1ST SEM EDU 1

MODULE 1 Unit:01 Historical Foundations of Education EDU 101
UNIT 1 (EDU 101.1): INDIGENOUS EDUCATION IN

NIGERIA: DEFINITION,
OBJECTIVES, CURRICULUM,
METHODOLOGY, MERITS AND
LIMITATIONS
INTRODUCTION
If I asked you to tell who an educated man is, what will be your answer? You may say that an
educated man is one who is able to read and write. You may, further, go on to say that he is
the man who went to school. You may be correct because such an answer has become
conventional. On the basis of this, let me ask you another question. Would you say that your
forefathers were educated or not? Probably, you may say that they were not because they did
not go to school and so were illiterate. You would be wrong here because education involves
more than going to school and the ability to read and write. On the other hand, your answer
may be that they were educated. Your reason for this would be that they learned how to use
the resources in their environment to solve their day-to-day problems. Taking this stand, you
would argue that every human society anywhere at any age has its own form of education.
So, before the coming of Europeans, Nigerian societies had their own system of education.
The type of education that went on before the introduction of modern schooling is the
concern of this unit. After going through it, you will realize that although without our present
day type of schooling, they were educated. We shall proceed with their type of education and
explain why we regard them and others with them as educated. Theirs was indigenous
education.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain clearly the concept of indigenous education;
2. specify at least five objectives of indigenous education in Nigeria;
3. state clearly the curriculum contents of indigenous education and the methodology of
instruction; and
4. list and explain at least two merits and two limitations of indigenous education.
HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT
1. Please read through this unit once and try to note the most important ideas. When you
find an unfamiliar word try to look up the meaning of such unfamiliar word in your
dictionary.
2. Now study this unit step by step just as the entire unit has been arranged for you. You
must carry out all the exercises that are expected of you at the end of every step.
Undertake also the assignment at the end of the unit. Do not try to look at the sample
answers before answering or attempting the exercises.
3. To get the best result out of studying this unit, you should obey all the instructions.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT
AT THE END OF THIS BOOK
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WORD STUDY
Taboo - This is a practice of an act which is not approved by society or
culture e.g. to have sex with your sister.
Chronicler - A traditional professional story teller. He may be called a
traditional historian.
Apprenticeship system - Sending one to go and study a trade or craft under some one
who is an expert in the craft or the trade.
Antidote - This is something which is given to some one who has taken
poison to neutralise the effect of the poison.
Indigenou - Something which is not imported. It is part and parcel of the
place.
Initiation ceremonies - Traditional ceremonies for admitting new members. To initiate
means to admit.
THE CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
Before we try to show that our great grandparents were educated, let us ask an important
equestion. What is the meaning of indigenous education? It was stated in the Introduction that
every human society at any age has its own system of education. Indigenous African societies
had their own systems for training their young before the introduction of the western-type
education. This training was called indigenous education because it was part and parcel of the
society. Some writers choose to call it traditional education. For instance, Professor Fafunwa
so chooses. But, it is more appropriate to call it indigenous education because it was not
imported. It was part and parcel of African indigenous societies. An imported practice may,
after a long time, become traditional. This was not the case with idigenous African education.
Indeed, what our fore-parents did in the form of training was indigenous to every society.
We must note that when the whiteman came to Africa, he did not find these African practices
in print. Indigenous Africans did not have written records. So, he concluded that Africans had
no education. Later, he began to refer to African indigenous form of training as "primitive
education."
In the Nigerian traditional society for example, the local warrior, the hunter, blacksmith, the
medicine man were all regarded as educated people in the context of indigenous education.
Professor Fafunwa, aptly defined traditional (i.e. idigenous) education as the aggregate of all
the processes by which a child develops his abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour
which are of positive value to the society in which he lives. Indigenous education exists today
side by side with Western-type education. It does not possess the art of writing. It is a process
which enables every society to teach her younger generations the life patterns of their society.
The boys for example accompany their fathers to the farm, hunting expenditions, mending
the family houses, etc.
The girls accompany their mothers to the farms, markets to buy and sell and help them cook.
As parents perform, the young ones render helping hands and, in the process, learn or are
educated. Even as children play with peer group during the day or moon-lit nights, they sing
new songs and tell new stories. All these constitute education.
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ACTIVITY I
1. Explain in you own words what you mean by indigenous education?
2. Mention any three places indigenous education can take place?
OBJECTIVES OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

We have seen from what we have said so far, that indigenous education enabled the child to
live effectively and efficiently in his culture. What then were the objectives that indigenous
education programme was meant to achieve. In answering this question Fafunwa in his book
History of Education in Nigeria (1974) listed seven cardinal goals of such African Education.
However in this unit, we shall try to identify five objectives of indigenous education in
Nigeria. They are as follows:
1 Development of the Child's Physical Skills
As children move about in their environment, some jump up and down, others jump
over the fences, others run about, climb up trees while some attempt to walk or even
run on top of fenced walls with both hands stretched as balancing games.
In the night, both young and old come out to the moon-light either to dance to the tune
of the local musician or to play some hide and seek games. As these activities go on
the children are developing their physical skills. This perhaps is what Western
education calls physical education.
2. Character and Moral Training
Character and Moral training constitute the corner stone of indigenous education.
Children are taught from the early stages of their life to respect greet their elders. This
is a law that must be rigorously obeyed. For example a Yoruba girl must kneel down
for a male or female elder, while a boy must bow or prostrate. The Ibo boy must stand
up to greet an elder and must do so with the appropriate prefix to the elder's status.
Character and moral training in traditional society is the responsibility of every adult
over every child. The child's behaviours are watched and moral lapses are punished.
Severe punishements such as age grade beating which accompany offences like theft,
adultery and fornication remind the child that he better behaves at any point in time.
3 Development of Intellectual and Social Skills

Perhaps it might be interesting to see that indigenous education teachers most of the
intellectual stuffs Western education claims to teach. The child's intellectual skills
develop informally in an indigenous setting in the following ways.
(a) During story sessions, he is told the stories connected with the exploits of their heroes
during inter tribal wars. (History). This may also be told by the village chronicler.
(b) They learn the names of important rivers, valleys hills or mountains (Geography).
(c) They learn the names of certain herbs with medicinal powers (Medicine).
(d) They are engaged in counting or dividing the seed- yams for the various farm land
(Mathematics).
(e) They help in tilling the soil and planting the seed yams or cassava cutting
(Agriculture).
(f) They take part in sweeping the compounds, market squares and sources of water
supply (Health Education or the so-called Environmental Sanitation).
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(g) The young help in building new houses and mending or redesigning old one
(architecture and building technology)
(h) They are involved in organising and presenting local songs and dances (Drama and
Music).
(i) Particularly girls learn to cook different dishes (Home economics), etc.
Through these means indigenous society assured the child's intellectual and social
development.
4. Vocational training is the mainstay of idigenous education It is vocation oriented.
As stated earlier, children take to the occupations of their parents such as farming,
hunting, carving, weaving, etc. In some specialised vocations this is done through the
apprenticeship system. A child may be sent to a renowned seer to understudy him and
learn the art of divination from the expert. Token fees are charged which would
represent modern tuition fees. Sometimes such specialised vocations become
hereditary in a family. One or all the members of the family may possess the art of
curing a particular disease which are usually passed on to their children's children.
5. Development of sense of Belonging & Cultural Heritage The child is taught from
the beginning the homogenous nature of the community. He is told that everyone is
his brother's keeper. All the important cultural heritage is taught to the child. He
participates actively on every community project such as clearing the village square.
He watches the naming ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, coronation ceremonies and
picks the appropriate roles expected of him. Conformity to the cultural norms of the
society certifies a child as well educated.
ACTIVITY II
1. List any three objectives of indigenous education?
2. Write what represents the following subject in indigenous education:
(a) History
(b) Home economics
(c) Mathematics
CURRICULUM AND METHODOLOGY OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

We have tried to identify at least the major objectives of indigenous education. It then
becomes necessary to find out what the curriculum and methodology of indigenous education
looked like. The Curriculum of this type of education may not be easy to identify in the
conventional way. The curriculum may be seen as all that is available to an individual in any
social setting which offers such individual an opportunity to know more about himself. The
curriculum would consist of all that the community is prepared to pass on to its younger
generation. The following can be identified as the curriculum for indigenous education.
1. Moral and Character Curriculum

All taboos of the community, greetings, titles attached to elders of different statuses
are experiences the child is exposed to. Behaviours which attract moral lapses and
deviations from the norm are highlighted in time to the child. Such behaviours as
insurbordination, fornication, adultery, theft, poisoning, have different special
punishments. These are taught to the child and constitute the moral and character
curriculum.
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2. Social Curriculum
The social curriculum would include all relevant information about the child's
community. Some of them are traditions of origin of the community, the village
chroniclers, the exploits of the community heroes, rivers and mountains, the village
gods, marriage customs, coronation ceremonies, initiation ceremonies and sacrifices
of all kinds. The roles expected of the child in each ceremony are made known to the
child. In some cases the child need not be seen. This must be observed.
3. Vocational Curriculum
Agriculture is basic in traditional education and every child is expected to learn how
to farm before branching of to other specialisation. If a boy decides not be a fulltime
farmer, he could then branch off to crafts such as blacksmithing, carving, leather
works or even hunting and fishing. Girls learn how to cook, weed the farm, plant the
cocoyam etc. They learn the art of buying and selling from their mothers. At
adolescent age they are taught the special roles of a housewife. Indigenous education
has no record of unemployment except for the very lazy ones.
4. Health Education Curriculum

People in-traditional societies catered for their health. They believed in preventive
medicine. Herbs and tree barks which when taken periodically prevented such
sickness like malaria were shown to every child. This did not qualify him as a
herbalist. Things used in keeping witchcraft off the compound or antidotes for poison
were generally known by the average traditional child. A normal child was forced to
join his kith and kin in learning the age grade dances, wrestling and shooting
expeditions. These activities, perhaps not realised by the society, were, in fact,
courses in health education.
METHODOLOGY
1. The Informal Approach
Generally indigenous education went on in an informal way. Many a time teachers
were not aware that they were teaching. The children learnt merely through
observation and imitation. Most of the time the teaching-learning activity was an
unconscious affair. Generally, the essentials of indigenous education were caught and
not taught.
2. The Apprenticeship System or The Formal Approach
In some circumstances, a conscious effort was made to pass on certain skills or trade
to a young child. A good example is a profession like divination or the seers. The
secrets of the art and their incatation which must accompany them must be taught and
learnt very carefully. Another example is the initiation ceremonies. Male adolescents
and their female counterparts are brought to the forest and camped separately.
Experienced colder men and women stay-with their respective group's and teach them
some of the adult roles they were soon going to play. This was rounded off by
initiating them through certain painful activities into adulthood. In fact if any one does
not perform creditably, he or she was dropped during the formal initiations. All or
some sections of the information given to them while in camp were expected to be
kept secret. Otherwise, they would face death penalty. What could be a more formal
instruction and examination?
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ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the meaning of Curriculum in the context of indigenous education.
2. Why was unemployment not common in indigenous society?
3. What do you mean by the Informal Approach as a methodology for indigenous
education?
MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION MERITS

