Electronics in Advanced Research

Industries: Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0

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Electronics in Advanced Research Industries
Electronics in Advanced Research Industries

Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 Advances

Alessandro Massaro
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Massaro, Alessandro, 1974– author.
Title: Electronics in advanced research industries : industry 4.0 to
industry 5.0 advances / Alessandro Massaro, Dyrecta Lab, Research
Institute, Conversano (Ba), Italy.
Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2022. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021028944 (print) | LCCN 2021028945 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119716877 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119716884 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119716891 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Industry 4.0. | Automation.
Classification: LCC T59.6 .M37 2022 (print) | LCC T59.6 (ebook) | DDC
658.4/038028563–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021028944
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021028945

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © raigvi/Shutterstock

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my family: Magda, Andrea, Adriano, and Peggy
 vii

Contents

Preface xiii
About the Author xv

1 State of the Art and Technology Innovation 1

1.1 ­State of the Art of Flexible Technologies in Industry 2
1.1.1 Sensors and Actuators Layer: I/O Layer 3
1.1.2 Agent/Firmware Layer: User Interface Layer 9
1.1.3 Gateway and Enterprise Service Bus Layer 9
1.1.4 IoT Middleware 10
1.1.5 Processing Layer 11
1.1.6 Application Layer 11
1.1.7 File Transfer Protocols 11
1.2 ­State of the Art of Scientific Approaches Oriented on Process Control
and Automatisms 14
1.2.1 Architectures Integrating AI 14
1.2.2 AI Supervised and Unsupersived Algorithms 15
1.2.3 AI Image Processing 18
1.2.4 Production Process Mapping 20
1.2.5 Technologies of Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0:
Interconnection and Main Limits 21
1.2.6 Infrared Thermography in Monitoring Process 26
1.2.7 Key Parameters in Supply Chain and AI Improving Manufacturing Processes 27
1.3 ­Intelligent Automatic Systems in Industries 30
1.4 ­Technological Approaches to Transform the Production in Auto-Adaptive Control
and Actuation Systems 31
1.5 ­Basic Concepts of Artificial Intelligence 33
1.6 ­Knowledge Upgrading in Industries 41
­References 45

2 Information Technology Infrastructures Supporting Industry 5.0 Facilities 51

2.1 ­Production Process Simulation and Object Design Approaches 52
2.1.1 Object Design of a Data Mining Algorithm: Block Functions and Parameter Setting 55
2.1.2 Example 1: BPM Modeling of Wheat Storage Process for Pasta Production 59
2.1.3 Example 2: Block Diagram Design of a Servo Valve Control and Actuation System 61
viii Contents

2.1.4 Example 3: Block Diagram of a Liquid Production System 61

2.1.5 Example 4: UML Design of a Programmable Logic Controller System 62
2.1.6 Example 5: Electronic Logic Timing Diagram 64
2.1.7 Example 6: AR System in Kitchen Production Process 64
2.1.8 Example 7: Intelligent Canned Food Production Line 70
2.2 ­Electronic Logic Design Oriented on Information Infrastructure of Industry 5.0 71
2.3 ­Predictive Maintenance: Artificial Intelligence Failure Predictions and Information
Infrastructure Layout in the Temperature Monitoring Process 74
2.4 ­Defect Estimation and Prediction by Artificial Neural Network 77
2.4.1 Other Methodologies to Map and Read Production Failures and Defects 79
2.5 ­Defect Clustering and Classification: Combined Use of the K-­Means Algorithm with
Infrared Thermography for Predictive Maintenance 82
2.6 ­Facilities of a Prototype Network Implementing Advanced Technology: Example of an
Advanced Platform Suitable for Industry 5.0 Integrating Predictive Maintenance 84
2.7 ­Predictive Maintenance Approaches 86
2.7.1 Preventive Maintenance and Predictive Maintenance Operations in the Railway
Industry 90
2.8 ­Examples of Advanced Infrastructures Implementing AI 93
2.9 ­Examples of Telemedicine Platforms Integrating Advanced Facilities 94
2.9.1 Advanced Telecardiology Platform 94
2.9.2 Advanced Teleoncology Platform 96
2.9.3 Multipurpose E-­Health Platform 97
­References 99

3 Human–Machine Interfaces 103

3.1 ­Mechatronic Machine Interface Architectures Integrating Sensor Systems 104
3.1.1 Multiple Mechatronic Boards Managing Different Production Stages 104
3.1.2 Mechatronic Boards Managing Component Processing 104
3.2 ­Machine-to-Machine Interfaces: New Concepts of Industry 5.0 106
3.3 ­Production Line Command and Actuation Interfaces in Upgraded Systems 111
3.3.1 PLC, PAC, Industrial PC, and Improvements 111
3.3.2 SCADA Systems for Centralization of Data Production 115
3.4 ­McCulloch–Pitts Neurons and Logic Port for Automatic Decision-Making Setting
Thresholds 123
3.5 ­Programmable Logic Controller I/O Ports Interfacing with AI Engine 132
3.6 ­Human–Machine Interface for Data Transfer and AI Data Processing 134
3.7 ­Example of Interface Configuration of Temperature Control 135
3.8 ­AI Interfaces Oriented on Cybersecurity Attack Detection 136
3.9 ­AI Interfaces Oriented on Database Security 139
3.10 ­Cybersecurity Platform and AI Control Interface 148
­References 151

4 Internet of Things Solutions in Industry 155

4.1 ­Cloud Computing IoT 156
4.1.1 IoT Agent 156
4.1.2 IoT Gateway in Smart Environments 158
4.1.3 Basic Elements of a Smart Industry Environment Controlling Production 160
 Contents ix

4.1.3.1 Feedback Control: Basic Concepts 167

4.1.4 Augmented Reality Hardware and Cloud Computing Processing 169
4.1.5 Real-Time Control and Actuation 171
4.1.6 Localization Technologies in an Industrial Environment 175
4.1.7 GPU Processing Units 176
4.1.7.1 Performance of GPUs by Processing Binary Matrices 176
4.2 ­IoT and External Artificial Intelligence Engines 180
4.2.1 Artificial Engines and Server Location: Artificial Intelligence and Adaptive
Production 180
4.2.2 IoT Security Systems in the Working Environment and Implementation Aspects 182
4.2.3 Example of Energy Power Control and Actuation: Energy Routing and Priority Load
Management for Energy Efficiency 182
4.2.4 Online Configurators: Cloud DSS 186
4.3 ­Blockchain and IoT Data Storage Systems 194
4.3.1 Blockchain Implementation Rules 194
4.3.2 Blockchain and IoT Production Traceability 197
4.4 ­Mechatronic Machine Interface Architectures
Integrating Sensor Systems 199
4.5 ­Multiple Mechatronic Boards Managing Different Production Stages 200
­References 202

5 Advanced Robotics 203

5.1 ­Collaborative Robotics in Industry and Protocols 204
5.1.1 Data Protocols 206
5.1.2 Basic Concepts of Robotic Arms and Control Improvement 206
5.1.3 Collaborative Exoskeleton Communication System Protocols 212
5.1.4 Advanced Robotics and Intelligent Automation in Manufacturing:
Logic Conditions and PLC Programming 213
5.2 ­Artificial Intelligence in Advanced Robotics and Auto-­Adaptive Movement 218
5.2.1 General Technological Aspects about Auto-­Adaptive Motion in Advanced Robotics 218
5.2.1.1 Main Aspects of Electrostatic Actuators 219
5.2.1.2 Microelectromechanical System Electrostatic Actuators 220
5.2.1.3 Piezoelectric Actuators 221
5.2.1.4 DC Motor Actuation 222
5.2.1.5 Intelligent Control Integrating AI: Speed Regulation 227
5.2.2 Improvement of Collaborative Exoskeletons by Auto-­Adaptive Solutions Implementing
Artificial Intelligence 231
5.3 ­Human–Robot Self-­Learning Collaboration in Industrial Applications and Electronic
Aspects 232
5.3.1 DC–DC Converter 232
5.3.2 Voltage Source Inverter 233
5.3.3 Current-­Source Inverter 237
5.3.4 DC Voltage Source 238
5.3.5 Capacitor and Reactor Effects on Signal Control 238
5.3.6 Human-­Robot System and Learning Approaches 239
5.3.6.1 Example of PID Implementation of Self-­Adapting Gains 243
5.3.7 Unsupervised Learning Approaches 244
x Contents

5.3.8 Soft Robotics for Intelligent Collaborative Robotics 245

5.4 ­Robotics in Additive Manufacturing 246
5.4.1 Additive Manufacturing in Industrial Production and Spray Technique 246
5.4.2 Artificial Intelligence Applications in Additive Manufacturing 247
5.4.3 Advanced Electronic for Design-­to-­Product Transformation:
Laser Texturing Manufacturing and Artificial Intelligence 248
­References 249

