de Calvisson, that you
do not fail in your duty for the sake of a fair face.”
With this warning, he dismissed the young soldier and went, with
something akin to a smile on his stern face, to give his morning
audience to an immense circle of fawning clients and courtiers, who
thronged the anterooms of the Palais Cardinal and overflowed into
the Rue St. Honoré.
Péron went out through the gardens and made his way slowly to the
rear entrance of Archambault’s pastry shop. He was in search of
some men to accompany him on his mission, and he knew that the
pastry cook was well acquainted with all sorts and conditions of
society. Though bent on fulfilling it faithfully, Péron did not like his
mission. The cardinal had given him no explanation of it, but he was
not slow to divine the purpose of mademoiselle’s ride to Poissy. She
was to be used to entice some of her father’s accomplices to the
house called the Image de Notre Dame. Of that there could be no
doubt; her arrival was a signal for a meeting of the conspirators, and
from his brief acquaintance with Renée de Nançay, Péron felt sure
that she would not allow the cardinal to use her as a means for the
destruction of the friends of the marquis. He would not have
accepted the commission at all, preferring to brave Richelieu’s
displeasure, if it had not been for the cardinal’s covert threat that if
he did not undertake it some one else would who would be less
delicate toward mademoiselle’s feelings. But Péron would rather
have met the desperate men alone than have encountered the
merciless tongue of Renée de Nançay.
With these troubled and perplexing thoughts in his mind, the young
musketeer opened the kitchen door of the pastry shop and walked
into the midst of a scene similar to the one which he had witnessed
in his childish visit, when he had been the jest of the soldiers. It was
the busiest hour of the morning, and some of the cooks were
roasting meat and some were rolling pastry, while others were
making marvellous palaces and fantastic shapes of sugar. Here was
the Palais Cardinal in sugar on top of a fruit cake, and there was an
angel with a harp, and Noah’s dove with the olive branch. There was
a mountain of rissoles on one table and on another a royal pasty
made of venison from the forest of St. Germain.
Péron passed unheeded through the busy scene, and at the door of
a small office next the public room he met Archambault. The pastry
cook was stouter than ever, and the bald spot on the top of his head
far exceeded the proportions of a poached egg; but he wore a look
of placid content, and it was whispered that his fortune exceeded
that of the late Duc de Luynes. At the sight of Péron, his fat face
beamed; Jacques des Horloges had already told him of the
cardinal’s revelation, and he drew the young man into his private
room, and shut the door.
“Sit down, M. le Marquis,” he said, pointing to the table, on which
was a bottle of wine, “and let us drink to your health and prosperity.”
“Nay, good Archambault,” replied Péron, smiling, “let the toast be
your famous run from Poissy to save my life.”
“Parbleu! it was a run,” said Archambault, laughing; “I thought I
should drop on the hill, Monsieur Jehan, but I made it, and the wine
that we gave the canaille to drink was as good as this in which I drink
your health, my marquis.”
“No marquis as yet, Archambault,” Péron replied; “only the Sieur de
Calvisson, nor would I have it known that I am really the son of the
late Marquis de Nançay.”
Archambault set down his empty glass with a look of perplexity on
his fat face.
“And wherefore not, Monsieur Jehan?” he asked; “surely monsignor
—”
“Of that we will speak hereafter,” said the young soldier, shortly, “and
if I am ever marquis, I shall not forget your devotion to the orphan
boy; but of that another time. I am bound on an errand outside of
Paris, and I need four good men-at-arms. Do you think of any out of
employment now?”
“There is one in the public room at this moment,” Archambault
replied at once. “I can always tell men by what they put into their
stomachs. This man is a great fighter, by the way he eats. I have fed
men for forty years, and I know their appetites: the ambitious man
eats sparingly, his mind being elsewhere; the penurious man eats
still less when he pays himself; when another pays he is greedy, but
he will always have more than the worth of his money, and reviles
you for a denier. The soldier craves strong meat and drink, the
epicure wants a new dish, and the glutton cleans the platter. The
man in yonder is a great fighter, not only by his food but by his looks;
you may see him through the little window there from which I
overlook my guests.”
He pointed as he spoke to a small curtained window in the side of
the room, and with some curiosity Péron looked out into the outer
apartment. As usual, it was full of guests, but Archambault showed
him the man of whom he spoke. Péron saw, with surprise and
pleasure, the broad shoulders, thick neck, great shock of grizzled
black hair, and the broad nose and small eyes of Choin, the fencing-
master.