An objective assessment of indigenous education would highlight the following two
advantages.
1. Transmission of the Culture of the Society. If education is supposed to make one
know about the cultural heritage of his people, then indigenous education has
achieved this. In indigenous education, the child is expected not only to know, but
also to live and conform to the norms of his culture within his society.
2. Effective Citizenship. Since the child must learn useful skills in the process of
indigenous education, he was therefore bound to grow up as a productive adult. With
these saleable skills the adult contributes to the economic growth of the society.
Secondly the adults in our traditional societies play-citizenship roles very effectively
and creditably. Stories of inter-communal strife reveal acts of patriotism displayed by
war heroes. A good example is where an individual takes and oath in support of a
disputed piece of land on behalf of his community. A feat very difficult to find in our
so called modern education.
LIMITATIONS
However we must admit that indigenous education had some very serious limitations.
1. Lack of writing. Indigenuous education had no generally known system of writing.
So, many of its valuable information, particularly in the areas of medicine (curable
herbs) and history died with the experts Three was neither continuity nor the
possibility of research. Without research, there will be no improvement or
development; hence the white man called it primitive education.
2. Limited Scope Traditional education was very limited in scope. All its energies were
directed to meeting the immediate basic needs of the individual within his given
community.
3. Conservatism. This type of education did not train the child on how to challenge his
environment. In fact the education taught the child how to conform and insisted that
he conforms. With the maintenance of the status quo society became static.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List any two merits of indigenous education?
2. Why did the White man call indigenous education primitive education?
SUMMARY
• MEANING_: Indigenous education is a process which enables society to teach its
younger ones the life patterns of the society. The boys learn to form, hunt, fish, carve
etc. The girls learn to farm, cook, sell and buy in the markets. Above all, they must
live within the context of their culture.
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• OBJECTIVES
Five major objectives of indigenous education have been highlighted as follows:
1. Development of the child's physical skills
2. Character and Moral training
3. Development of intellectual skills
4. Vocational development
5. Development of Sense of Belonging and Cultural heritage.
• CURRICULUM AND METHODOLOGY_

The curriculum of indigenous educationists of all the processes by which an individual
realises himself or herself. It is the totality of opportunities which enable individuals in
a given social setting to know more about themselves. It includes all that the
community is prepared to pass on to the young and inexperienced. The following can
be identified as the curriculum of indigenous education.
1. Moral and character curriculum.
This is made up of the community taboos, titles, greetings, misbehaviours and
their consequences etc.
2. Social Curriculum._
This is made up of all relevant information about the child's community,
traditions of origin, village gods, marriage and coronation ceremonies and any
social institution of note within the community.
3. Vocational Curriculum
This would include different kinds of vocation available in the traditional
society. Some of them are farming, weaving, carving, hunting, trading,
divination etc.
4. Health Education Curriculum._
They include activities geared to the prevention of sickness. They would
include names of certain herbs, antidotes, activities which when engaged upon
provide the exercise of the whole body.
• METHODOLOGY
Indigenous education has basically two methodologies for passing instruction.
1. The informal approach. This consist of observation and imitation.
2. The apprenticeship system. In this case certain skills are consciously taught
and learnt. It is sometimes called the formal approach.
• MERITS AND LIMITATIONS_
Education has some merits. It is culture oriented and makes an individual effective in hi
society. However, this type of education has some serious limitations. It was not
oriented, and valuable information usually die with the possessors. This makes case for
those who call it primitive education.
ASSIGNMENT
1. List five objectives of indigenous education.
2. Explain fully the vocational education objective of indigenous education.
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3. Explain fully what you think a child in the traditional society will learn in the area of
intellectual aspirations.
4. Give two reasons for and against the continuation of indi-genous education.
REFERENCES
Fafunwa Babs History of Education in Nigeria, _London, George Allen & Unwin 1974.
Moumouni A. Education in Africa. London, Deutsch, 1968.
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MODULE 1 Unit: 02 Historical Foundations of Education EDU 101
UNIT 2 (EDU 101.2): ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:

HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY,
CURRICULUM, MERITS AND
DEMERITS
INTRODUCTION
List some the religions you know that Nigerians practise. Name the predominant religion in
Northern Nigeria. You probably will mention Islam. Islam is the predominant religion in
Northern Nigeria. Today, you will study about Moslem or Islamic education in Nigeria.
OBJECTIVES
1. list at least three important Islamic centres of learning in Northern Nigeria;
2. state the major theme on which Islamic philosophy of education is based and three
aims of Islamic education in Nigeria;
3. list the curriculum contents of the two educational levels of Islamic education and;
4. list at least TWO merits and TWO demerits of Islamic education.

1. Read through this unit once. Note important ideas that you come across as you read.
Also, as you read, look up familiar words in your dictionary.
2. Then go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities
given. Do not look at the sample answers provided before attempting the exercises.
3. Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the Unit assignment. If
you carry out all the above, then you will benefit from this unit.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT

THE END OF THIS BOOK.
THE ORIGIN OF ISLAM IN NIGERIA

Islam is a religion founded in Mecca, Saudi Arabia by Prophet Mohammad in the first half of
the 7th Century A.D. Later in the century, the Arabs conquered North Africa. This facilitated
trade relations as well as the spread of Islam. No wonder then that Islam came to West Africa
through traders. The traders made it possible for the religion to spread along trade routes to
Kanem- Borno, Hausaland and the Central Sudan.
By the 11th Century, Islam had penetrated the Kingdom of Kanem- Borno (a section of
which comprised present-day Borno State of Nigeria). Islam began to penetrate Hausaland on
a large scale in the 15th Century and was spreading southward by the end of the 16th
Century.
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Throughout the Central Sudan (present Northern Nigeria) during the 16th Century there was
a considerable expansion both in the number of people who were converted to Islam and in
the number of people who could read and write in Arabic. The religion became so influential
that most of these ancient states were ruled by Muslims by 1800. It is to their credit that the
Muslims brought with them the first written language known in West Africa and all the
benefits of Arab culture.
Fig. 1: The Spread of Islam in Nigeria
ACTIVITY I
1. Briefly trace the origin of Islam.
2. What is the relationship between trade and the spread of Islam?
3. What are the advantages that Islam brought to Nigeria.
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PHILOSOPHY OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

The philosophy of Islamic education is centred on enabling individuals who acquire it to
become the kind of people an Islamic society conceives. Islam as a religion upholds that man
is born into the world in a state of innocence like his own parents. If during his existence on
earth he yields to temptation, that becomes entirely his responsibility to God. This therefore
creates a need for contact between man and his creator.
To maintain this link with God man has to maintain his natural goodness. Education in the
Islamic sense is intended to build and develop this goodness that every individual has at birth
so that man can hope to remain a worthy servant of Allah.
Man has two important gifts from God - intelligence and knowledge. These gifts, given man
considerable power overall other creations and consequently place a responsibility on him to
Allah for all his actions. This philosophy of Islamic education generates five major aims of
education.
1. Continuity of Man's Essential Goodness
The Islamic man never loses sight of his relationship with his maker. Education, for
him, is an unfolding of these strengths and sensibilities which draw him nearer to
God. It inspires in him a consciousness of his obiligations as the servant of God. It
also teaches him to treat the world as a trust which must not be abused.
2. The Development of Piety
Islamic education aims at developing individuals who not only worship Allah but also
lead a life that is in accordance with His ways.
3. Service to Allah and Man
Education in the Islamic sense is not merely the stocking of knowledge. It is the way
one's sections are affected by the knowledge one has acquired.
4. Intellectual Development
Most of the subjects offered in Islamic schools demand a high degree of
intellectualism. They are Philosophy, Psychology, Jurisprudence and
Literature. Thus a man does not only need to be pious or have faith in
God, he has to have a well developed intellect.
5. Individual Adjustment
Islam appreciates the high degree of change that characterises any given society.
Therefore, it strives to teach its members the tools with which they can equip
themselves to cope with the ever changing society. All learning must be put into
practice otherwise the individual in question is not learned.
ACTIVITY II
1. What is the major theme on which Islamic philosophy of education is based?
2. List four aims of education derived from Islamic philosophy of education.
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THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM OF ISLAMIC

EDUCATION
QUR'ANIC SCHOOLS: (The Elementary Level)

The Qur'anic school represents the elementary school and children start at age three or as
soon as they are able to walk the short distance between home and school. Usually the
mosque, mallams house or a tree shade is used as a school. A single mallam takes
responsibility of a class. When children start schooling, their first preoccupation is to learn
by rote the Qur'an. The mallam recites or reads from the Qur'an and the pupils repeat. The
next learning task is the learning to recognise the twenty-six letters of the Arabic language.
Usually a Mallam has beside him a cane which he uses freely on pupils who fail to respond
correctly.
MAKARANTUN ILMI: The Advanced Level).

Individual children progress into secondary or advanced level with a more challenging
curriculum. This school is called Makarantun Ilmi which is the next level after completing
the primary level. The main task of this level is learning the meaning of those chapters they
had committed to memory at the primary level. The Mallam reads or recites a portion in
Arabic and then comments on it elaborately in Hausa or Fulfude. The subjects are classified
as follows:
HADITH The words and deeds of the Prophet Mohammed.

QUR'A This enables an individual to understand the qur'an properly.
JURISPRUDENCE The theory of law
ARABIC LITERATURE Arabic verse, grammar, syntax, etymology and rhetorics.
THEOLOGY Islamic doctrines of the one God.
ACTIVITY III
1. List the major learning experiences which go on in Qur'anic schools.
2. Describe the curriculum content of the Makarantun Ilmi.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION SYSTEM