6 Advanced Optoelectronic and Micro-/Nanosensors 253

6.1 ­Nanotechnology Laboratories in Industries 254
6.1.1 Facilities for Micro-/Nanosensor Fabrication and Characterization 254
6.2 ­Micro- and Nanosensors as Preliminary Prototypes for Industry Research 260
6.2.1 Nanocomposite Optoelectronic Sensors and Optoelectronic Circuits for Pressure
Sensors 260
6.2.1.1 Optical Fiber Nanocomposite Tip 260
6.2.2 Plasmonic Probes 266
6.2.3 Nanocomposite Pressure Sensor 273
6.2.4 Nanocomposite Sensor for Liquid Detection Systems and Fluid Loss Systems 277
6.2.4.1 Nanocomposite Sensor for Liquid Detection Systems Based on a Pillar-Type
Layout 278
6.2.4.2 Micro- and Nanosensors in the Monitoring of Production Processes: Leakage
Monitoring 285
6.2.5 Examples of Digital MEMS/NEMS Sensors: Technological Aspects and
Applications 286
6.2.5.1 Thin Film MEMS 286
6.2.5.2 Nanoprobes for Medical Imaging 288
6.2.5.3 Diamond Thin Film Devices: Sensing Improvements 293
6.3 ­Multisensor Systems and Big Data Synchronization of Micro-/Nanoprobes 295
­References 296

7 Image Vision Advances 301

7.1 ­Defect Classification by Artificial Intelligence and Data Processor Units 302
7.1.1 Artificial Intelligence Algorithms and Automatism
for Defect Classification: Case Study of Tire Production 302
7.1.2 Welding Classification and Nondestructive Testing Suitable
for the Quality Check 304
7.1.2.1 Watershed Image Segmentation and Automatic Welding Defect Classification 307
7.1.3 Encoding and Decoding Circuits in Artificial Intelligence Data Processing 309
7.1.4 Electronic Logic Port Implementations: Pixel Matrix Logic Condition 314
7.2 ­Image Vision Architectures and Electronic Design 314
7.2.1 Infrared Thermography Monitoring Industrial Processes 315
7.2.1.1 Welding Image Vision Processing and Architecture Design: Radiometric Post
Processing 315
7.2.2 Electronic and Firmware for Inline Image Monitoring Systems:
Hole Precision in Milling Quality Processes 316
7.2.3 Image Vision and Predictive Maintenance by Artificial Intelligence 319
7.2.3.1 Profilometer for Image Vision 319
 Contents xi

7.2.3.2 In-Line 3D Image Vision AI System Integrating Profilometer and Image Processing 321
7.2.4 Augmented Reality Systems and Artificial Neural Networks:
Image Vision Supporting Production Processes 323
7.2.5 Infrared Thermography Circuit Design and Automated System 324
7.3 ­Image Segmentation and Image Clustering 327
7.3.1 Electronic and Firmware for In-Line Monitoring Systems: Camera Connection 327
7.3.2 Image Segmentation and Clustering Techniques: Automated In-Line Monitoring
Systems 327
7.3.3 Circuit Timing In-Line Monitoring and Data Storage Systems 328
7.3.4 Image Segmentation in Product Quality Monitoring: Snake Contour Approach 329
7.3.5 Advanced Image Clustering: K-Means Applied to Radiometric Images 331
7.4 ­Image Segmentation for Food Defect Detection 333
7.5 ­Random Forest Pixel Classification 335
­References 339

8 Electronic and Reverse Engineering 341

8.1 ­Reverse Engineering Systems and Mechanical Precision 342
8.1.1 Reverse Engineering Platform: Tools, Approaches, and Facilities 344
8.2 ­Working Processing and Adaptation 349
8.2.1 Process Simulations 349
8.2.2 Process Mining Actuation and Digital Aspects Concerning Decision Support Systems
Implemented by Data Mining Algorithms 350
8.3 ­Reverse Engineering and Self-Learning Automatic Working Piece Classification 354
8.4 ­Tools Supporting RE: AR and Image Processing for Size Measurement 356
8.5 ­RE in Micrometric Scale: RE Approach for Photonic Crystals 357
8.6 ­RE for the Production of Pipeline Components 361
8.7 ­RE in the Precision Manufacturing Process for Thin Film Devices 363
8.7.1 Ring MEMS Manufacturing 363
8.7.2 Thin Film Diamond Antenna 369
8.8 ­Advanced RE Processes in Industry 5.0 372
8.9 ­RE in Nanocomposite Production Processes 374
8.10 ­RE in Electronic Board Production 376
8.10.1 Transfer of the Master to the Copper Plate 378
8.10.2 Chemical Attack of Copper 378
8.10.3 Drilling and Finishing Processes 379
­References 379

9 Rapid Prototyping 381

9.1 ­ apid Prototyping Tools and Microscale Electronic Systems: Methodological
R
Approaches 382
9.1.1 Photonic Crystal Pillars for Filtering and Optical Resonance 382
9.1.2 Thin Film Microelectromechanical System Prototyping and Photolithography
Approach 387
9.1.3 Thin Film GHz Microstructures by the Photolithography Approach 387
9.1.4 Gas Sensing Homemade Experimental Setup for Rapid Prototyping 390
9.2 ­Examples of Antenna and Detection System Rapid Prototyping 392
9.2.1 GPR Antenna Design for UAV Integration System 392
xii Contents

9.2.2 Example of an Underground Water Leakage Detection System Integrating GPR, UAV,
and Infrared Thermal Imaging: System Prototyping 397
9.2.3 Integrated Diamond Patch-Type Antennas and Applications 400
9.3 ­Principles of Mechanical Piece Rapid Prototyping and Innovative Materials 411
9.3.1 Example of Diamond Material Implementations 413
9.4 ­Rapid Prototyping and Artificial Intelligence Upgrade 415
9.5 ­Rapid Prototyping Oriented Toward Patent Development 418
9.5.1 Prototyping of Devices Implementing Nanoparticles 418
9.5.2 Prototyping of an Optoelectronic Device Based on a Nanocomposite Tip 418
9.5.3 DNA Lab-on-Chip 418
9.6 ­Nanocomposite Artificial Skin Rapid Prototyping Process 437
­References 439

10 Scientific Research in Industry 445

10.1 ­Guidelines to Construct an Advanced Research Unit in Industry in the Electronic
and Mechatronic Field 446
10.2 ­Guidelines to Formulate a Patent 448
10.3 ­Guideline to Propose Technological Advances for Public Entities and in Industry 5.0
Research Project 449
10.3.1 Setting of a Research Project of Underground Water Leakage 449
10.3.2 Setting a Research Project Involving Technologies for Hydrogeological Risk
Monitoring 456
10.3.3 Setting a Research Project in Mechatronics: Production of a Diagnostic Machine by
Means of Industry 5.0 Facilities 468
10.4 ­Innovation Process Projects: Example of a Smart Wine Factory 483
10.5 ­Guideline for Project Management 485
­References 506

Abbreviations and Acronyms 507

Index 515
 xiii

Preface

Modern technologies in production systems open new approaches and concepts of industrial pro-
duction. The digital Industry 4.0 upgrade provides new elements to control and manage produc-
tion in all industry sectors. This upgrade allows to improve product quality, and in general the
whole supply chain. The new digital technologies include hardware and software tools integrated
in infrastructure oriented on the gain of digital knowledge. The fast dynamicity of the markets, the
increase of the global competition between companies, and the unpredictable social and health
events, imposes the need to think of a new concept of a production system based on full automa-
tisms and self-­adaptive processes, predicting production failures and product defects. In this con-
text, the Industry 4.0 facilities can be furthermore upscaled to an intelligent control and actuation
system of the production, characterizing the new Industry 5.0 scenario. The new facilities which
contribute to Industry 5.0 passage are mainly based on artificial intelligence (AI) implementations
in production and information systems, accomplishing predictive maintenance, failure prediction,
defect classification, efficient robotic control and actuation, design optimization, testing improve-
ments, and in general technological advances due to the possibility to quickly process data in each
production stage. This book analyzes innovative production approaches, and the integration
aspects of the AI in different industrial digital technologies, by enhancing specific functionalities.
In innovative production systems, AI is fully integrated in information systems and covers cyber-
security, quality processes, business intelligence and intelligent production management. The
innovative production is also related to new services associated with the introduction in the market
of new technologies such as for the telemedicine sector, and in general for industrial diagnostics,
where AI is also adopted for the improvement of inspection services. The main advantage of AI is
the self-­learning of the algorithms able to learn automatically from the same production data of
companies. In an industrial upgrade, the implementation of sensor control and actuation based on
intelligent feedback systems is especially important. In this scenario, AI algorithms can accom-
plish robotic movement, by automatically optimizing the machine parameter setting, by means of
image and data processing. The correct use of AI is mainly based on the formulation of the algo-
rithm, and on the dataset adopted to learn the related model. For each application there is an
associated AI learning dataset which can be improved by big data systems. In particular, image
processing and image segmentation approaches can be improved by AI, enhancing hidden infor-
mation as defects, or adding new information about the performed production process. Another
tool supporting the assembly in supply chains and the coordination of activities is augmented real-
ity, which can be fully integrated in the information company infrastructure. An important step for
a new concept of production is the upgrade of the information technology (IT) infrastructure auto-
matically gaining the knowledge. Different IT architectures are proposed for different application
xiv Preface