“The very man I need!” he exclaimed; and with a few words of thanks
to the pastry cook, he opened the door and entered the public
dining-room.
Choin met him with equal pleasure. The maître d’armes had long
since forgiven his defeat in the tennis court, and entertained a kind of
rough affection for his former pupil. Choin was alone at a small table,
which gave Péron the opportunity he desired to explain to him the
nature of his errand, and ask him to accompany him. The old
swordsman was willing enough, for since the edict against duelling,
such men found life in Paris dull and profitless compared with the old
days. For, since the famous duel of M. de Bouteville and M. de
Beuvron on the Place Royale which had sent two noblemen to the
scaffold, sword practice had fallen out of favor in Paris.
“Pardieu!” said Choin, laying down his knife, “I will gladly go, Péron.
The chance of a fight is as good as meat to me, and I can get you
three other stout knaves and the horses, if you have the money to
pay for all.”
Péron took out the cardinal’s purse and counted out a sufficient sum.
“We must have two led horses besides,” he said, “for there will be
two women to go also.”
Choin gave him a quizzical look.
“What is this?” he asked bluntly, “an elopement as well as a possible
fight?”
“You are mistaken,” replied Péron, “I have been ordered to escort a
lady and her woman to Poissy, nothing more.”
His tone silenced Choin without entirely convincing him, but they
completed the business arrangements without further delay. There
was but little time to spare, and the fencing-master promised to meet
Péron at the corner of the Rue St. Thomas du Louvre at the
appointed hour. Well satisfied with his transaction, the musketeer
was making his way to the public entrance when he was suddenly
accosted by a young man, very gayly attired and with a painted face.
A second glance told Péron that it was his acquaintance of the
previous day, the Sieur de Vesson.
“Sir musketeer,” said the courtier, fiercely, “you escaped yesterday,
but later you and I will have a reckoning.”
“You may spin in a circle as often as you please, sir popinjay,” replied
Péron, with a shrug, “but wash the rouge off your cheeks and eat
strong meat before you try to fight with men.”
The dandy stared at him in violent rage.
“Your jest will be a sorry one when next we meet!” he exclaimed.
“By that time you may be old enough to grow a moustache,
monsieur,” retorted Péron with a laugh, as he walked on and left the
young fellow fuming in impotent fury.
 CHAPTER XIV
THE HOUSE AT POISSY

WHEN Péron met Choin and his company at the corner of the Rue
St. Thomas du Louvre, he had discarded his uniform and wore a
dress more becoming to his actual station in life. It was a simple suit
of dark blue with a short velvet cloak, and sword, and a hat with
plumes, and his collar of rare Flemish lace was one which Madame
Michel had produced from the chests in the attic. The change in
apparel made a marked one in his appearance, and he looked the
man of rank rather than the soldier of fortune. Even Choin noticed it,
and glanced keenly at the well made figure and the handsome face
of his quondam pupil. The maître d’armes had faithfully executed his
part of the bargain, and was waiting with three rough and powerful-
looking men-at-arms, who wore the nondescript dress of mercenary
soldiers and had the air of being indifferent to the nature of their
employment so long as it furnished money for liquor. They had also
the two led horses for the women; and after a brief inspection of his
party, Péron proceeded at once to the Hôtel de Nançay, where his
guards were still on duty. They reported that all was quiet within and
without, and that no one had made any attempt either to enter or to
leave the house.
It was with no very pleasant anticipations that Péron knocked at the
door, and he was not surprised at the delay which followed. He had
directed Choin and his men to ride into the lane to the garden gate,
that their errand might be less conspicuous, and he was alone on the
steps except for the sentinel who sat at the threshold, drowsy with
his continuous and unexciting vigil. Péron was forced to knock three
times, and was conscious that he was being scrutinized from the
windows above, as he had been on the day before. At last, the door
was opened reluctantly by a stout young woman with a plain face
and sharp black eyes, who looked at him with a frown of displeasure;
evidently she had been made to undo the latch against her own
judgment.
“What do you want?” she demanded, in a sour tone, placing herself
squarely in the opening.
“I am the bearer of a letter for Mademoiselle de Nançay,” Péron
replied sternly, “and I must present it to her at once.”
“You take a high tone, monsieur,” exclaimed the woman, with a toss
of her head; “but you shall not see mademoiselle unless she wishes
it,” and she slammed the door in his face.