MERITS
1. CHEAP EDUCATION
The cost of Islamic education is very cheap. There are no large buildings and the
services of paid teachers are not needed. Teachers in this system teach without
salaries.
2. LEARNING AT INDIVIDUAL RATE
Pupils do not learn under the fear of an impending examination. This motivates pupils
and they try to understand what they are learning.
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3. MORAL EDUCATION
Individual pupils are well versed in morality because all their teachings are based on
the practice of the holy Qur'an.
4. PREPARATION FOR LIFE
Islamic education prepares children for difficulties they are likely to face in later life
as they stay in the Mallams house to render essential services and also go out to seek
for alms.
5. VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
After going through this kind of education an individual graduates to become a
Mallam. There are no cases of unemployment among graduates of Islamic education.
DEMERITS
1. VERY LIMITED ORGANISATION
There is limited organisation at the primary school level of Islamic education. It has
the limitation of making the whole teaching lack seriousness. The fact that a single
teacher manages an entire school introduces problems of controlling the pupils during
lessons. Most pupils spend their time playing as the teacher tries to organise a
different section of the school.
2. EXTREME DISCIPLINE
Learning is always in fear as the only method of maintaining discipline is by the use
of a cane. This is natural since the number of pupils in a particular school is usually
more than a single individual can adequately control. This explains why Mallams in
Islamic schools spend most of their time with whips in an effort to maintain
discipline.
3. NARROW CURRICULUM
The curriculum of Islamic education is narrow especially at the Qur'anic education
level. Little is taught in history, geography, the pure sciences and even in social
sciences. This handicaps graduates of Islamic education when they compete with their
counterparts in the western-type system.
4. POOR TEACHING METHOD
Rote learning, where the Mallam reads and pupils repeat, appears to be the only
teaching method available in Islamic schools. Although a little lecture method is
applied, this is not sufficiently practised to excite the pupils. Modern methods like
problem solving, demonstration and experimentation methods of teaching which
facilitate learning appear to be absent in Islamic schools.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List two merits of Islamic educatio system.
2. State two demerits of Islamic education system.
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SUMMARY
HISTORY: Islam came into Nigeria when religion was accepted by the Kanem ruler,
Umme Jibri who ruled from 1085 -1097. The real Islamisation of Borno took place during the
reign of Mai Idris Alooma 1570 - 1602. In the 14th Century, some Wangarawa traders
brought Islam to Hausaland. Al-Maghili went to Katsina which had become a centre of
Islamic learning by 15th century. By 17th century Katsina had produced Islamic scholars.
PHILOSOPHY: Islam as a Religion upholds that man is born into the world in a state of
innocence like his own parents. If during his existence on earth he yields to temptation, that
become entirely his own responsibility to God. This theory necessitates a contact between
man and his creator. To maintain this link with God man has to maintain his natural
goodness. Education in the Islamic sense is intended to build and develop this goodness.
CURRICULUM: In the Qur'anic schools, a single Mallam takes responsibility of a class.
When children start school their first pre-occupation is to learn by rote the first two chapters
of the Qur'an. The next learning task is the learning to recognise the twenty six letters of the
alphabet in the Arabic language.
MERITS: The following are some of the advantages of Islamic education. It is cheap in
that it does not require large buildings and salaries teachers. Pupils do not learn under the fear
of an impending examination. Islamic education is highly moral and it prepares one to face
the difficulties of later life. Graduates of Islamic education are sure of employment.
DEMERITS: At the primary school level, Islamic education has a very limited
organisational system. A single teacher manages an entire school. Learning is always
undertaken in fear as the only method of maintaining discipline is by the use of the cane. The
curriculum of Islamic education is narrow especially at the Qur'anic education level. Rote
learning, where the Mallam reads and pupils repeat appears to be the only teaching method
available in Islamic schools.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss three aims of education which are derived from Islamic philosophy of
education.
2. What are the curriculum contents of Makarantun Ilmi?
3. List an explain two merits and two demerits of Islamic education system.
REFERENCE
Fafunwa, Babs History of Education Nigeria London. George Allen & Unwin 1974.
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UNIT 3 (EDU101.3): CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEK AND

ROMAN EDUCATION TO MODERN
EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we talked about Islam and its contributions to Education in Nigeria. We shall
continue in this unit the study of other civilisations which had impact on Nigerian education.
Therefore, in this unit we shall try to examine the Greek and Roman education and highlight
how their contributions influenced western-type education in Nigeria.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. mention correctly the type of education which preceded the Greek and Roman
education;
2. name at least two educational theoriests connected with Greek and Roman education;
3. list and discuss at least four contributions of Greek education and how they affect
modern Nigerian educational thought; and
4. list and discuss at least four contributions of Roman education and their significance
to present-day educational thought in Nigeria.

1. Get a standard atlas and open at a page containing the map of Western and Central
Europe.
2. Find out the locations of Greek and Rome.
3. Read through this Unit once. Note the important ideas as you read.
4. Go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities given.
Do not look at the sample answers provided before attempting the exercises.
5. Try and observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If
you obey all the above instructions then you will benefit from this unit.
THE END OF THE BOOK.
WORD STUDY
Legacy - Contribution passed from one generation to another generation.
Discourse - Very detailed arguments on a topic. Many a time the arguments
are philosophical.
Ephebic Oath - Oath of allegiance which every Greek child takes at the •age
of 18. The allegiance is to the city state.
Encyclopedia - This is a book containing information on every branch of
knowledge known to man.
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Syncretism - The modification of some of the stiff tenets of Christianity in

order to accommodate some of the pagan practices. This fusion
became known as syncretism.
Scribal culture - Refers to the habit of committing information into writing. It is
a practice bequeathed by ancient civilizations to the modern
world. Briefly, it is the popularization of the art of writing.
Noble Warrior Culture- Ordinarily, this is the pattern of behaviour expected of warriors.
It is used to refer to the peculiar qualities which ancient
education tried to inculcate into people for survival.
GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION

We shall start our study of the history of Western education by first looking at the ancient
civilisations. These civilisations include Egypt, Samaria, Babylon, and China. Also these
civilisations had or developed their respective systems of education known as the noble
warrior culture. This was what is now called indigenous education. This education helped or
enabled them to survive in their culture. Later on they developed what became the scribe
culture which was education that developed the art of writing. And so when Greek and Rome
began to develop their educational systems, they had the noble warrior culture and scribe
types of education to borrow from. These two types of education, preceded Greek and Roman
education, but the scribal culture was very useful to them.
GREECE
With the scribal culture as a legacy from the ancient civilisations, the Greeks were able to
develop their own educational system. Greek education had famous philosophers such as
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Their theories on education, which form part of this unit,
became the basis of our so-called modern education. For example, Plato, one of the greatest
Greek educational philosophers, had his views on education. As far back at 5th century, Plato
saw education as a public or state concern. At this time most countries of Europe ran their
educational systems as private concerns. For Plato the sole aim of education was for the
training of the Governors known as philosopher-kings. These philosopher kings would
govern the state, made up of the commoners, soldiers and the governors, with Justice as its
supreme objective. Such a system of education, according to Plato, was to last for 50 years.
ROME
Roman education borrowed the scribal culture from the Ancient civilisations. Roman
education was also greatly influenced by the Greek education. But after the development of
Roman education, it became clear that the Romans had improved greatly from what they
learnt or borrowed from the Greeks. For example, the major area of concern for the Romans
was in the formulation and development of the curriculum. Many eminent Rome educators
such as Ciecero, Tacitus and Quintilian discussed extensively their views on what should be
the ideal curriculum or education for the young Roman citizen. Quintilian, one of the
greatest of the Roman educators saw the aim of education to be the production of a Roman
Orator. Perhaps this Roman Orator was to be a conterpart of the Greek philosopher kings.
But, according to Quintilian, his Orator would not be a philosopher but his discourse would
be permeated by philosophic principles. The Roman Curriculum by 7th century included
agriculture, law, medicine, grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy,
music and architecture. In the second part of this unit, we shall now find out to what extent
Greek and Roman educational system influenced the Nigerian educational thought.
16
ACTIVITY I
1. Mention three ancient civilisation you know.
2. What type of person did the Greek education aim at producing?
3. Who was a Roman Orator?
CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEK EDUCATION TO MODERN EDUCATION

The most important city states in Greece were Athens and Sparta. However Greece was made
up to 48 city states each of which was autonomous. That is to say that they were independent
from one another. Most of our examples are drawn from Anthens and Sparta. Greek
contribution to education went as follows:
1. Education for Relevance
Sparta was a warrior city state; therefore, its aim of education was for militarism.
Athens had a different aim of education. It was for the all-round development of the
individual but the emphasis was on intellectualism. These two city states channelled
their systems of education towards the achievement of their stated objectives. In
Nigeria, attempts are being made to use education for the solution of relevant
problems. This may explain the introduction of the new 6-3-3-4 education system.
2. State Control of Education
In Greece both Sparta and Athens had all public systems of education. Plato insisted
that national objectives can only be achieved through a state-controlled education
system. In Nigeria some state governments such as Imo and Anambra states
promulgated Public Education edicts which enabled the State Governments to take
over all primary and post primary institutions in their respective states.
3. Educational Theory and Philosophy
The Greece through their philosophers were among the earliest people to develop a
systematic and comprehensive philosophy of education. In Sparta, the aim of
education was to produce warrior citizens for the defence of the city state. In Athens
education aimed at producing the philosopher - kings who would govern an ideal state
with Justice as its supreme goal. In recent times, efforts are being made in Nigeria to
formulate a philosophy of education. The 1969 Curriculum Conference and the 1977
and later 1981 National Policy on Education are cases in point.
4. National Service
In Sparta, Athens and, in fact, in all the Greek city states, young men at 18 took the
Ephebic Oath which was an Oath of the allegiance to the stae. After taking the
Ephebic oath the young men went on National Service for two years. Perhaps, in
Nigeria the idea of the National Youth Service Corps may have been a legacy from
Greek education. People who complete their education in institutions of higher
learning and are under 30 years of age undertake a one-year national service called
National Youth Service Corps (NYSC).
17
5. Meritocracy
Plato's system of education was based on meritocracy. In Greek, higher education
where Dialectics or philosophy was studied was structured in such a way that only
those who were capable of benefitting from it were admitted. These were the
philosopher- kings who passed rigorous examinations during the previous forty years.
Although Nigeria has a system of examination, based on merit, yet one is not sure of
the validity of these examinations. Cases of cheating and impersonations during
examinations weakens the Nigerian system.
6. Equal Educational Opportunity for Both Sexes
Sparta and all other Greek city states laid emphasis on women education.This, by
implication, meant that equal educational opportunity was provided for both sexes. In
Nigeria, western-type education was initially the prerogative of males. But since 1960
more emphasis has been placed on women education. Many women organisations
have come to champion women education e.g. Women- in-Education group.
Remarkable progress has been made in the southern parts of the country. But, in the
Northern parts the practice of early marriage constitutes a problem. Girls who would
have furthered their education are given to marriage at the tender ages of fifteen,
sixteen and seventeen years, or even earlier.
7. Olympic Games
The ancient Greeks started the Olympic games. These have continued to be held once
every four years. During this period, there was a National truce and all quarrels and
fighting among the city states ceased. It served as a bond of unity. Athletic
competions such as races, throwing the javelin and discuss were competed for at
Mount Olympiad by all the city states. Soon, other countries of the world joined. So
has Nigeria. Although there are no National Olympic Games, Nigeria participates in
the international Olympic games. More importantly, many sport festivals in all
aspects of sports are organised for the twenty one states of the Federation. During
these competitions, National honours are vied for. These competitions among the
states are expected to serve as a bond of unity binding all Nigerians together.
ACTIVITY II
1. What is the Ephebic Oath?
2. List six contributions of Greek education to modern education.
3. State how the Greek Olympic games influenced Nigerian education.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF ROMAN EDUCATION TO MODERN EDUCATION
Just as the Greeks, the Romans contributed much to the development of modern educational
thought in Nigeria.
1. Development of an Educational System
The Romans as good administrators developed a standardised system of education.
This system had three stages.
(a) The elementary schools stage which lasts for five years. They taught writing
and arithmetic.
(b) The Grammar schools stage, which lasts for two years. They taught language
and literature.
18
(c) The School of Rhetorics. This taught Rhetorics and represented the higher
institutions.
This system of education influenced the British system from which Nigeria derieved its early
pattern of education. Until recently, Nigeria had a similar system with Elementary Schools
for six years, Secondary Grammar School which lasted for five years and the University with
diverse number of years depending on specialisations.
2. The Education of The Orator
Oratory was a major contribution of Roman education to modern educational thought.
Quintilian was the greatest of the Roman orators. For Quintilian the Orator was
likened to the Greek philosopher - king. He was expected to be a great thinker and
speaker of the best languages. Quintilian's orator was also expected to be an
encyclopedist. Nigeria, like the Romans attaches a great importance to effective
communication in her education. There is a course mounted in all higher institutions
in Nigeria known as Effective communication. Some institutions tag their own "The
use of English for communication." It is important to observe that every student offers
this course irrespective of his area of specialisation. Perhaps, like the Romans, Nigeria
may ask what is education, other than the ability to communicate intelligently?
3. Educational Psychology
Roman education high-lighted the importance of some psychological principles which
we adopt in our present education.
(a) Take the concept of individual differences, for example. Roman education
recognised this and insisted that a teacher ought to know his pupils very well.
This knowledge would enable him to deal with his pupils individually.
(b) nother pertains to overcrowding of knowledge. It was Quintilian who asked:
granting that all things should be learnt, can they all be taught and learnt at the
same time? The Romans therefore called for a variety of interconnected
subjects that were well spaced.
(c) he Romans contributed a lot as regards discipline. The teacher should make
his presence felt through selfcontrol. But, when necessary, he should use
corporal punishment judiciously. Later, Roman educators began to condemn
the use of corporal unishment. Today, Nigerian schools are often engaged in
the debate whether or not to use corporal punishment as a means of instilling
discipline.
4. State Control of Education
Just as the Greeks, the Romans believed in the state control of education. The
Romans saw the school as a miniature society and the pupil has the opportunity of
becoming a member of this society. Here he learns his roles to the society. He is
exposed to healthy competitions. Roman Emperors like Caeser and Augustus felt that
such an institution should not be under private control. They voted money from the
public treasury to run the educational institutions thereby making it state controlled.
In Nigeria many state governments such as Imo, Anambra, Cross River and Bendel to
mention but a few, have all promulgated relevant public education edicts. These edicts
enable the state governments to take over the control of primary and post-primary
institutions in the state.
19
5. The Spread of Christianity