fields to enhance technologies more suitable for a self-­adaptive production providing decision sup-
port systems. A particular interesting topic for the innovative IT is the Internet of Things. The
design and the development of an advanced IT infrastructure is the primary action to add for the
upgrade in Industry 5.0. The AI concept is extended to the logic condition implementation, acting
on signal processing, and on the use of simply electronic circuits representing these logics. The
discussed methodologies allow to comprehend how it is possible to move on a competitive produc-
tion based on the concept of “flexible” production and on new products based on advanced tech-
nologies on a micro-­ and nanoscale. In this scenario, companies working in manufacturing can
switch dynamically the production on the new products, thus converting the production in innova-
tive components, machines, materials, sensors, or devices. Following this orientation, this book
proposes important approaches to automatize efficiently the new production, by analyzing highly
advanced production tools based on nanotechnology. In this direction useful methodologies are
analyzed to implement the production of high technology devices, such as reverse engineering and
rapid prototyping by showing different examples useful to comprehend the methodologies to apply
for an innovative production based on scientific and industrial research development. Particular
attention is paid to the procedures to follow to produce a new device, to increase the company
capacity to accelerate the industrialization process starting a new innovative prototype fabrication,
and to basic approaches for the design modeling and testing. The optimization of the pre-­
industrialization process to perform is accompanied by a quick check of the basic properties of the
new product to fabricate, and by the simultaneous support of the AI application improving analy-
sis. In order to start and to develop a new research activity, also concerning advanced technologies,
precise schemes must be followed. The discussed topics facilitate the understanding of the direc-
tions of the research for the production upscaling, just to apply the research activity. The last part
of the book provides different elements useful for writing an industrial research project, and for
the project management. This book deals with multidisciplinary topics including electronics,
mechatronics, mechanics, and informatics. All the analyzed topics are useful to know; the key ele-
ments are indispensable and useful to move the production from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0.

Bari, 28 December 2021 Alessandro Massaro

 xv

About the Author

Professor Alessandro Massaro (ING/INF/01,

FIS/01, FIS/03) carried out scientific research at
the Polytechnic University of Marche, at CNR,
and at Italian Institute of Technology (IIT) as
Team Leader by activating laboratories for
nanocomposite sensors for industrial robotics. He
was head of the Research and Development
section and scientific director of MIUR Research
Institute Dyrecta Lab Srl. Actually, he carries out
research activities in LUM Enterprise at LUM
University -Libera Università Mediterranea-
(Casamassima-BA-, Italy), he is in MIUR register
as scientific expert in competitive Industrial
Research and Social Development, and he is
currently Member of the International Scientific
Committee of Measurers IMEKO and IEEE
Senior Member. He received an award from the National Council of Engineers as Best Engineer of
Italy 2018 (Top Young Engineer 2018).
 1

State of the Art and Technology Innovation

The chapter is focused on the technological and scientific state of the art about information
technology (IT) advances. Starting with Industry 4.0 enabling technologies, the scientific
improvements transforming the production lines and machines in intelligent systems following
the logic of Industry 5.0 are discussed. The new facilities and the new technologies are oriented
on the design of flexible and dynamical production processes, taking into account the market
demand which is increasingly unpredictable. Starting with the enabling technologies of Industry
4.0, the specifications of the hardware and software technologies for advances in Industry
5.0 manufacturing industries are introduced. Communication protocols able to improve sensing
and actuation in production processes are also discussed. Moreover, the analysis describes the
Internet of Things (IoT) protocols, IoT upgrade processes and technological improvements,
where of particular interest in monitoring industrial processing is infrared thermography (IRT)
for improving thermal measurements in the production environment. The chapter is also focused
on the description of different levels of the company information system, where sensors moni-
toring production constitute the field layer. The discussion is then oriented to provide an over-
view about sensors communicating with the local network by protocols, and achieving intelligent
and efficient sensing and actuation. All the analyzed topics are addressed for integration into an
upgraded information infrastructure implementing advanced tools. The analysis is then moved
to the production processes in industries by highlighting main interconnections and architec-
tures interfacing different tools. The study also enhances the scientific approaches consolidated
in Industry 4.0, by providing limits of the actual technologies and perspectives for future produc-
tion upscaling. Furthermore, the chapter discusses mainly intelligent information infrastructure
suitable for manufacturing industries. The chapter goal is to introduce technological elements
such as artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and big data systems, providing
knowledge gain (KG). Other important aspects are the horizontal and vertical integrations of the
technologies, considering bus‐based networks and automatisms in data processing which is sig-
nificant for the production advances. The chapter provides elements useful to comprehend how
technologies can be implemented in flexible information architectures for innovative industri-
alization processes.

Electronics in Advanced Research Industries: Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 Advances, First Edition. Alessandro Massaro.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 State of the Art and Technology Innovation

1.1 ­State of the Art of Flexible Technologies in Industry

Industry 4.0 introduced digital technologies improving industry productivity and different facili-
ties supporting processes. The main enabling technologies introduced by Industry 4.0 are [1–3]:
●● Three‐dimensional (3D) printers connected to production software.
●● AR oriented on production processes.
●● Simulation tools able to optimize production processes by simulating production of different
interconnected machines of different production lines.
●● Horizontal integration of supply chain elements, such as human resources, supplies, products,
transports, logistics, etc., and vertical integration of different production functions including
product design, production processes, production quality, and end to end combination of hori-
zontal and vertical functions.
●● Cloud computing, cloud data storage, and data management in open data and big data systems.
●● Cybersecurity improving security during network operations and in open systems, managing
network interconnections.
These main facilities enable smart manufacturing (SM) and computer integrated manufacturing
(CIM) industry processes in the fourth industrial revolution. In this scenario of enabling technolo-
gies, the information network architecture of companies plays a fundamental rule in production
upgrade and in production engineering. The information digitalization is the first step for Industry
4.0 implementation, where the production machines transfer data in the local area network (LAN)
and in general in the cloud environment. A particular function in Industry 4.0 improvement is the
production monitoring, automated by IoT sensors [4], reading in real time the operation condi-
tions of the whole production lines and allowing intelligent manufacturing. The control performed
by sensors is more efficient for in‐line monitoring procedures, where all sensors are synchronized
in order to provide the best production setting of the whole supply chain. All the phases of the sup-
ply chain are important to trace. The main parts to trace in the production processes are: (i) ware-
house, (ii) production lines, and (iii) logistics. In all these parts, robotics in general improves the
processes, by increasing production volumes and by assisting human work. This kind of “joint
collaboration” decreases the production errors and consequently the waste materials and related
costs. Other technologies such as AR [5, 6] are used for human resources training during produc-
tion processing, by increasing the worker skills and supporting workers to follow interactively and
continuously the production. Augmented reality aided manufacturing (ARAM) is another impor-
tant topic supporting production quality [5] by means of the programming of machines, robots and
production tools, by managing logistics, and by checking assembled products in the whole supply
chain. AR is adopted also in manufacturing as a dynamic authoring tool monitoring simultane-
ously the production activities of several workstations [6], for telerobotics controlling robots from
a distance, for waste reduction in production activities, for assembly support, for remote mainte-
nance, and for computer‐aided design (CAD) applications [7]. In the Industry 4.0 scenario, AI can
furthermore improve the industry production efficiency. AI algorithms are mainly indicated for
machine predictive maintenance [8, 9] and for assisted production, where machine working oper-
ations are properly and automatically set in order to avoid failures [10], by decreasing or stopping
machine in cases of alerting conditions. IoT sensors are very important for control and actuation
thus enabling totally automated processes. A broad use of IoT sensing is related to image vision [11,
12] including IRT [13], and temperature and humidity sensors. Moreover, accelerometers provide
supplementary information about anomalous vibrations indicating a possible system failure, and
 1.1 ­State of the Art of Flexible Technologies in Industr 3

other sensors can be applied depending on the manufacturing process to be controlled. IoT signals
are processed by AI algorithms to predict the machine status in self learning modality: by analyz-
ing historical data, the AI algorithms create the training models to test for prediction. The AI
improvements represent mainly the passage from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 facilities adapting
automatically the production with high level efficiency, and optimizing the production processes
which are previously simulated. The flexibility of the production is due to the correct choice of the
sensor network architecture, of protocols and the possibility to optimize the different layers of the
whole communication system of the company. A correct design of the information system allows
the disposal of a modular network open to vertical and horizontal integrations introducing innova-
tive tools and algorithms addressing the automatic production control. The layers where it is pos-
sible to operate for a flexible production are the input/output (I/O) layer, the user interface layer,
the gateway layer, the IoT middleware, the processing layer, and the application layer.