Péron drew back half angry and half amused, but seeing the covert
smile on the face of the soldier, he struck his sword peremptorily on
the door, determined to gain admittance in spite of the women. He
had not long to wait, however, and this time the young woman
opened the door wide enough for him to pass through. She was
sullen and silent, and only signed to him to follow up the stairs to the
same salon where mademoiselle had burned the papers. Here
Péron found Renée. She was standing by the window which
overlooked the garden, and he saw that she had been observing
Choin and his party at the gate, for she commanded a view of the
lane. She was dressed in gray with a wide white linen collar, and her
golden hair was knotted back more closely than usual. She was very
pale, and looked as simple as a little nun; she evidently felt the day
and night of suspense, but she bore herself with perfect composure.
Her quick glance swept over her visitor, noting every detail of his
changed appearance, and there was a little surprise in her eyes. He
saluted her gravely, and without a word handed her the cardinal’s
letter. She inclined her head as she took it, her manner as grave as
his, but he observed that her hand trembled a little as she opened it.
She read it through, and Péron saw her anger rising as she read; her
eyes sparkled and a little spot of color came into each cheek, and
once she stamped her foot on the floor. When she had finished—and
she read it twice—she tore it in fragments and flung them on the
ground. Péron expected an outburst; thought that she would refuse
to go, and began to wonder what arguments he would use to
persuade her. But he had no conception of what was really passing
in mademoiselle’s quick mind. She had just read the king’s
imperative orders for her to go to Poissy; her refusal would—so the
letter said—imperil her father’s life. She knew well enough why she
was to go to the house of the Image of Notre Dame, and she was
cudgelling her brains for a device to defeat monsignor. She knew her
adversary and she set all her woman’s wits to work. She had no
thought of refusing to go; the risk was too great while her father was
in the toils, but she intended to thwart his enemies. She stood for a
while looking out of the window, while Péron expected her refusal to
comply with the cardinal’s orders. To his surprise, she turned at last
to consent.
“I will go, monsieur,” she said haughtily; “a prisoner must obey her
jailor, but I will not go without my woman.”
“That is as you desire, mademoiselle,” Péron replied, much relieved;
“you will choose your own maid, and you will be treated with all due
consideration.”
She made him a mocking curtsey.
“I thank you humbly, monsieur,” she said, with a contemptuous curl
of her lip; “if you will permit me a half-hour, I will wait on you at the
garden gate, where I see you have already four cut-throats to attend
me.”
She walked past him, without waiting for a reply, and left Péron
standing alone in the great salon. He did not remain; his face was
scarlet with anger, and he went into the garden and sat down in the
rustic seat, under the lime-tree, to wait her pleasure. From his
reception, he could easily conjecture what the journey was likely to
be, and he set his teeth hard at the thought. After all, had he not
been foolish not to leave her to the mercy of some other soldier of
the cardinal? Manifestly, she was the same as she had been when a
child in the Château de Nançay, though it seemed that now she had
lost the softness which had made her run out to the terrace to tell
him she was sorry. He regretted his errand bitterly, and reproached
himself for a fool to have thrust himself into her way again. He was
still occupied with these unpleasant reflections, when the door at the
rear of the house opened and she came out with the insolent woman
who had admitted him. Both wore cloaks and hoods, and
mademoiselle’s face was hidden by a black mask which gave her a
mysterious look. Neither spoke, and Péron rose as they advanced,
and preceding them to the gate, unfastened it. Choin was there with
the horses, and in silence he and Péron assisted the two women to
mount. When they were falling into position to begin their journey,
mademoiselle spoke for the first time.
“Ninon rides with me,” she said, as Péron would have assigned the
maid to a place behind her mistress.
No opposition was offered to this arrangement, which seemed to
surprise and disappoint mademoiselle, who was in the humor to pick
a quarrel over a nutshell. So they started two abreast, where the
streets were wide enough, and after they left the city limits, Péron
rode on the other side of Renée de Nançay, while Choin and his
three men followed close at their heels. They rode in silence, and
nothing worth noting occurred until they came within sight of Cours la
Reine, where were the iron gates which closed this end of the three
alleys planted with trees by the queen-mother for the pleasure of her
court. As they passed to the right to take the road to Poissy, Péron
noticed a man standing near the gates. He looked to be the retainer
of some grandee and would not have attracted the young man’s
attention except for the pale blue knot on the shoulder of his black
cloak. The stranger was staring hard at the party, and Péron gave
mademoiselle a quick glance, but she made no sign of seeing the
fellow, except to put up her hand to adjust her mask more closely,
and Ninon was staring sullenly between her horse’s ears. Péron
watched the man narrowly, but he gave no indication of intending to
quit his station, and they passed on, leaving him as they had found
him.