When Christian religion was introduced in Rome, it met a strong opposition from
pagan worshippers. But later Christianity came to terms with pagan learning in what
was called syncretism. In syncretism, Christianity agreed to modify some of its tenets
believed by the pagans to be too stiff. This was done and the pagans had to embrace
the New Christianity. Christianity spread, gave new life introduced new elements that
helped western education to survive even during the Barbarian invasion of the Roman
Empire. In Nigeria the Christian missionaries brought western-type education around
in 1842. They were solely responsible for its spread in Nigeria between 1842 and
1900. It was after 1900 that it dawned on the colonial government that it should also
establish schools. And so, as in Rome, Christianity had to help in the spread of the
new type of education in Nigeria. Education was a vehicle for the spread of
Christianity.
6. The Roman Law
As early as the 5th century the Romans had codified their laws. This became the law
of the 12 tables. The Romans from then believed in the rule of law. They insisted that
every body should know the customs and laws of his land. Nigeria believes in the
concept of the rule of law even during military administrations. Perhaps this concept
was one of the legacies from Roman Education to Nigeria education.
7. The Encyclopedia
The Roman system of education believed that an educated man should be an
encyclopedia i.e. a possessor of all knowledge. The Romans were also the first people
to embark on the compilation of an ENCYCLOPEDIA. This is a book containing
information on every branch of knowledge known to man. Modern encyclopedia must
have taken root from the Roman model. Some of them include American
Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia Britanica for Britain. Nigeria uses these
encyclopedia. But more significant to Nigerian education is the present move towards
integrated social studies. This and integrated science are both gaining ground in the
Nigerian educational system. Thus, like his Roman counterpart, the Nigerian educated
man is becoming an Encyclopedia.
ACTIVITY III
1. List five major contributions of Roman education to Nigerian educational thought?
2. Why did the Romans compile their encyclopedia?
3. List three major psychological principles derived from Roman education?
SUMMARY
The noble warrior culture and the scribe culture were the legacies of ancient civilisations to
Greek and Roman education. Greek education had famous philosophers such as Plato and
Aristotle. The Greeks believed that the aim of education was to produce the best men to
govern the city States. Rome had philosophers like Ciero and Quintilian. The Roman aim of
education was to produce a Roman Orator
20
• The following are the major contributions of Greek education to modern Nigerian
educational thought.
(a) Education should be geared towards the solution of relevant societal needs.
(b) The State should control education.
(c) Every educational system should be based on sound theory and philosophy.
(d) The advancement of an individual should be based on merit.
(f) Equal educational opportunities should be given to both men and women.
(g) Sports and games constitute an instrument for national unity.
• Roman education, made some far reaching contributions to the Nigerian educational
system. They are as follows:
(a) The structuring of educational system into stages.
(b) Education should aim at the development of the orator or for effective
COMMUNICATION.
(c) Education should observe certain basic psychological principles such as, the
concept of individual difference, overcrowding of subjects, and discipline.
(d) The State reserves the right to control education.
(e) Christianity used the medium of Western education to spread to other parts.
(f) Education believes in the concept of the rule of law.
(g) An educated man should be a possessor of all branches of knowledge - a
moving encyclopedia.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss briefly the aim of Greek Education.
2. List two major contributions of Greek education and show their relevance to Nigerian
Education.
3. Of what significance to Nigerian education are the Roman psychological principles?
4. List two major contributions of Roman education and show their relevance to the
Nigerian educational system.
REFERENCES
Boyd, William & King, Edmund: The History of Western Education Akure, Fagbamigbe
Publisher 1981.
Rusk, R.R. & James, Scotland. Doctrines of the Great Educators 5th Edition. New York,
Macmillan Publishers 1979.
21
UNIT 4 (EDU101.4): CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: HISTORY,
PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 of this module, we discussed the coming of Islamic education into Nigeria. We paid
particular attention to the history, philosophy and curriculum of Islamic education. In this
unit, we shall deal the coming of another foreign system of education to Nigeria. Our focus
will be the coming of the Christian missionary education to Nigeria. Our emphasis will be on
the history, philosophy and curriculum of Christian education in Nigeria. It might be helpful
to find out why the Christian missionaries apparently succeeded in the spread of western-type
education in Nigeria, particularly in Southern Nigeria.
OBJECTIVES
After reading through this unit thoroughly, you should able be to:
1. sketch an outline history of the Christian missionary education in Nigeria;
2. state the basic philosophy of Christian education in Nigeria;
3. identify the major curriculum contents of Christian missionary education; and
4. outline at least three reasons for the initial success of the Christian missionary
activities in the field of education.

1. Go back to unit 2 and read all the summaries in that unit.
2. Read through this unit once. You should as you read try to note the main and
important ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try to look up the meaning of
such try an unfamiliar word in your dictionary.
3. You should study this unit step by step just as the whole unit has been arranged for
you. You must do all the exercises that you are expected to do at the end of every
step. Do not try to look at the sample answers before answering or attempting the
exercises.
4. To get the best result out of studying this unit, you should obey all the instructions
and observe all the rules.
HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Islamic education started from the Northern parts of Nigeria while Christian missionary
education started from the Southern parts of Nigeria. Its spread moved into the hinterland and
gradually northwards. However, of all the agents of imperialism, it was the Christian
missionary who made the most revolutionary demands of Nigerians. The missionary did not
22
want the wealth from the Nigerian soil, nor the fruits of her forests, nor even any portion of
her soil. His desire was the conquest of the Nigerian soul for Christ.
But before the coming of the Christian missionaries, we had an ordered society. This society
was very indigenous or traditional. Its form of education was traditional. The religion was
also traditional sometimes euphemistically referred to as pagan religion. So the dual
responsibility of bringing to Nigeria the Christian religion and Western education fell upon
the Christian missionaries from Europe, America and Sierra Leone. In this self- appointed
task, the missionaries were unamenable to any form of compromise.
In 1485. the first Portuguese traders landed at Benin. By 1515 spasmodic missionary
activities had started in Benin when some catholic missionaries set up a school in the Oba's
palace. This school was meant to serve the Oba's children and the sons of his palace chiefs.
The catholic missionaries also established a seminary on the Island of Sao Thome off the
west coast of Southern Nigeria. But all these were short-lived, for the influence of the slave
trade wiped them off.
Despite the failure of the first missionary experiment, the second missionary wave yielded
better results. In the 1840s some of the rescued slaves who were on a trading expedition from
their new homes in Sierra Leone found their way back to Egbaland their ancestral home.
Some moved up to the new capital Abeokuta. There at Abeokuta, these freed slaves met some
of their kith and kin and told them baffling stories about their experiences as slaves. Their
miraculous freedom, the white man's religion, his schools and culture. After hearing these
moving stories some Egba people became eager to experience some of the white man's way
of life. On their part, the freed Nigerians who managed to get back home felt that they had
come back to a place of darkness. They therefore sent frantic messages to the Missionary
headquarters in Freetown, Sierra Leone, to send their men to bring light to them. It was like
asking them to "come over to Macedonia and help us."
In response to these appeals and calls from Egba land, the Methodist missionary sent, Rev.
Thomas B. Freeman, to Badagry in 1842. He arrived in September, 1842 and started work
immediately. With the help of the local people, he built a mission house and started prayer
meetings on Sundays. In December 1842, Freeman visited Abeokuta and opened a mission
for the emigrants. Freeman left behind at Badagry Mr. and Mrs. De Graft of the same mission
to continue his work of evangelisation. In addition to their evangelical work, this couple
opened the first school at Badagry called "Nursery of the infant church." As early as this time
the missionaries had discovered that they would not successfully carry on their work of
Christian evangelisation without the help of western-type education. So, whenever the
missionaries opened a mission, that centre or house was used both as school and as a church.
In January, 1845, Henry Townsend of the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S) landed at
Badagry with a formidable team of able assistants. The team included Mr. and Mrs. Samuel
Ajayi Crowther, the man who later became the first Nigerian Bishop. In August, 1846, they
moved to Abeokuta after having established a mission including two schools at Badagry.
In 1846, the Church of Scotland Mission (C.S.M), which was based in Jamaica in the West
Indices, sent Rev. Hope Masterton Waddell to Calabar for missionary work. Surprisingly, on
reaching Calabar, Hope Waddell found that the king had already acquired a high standard of
literacy. However Hope Waddell succeeded in establishing a mission school which,
eventually, gave rise to the famous Hope Waddell Training Institute, Calabar.
Thomas Bowen of the American Baptist Mission in 1850 arrived Badagry. From Badagry,
Bowen moved to Ijaye where he built his first station at Ogbomosho. The same year J.M.
23
Harden extended the Baptist mission's influence when he came from Liberia to join Bowen.
He opened mission schools at Lagos, Oyo, Shaki, Igboho, and as far as to Ilorin.
The Brazilian ex-slaves who had settled in Lagos also wanted a Catholic mission school in
Lagos. In 1868 the Roman Catholic Mission (R.C.M.) granted the requests of the exslaves
and a mission school was opened in Lagos.
ACTIVITY I
1. List in order the dates and names of the first five Christina
missionary bodies that came to Nigeria to start Christian evangelisation.
2. Explain briefly the activities of:
(a) Thomas B. Freeman.
(b) Rev. Henry Townsend.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION

The main purpose of the Christian missionaries was to convert the heathen to the Christian
faith. Another was to "civilise" them. They sooner or later found out that they could
accomplish these through the establishment of schools so, they set out to lure people into
accepting their Christian doctrines. These centred on the belief in one God though his son
Jesus Christ as well as what to them amounted to good living habits. Their philosophy was
"the Bible and the Plough or the church and the school." In some areas, particularly at the
early stages, they encouraged plantation farms alongside with Christianity. In the majority of
places, the school went hand-in-hand with the church.
To be able to communicate with the local inhabitants, the missionaries had to teach the
natives their English language. Nigerians had to learn how to read and write the whiteman's
language. Since not all would benefit by the knowledge of the English Language missionaries
also undertook the study of local languages which were taught in local schools. Thus, many
adherents learned how to read the Bible and sing the church hymns in their languages. The
missionarie were therefore forced by circumstances to establish schools including Sunday
Schools.
An underlying philosophy of Christian education was that salvation came through
understanding and accepting the word of God. This understanding is facilitated by the ability
to read the Bible, hence to read was a basic feature of Christian missionary education.
ACTIVITY II
1 What was the basic philosophy of the Christian missionary education?
2. Why was the Christian religion referred to as the religion of the book?
CURRICULUM OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION

Clearly, various missionaries who pioneered the establishment of schools in the country were
merely interested in turning out literature Nigerians. Such Nigerians were meant to be able to
read and interpret the Bible. This would compare favourably with the curriculum of Islamic
education. The type of curriculum found in missionary schools reflected missionary desires to
teach the English Language, Arithmetic, Religious Knowledge, Writing, Dictation, Moral
Instructions, Drawing and Singing. Interestingly enough, even with the Colonial Government,
the curriculum was different. Their initial need was in the area of clerks, court messengers
24
and interpreters. In most of the schools therefore all that constituted the curriculum was
reading writing, numeracy skills and singing.
Closely related to the "3RS" was a bias for religious and moral instruction. As Christian
missionaries their sole purpose for establishing schools was to use them as a means for
converting the local people into Christianity. Accordingly, the various missions did not shy
away from achieving their primary aim. Every subject of instruction was given religious
interpretation. In many cases, the Bible was the primary text used. Moral instruction was also
fervently taught in an attempt to make the pupils live exemplary lives.
ACTIVITY III
1. What were the major contents of Christian Missionary education?
FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIAN

EDUCATION
Initially, the freed slaves spoke very favourably of the wonderful work of God in releasing
the oppressed. Generally, the downtrodden saw Christianity as a religion of the poor and
lowly.
In the course of time, particularly since the first quarter of this century, many villages or
groups of villages began to apply for a mission school. The yearning did not indicate an
interest in Christianity. The demand was primarily for the whiteman's book knowledge. Its
possession was, to many, a passport to power and freedom from strenuous and manual
labour. Then, success in it guaranteed comfortable employment. It had commercial and
economic attraction. Finally, the freedom which missionaries enjoyed as they moved about in
the course of their preaching made the spread of Christian education possible. For these
reasons, Christian missionaries seemed to have succeeded in Southern Nigeria.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List four factors which favoured the early spread of Christian education in Nigeria.
2. How did the abolition of the slave trade help the missionaries in their spread of
Christian education in Southern Nigerian?
SUMMARY
• HISTORY
The first Portuguese missionaries landed in Benin in 1515 and opened a school at the
oba's palace. This first experiment was interrupted by the Atlantic slave trade. In
1842, result of appeals from Egbaland, Rev. T.B. Freeman of the Methodist Mission
landed at Badagry to start missionary work. His lieutenants, Mr.& Mrs. De Graft
opened a school. In 1845, Rev. Henry Townsend of the C.M.S. mission opened a
mission school at Badagry. In 1846 Rev. Ajayi Crowther of the same mission opened
a church and two schools in Abeokuta. In 1846 Rev. Hope Waddell of the Church of
Scotland opened a mission at Calabar. Thomas Bowen and J.M. Haden opened up
mission schools around Lagos and Oyo area including Ogbomosho up to Ilorin. The
Roman Catholic Mission in 1868 on the request of the ex-slaves opened a mission
school in Lagos.
25
• PHILOSOPHY
The basic philosophy of the Christian missionary education was to convert the
heathen and win souls for Christ. The converts were to be literate in order to be able
to read the bible. For the missionaries, it was through the reading and understanding
of the bible that man was assured of his eternal salvation. This eternal salvation which
remained the dominant philosophy of Christian education has to be gained through the
bible.
• CURRICULUM
Various Christian missionaries who pioneered the establishment of schools in Nigeria
were inclined to training their converts to be able to read and write.
• This literacy would provide for them people who would be able to read the bible. The
curriculum reflected the teaching of the English Language, Arithmetic, Religious
Knowledge, moral Instruction, Writing, Drawing and Singing.
FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIAN

EDUCATION
The following four factors helped the Christian missionaries greatly in the establishment of
western-type education in Nigeria:
1. The freed slaves needed no other impetus than their experiences as slaves and their
unbelievable rescue to abandon their old beliefs in which they were brought up. They
therefore embraced the religion of their mentors, their culture and education.
2. By the beginning of the twentieth century, many parts of Southern Nigeria had
become interested in having missionary schools. This was because of their desire to
acquire the source of the Whiteman’s greatness - western-type education.
3. Commercial activities on palm oil going on along the coasts of Southern Nigeria
needed a knowledge of English Language. This the missionary schools provided.
4. The christian missionaries had uninterrupted activity and protection thoroughout
Southern Nigeria. This provided them the opportunity to establish and run their
schools.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Give a short account of the various christian missionary activities in Southern Nigeria
between 1842 and 1868.
2. How did the philosophy of christian education help in the establishment of more
schools?
3. Mention three reasons which accounted for the initial success of the christian
missionaries in Southern Nigeria?
REFERENCES
Fafunwa, Babs A., History of Education in Nigeria London, George Allen & Unwin 1974.
Taiwo, C.O., The Nigerian Educational System: Past, Present & Future Lagos, Thomas
Nelson (Nig.) Ltd. 1982.
26
UNIT 5 (EDU 101.5): EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA BEFORE INDEPENDENCE:
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we discussed Christian Missionary activities in the area of education. We
realised that the christian missionaries introduced western-type education in Nigeria in the
mid-nineteenth century. Having introduced these missionary schools, the missionaries had to
ensure that their schools were not found only along the Coasts of Nigeria. They started
moving into the hinterland. We also realised that these schools had the dual function of
teaching the 3Rs and also converting the people to christianity. But the pertinent question is
whether the christian missionaries were the only agents that taught western- type education in
Nigeria. The answer, of course, is No. In this unit, we shall try to examine other agencies
which helped in the provision of Western-type education to Nigerians.
OBJECTIVES
1 sketch out clearly the major activities and contributions of the colonial government in
the provision of western-type education to Nigeria:
2. state briefly two reasons which motivated private enterprise to participate in the
provision of western-type education in Nigeria; and
3. list some of the private proprietors and their contributions in area of western-type
education in Nigeria.

1. Before you read this unit, revise the summary of module 1 unit 4.
such an unfamiliar word in you dictionary.
3. You should study this unit step by step just as the entire unit has been arranged for
step. Do not try to look at the sample answers before attempting the exercises.
THE RULE OF COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

The colonial government established itself in the colony of Lagos in 1851. It did not then
become interested in the provision of school education for the people. As the last Unit
27
informs us, the provision of western-type education was exclusively in the hands of christian
missionaries.
From the early 1870s, the colonial government began to appreciate the work already being
undertaken by three missionary bodiesThese were the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S),
the Wesleyan Methodist Mission and the Roman Catholic Mission. In 1872, the colonial
government proposed to spend as much as one thousand pounds (1,000) as granted to these
missions. In the end, it could only afford thirty pounds (30.0) which was distributed among
the missionary bodies as grants. Between 1874 and 1876 the colonial government had
increased its annual grant to each of the missionary bodies to one hundred pounds (100). In
1887, the annual grant to each of the three christian missions was two hundred pounds (200).
By this gesture, the colonial government gradually became involved in the provision of
western-type education in Nigeria.
It had shown its interest in the educational work in West Africa when it promulgated the first
education for the colony of the Gold Coast in 1882. By then, the colony of Lagos, together
with the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Sierra Leone and the Gambia was administered as part of
the Gold Coast colony. This was the colonial government's first effort to control western-type
education in West Africa.
The 1882 education ordinance provided, among other things the setting up to a general Board
of Education. Part of the function of this Central Board was the establishment of Local
Boards which were to recommend the opening of government schools and the receipt of
grants by voluntary agency schools.
In 1886, the colony of Lagos was separated administratively from the colony of the Gold
Coast. It then became necessary to promulgate an Education Ordinance specifically for the
colony of Lagos. The 1887 ordinance for Lagos colony provided for a Board of education
with power to grant scholarship for secondary education.
In 1889 the colonial government opened the first primary school in Lagos. This was followed
with another school in Benin City in 1901. In 1903 the first department of education for the
Colony of Lagos was established. A director of education and four education officers were
appointed. In 1906 the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria was established and in
1908 an education ordinance was passed for the new territory. This ordinance divided
Southern Nigeria into three provinces - Eastern, Western and Central provinces. Three boards
of Education were created for the provinces. In 1909 the colonial government established the
first government secondary school in the whole of Nigeria. This was established as Kings
College Lagos. This was followed by Katsina Teacher Training College established in 1921.
In 1925 the colonial office in London introduced a memorandum titled "Memorandum of
Native Education in Tropical Africa." This memorandum set down the aims and objectives of
education in tropical Africa. However, following the introduction of this memorandum a new
education ordinance was passed by the Colonial Government for Nigeria. It was called the
1926 education ordinance. The main features of this ordinance was that it checked what was
called the haphazard development of education in Nigeria. In 1927, the first girls school,
Queens College, Lagos, was established. The amalgamation of 1914 did not affect education
until 1929 when the two Directorates of Education were amalgamated by the colonial
government. The man appointed the first Director of Education for Nigeria was Mr. E.R.J.
Hussey. He assumed office in September, 1929, and almost immediately began to reorganise
the educational system in the country.
28
The Colonial Government had, in 1929, established two teacher training colleges, one at
Umuahia and another at Ibadan. In 1931 the two were converted into secondary grammar
schools. In 1932 Hussey introduced the first post secondary institution in Nigeria called the
Yaba Higher College. In 1948, Yaba college was transferred to Ibadan to become the nucleus
of the University College Ibadan. By 1960 the University of Nigeria Nsukka was established
by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. Ahmadu Bello University was established in 1962, followed by the
University of Lagos.
ACTIVITY I
1. Trace the activities of the Colonial Government in the provision of western-type
education in Nigeria between 1877 and 1900.
2. List the highlights of the activities of the Colonial Government between 1900 - 1930.
THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE

We can not over-look the role of private enterprise in the provision of western-type education
in Nigeria. Professor Fafunwa is of the opinion that the contributions of parents and relatives
were almost as important as those of the christian missionaries. By the early 1930s most
people in Eastern Nigeria had already begun to realise the importance of western-type
education.
This new type of education did not only offer those who had acquired it the opportunity to
obtain white collar jobs. It also bestowed social prestige on them. For this reason there was an
increase in the demand for education. Neither the very few government owned schools nor
the mission schools could satisfy the increasing demand for the new type of education. This
explains why some of the enterprising Nigerian businessmen and educators began to venture
into establishing schools.
The rise of African Nationalism was a factor which influenced many proprietors. It made
them realize that education was a means of emancipating the people from ignorance. It was
also felt that the existing mission schools perpetuated colonial mentality. There was then the
need to liberate the people's mind so as to enable them join in the struggle for African
Nationalism.
In 1913 when the Baptist Mission under Rev. Griffith fell out with Rev. Euba, a Nigerian
teaching in the school, Reverend Euba forestalled the move of sacking him by resigning. He
founded the Eko Boys High School in Lagos, thus becoming the first Nigerian to establish a
private school. In Eastern Nigerian, the first of these private schools was the Aggrey
Memorial College, established at Arochukwu by Alvan Ikoku in April, 1932. This was
followed by Enitonna High School founded by Rev. Potts-Johnson in May, 1932, in Port-
Harcourt. In 1938 National Institute, Calabar, the precursor of the West African People's
Institute, was founded by Professor Eyo Ita. By the fourties many other Nigerian established
a number of secondary grammar and commercial schools. Mention can be made of the
following: the New Bethel College Onitsha founded by Chukwurah, Abbot Group of
Secondary Schools at Ihiala and Warri founded by Okeke, Etukokwu School of Commerce
founded by Etukokwu, St. George's College, Enugu, founded by Chiedozie and Eastern
Commercial Academy founded by Aro.
Another dimension to the role of private enterprise in the provision of western-type education
was the granting of scholarship and bursaries by ethnic or local unions. The Yorubas started
as early as 1950 to send their sons abroad to the universities of Great Britain and Ireland. By
29
the 20the Century, other ethnic unions began to follow the Yoruba example. The Ibibio State
Union early in the century sent as many as 12 young men for higher studies abroad. The State
Union was not left out. Philantropists like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe sponsored and encouraged
many students to the United States. There were other schemes which helped young Nigerians
to study abroad. There were such schemes as greater Tomorrow Scheme of Ozumba
Mbadiwe, the Horizontal Education scheme of Mbonu Ojike and Orizuntal Scheme of
Nwafor Orizu.
Finally beside the efforts of the private proprietors, we had community schemes which aimed
at mobilizing community efforts for the provision of educational facilities. The communities
established secondary schools. Cultural organisations and ethnic unions through communal
efforts established educational institutions. Such educational institutions include the Kalabari
National College Buguma established in 1938 and Ibibio State College established in 1940.
One may now fully appreciate the fact that the provision of western-type education was not
only the business of the Christian missionaries. Their effort was really supplemented by the
Colonial Government and the private enterprises.
ACTIVITY II
1. State two reasons that prompted private enterprise to get involved in the provision of
western-type education.
2. Discuss the contributions of some Nigerian enterpreneurs in the field of western-type
education.
SUMMARY
• THE ROLE OF THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT
• The first act of the colonial government in the field of education was the making of
grants. Grants were first made to each of the three major missionary bodies operating in
the colony of Lagos. An other act of involvement by the colonial government was the
enactment of education ordinances. The first was in 1882 for the colony of the Gold
Coast. This was followed by another in 1887 specifically meant for the colony of
Lagos. These ordinances provided for a Board of education with powers to grant
scholarships for secondary education. In 1903 the first department of education was
established and four education officers were appointed. The education officers were to
be headed by director of education. By 1921 the colonial government had established
the following schools: a government primary school in Lagos in 1899; in Benin in
1901, Kings College, Lagos, in 1909 and Katsina Teacher Training College, in 1921. In
1925 the Colonial Office in London introduced the memorandum of Native Education
in Tropical Africa. This was followed by the 1926 Education Act. In 1948, the Colonial
Government established the University College, Ibadan. The establishment of the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was in 1960.
• THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE

By 1930s Nigerians had started to appreciate the importance of white collar jobs and
the social prestige it bestowed on them. This led to an increase in the demand for
education. Enterprising Nigerian businessmen and educators began to venture into the
building of schools. The rise of African nationalism led to the feeling that the few
mission schools perpetuated colonial mentality. This led to the need for Nigerians to
30
establish schools. Reverend Euba founded the Eko Boys High School in Lagos, thus
becoming first Nigerian to establish a private school. In 1932, Aggrey Memorial
College Arochukwu was founded by Alvan Ikoku. In 1938 the West African. Peoples
Institute Calabar was founded by Professor Eyo Ita. The New Bethel College Onitsha
was founded by M.C. Awgu, while African College Onitsha was founded by
Chukwurah.
• Another dimension to the role of private enterprises in the provision of western-type
education was the granting of scholarship and bursaries by ethnic unions. The
Yorubas started this move early in the 20th century by sending some young men
abroad for university education. The Ibibio State Union and othe philantropists like
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Ozumba Mbadiwe followed the Yoruba example.
Communities, cultural organisations and ethnic unions contributed their own quota in
the provision of western-type education. Some such efforts could be seen in
institutions like Kalabari National College, Buguma, established in 1938 and the
Ibibio State College, Ikot Ekpene established in 1940.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain briefly two reasons which were responsible for the participation of the private
enterprises in the provision of western-type education to Nigerians.
2. Highlight the major achievements of the Colonial Administration in the field of
western-type education.
3. Enumerate some of the achievements of the private enterprises in the area of western-
type education.
REFERENCE
Fafunwa, Babs A., History of Education in Nigeria, London, George Allen & Unwin, 1974.
31
UNIT 6 (EDU 101.6): EDUCATIONAL EVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA AFTER NDEPENDENCE:
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5 we examined the contributions of the colonial Government in the provision of
western-type education in Nigeria. We also found out that, notwithstanding the Government's
contribution. private organisations contributed significantly to the development of western-
type education.
In this unit we are going to examine the position of educational development after
independence in Nigeria. Precisely we shall find out the efforts of Nigerian Governments in
advancing western-type education. We shall also try to find out whether the private sector
continued its efforts in supplementing the Government contributions.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify the major contributions of the government since 1960 in the development of
(a) primary and secondary education,
(b) teacher education and higher education;
2. state clearly the major objectives of the 1969 curriculum conference; and
3. summarise the contributions of the private sector in the provision of western-type
education during the post independence period.

1. Read through all the summaries in Unit 5 of this module. Note the major points there.
important ideas.
3. When you find an unfamiliar word look it up in your dictionary.
step. Do not try to look at the sample answers before answering or at tempting the
exercises.
32
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

The development of primary education after independence was based on the Ashby
recommendations. The Government of the Northern Region felt that the greatest need was to
accelerate the expansion of the primary schools. Its aim was to attain the Ashby report target
of 25% of children of school age to be in school by 1970. The Government also designed a
programme that was to advance the region into Universal Primary Education as soon as
possible. At the same time infrastructures were to be laid in terms of post-primary facilities in
order to ensure a balanced education development.
The Eastern and Western Regions were already achieving their quantity of primary school
population through their universal primary education programmes. Problems were becoming
enormous because of poor quality staff and falling standards amidst the high cost of
education. The East had to scrap its own UPE and directed its attention to teacher training
with a view to achieving high quality work in the schools. In the West, the successful
implementation of their. UPE since 1955 left them with the time to concentrate on raising the
standard of teaching in schools.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

The Post Independence development of secondary education centred around the following
problem areas.
1. The expansion in primary education created a high demand for secondary aducation.
2. The Ashby Commission had called for increased numbers in the secondary school
population and a revision of its curriculumm.
3. Some commissions appointed to review the educational system found out that the
content of secondary school education as well as the methods of instruction in such
schools were inappropriate.
4. Other problems identified included the over emphasis on book education in the
secondary schools. Pupils despised manual work. Science curriculum was poor. All
these contributed to the so- called falling standards in education.
Government saw the root cause of all these problems as the poor quality and quantity
of secondary school teachers. The graduate teachers were in very short supply.
Government tried to have expatriate teachers to meet this demand. But paying for the
passages was too much on the lean resources of the regional governments. And,
worse still, many of these hirelings stayed only for a term of two years or three and
refused to renew their contract.
However, to meet the increasing number of secondary school students Government
opened many new secondary schools. Generally the curriculum was English
Language, Mathematics, History, Geography, Religious Knowledge, Local
Languages, Fine and Applied Arts, General Science, Biology, Chemistry and Physics,
French was taking gradually the place of Latin and Greek. The grammar school kept
its lead and remained the darling of both parents and students. The higher school i.e.
sixth form was not so successful except in a few government well established schools
with enough graduate teachers and laboratory equipment.
33
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

After independence the government of the Northern Region established twelve craft centres
and three technical schools all over the region. A technical institute at Kaduna admitted
students from all parts of the North. By 1960, the Eastern Region, had thirty-three technical
and vocational institutions of various kinds. A College of Technology now the Institute of
Management and Technbology was established at Enugu. In the Western Region, government
established four trade centres and the women's occupational centre at Abeokuta. A Technical
Institute now the Auchi Polytechnic was established at Auchi. In Lagos we had the Yaba
College of Technology and the Yaba Trade School at Surulere. It is important to observe that
a number of the bigger industrial firms like the United African Company (UAC), departments
and corporations like the Public Works Department (PWD) or the Ministry of Works, Posts
and Telegraph (P&T), the Nigerian Railways and the Nigerian Coal Corporation had
technical schools in which they trained artisans in their specific industries. Last but not the
least are the roadside mechanics who acquire their skills from self-employed artisans while
many girls acquire skills in needle work, sewing, catering and domestic science from such
road side artisans.
ACTIVITY I
1. Identify the major achievement of the government in the area of Primary Education
after independence.
2. List four problem areas facing the government after independence in the area of
secondary education.
3. List any five industrial firms which had internal training centres for their technicians.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

After independence, teacher education had two major problems-low output of teachers and
poor quality of the teachers produced. To meet the two problems government granted the
provision of additional Grade II Training Colleges and extra streams to the existing ones. To
make up for the poor quality, government approved the up-grading of most of the Grade III
Training Colleges to Grade II. Ten new Grade II. Teachers' Colleges were to be established.
Unfortunately the Ashby recommendation for the establishment of Teachers' Grade I
Colleges was not vigorously pursued. However the Western Government established the
Ohio Project, a normal science centre admitting teachers with Grade II teachers' certificate.
Lagos had the Government Teachers' Training College of Surulere. The Eastern Region
established a science centre at Umudike near Umuahia for the production of Teachers' Grade
I Certificates.
Soon the Teachers' Grade I programme gave way to the Nigerian Certificate in Education
(NCE) for the preparation of teachers for the lower forms of secondary schools and for the
teacher training colleges. They were three year - programme institutions. The Advanced
Teachers' Colleges as they were initially called were established in Lagos in 1962, Ibadan
1962 (but in 1964 it became Adeyemi College of Education Ondo), Zaria in 1962 (but moved
to Kano in 1964) and Owerri in 1963. In 1968 one was established at Abraka in Bendel State
but took the name College of Education.
When the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was established, it took the lead in starting a new
teachers programme known as the B.A. B.Sc. and the B. Ed in Education. This meant that a
34
student could combine education courses with one or two teaching subjects and offer them
throughout the student's four years to graduate. This replaced the traditional system of taking
a degree before coming for a one year diploma in education.
THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