1.1.1 Sensors and Actuators Layer: I/O Layer

The I/O layer is the first layer related to the production field controlled by sensors. The process of
machines can be changed by actuation commands provided by the processing layer. The actuation
commands must ensure the production synchronization of the whole production lines managing
different production steps. In this layer, IoT devices are very important for the accuracy and relia-
bility of the performed measurements. The data sampling is essential for a correct monitoring
procedure. When the sensors control different production process steps, it is fundamental to con-
figure and to synchronize all the sensors of the same production line. The IoT technologies are
defined for the specific production process to monitor. For example, if the process is fast, it is
important to select an image vision technology having a high frame rate, or sensors having a sam-
pling time “following” the production velocity. The technologies for industrial image vision con-
verting light into electrons are charge‐coupled device (CCD), complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS), indium antimonide (InSb) infrared (IR) detectors, indium‐gallium‐arse-
nide (InGaAs), germanium (Ge), and mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) sensors. Table 1.1
shows the working wavelengths of the IR technology.
Sensor networks are designed after an accurate analysis of the production processes, thus sug-
gesting the correct configurations and connections of possible gateways, routers, and of device
combinations. Sensor networks are implemented for point to point, star, extended star, bus, or
mesh configuration. In Figure 1.1 are shown the different main network configurations. The
design of the network is an important step for the realization of the correct network. The spatial
allocation of the production machines and the workflow of the production define the best configu-
ration. The network layout changes with the sensor system: the star or mesh network is typically

Table 1.1 Spectral ranges of infrared technology.

Infrared technology Spectral range (μm) References

InSb 0.6–5 [14]

InGaAs 0.9–1.7 [14]
Ge 0.8–1.6 [15]
HgCdTe 1–9.5 [14]
4 1 State of the Art and Technology Innovation

adopted for sensors, besides the bus layout is suitable for production line connections and for the
information system. By considering for example a photovoltaic camp with a high number of pan-
els, it is preferable to realize a ring type fiber optic network linking all electrical string panels. The
network also assumes a hybrid configuration, especially when a new network is added and linked
to an old one. Table 1.2 lists the main advantages and disadvantages of the different network
layouts.
The network typology must be compatible with the network information system of the industry.
In this way, the hybrid solutions potentially ensure the best network performances and flexibility.
Figure 1.2a shows an example of a hybrid extended star network, constructed by merging an
extended star with a mesh network, by showing an example of network reconfiguration in cases of
connection failures, where the automatic principle of node commutation is managed by an intel-
ligent algorithm detecting and predicting system failures (example of direct interaction between
processing layer and production machine layers). The cases of Figure 1.2b–e are related to a pos-
sible configuration of the data transmission of a part of the network of Figure 1.2a. This example
highlights the importance of adding nodes to avoid the transmission problem. The solution to add
nodes to the local network must be “weighted” with the decrease of performance due to the
increased complexity of the new hybrid network. The prediction of possible failures of nodes,
allows to change anticipatedly a linking configuration, thus avoiding data interruptions, and pre-
serving production control. In the prediction calculation, sensors play an important role because
they detect operation conditions of production lines, status machines and product tracking. In
Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 are listed the main specifications of traceability sensors able to detect the
product in each production stage, and the main characteristics of transmission protocols,

Table 1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of network typologies.

Network type Advantages Disadvantages

Star The star network manages the whole network by
a single node behaving as a master node. Each
node of the network can be added, removed, and
reconfigured by ensuring the network
operations. Network simplicity. Easy
identification of errors
Bus Low cost and simple layout. Connection with a
simple coaxial or RJ45 cable
Ring Bidirectional transmission mode for dual ring
typology (full duplex)
Tree By adding to the tree network a star and a bus
layout, it is possible to allow an easy addition of
nodes and a network expansion
Mesh Reliable and stable network type. Resistance to
failure conditions also for complex layouts
involving more interconnections
For a failure of the central node the
whole network is out of order.
Bandwidth limitation
For a failure of the bus the whole
network is out of order. Additional
nodes decrease network velocity. Single
direction transmission mode (half
duplex)
Half duplex modality for basic ring
configuration. Transmission security
(if a node fails the network stops
operating)
If the root node is out of order the
whole network fails. Network
performance decreases for complex
hierarchical layouts
High time for network setting. High
computational cost for complex
interconnection layouts
 1.1 ­State of the Art of Flexible Technologies in Industr 5

respectively. Solutions for the actuation are the plug and play (P&P) solutions and programmable
logic controller (PLC) hardware interfaces. For P&P systems the hardware and software compo-
nents are downloaded and installed at or before run‐time. The supervisory control and data acqui-
sition (SCADA) [30] systems are able to read production data and transmit the setpoints to the
PLCs. SCADA systems typically are implemented to control system architectures by graphical user
interfaces (GUIs), and behaving as a supervisor of peripheral devices such as PLC, and propor-
tional integral derivative (PID) controllers interfacing process plant and production machinery.
Typically, SCADA adopts visualization tools and synoptic graphics for real‐time data display.

(a) Point to Point (b) Bus (c) Ring

(d) Star (e) Tree (f) Mesh

Figure 1.1 Example of network configurations: (a) point to point connection; (b) bus line; (c) ring layout;
(d) star connection; (e) tree layout; and (f) node meshing configuration.

(a) (b) (c)

4 3 4 3

1 2 1 2
4 3
5 6 5
1 2 (d) (e)
5 4 3 4 3
6

1 2 1 2

5 6 5 6

Figure 1.2 Example of hybrid extended star network and failure system reconfiguration for a secure
production monitoring: (a) hybrid network structure by extended star and mesh network; (b) normal
configuration for data transmission to the manager central node (transmission from node 3 to node 1);
(c) example of reconfiguration for an interrupted linking between node 1 (network coordinator) and node 2;
(d, e) examples of reconfiguration for interrupted links between node 1 and node 2 and between node 1
and node 4 simultaneously.
6 1 State of the Art and Technology Innovation

The information levels of a dynamic information system, allowing the upgrade from Industry 4.0
to Industry 5.0 production, is interconnected as in Figure 1.3, where the following six main layers
are distinguished:
●● Sensor and actuator layer.
●● Agent, firmware and user interface layer.
●● Gateway layer.
●● IoT middleware.
●● Processing layer.
●● Application layer.
Flexible technologies must act in these layers, and are fundamental to automatize all the produc-
tion processes for:
●● In‐line/off‐line production monitoring.
●● The elimination of possible failure conditions.
●● The decrease of production defects.
●● The optimization of human resources and of their work.
●● Business intelligence (BI) and strategic marketing.
●● The optimization of the warehouse management.
●● A dynamic production following the real‐time customer requests.
The main flexible technologies are integrated in robotic systems. Robots process information
acquired by sensors placed inside and outside the production machines, and generating differ-
ent outputs suitable for decision making, for the processing coordination, and for the system
control.
The flexibility of the information system is mainly in the interconnectivity of all the layers shown
in Figure 1.3, representing a standard architecture upgraded by AI and big data system working in
the processing layer. Big data systems are characterized by the following features:
●● Volume (dataset volumes larger than terabytes [1012 byte] and petabytes [1015 byte]).
●● Velocity (velocity refers to the data generation speed).
●● Variety (variety of sources with structured, semi structured and unstructured data).
●● Veracity (quality of the data that is being analyzed, the non‐valuable data are classified as nose
or wrong data).
Big data uses the not only SQL (NoSQL) technology. The NoSQL databases (DBs) do not use the
relational model, are performed efficiently on clusters, and can be open source.
A primary important aspect concerning the production optimization is the production tracea-
bility, performed by sensors. Digital traceability is fundamental in Industry 4.0 scenarios.
Automatic detection by gates installed on the production line at each production stage is able to
control quality processes and production in general. Table 1.3 lists the main sensors used for prod-
uct traceability.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems are constituted by a reader and by a TAG or tran-
sponder, enabling the electronic identification of the traced product. The active version is equipped
with a lithium (Li) battery or is powered by an external source. The passive RFID is not equipped
with a battery and is cheaper offering an infinite lifetime. Besides, the active TAGs are more useful
when writing operations. Sensors displaced to control production transmit data using specific pro-
tocols. Table 1.4 lists some specifications of transmission protocols.
 1.1 ­State of the Art of Flexible Technologies in Industr 7

Production System
Application Layer
Engineering Coordination

Big Data
Processing Layer AI
Analytics

Dynamic Architecture Design

API IoT Middleware Security

Network Gateway/ESB Protocols

Agent, Firmware, User Interface

Sensors Actuators
Production Machine, Robots

Figure 1.3 Layers of technologies related to an advanced technology.