For the first few leagues of their journey, mademoiselle was
stubbornly silent; the men in the rear conversed in low tones, but
Péron did not speak. Renée de Nançay, however, was busily
engaged in meditating over her own plans, and it was necessary for
her to know more about the young soldier riding beside her, and
something of his intentions. After awhile, therefore, he was surprised
by hearing himself addressed by her.
“Will you stop at Ruel, monsieur?” she asked, turning her face
toward him, and he was conscious of the brilliance of her dark eyes
looking through the holes in her mask, which effectually concealed
her expression.
“Nay, mademoiselle,” he replied, “we shall push on to Poissy, which
we must reach to-night.”
“You are a hard taskmaster, monsieur,” she said; “’tis a long ride, and
Ninon and I have not been in the saddle since Christmas. Surely,
you will give us a breathing space upon the way.”
Péron hesitated. “Mademoiselle de Nançay,” he said, “my orders are
exacting, but it may be we can rest awhile this side of St. Germain-
en-Laye.”
“St. Germain-en-Laye!” repeated mademoiselle; “why, ’tis but a
league from Poissy, and it is five leagues and more from the Rue St.
Thomas du Louvre to St. Germain-en-Laye.”
“Yet after all, mademoiselle, six leagues is not a great matter,”
remarked Péron; “and I see that you are a fine horsewoman.”
“I will stop at Ruel,” she declared haughtily. “We shall reach Poissy in
better time than you will wish for,” she added with a bitter little laugh,
the meaning of which he was not slow to interpret.
“Mademoiselle,” he replied, “my instructions were especially directed
against a halt at Ruel.”
“But I wish to stop there,” she said, in a tone of surprise at his daring
to contradict her wishes.
Péron set his face sternly. “I am sorry,” he said calmly, “but we will
not stop at Ruel.”
“I am sorry too, monsieur—I do not know your name?” she added,
pausing for his reply.
He thought a moment and rightly conjectured that she would know
nothing of the manner of her father’s elevation.
“My name is Jehan de Calvisson,” he said quietly.
“I am sorry then, Monsieur de Calvisson,” she said, “but we will stop
at Ruel.”
Péron looked at the erect figure and the firm little chin showing below
the mask, and felt that it would be a struggle; but he was determined
to win. He did not reply but merely bowed gravely, and she was
quick to interpret it as an assent.
“We are near Ruel now, are we not?” she demanded. “I should know
the way.”
“We are within a league of it, mademoiselle,” he replied quietly, and
then turned back to give Choin a few directions; when he again rode
up to her side, his face wore a more composed expression.
“It is cold,” she complained, “and the wind blows; monsignor should
try the journeys he recommends for others.”
“’Tis certainly not so pleasant as in the summer,” Péron replied
dreamily; “I can remember my first ride from Paris on this road, when
the fields were green and the violets bloomed at Poissy.”
“You are familiar with this road then?” she remarked, giving him a
keen glance; “you know the way to Nançay?”
“It was to Nançay that I went, mademoiselle,” he replied, “with my
foster-father, the clockmaker of the Rue de la Ferronnerie.”
For a moment mademoiselle was silent, then she looked at him and
laughed a soft little laugh unlike the unmusical sounds with which
she had mocked him.
“I know you,” she said; “I was sure that I had seen you before; you
are little Péron.”
“Ay, mademoiselle,” he replied, with a smile, “and I have still the
bunch of violets from Nançay.”
He could not see her face behind her mask, but he saw a little flush
of color come across her chin and throat.
“The violets of Poissy, sir,” she said lightly. “I little thought that you
would be the one to take me there against my will; truly, the tables
are turned.”
His face flushed now and he was tempted to tell her that had he not
come she would have been in worse hands; but that would be an
appeal to her gratitude, and he held his peace.
“That is my misfortune, mademoiselle,” he said, “rather than my
fault.”
“Sir, I think we have few misfortunes that are not our fault,” she
retorted sharply.
He smiled. “A few, mademoiselle,” he said; “for instance, to be born
poor and forced to seek a fortune with the sword or the spade.”
She shrugged her shoulders. “’Tis better to be born poor than born a
fool,” she retorted tartly.
“But worst of all to be born both poor and a fool,” he replied calmly.