By 1960 the University College Ibadan had established itself as a reputable institution of
higher learning. It was also making a great contribution to the man-power needs of Nigeria.
But the need for a larger out-put of University graduates was increasingly felt and commonly
expressed. For example, as far back as 1955 there were serious thoughts and attempts to
establish another University. Ibadan was criticised for its residential nature. Partly because of
these criticisms, the Federal Minister for Education, on behalf of the Federal and Regional
Governments appointed the Ashby Commission. The Commissions recommendations gave
support to the establishment of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, University of Ife, Ile Ife and the University of Lagos, Lagos. It was after 1970 that
state governments joined in the establishment of Universities while the Federal Government
started to establish Universities of Technology and others for Agriculture.
ACTIVITY II
1. Mention the major trend in teacher education in post- independence Nigeria.
2. What factors led to the establishment of universities in Nigeria after 1960?
THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
In the area of primary schools, private enterprise did not feature much. This was left solely in
the hands of the voluntary agencies and government. Some corporate bodies like the
university of Ibadan and other universities at Nsukka, Ife, Lagos and Zaria tried to establish
primary schools for the convenience of their staff. In the pa secondary school sector, local
communities and individuals helped the government by establishing and running some
secondary schools. most of these private schools were not grant-aided from public funds and
so turned to commercial and vocational subjects which attracted students. This gave rise to
numerous private commercial secondary schools which were established after institutions
were poorly equipped; but they supplied the secretarial staff which enabled the Nigerian
bureaucracy to stand when the colonial staff left in 1960.
However the massive growth of private secondary schools made planned expansion very
difficult. Communities and villages competed against one another in the establishment of
secondary schools. The quality of the schools varied from school to school revealed by the
result of the West African School Certificate Examinations. These private schools were worst
hit in terms of performance because of lack of finance which resulted in poor equipment and
personnel. However, there were isolated exceptions such as the International School at Ibadan
which was being sponsored by the University of Ibadan. In the case of primary schools,
private schools were among the best because they were very few and the parents were
prepared to pay high fees for running the schools. The aim of the parents was to ensure that
their children secured admission in the few well equipped and staffed Government Colleges
in each of the regions.
35
In addition to contributions of private enterprise in the formal system, there are hundreds of
artisans spread throughout the country who ware self-employed and who train apprentices in
their respective trades. Many girls acquired skills in needle work, sewing, catering and
domestic science in that way. Many road-side mechanics acquire their skills, which are
reasonably high in a few cases, from self employed artisans.
THE 1969 CURRICULUM CONFERENCE

The National Curriculum Conference held in Lagos in September 1969 was a major landmark
in the history of Nigerian education. What was unique about this conference was that it was
not a conference of experts and professionals. Rather, it represented a conference of a cross
section of the Nigerian society: trade unions, farmers, religious organisations, university
lecturers and administrators, businessmen and women, youth clubs, and ministry officials.
The curriculum conference was not concerned with preparing a national curriculum, nor was
it expected to recommend specific contents and methodology. It was to review the old and
identity new national goals for Nigerian education, bearing in mind the needs of youths and
adults in the task of nation building and national reconstruction. The conference identified the
following areas as crucial to the attainment of the conference objectives.
1. National philosophy of education
2. Goals of primary education
3. Objectives of secondary education
4. Purpose of tertiary education
5. The role of teacher education
6. Functions of science and technical education
7. The place of women's education
8. Education for living
9. Control of public education.
ACTIVITY III
1. In what area did the private individuals contribute in the provision of western
education after independence?
2. Why was the 1969 curriculum conference set up?
SUMMARY
• After independence the government of the Northern Region expanded its primary
schools to ensure that it catered for at least 25% of the school going population. It also
laid foundation for the free primary education scheme. In the West and the East, the
two governments were busy trying to control the population explosion of their
respective universal free primary education schemes.
• SECONDARY EDUCATION: The post independence period of secondary education

centred around the following problem area:
1. The expansion of primary schools as a result of the UPE increased the demand
for secondary school openings.
2. There was the need to review the curriculum contents of secondary education
together with its methodology.
36
3. The poor attitude of students to manual labour coupled with the falling
standard of education needed attentions. Government intensified its effort in
establishing new secondary schools, expanding and equipping existing ones.
With regards to the quality of education, Teachers' Grade II Colleges were
established and former Grade III Colleges were upgraded to Grade II.
• TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
The regional governments established trade centres, and technical institutes trade
centres, and technical institutes in their respective regions. Notable among these were
the Kaduna Polytechnic in the North, the Auchi Polytechnic in the West, the Institute of
Management and Technology in the East and the Yaba College of Technology at
Lagos. Government corporations and departments established training centres for the
inservice training of their staff.
• TEACHER EDUCATION: As has been stated earlier, the post- independence era saw
the establishment and expansion of Teachers' Grade II Colleges. The Grade I
institutions were not rigorously pursued. In 1962, a new Nigerian Certificate in
Education (NCE) was established. All the regions including Lagos established one
Advanced Teachers' Training College (ATTC). Later, these were renamed, Colleges of
Education. The B.A/B.Sc Education programme was launched in various Universities
for the production of highly qualified graduate teachers.
• HIGHER EDUCATION AFTER 1960: The University of Nigeria Nsukka was
established in 1960. The University of Ibadan was upgraded to a full fledged University
in 1962. In the North, the university established in 1962 was called Ahmadu Bello
University Zaria. There were also the University of Ife at the Ile Ife and the University
of Lagos at Yaba.
• PRIVATE ENTERPRISE: The local communities and individuals contributed in the
building of private secondary schools. Most of these secondary schools became
commercial schools, although most of them were poorly equipped and staffed. The
roadside mechanics helped much by training others who became mechanics and
artisans.
• 1969 CURRICULUM CONFERENCE: In 1969, a cross-section of the Nigerian
society attended the Curriculum Conference. its objective was to review the old
education and identify new national goals for Nigerian education. The Conference
succeeded in identifying some key areas that were crucial to the attainment of the
country's educational objectives. One of such crucial areas was the identification of
philosophy of education for Nigeria.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What were the achievements of the government in secondary education between 1960
and 1970?
2. Describe the development of Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria after
independence.
3. Did the private enterprise contribute anything to Educational Development after
Independence? Explain.
4. List the key areas the 1969 Curriculum Conference highlighted.
37
UNIT 7(EDU101.7): HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

IN NIGERIA: 1960-1970
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6 we took a global look at the development of education in Nigeria between 1960 and
1970. In particular we noted the contributions of the governments of the Federation in such
areas as primary education, secondary education, technical and vocational education, teacher
education and higher education. We also tried to assess the number of contributions of the
private enterprise in primary, secondary and technical/vocational education. An attempt was
also made to see why the 1969 Curriculum Conference was held..
Today we want to examine in detail in Unit 7 the aims, curriculum, population and history of
primary education in Nigeria within the first decade of our independence.
OBJECTIVES
1. state clearly the objectives of primary education in Nigeria;
2. identify the curriculum contents of primary education;
3. explain the population trends in the primary schools and adduce reasons for such
trends; and
4. give a brief history of the development of primary school education in Nigeria
between 1960 and 1970.

such an unfamiliar word in your dictionary.
step. Do not try to look at the sample answers before attempting the exercises.
3. To get the best out of this unit, you should obey all instructions.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT THE END

OF THIS BOOK.
HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

The history of primary education can best be discussed under the different regional
governments. Primary education was under the regional governments. Each regional
government pursued policies she felt suited it. In 1960 the Western Nigeria government set
up the Banjo Commission to review the existing structure and the working of the primary and
secondary school work were due largely to a preponderance of untrained teachers. The
commission also found out that there was a lack of continuity in staffing; an emphasis on the
teachers' private studies at the expense of the children; very large classes; cessation or
38
restriction of corporal punishment; inadequate supervision of schools, either by the

inspectorate or the voluntary agency supervisors.
In the Eastern Region, the government in 1958 set up the Dike Commission to review its
educational system. The report published in 1962 observed that the government was already
spending one third of its revenue on education and warned that it could not spend all the
government's resources to introduce free primary education. It therefore suggested a more
moderate approach and concentration on quality rather than quantity.
In the Northern Region government spent the pre-independence years in the development of
education in the rural areas and the promotion of adult literacy. The region was not
particularly interested in the development of a Universal Primary Education scheme. In 1961
the government of Northern Region set up the Oldham Commission to look into the financial
and administrative problems that would arise during Northern Nigeria's progress towards the
UPE. This was particularly important since the Ashby report had stressed that need to raise
primary school enrolment in the Northern Region to about 25% of the school age by 1970.
This report, published in 1962, gave rise to an education law establishing a partnership
between government and the voluntary agencies. The partnership was an attempt to develop a
public system of primary education. Government would be the leading partner with the
ministry of education having the overall responsibility for the promotion of primary
education.
In the Eastern Region, government was not quite satisfied with the Dike Committee's Report
published in 1962. Consequently, it set up the Ikoku Commission to review the progress of
education in Eastern Region. The commission recommended the following:
1. Consolidation of primary schools and discontinuation of non viable schools.
2. Complete government control of all primary schools.
3. Setting up of local schools boards and the involvement of local government councils
in primary education.
4. Reduction of the length of primary school education from seven to six years.
5. Improvement of teachers' condition of service and the provision of inservice courses
for teachers.
The Dike and Ikoku reports resulted in the government of Eastern Region modifying its
primary education plan. The new system was a three year non-fee paying system followed by
another three - year fee paying system based on assumed local contribution (A.L.C.). This
system remained in operation until the outbreak of the civil war which lasted from 1967 to
1970.
ACTIVITY I
1. Trace the development of primary education in the Northern Region in the first
decade of Nigerian Independence.
2. What were the major developments in the history of primary education in Eastern
Region between 1960 and 1970?
OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

The stated objectives of primary education are to help the child to:
a) master the three R's (Reading Writing and Arithmetic) and thus develop permanent
literacy and numeracy;
39
b) develop a sound standard of individual conduct and behaviour; and

c) acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
THE PRIMARY SCHOOL COURRICULUM

To achieve the aims of primary education the following subjects are taught in most primary
schools - Arithmetic, Physical Education, History, Religious Instruction, Geography,
Elementary Science, Domestic Science, Needle Work, English and one language of the
locality (which is taught as a subject and used as a medium of instruction for the first two or
three years). English as the medium of instruction normally takes place in the third or fourth
year of primary school. The debate as to whether the Nigerian or African child should receive
his first six years of education in his mother tongue is still on. This has led to experiments
like the Ife Project where attempts were made to translate all the subjects of the curriculum
into Yoruba.
THE NIGERIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL AND POPULATION EXPLOSION