Table 1.3 Main specifications of sensors used for traceability.

Sensor type Main specifications References

Barcode ●● Optical laser reading identifying only type of item [16, 17]
●● Only read
●● <20 of characters of data capacity
QRcode ●● Optical laser reading identifying only type of item [17, 18]
●● Only read
●● Up to 7089 characters of data capacity
RFID ●● Radio frequency detection system [16, 17, 19–21]
●● 100–1000 characters of data capacity
●● Read and write
●● Standards: 125–134 kHz (LF); 13.56 MHz (HF); 866–915 MHz (UHF);
2.45–5.8 GHz (microwave)
●● Active tags (100 m reading distance, 64 byte–32 KB of memory capacity)
●● Passive tags (1 m reading distance, 48 byte–2 KB of memory capacity)
NFC ●● Distance of communication: few cm [21]
●● Technology: RFID based
●● Frequency: 13.56 MHz
●● Communication: two way
iBeacon ●● Bluetooth Low‐Energy (low power consumption) [22, 23]
●● 1 m ± 70 m wireless range

NFC, near field communication; RFID, radio frequency identification.

Another random document with
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All things have been delivered unto me of my Father: and no one
knoweth who the Son is, save the Father; and who the Father is,
save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal
him. Luke, 10, 22.

I know the things which have been, those which are, and
those which are to be; but me nobody knows. VII, 26.

Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will
give you rest. Matt., 11, 28.

Forsaking all duties, come to me as thy sole refuge. I will

release thee from all sins: do not grieve. XVIII, 66.

But that ye may know that the Son of Man hath authority on
earth to forgive sins,—Mark, 2, 10.

Of all mortals, he who knows me to be unborn, without

beginning, the great Lord of the world, being free from
delusion, is released from all sins. X, 3.

If any man would come after me, let him deny himself, and take
up his cross, and follow me. Mark, 8, 34.

In thought renouncing all actions unto me, intent on me,

applying thyself to the yoking of thine intellect, be thou
always thinking of me. XVIII, 57.

So, therefore, whosoever he be of you that renounceth not all

that he hath, he cannot be my disciple. Luke, 14, 33.

Having thyself yoked by the yoke of renunciation, thou shalt

come to me. IX, 28.

Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will
give you rest. Matt., 11, 28.

In him seek shelter with all thy might: by his grace thou shalt
attain supreme peace, the eternal dwelling-place. XVIII, 62.
 If they have called the master of the house Beelzebub, how
much more shall they call them of his household? Matt., 10, 25.

hating me in their own bodies and in those of others. XVI, 18.

And blessed is he, whosoever shall find none occasion of

stumbling in me. Matt., 11, 6.

Deluded people, ... not knowing my highest nature as great

lord of entities, disregard me, as I have assumed a human
body. IX, 11.

My yoke is easy, and my burden is light. Matt., 11, 30.

To the constantly-yoked Yogi, who constantly remembereth

me, never thinking of another, I am easy of access. VIII, 14.

Learn of me. Matt., 11, 29.

Learn from me. XVIII, 50.

It would lead us far afield to set forth in detail all the striking things
that Jesus has to say about His own person and mission, but it may
be well to quote a few passages exhibiting lines of character and
thought not exemplified above:—
(a) His meekness and lowliness.

“I am meek and lowly in heart.” Matt., 11, 29.

(b) The conditions of His earthly life.

“The foxes have holes, and the birds of heaven have nests; but
the Son of Man hath not where to lay His head.” Luke, 9, 58.

(c) The necessity that He should die for men.

“And He began to teach them, that the Son of Man must suffer
many things, and be rejected by the elders, and the chief priests,
 and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again.”
Mark, 8, 31.

(d) His spirit of service and self-sacrifice.

“Even as the Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to

minister, and to give His life a ransom for many.” Matt., 20, 28.
“But I am among you as he that doth serve.” Luke, 22, 27.

(e) His claims on the allegiance and love of men.

“Every one who shall confess Me before men, him shall the Son
of Man also confess before the angels of God: but he that
denieth Me in the presence of men shall be denied in the
presence of the angels of God.” Luke, 12, 8-9.
“He that loveth father or mother more than Me is not worthy of
Me; and he that loveth son or daughter more than Me is not
worthy of Me.” Matt., 10, 37-38.

(f) His universal sympathy.

“Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of these My brethren, even these

least, ye did it unto Me.” Matt., 25, 40.

(g) His declaration that he will return to judge all men.

“Many will say to Me in that day, Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy
by Thy name, and by Thy name cast out devils, and by Thy
name do many mighty works? And then will I profess unto them,
I never knew you: depart from Me, ye that work iniquity.” Matt., 7,
22-23.

(h) His presence with his followers.