They were riding through a long lane lined on either hand with trees,
and before them stood a cross which marked a certain turn in the
road. At the sight of it mademoiselle drew rein so suddenly that she
threw the little party into confusion. She wheeled in her saddle and
looked over her shoulder.
“This is the wrong road,” she said; “where is Ruel?”
“We have passed it, mademoiselle,” Péron replied, with a composed
face, but a smile lurked in his eyes.
She sat erect and motionless, but he knew that behind her mask she
was in a storm of passion, for he saw her hand grip the bridle
fiercely. She was debating in her mind whether to attempt to go back
and risk the opposition of the four stout men behind or to make the
most of defeat and go on with the best grace she could. Her temper,
naturally high, was fully roused, and to yield a point was bitter.
Moreover, she saw the amusement in Péron’s eyes. Her woman
reminded her of their situation.
“Come, mademoiselle,” she said bluntly, “you know we must go one
way or the other.”
Renée turned on her quickly. “Hush!” she said sharply, and striking
her horse briskly, she rode at a canter down the lane ahead of the
party toward Poissy.
She had surrendered the point, and her escort drew a sigh of relief
as he quickened his own pace to keep up with her, and all of them
moved at a better gait. As his horse came abreast of hers, she gave
him a sidelong glance.
“Manifestly, you were not born a fool, M. de Calvisson,” she said, “if
you were born poor.”
Péron smiled in spite of himself.
“It was only strategy, mademoiselle,” he said.
“I do not yet know how we passed Ruel,” she replied angrily, “though
I have travelled over this road a thousand times.”
“You did not observe the cross-roads when we reached them,” he
replied smiling; “there is this way by which Ruel can be entirely
avoided.”
“I am dull,” she said; “I should have known that there are ever many
ways around the hole of a fox.”
Péron turned his face away to hide a smile at her covert thrust at
Richelieu’s house at Ruel.
After this they rode a long way in silence; she was obviously in an ill
humor and vouchsafed only monosyllables in reply to any remark of
her escort. As night approached it grew colder too and more
unpleasant; a thick mist settled on the more distant landscape, and
the meadows near at hand lay dark and deserted, while the trees
loomed gigantic by the way. The moon was in its first quarter and set
early, leaving a starry sky in which only a few light clouds drifted.
There was no sound but the even beat of their horses’ hoofs on the
hard road. It was already pitch dark when they passed through St.
Germain-en-Laye, and mademoiselle stubbornly refused to halt,
having now veered around to a steady desire to reach Poissy with all
speed. They trotted down the main street of the town, passing the
inn, where the revellers were in full sway, and were out on the
highroad to Poissy again. Their way now lay through thick forest, and
Péron was not without uneasiness, seeing her mood and not
knowing the exact extent of the risk they ran of defeat. He would
infinitely have preferred the clash of swords to this silent ride through
unknown perils, with the responsibility of controlling a wilful and
quick-witted young woman who was bent on his discomfiture.
It was with a sharp sense of relief that he saw the lights of Poissy
ahead, and he unconsciously quickened his horse’s gait, which
brought the others up at a trot. As they reached the gates of the
town, mademoiselle held out her hand to him.
“Will you wear this watch?” she said; “I am fearful of losing it, for the
chain has broken and I value it; it belonged to my mother. I pray you
keep it for me until to-morrow.”
Péron took it with surprise; he could not refuse, though he was
suspicious of her motive. He fastened it on a chain that he wore and
thrust it into the bosom of his doublet, not without misgivings. The
next moment they had entered the gates and he drew rein to make
some inquiries for the house he sought. She heard him and laughed.
“I can lead you, monsieur,” she said, and touched her horse with her
whip.
Péron followed, afraid to give her a chance to outride him; but as
they came near the Golden Pigeon, he caught sight of a tall house in
the distance and knew it to be their destination. To reach it without
passing the public house was easy, and Péron had no desire to
attract notice; he laid his hand on her horse’s rein.
“Not so fast, mademoiselle,” he said; “we can turn here and avoid
the inn.”
She shook her bridle free. “I will go my way here, M. de Calvisson,”
she replied haughtily; “this is not Ruel!” and she rode straight on in
full view of the loungers in the court of the Golden Pigeon. Péron
urged his horse to keep abreast of hers, but all the while he kept a
sharp lookout for possible signals; but he could observe nothing
unusual, and the tavern seemed less crowded than he had seen it
on previous occasions. Beyond the inn they turned down a narrow
lane, mademoiselle still leading, and came at last to a high, narrow
house which wore a black and forbidding aspect. The men with