“For where two or three are gathered together in My name, there

am I in the midst of them.” Matt., 18, 20.
The Gītā is one of the most eloquent possible proofs of the fact that
the human heart cries out for an incarnate Saviour. Scarcely less
impressive is the evidence furnished by the reception of the Gītā by
Hindu readers: not the greatest of the Upanishads, neither the
Chāndogya nor the Katha, has had one quarter of the influence
exercised by this late poem; and the secret undoubtedly is to be
found in the attraction of the man-god Krishna. How many
generations of pious readers have found in the story of the life and
teaching of the incarnate god something to which their deepest and
most persistent religious instincts have responded! How many to-day
turn to Krishna in their trials and troubles!
On the one hand, then, we have the imaginative portrait of Krishna,
surrounded by millions of adoring worshippers—touching spectacle!
On the other, stands the historical Jesus of Nazareth, Son of Man
and Son of God, stretching out His nail-pierced hands to India, as He
says, “Come unto Me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I
will give you rest.” Rightly read, the Gītā is a clear-tongued prophecy
of Christ, and the hearts that bow down to the idea of Krishna are
really seeking the incarnate Son of God.
IV. We have been able to see some little distance into the self-
consciousness of Jesus, and to realize in part at least that on which
He grounds His claim to the heart of every man; but we have not yet
learned the secret of that most marvellous of His powers, His power
to win human love. To that we must now address ourselves.
It is a well-known fact of history that, shortly after the death of Christ,
His followers began to preach in His name, and that very soon the
new faith began to spread rapidly. We have already learned from
Tacitus that in 64 A. D. there was “an immense multitude” of
Christians in Rome itself. Now the greatest of all the early
missionaries was Paul. He was the apostle of Europe. We mention
his name here, because we wish to refer to one of his Epistles.
These letters are the earliest of our Christian documents. The series
begins with two brief letters, both written, with a short interval
between them, to the church at Thessalonica. The most probable
date for them is 49 A. D., that is, only twenty years after the death of
Christ. But the letter we wish to use is one sent from Ephesus to the
church of Corinth[235] about 55 A. D.,[236] that is, twenty-six years after
the death of Jesus. We must not stay here to speak of the splendour
of the ethical feeling and teaching of the Epistle further than to say
that it manifestly has its source in Jesus. We must direct our
attention to other facts which appear in it.
Christianity, we note, has already spread from Judæa into the
provinces of Asia[237] and Galatia[238] in Asia Minor, and
Macedonia[239] and Achaia[240] in Europe. Phœnicia, Syria, Cilicia and
Cyprus are not mentioned; but we know from other sources[241] that
they too were already evangelized. Thus in twenty-six years the
Church of Christ has become a great organization, extending
through many lands, yet conscious of its unity in Christ.[242] We note
also that then, as to-day, BAPTISM is a solemn ceremonial act, in
which a man through the action of the Holy Spirit becomes a
member of the body of Christ,[243] while THE LORD’S SUPPER is a
recurrent feast, in which the members of the Church have fellowship
with the Lord and with each other.[244]
But what we would call special attention to is the place assigned to
Christ in the Epistle. With reference to the Christian, Christ is THE
LORD;[245] with reference to the Father, He is THE SON;[246] He is
spoken of as the Lord of Glory,[247] the Power of God,[248] and the
Wisdom of God;[249] and prayer is offered to Him.[250] All spiritual
authority and power are attributed to Him.[251] The Church is His
body,[252] and He supplies His grace and power to every member.[253]
He will come back again to earth in glory,[254] and will then reveal all
secrets and judge all men.[255]
But there is another point still more noteworthy, and that is the way in
which the crucifixion of Christ is interpreted. Instead of regarding that
judicial murder as a regrettable incident, like the assassination of
Cæsar or the death of Socrates, Paul and his fellow-believers glory
in it,[256] not only as the crowning event of the divine revelation made
in Christ, but as the consummation of His work as the Saviour of
men.[257] Paul makes it the basis of all his preaching,[258] and in it he
finds all the wealth of spiritual wisdom which Christianity contains.[259]
He contrasts the wisdom of God wrapped up in that divine tragedy
with the worldly wisdom of earthly rulers.[260]
What can be the explanation of this extraordinary attitude to such an
event?—The basis of it is the solemn declaration, which Paul makes
in the Epistle, and which he says he made to his converts first of all,
that ON THE CROSS CHRIST DIED FOR OUR SINS.[261] The
crucifixion, as a bare event in history, is but an act of wicked folly on
the part of the rulers of Judæa; but, viewed from the standpoint of
morality and religion, it is a divine act of world-wide significance. In
the blood of Christ a new covenant had been made between God
and man.[262] This is the Gospel, which all the Apostles teach, and
which all the churches believe.[263] Through faith in Christ, on the
basis of this tremendous assertion, the Corinthian Christians, like the
rest, had been saved,[264] i.e., they had received the forgiveness of
their sins[265] and the sanctifying Spirit.[266] They thus no longer
belonged to themselves: they had been bought with a great price,
the blood of the Son of God.[267] They were no longer part and parcel
of heathen society; each one was a member of the body of Christ.[268]
What led Paul and all the other Apostles and all the early Christians
to form such an extraordinary theory? How did they come to the
conclusion that the crucifixion was not a squalid tragedy, but a divine
sacrifice? This letter tells us quite plainly; the reasons were these:
Jesus Himself declared before He was crucified, that His death was
to be the basis of the New Covenant,[269] and this declaration of His
had been divinely confirmed by His Resurrection.[270]
Now mark: this letter was written within twenty-six years of the event.
The majority of the twelve Apostles, and multitudes of other men
who had known Jesus, were still alive.[271] Paul’s good faith is beyond
all question; and, as he was intimate with Peter and John and the
rest of the Apostles, and also with James the brother of Jesus,[272] he
had access to the very best information possible. Further he had
been one of the most violent opponents of Christianity. His testimony
is, therefore, evidence of the very highest value. We may conclude,
then, with the utmost certitude that we are standing on an
immoveable historical foundation, when we say that Jesus, before
His crucifixion, said He was about to die for the sins of men.
But this evidence does not stand alone. It is a historical fact,
acknowledged by scholars of every school, that all Christian
churches have from the very beginning celebrated the Lord’s
Supper.[273] Now this universal usage in so many churches, divided
not only by long distances but in many cases also by minor
differences in doctrine, cannot be explained at all except as a result
of a command of Jesus Himself. If any single disciple had started
such a practice, it could never have won its way to universal
acceptance. Now consider the significance of this fact: Jesus, on the
night in which He was betrayed, took bread, broke it, and bade His
disciples eat it, saying, ‘This is My body.’ He then took a cup of wine
and bade them drink it, saying, ‘This is My blood.’[274] The scene is
absolutely without a parallel in the history of the world; and it can
have but one meaning, viz., that Jesus regarded His death as a
sacrifice.
But the direct statement of Paul is corroborated, not only by the
institution of the Supper, but also by this fact, that the doctrine, that
Christ died for our sins, is an integral part of the teaching of Jesus as
that is handed down to us in the Gospels. We have already seen that
He held that His death was necessary for the establishment of the
Kingdom. We must now set out His teaching on this subject with a
little more fulness. We shall restrict ourselves to a single Gospel. In
the earliest saying that refers to it, His death is a future event,
coming inevitably, and destined to bring sorrow to His disciples. “And
Jesus said unto them, Can the sons of the bride-chamber mourn, as
long as the bridegroom is with them? but the days will come, when
the bridegroom shall be taken away from them, and then will they
fast.”[275] In the next it is much more clearly defined. Its necessity is
emphasized; we are told that the agents are to be the religious
leaders of Israel; and it is to be followed by the resurrection. “From
that time began Jesus to shew unto His disciples, how that He must
go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders and chief
priests and scribes, and be killed, and the third day be raised up.”[276]
Twice over this same prophecy is repeated, the last time with more
detail.[277] Then follows a most striking saying, in which He speaks of
His death as voluntary: it is a giving away of His life; and it is
explained as the climax of His life of service; for the gift is ‘a ransom
for many,’ that is a price paid, in order to redeem many from sin.
“The Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and
to give His life a ransom for many.”[278] We need not linger over the
next sayings, though each has its own interest.[279] The last saying
occurs in the account of the institution of the Supper. In these words
He teaches in the clearest way, first, that His death is to be the
ground of forgiveness, and secondly, that after His death He is to be
the source of the spiritual life and strength of His followers. “And as
they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed, and brake it; and
He gave to the disciples, and said, ‘Take, eat; this is My body.’ And
He took a cup, and gave thanks, and gave to them, saying, ‘Drink ye
all of it; for this is My blood of the covenant, which is shed for many
unto remission of sins.”[280] The teaching of Jesus is an organic
whole, and is incomplete without this, His own interpretation of His
death of shame.
Jesus, then, gave Himself up to death as the sacrifice for the sins of
men. Our Christian documents go on to declare that He rose from
the dead on the third day, and that this resurrection of His was God’s
confirmation of the sacrifice of His Son. That men should at first sight
disbelieve the astounding assertion, that the crucified Jesus rose
from the dead, is not to be wondered at; but the fact remains.
Sceptical scholars have laboured for centuries to explain away this
extraordinary occurrence, but no one of these scholars themselves
will venture to say that any explanation hitherto given is satisfactory.
The latest attempt, that made by Schmiedel in the Encyclopædia
Biblica, is a farcical failure. The following are the adamantine facts
which no rationalism has ever yet succeeded in crushing or melting:
—(a) the Christians declared that they had seen Christ and spoken
with Him after His resurrection; (b) they were absolutely sincere in
this belief[281]; (c) the Christian Church arose as a result of this
conviction; (d) the grave was empty. The account of Christ’s
appearances given in the fifteenth chapter of our Epistle is well worth
study. Those who wish to look into this question further may consult
Ballard’s Miracles of Unbelief, pp. 135 ff.
We have thus, by a serious historical inquiry, reached the conclusion,
that Jesus of Nazareth, the founder of the Christian religion,
declared, before His crucifixion, that He was about to die for the sins
of men, and that this assertion of His was sealed with the divine
approval by the unique miracle of the resurrection. We have also
seen that this was the Good News, which Paul and all the other
Apostles preached, and on which the early Church was founded. It is
this that has won for Jesus the love of myriads; it is this that has
been the magnet to draw them away from sin. It is the source of the
joy and vital power of the Christian life.
Now let us recollect the poem upon The Servant of Jehovah, which
we considered in our third chapter. How marvellously Jesus
corresponds to the extraordinary idea which that poem discloses, the
despised and oppressed prisoner who endures in uncomplaining
meekness the uttermost shame of a violent death, and is finally
recognized as having been “pierced because of our trangressions,
and crushed because of our iniquities.” That anyone should write
such a poem, seems strange in the extreme; that Jesus should have
fulfilled it, is infinitely more wonderful.
How comes it that this Jewish carpenter, with His three years of
public life and His cross of shame, fulfils so many ideals and
aspirations? He brings in the new age which Virgil and his
contemporaries sighed for; He is Plato’s just man; He utters from His
own self-consciousness such things as the author of the Gītā
imagined an incarnate god would say; He gives Himself up to death,
in sheer love, as a sacrifice for sin, thus fulfilling the deepest needs
of man, as expressed by the old Hebrew seer; and He is the only
human being whom men of every race and clime can heartily admire
and unhesitatingly imitate. Nor is this all: many other convergent
lines of thought might be suggested, in the light of which Jesus
stands out as the ideal of our common humanity and the fountain of
the love of God.
How is all this to be explained? Wide chasms sever the Hindu sage,
the Greek philosopher, the Hebrew prophet and the Roman poet; yet
in Jesus their several ideals are reconciled in a loftier unity. Once in
the course of the centuries East and West have actually met! Nor
was the meeting merely the resolution of antitheses in a wider
conception: what the Jew and the Indian, the Greek and the Roman,
dreamed of as the unattainable, that Jesus actually accomplished in
this work-a-day world of ours, amid storms of the cruellest hatred
and calumny.—What is your candid opinion about Him, brother?
How are you to solve the problem raised by His life, death and place
in history? Can He be better described than in His own words, SON
OF MAN and SON OF GOD?
 APPENDIX.
NEO-KRISHNA LITERATURE.

The Neo-Krishna movement is about twenty years old. Before 1880

Vaishnavism does not seem to have been in great favour with the
higher castes of Bengal. Traditionally they were Saivas or Sāktas
rather than Vaishnavas; and English education, which bore very
heavily for half a century on every form of Hinduism seems to have
told with peculiar severity on Krishnaism. But shortly after 1880 a
great change becomes visible: Krishna begins to be praised on
every hand, and ancient Vaishnava books are read and studied with
avidity. The new movement seems to have owed its origin, on the
one hand, to the teaching and influence of Ramkrishna Paramhansa,
Keshub Chundra Sen, Bijoy Krishna Goswami and Shishir Kumar
Ghose; and on the other, to the efforts of two or three noteworthy
literary men, who threw themselves into the task of painting the
character of Krishna with extraordinary enthusiasm. The Gītā at once
leaped into greater prominence than ever: numberless editions and
translations of it have been published. Many essays have appeared
comparing Krishna with Christ and Vaishnavism with Christianity.
Thus a large Krishna literature, both in English and Bengali, has
sprung up. The following seem to be the more important books of
this literature:—

1884
Essays in Prachār on Krishnacharitra by Bunkim Ch. Chatterji.
1886
1. Krishnacharitra, Bunkim Ch. Chatterji, 1st edition. A volume in
Bengali prose on the character of Krishna.
1887
2. Raivatak, Nobin Ch. Sen. An epic poem in Bengali on
Krishna’s youth. 3. The Bhagavad Gītā, or the Lords Lay, Mohini
M. Chatterji. An English prose translation of the text and of parts
of Sankara’s commentary. An attempt is made to put the Gītā on
the same level as the New Testament.
1888
4. Krishna Jivani, Prosanna Kumar Vidyaratna. A life of Krishna
in Bengali prose.
1889
5. Srikrishner Jivana O Dharma, Gaur Gavinda Ray. The life and
religion of Krishna from the standpoint of the New Dispensation:
Bengali prose.
1890
6. Srimadbhagavadgītā, Krishnananda Swami (i.e. Krishna
Prasanna Sen). The text in the Bengali character with a Bengali
commentary and translation.
1892
Krishnacharitra, Bunkim Ch. Chatterji, 2nd edition. This edition
contains a great deal of new matter.
7. Amiya Nimai Charity, Shishir Kumar Ghose. First part. A life of
Chaitanya in Bengali prose.
1893
Amiya Nimai Charit. Second part.
8. Kurukshetra, Nobin Ch. Sen. An epic poem in Bengali on
Krishna at Kurukshetra.
1894
9. The Landmarks of Ethics according to the Gītā. Bulloram
Mullick.
Amiya Nimai Charit. Third part.
1895
10. Kālā Chānd Gītā, Shishir Kumar Ghose. A sort of Krishnaite
Song of Solomon in Bengali verse. It is said to have been
composed in 1888.
1896
11. Srikrishna, his Life and Teachings, Dhirendra Nath Pal. 3
vols.
12. Srikrishner Kalanka Kena? Nava Kumar Devasarma. A
Bengali prose defence of the character of Krishna.
13. The Bhagavad Gītā, Annie Besant. New and revised edition.
An English prose translation with an introduction and a few
notes.
14. Prabhās, Nobin Ch. Sen. An epic poem in Bengali on the
later years of Krishna’s life.
1897
15. Lord Gaurānga, Shishir Kumar Ghose, 1st volume. A life of
Chaitanya in English prose, with a discussion of the doctrine of
Incarnations.
1898
16. Krishna and Krishnaism, Bulloram Mullick.
Lord Gaurānga, 2nd volume.
17. Hindu Theism, Sitanath Tattvabhushan.
18. An Elementary Treatise on Universal Religion. Kshetra
Mohan Mukerji. The religion of the Gītā is here put forward as the
universal religion.
1899
19. Incarnation, Nanda Krishna Bose. This treatise follows in
most points the theory of Incarnation put forward in Lord
Gaurānga.
1900
 20. The Young Men’s Gītā, Jogindranath Mukharji. An English
prose translation with introduction and notes.
21. Srimadbhagavadgītā, Prasanna Kumar Sastri, 2nd edition.
The text in the Bengali character, with several commentaries,
and a Bengali translation by Sasadhar Tarkachuramani.
1901
22. The Imitation of Sreekrishna, S. C. Mukhopadhaya. A daily
text-book, containing extracts in English from the Gītā, the
Mahābhārata, and the Bhāgavat Purāna.
23. Sree Krishna, Muralidhur Roy. An account, in English prose,
of the life and character of Krishna.
24. Srimadbhagavadgītā, Bhudhur Chattopadhaya, 4th edition.
The text in the Bengali character, with a Bengali commentary.
1903
25. A most elaborate edition of the Gītā, edited by Damudar
Mukerji, is being published in parts.
26. A Bengali verse translation of the Gītā by Satyendra Nath
Tagore is appearing in Bhārati.

This revival of interest in Krishna and his worship is clearly part of

the great national movement which has been so potent in Bengal,
religiously, socially and politically, these last twenty years. This
period has witnessed the appearance of the whole Neo-Hindu
movement, with its literature, lectures, societies and missionary
propaganda, the rise of the Indian National Congress and of the
social reform movement, the advance of native journalism to its
present extraordinary influence, and the establishment of the native
unaided colleges, which have so seriously changed the balance of
influence in Higher Education. Neo-Krishnaism, then, is one result of
the operation of that potent spirit whereby India has become
conscious of her unity, and her sons have been roused to a vigorous
defence of all that they have inherited from the past. This rise of the
national spirit, though it may be troublesome in small matters to the
rulers of India, is undoubtedly the last and greatest justification of
English rule; and, while, with its exaggerations and insincerities and
follies, it cannot fail to provoke criticism,[282] yet its power to awake
self-reliance, self-respect and the passion for freedom ought to win
for it the approval and the encouragement of all good men.
There can be no doubt that among the influences which have
produced Neo-Hinduism, Christianity is one of the most potent, if not
the chief. This is peculiarly evident in the case of the Neo-Krishna
literature we are discussing. In 1899 the Bengal Librarian wrote,
“There is no denying the fact that all this revolution in the religious
belief of the educated Hindu has been brought about as much by the
dissemination of Christian thought by Missionaries as by the study of
Hindu scriptures; for Christian influence is plainly detectable in many
of the Hindu publications of the year.” But beyond this general
influence, which cannot fail to be noticed by anyone who will take the
trouble to read the volumes, it is, we believe, perfectly plain that the
very ideas which have given birth to the literature are the result of
Christian influence. A distinct taste for such books as the Gospels
has sprung up; and men have come to feel the need of a perfect
character, such as Christ’s is, for daily contemplation and imitation.
The Neo-Krishna movement endeavours to supply these needs from
within Hinduism, offering the Gītā instead of the Gospels, and
Krishna instead of Christ.[283]
Nobin Ch. Sen seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of a
modern rendering of the character of Krishna; for he laid the project
before some of his friends in 1882.[284] His famous epic trilogy,
Raivatak, Kurukshetra and Prabhās, are the result of this pregnant
thought. But, while he and Shishir Kumar Ghose have done a great
deal to popularize the movement, there can be no doubt that Bunkim
Ch. Chatterji’s Krishnacharitra has been by far the most influential
volume in the whole of this literature. Gaur Gavinda Ray’s work,
Srikrishner Jivana O Dharma, is a piece of excellent
characterization, and has won the high regard of many thoughtful
men.
The books on our list fall into two classes, Historical and Traditional.
In the Historical class there are only two volumes, Tattvabhusan’s
Hindu Theism, and the Young Men’s Gītā. These two frankly
acknowledge that the Gītā is a late book. In the Young Men’s Gītā[285]
its date is said to be a century or two before, or a century or two
after, the Christian era; while in Hindu Theism[286] the Gītā is
regarded as the point of transition from the old Vedānta to the
religion of the Purānas. The standpoint of these two books is thus
thoroughly historical, but it necessarily implies the abandonment of
the divinity of Krishna.
All the rest of the books on the list fall into the second class; for they
hold the traditional position about Krishna. Most of them make no
attempt at criticism of the sources, but treat the Mahābhārata, the
Gītā, the Harivansa and the Purānas as all historical and all equally
trustworthy. A few of the authors, however, state plainly their own
critical conclusions, and two or three enter into some discussion of
the main problems. These attempts at criticism are the most pitiable
parts of the whole literature. The talented author of Srikrishner
Jivana O Dharma, by far too sincere and candid to ignore the
Puranic elements in the sources, frankly confesses their presence;
yet, believing these books to be genuine representatives of the age
of Kurukshetra, he is driven to the extraordinary conclusion that the
Vedic, the Vedantic, and the Puranic ages were contemporaneous.
[287]
The late Bulloram Mullick, in discussing the eighteen Purānas,
goes so far as to say, “Whatever may be the views of European
savants, there is indubitable proof that some of these Purānas
existed in the eleventh or twelfth century before Christ.”[288] Even
Bunkim Chundra Chatterji himself not only unhesitatingly adopts
Goldstücker’s rash guess, that Pānini’s grammar was written before
the Brāhmanas and the Upanishads, but on the basis of that unwise
conjecture, pushes back Pānini’s date to the tenth or eleventh
century B. C.,[289] i.e., four or five centuries earlier than the pre-
Buddhistic date which Goldstücker[290] wished to establish. Dhirendra
Nath Pal, seeing that Bunkim Babu found it so easy to leap over a
few centuries, goes a little further and suggests the twelfth or
thirteenth.[291] But, indeed, without some such strange perversion of
history, it is impossible to construct an argument for the authenticity
of the Gītā and the historicity of the Mahābhārata that shall have
even the semblance of reason.
We note next that of all the books of the second class, Bunkim
Chundra’s Krishnacharitra is the only work that gives any
independent criticism: all the rest, with the single exception of
Srikrishner Jivana O Dharma, merely echo his arguments. Thus
Bunkim Babu’s theory is the only one we need discuss.
Now the whole critical structure of the Krishnacharitra rests upon the
passage on pages 41 and 42, where the date of Pānini is discussed.
Pānini is pushed back to 1000 B. C.; and, the ‘original’ Mahābhārata
being earlier than Pānini, we are asked to believe that it was
produced within a century or two of Kurukshetra, and that it is in
consequence trustworthy historically. The whole argument thus rests
on the date of Pānini.
We translate this important passage:—

“Goldstücker has proved that, when Pānini’s Sūtra was

composed, Buddha had not arisen. In that case Pānini must
belong to the sixth century B. C. But not only that, in his time the
Brāhmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the other parts
of the Vedas had not been composed. Apart from the Rig, the
Yajur, and the Sāma Vedas, nothing else existed. Asvalāyana,
Sānkhāyana and the rest had not appeared. Max Müller says
that the age in which the Brāhmanas were composed began
about 1000 B. C. Dr. Martin Haug says that that was the end of
the age, and that it began in the fourteenth century B. C.
Therefore, if we say that Pānini must belong to the tenth or
eleventh century B. C., we do not say too much.”

Now the first remark we make on this extraordinary piece of criticism

is this, that Goldstücker and Max Müller are most unfairly conjoined
to support a date which both of them would have indignantly
repudiated. For Müller’s date for Pānini is the fourth century B.C.,[292]
and Goldstücker never proposed to push him further back than the
sixth century; indeed all that he claims is that he has brought forward
evidence which affords a strong probability that Pānini preceded the
origin of the Buddhistic creed.[293] Our next remark is that, though
more than forty years have passed since Goldstücker’s book
appeared,[294] he has convinced no one that the Brāhmanas and the
Upanishads are posterior to Pānini’s grammar: opinions still differ as
to Pānini’s precise date, but no scholar to-day puts him before the
Brāhmanas.[295]
Can the grounds for this unanimity among modern scholars be
vividly set forth? We believe they can. Here, as in our first chapter,
we shall not attempt to fix a definite chronology, but shall simply aim
at reaching the relative age of the great books we are dealing with;
and we shall not deal with the meaning of disputed passages, but
shall rest the case altogether on the clear and prominent features of
history which every one can appreciate. There is, then, first of all the
great broad fact that the Sūtras depend on the Brāhmanas, and are,
in general, posterior to them, and that the language and style of
Pānini’s Sūtras show that he belongs to about the middle of the
Sūtra period.[296] All the detailed study of the last forty years has
gone to strengthen this stable conclusion.
But there is another and still more conclusive proof that Pānini
comes long after the early Brāhmanas. These ancient books are
written in Vedic Sanskrit.[297] The early Upanishads are more modern
in character, but even they belong to a stage of the language a good
deal earlier than the Sūtras: Professor Macdonell’s words are, “the
oldest Upanishads occupying a position linguistically midway
between the Brāhmanas and the Sūtras.”[298] Thus the Brāhmanas
were composed while Vedic Sanskrit was still the language of the
Indo-Aryans. Now Pānini’s grammar deals with classical Sanskrit,
not the Vedic speech. He deals with many points of Vedic grammar,
it is true, but he deals with them as exceptions; his subject is
classical Sanskrit. He laid down the law, which has ruled Sanskrit
throughout the centuries since his day. Thus he arose at a time,
when the language of the Brāhmanas had become archaic, and
modern Sanskrit had taken its place.[299] It is thus absolutely
impossible to believe that Pānini lived and wrote before the
Brāhmanas were composed: to propose to put him back before their
composition is much the same as proposing to push Johnson’s
Dictionary back before Chaucer.
Another line of proof may also be indicated. Careful study of the
early Brāhmanas has made it plain that they were composed after
the collection of the hymns of the Rigveda, but before[300] the
formation of the Sanhitā text (i.e., the text in which the words are
joined according to the rules of Sandhi) and the Pada[301] text (i.e. the
word by word text). The author of the Pada text is Sākalya.[302] Now
Yāska refers to Sākalya as a predecessor;[303] and Yāska himself is
earlier than Pānini.[304] Thus the historical order is the early
Brāhmanas, the Sanhitā text, Sākalya, Yāska, Pānini.
Bunkim Babu’s date for Pānini being thus altogether untenable, his
whole argument for the historicity of the Pāndava Mahābhārata and
Krishna’s character as therein pourtrayed tumbles in ruins, and
brings down with it all the rest of this Krishna literature.
We would invite our readers to turn away from these vain attempts to
turn a myth into sober history, and to listen to the teaching of those
really scholarly Indians who study Hinduism from a scientific
standpoint. We have already referred to Sitanath Tattvabhushan’s
Hindu Theism, and we have frequently used Bose’s Hindu
Civilization under British Rule and R. C. Dutt’s works as authorities.
We would now call attention to a monograph by one of the greatest
scholars in Bengal (Comparative Studies in Vaishnavism and
Christianity, by Brajendra Nath Seal), where[305] the growth of the
Krishna legend is frankly discussed;[306] also to a very remarkable
essay on Buddhist and Vishnuite in a recent number of Sāhitya[307]
by the late Umes Chundra Batabyal, in which grave historical
reasons are given for concluding that the Gītā is in part at least a
polemic against Buddhism; and to the late Mr. Justice Telang’s
introduction to his translation of the Gītā (S. B. E., vol. VIII), with
regard to which readers will note, that, although the date is put a little
earlier than most scholars would put it, no attempt is made to defend
the traditional theory of the origin of the Song.

Footnotes
 1. The philosophic basis of the book is primarily the Sānkhya
system which is essentially atheistic.

2. Dr. Lorinser’s attempt (Die Bhagavadgītā, übersetzt und

erläutert von Dr. F. Lorinser, 1869) to prove that the author of
the Gītā borrowed many ideas from the Bible must be
pronounced a failure. Cf. Garbe, 19, 83-85; Max Müller, Natural
Religion, 97-100; Hopkins, R. I., 429.

3. On the religion of the Rigveda see Kaegi, 27-74; Hopkins, R. I.,

Chaps. II-VI; Macdonell, 67-115; Bose, H.C., I, 6-9; Dutt, C.A.I.,
Vol. I, Chap. V; Monier-Williams, Chap. I.

4. Hopkins, R.I., 141; Macdonell, 385; Garbe, 1-2; Kaegi, 87.

5. E.g., X, 90.

6. X, 81; 82; 121.

7. X, 129.

8. Kaegi, 3; Macdonell, 171-174.

9. Kaegi, 4; Macdonell, 174-185.

10. Kaegi, 5; Macdonell, 202 ff.; Müller, A.S.L., Chap. II; Bose,
H.C., I, 9-12.

11. Müller, A.S.L., 389.

12. Hopkins, R.I., 177.

13. Gough, Chap. I; Garbe, 2-7; Macdonell, 223; Hopkins, R.I.,

204.

14. Müller, A.S.L., 313 ff.; Macdonell, 204; Kaegi, 5.

15. Müller, A.S.L., 316 ff.; Macdonell, 218 ff.; Kaegi, 5; Bose, H.C.,
I, 12-19.