When Nigeria became politically independent in 1960 the country had 15,703 primary
schools with about 2,912,600 pupils. By 1964 both the numbers of primary schools as well as
the number of pupils had gone down to 14,976 and 2,849,500 respectively. Part of the
explanation for this decline can be found in the unsettled political conditions that
immediately followed independence in Nigeria.
By 1971 however, the statistics indicated that Nigeria had 15,324 primary schools with
3,894,500 pupils. Thenceforth till 1974 the number of schools began to decrease while pupil
population continued to grow steadily. For instance in 1973 there were 14,525 primary
schools and 4,746,800 pupils. With the increase in number of schools the phenomenon of
large schools and over crowded classrooms began to be more noticeable than before.
Between 1977 and 1980 primary school enrolment in Nigeria had risen from 10,104,670 to
15,607,505 pupils. At a glance these figures would appear impressive when determining the
growth and expansion of primary education in Nigeria. In absolute terms, however, they
represent modest achievements. For example, in 1969, when there were 3,443,000 children in
the primary schools there were also 11,185,000 children of primary school age. This means
that the primary enrolment fraction for Nigeria in that year was 30.8%. If these 1969 figures
were distributed among states, the picture becomes different. For instance, Kano state had the
lowest primary school age enrolment of 4.4% followed by North Western state 4.9%, North
Eastern state 8.6% and North Central state 10.5%. This means a huge percentage of the
children in these states were not going to school. The picture did improve in 1976 because of
the Federal Government Free Universal Primary Education Scheme.
ACTIVITY II
1. State any three objectives of primary education in Nigeria.
2. List the curriculum contents of primary education in Nigeria.
3. Account for the decline in primary school population in the mid sixties?
SUMMARY
• HISTORY In 1960 the Government of Western Region set up the Banjo Commission
to review the existing structure and the working of the primary and secondary school
system. The commission noted the falling standards in primary schools, preponderance
of untrained teachers, emphasis on teachers' private studies at the expense of the
40
children, too large classes, cessation of corporal punishment and inadequate inspection
of schools.
• In the Northern Region, Government set up the Oldham Commission in 1961 to look
into the financial and administrative problems that would arise during the Region's
progress towards the UPE. The report published in 1962 gave rise to an education law
establishing a partnership between government and the voluntary agencies in an
attempt of develop a public system of primary education.
• In the eastern Region, government set up the Ikoku Commission to review the progress
of education in Eastern Region. The Commission reported as follows.
(a) Consolation of primary schools and discontinuation of non- viable schools.
(b) Complete government control of all primary schools.
(c) reduction of the length of primary school education from seven to six.
(d) improvement of teachers' conditions of service and the provision of in-service
courses for teachers. This resulted in a three-year free tuition and another
three-year fee paying in the primary schools.
OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

1. master the three R's of Reading, Writing and Arithmetic.
2. develop a sound standard of individual conduct and behaviour.
3. acquire some skill and appreciate the value of manual work.
• THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM To achieve the stated objectives of
primary education the following are contained in its curriculum Arithmetic, Physical
Education, History, Religious Instruction, Geography, Elementary Science, Domestic
Science, Needle Work, Cookery, Music, Singing. Fine Art, Hand work English
Language and one language of the locality.
• PRIMARY SCHOOL POPULATION In 1960 Nigeria had 15,703 primary schools
with 2,912,000 pupils. In 1964 the fewer of primary schools had gone down to 14,697
with 2,849,500 pupils. This decline can be explained as a result of tense political
situation following independence. From 1970 the situation changed to fewer primary
schools but large class rooms. For example in 1971 Nigeria had 15,324 primary
schools with 3,894,500 pupils. To see that the figures were not impressive, in 1969 for
example, there were 3,443,000 pupils in the primary as against 11,185,000 primary
primary school enrolment of 30.8%. However the picture improved a little with the
introduction of the Federal Government Universal Primary Education scheme.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Trace the history of Nigeria's primary education from Independence till the outbreak
of the Nigerian Civil War.
2. State clearly the objectives of primary education in Nigeria, for 1960 to 1970, and
identify the curriculum for the achievement of the objectives.
REFERENCE
Fafunwa, Babs, A. History of Education in Nigeria, London, George Allen and Unwin 1974.
41
UNIT 8 (EDU101.8) THE TEACHING PROFESSION IN

NIGERIA
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 7 we examined the history of primary education in Nigeria. We saw that the teacher
has an important role to play in the continued development of primary education in this
country. Because of this, we shall in this unit, take a look at the teaching profession in
Nigeria. This may help us to find out whether the teacher is, in fact, not only important in the
primary school but also in all the levels of the Nigerian educational system. To be able to do
this, we shall go back to find out what teaching is, its origin, history and development in
Nigeria.
We shall also evaluate teaching to find out whether in fact teaching in Nigeria is a Profession.
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit thoroughly, you should be able to:
1. describe what teaching is and what being a teacher involves;
2. sketch an outline of the origin and development of the teaching profession from 1840
to 1960;
3. evaluate teaching in Nigeria to find out whether it qualifies as a profession; and
4. list other conditions the teaching profession must try to meet in order to maintain its
professional status.

1. Read through this unit once, You should as you read try to note the main and
unimportant ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try to look up the meaning of
such an unfamiliar word n your dictionary.
Before studying this unit, go through the Word Study in the next section.
step. Do not try to look at the sample answers before attempting, the exercises.
3. To get the best result out of studying this unit, you should obey all the instruction and
observe all the rule.
WORD STUDY
Profession: This is an occupation or calling particularly one in which special education or
training is required.
Art: In the context we shall use the word, it would mean skill.
Hub: In the context we shall use the word, it would mean centre.
Phelps- Stokes
42
Commission: This was a high-powered commission appointed to study and report on the
state of educational work and progress in Africa during the first quarter of the
20th century. The Commission was headed by Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, and
supported out of the Phelps-Stokes Fund made available by an American
philanthropist, Miss Caroline Phelps-Stokes. She specifically requested that
the money be set aside and used primarily for the promotion of the education
of African peoples.
WHAT IS TEACHING?
This as we shall see later, may be a difficult question to answer. A simple definition of
teaching is "the guidance of learning activities" The Websters New 20th Century Dictionary
(1975) defined a teacher as:
One who teaches or instructs
One who instructs others in religion
One who preaches without ordination
This means that the term, _teacher_ includes much more than the people found in registered
teachers associations. For instance, in any country, there are many more teachers than those
who register as teachers. Nigeria has many more teachers than those who register as members
of the Nigeria Union of Teachers. Britain has many more teachers than the number whose
names appear in the list of members of the National Union of Teachers. Actual teachers in the
United States of America outnumber the members of The Future Teachers of America or the
National Association of American Teachers.
Teaching is a service profession. A teacher guides learning by motivating the learner or by
arousing his desire to learn. By stimulating the learner and giving him the opportunity to ask
questions, the teacher helps him to establish goals. Therefore, teaching is more than telling
and testing. It is a complex art of guiding the pupils through a variety of selected experiences
to being about worth-while changes in behaviour. In other words, teaching is supposed to
result in the acquisition and utilization of knowledge.
Teaching is an art and a science. It is an art because it involves guiding, directing and
stimulating learning. It is also a science because it involves the processing of a body of
specialised knowledge. The teacher is to see that the child develops the right skills,
assimilates the facts, right habits, ideals and ethical standards. This explains why the
informed regard teaching as an intricate, exerting and challenging occupation.
The teacher is the hub of the educational system because the school can not be better than its
teachers. The teachers constitute the most vital factor in the educational system because it is
upon their number, quality and devotion to duty that the effectiveness of any educational
system depends. One author said that education unlocks the door to modernisation but it is
the teacher who holds the key.
It is common to assume that teaching is what anybody can do if he knows his subject. But
this is not true. Before one can teach effectively he must be schooled in the arts and science
of teaching.
43
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain what is meant by teaching.
2. Give the reason why the teacher is referred to as the HUB of the educational system.
HISTORY OF TEACHER TRAINING IN NIGERIA

Until the coming of teacher training centres in the 19th century most teachers received
informal instruction in the home of Reverend Fathers and Pastors in charge of the various
Christian denominations. Candidates were chosen for the promise they showed as leaders, for
their intelligence and the zeal with which they embraced the word of God. As they were
teacher-catechists the formation of good morals and ability to preach the gospel were
emphasised.
At Abeokuta in 1859 the Church Missionary Society founded a training institution. In 1896 it
was moved to Oyo to become St. Andrew's College Oyo. The early products of this teachers
college acted both as church teachers and school masters. As early as 1901 the system of
recruiting products of primary schools for some years as pupil-teachers before institutional
training became the practice. This helped to case off the acute shortage of teaching personnel
needed for the schools.
In 1921 Government founded the Katsina Training College for a five year training course for
teachers. It was designed primarily to develop the personality of the teacher as well as his
knowledge of the subjects and the development of the skill in imparting them. The
curriculum included spoken English, Mathematics and English Composition. In fact, there
were no parallel schools in the southern provinces that could rival Katsina Teachers' College
as far as thoroughness in planning, staffing, specialisation and adaptation of the curriculum to
the local needs were concerned.
Reporting in 1922, the Phelps-Stokes Commission made some concrete recommendations for
the teaching profession.
1. The educational needs of the masses for the training of teachers and for the
preparation of professional men should be clearly distinguished.
2. The Government should provide for the temporary employment of teachers of lower
qualification. This is recommended on the condition that adequate supervision could
be assured and facilities developed for the supply of better prepared teachers.
The 1926 Education Code was partly the result of Phelps-Stokes report. The Code
recognised the need for registration of teachers. It introduced the Higher Elementary
Certificate Examination. Teachers were registered under three categories:
"A" Registration- Holders of approved University degree or diploma and any recognised
teachers' certificate or other qualifications considered adequate were
registered as "A" teachers.
"B" Registration- "B" teachers were those with technical qualification.
"C" Registration- All uncertificated teachers with a minimum qualification of Standard
VI or Secondary Class II and two years of teaching experience were
registered as "C" teachers.
Another important provision of the 1926 Education Code was the introduction of a standard
four-year teacher training for the award of the Teachers' Third Class Certificate, It was
44
Hussey's reorganisation of 1930 that changed the name of this certificate to Higher
Elementary.
The period 1926 to 1930 was a period of rapid expansion in the number of teacher training
colleges. Both Government and Voluntary Agencies opened new teacher training colleges.
For example, the colonial government opened government training centres at Umudike
(Umuahia) and Ibadan in 1929. It was Hussey who changed these two colleges to secondary
schools in 1931. During this time, too, the Roman Catholic Mission opened the famous St.
Charles Teacher Training College at Onitsha.
In 1932 the Yaba Higher College was opened with the aim of giving Nigerians professional
training of university standards. Teacher education was part of the Yaba programme. In 1936
a new device for raising the quality of teachers was introduced. A number of promising
young men and women were sent overseas annually to qualify as teachers. In 1939 a nine-
month teacher training course in Agriculture was introduced at Ibadan and Umuahia. Later as
Nigeria attained political independence, the country opened many universities. These offered
degree programmes of Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) and Bachelor of
Education (B.Ed) in their faculties of Education. There were opportunities, too, for sub-
degree professional training in education.
ACTIVITY II
1. What role did the Katsina Training College play in the area of Teacher Education in
Nigeria?
2. How far did the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report affect the development of teacher
education in Nigeria?
IS TEACHING A PROFESSION?
The term teaching profession is very widely used particularly among educational workers.
The answer to the above question can not be categorical; yet, it must be admitted that
teaching has always been referred to as a profession.
A better question however may be: what are the yardsticks or distinguishing marks of a
profession? And how far does teaching in the Nigerian context fit in? About two decades ago,
teaching was not rated highly in the eyes of the public as a profession. It was argued then that
there were certain characteristics found in other professions (Law, Medicine, Architecture)
which were lacking in teaching. But since the recent past a lot of changes have taken place in
terms of training that it may not be easy to write off teaching as a profession. Let us now
examine teaching in the context of some conditions which a profession is supposed to meet.
1. In the so-called learned professions (Law, Medicine, Theology & Architecture) there
is an extended period of training before admission into practice. Usually, the
practitioners have an important voice in the training and certification programmes.
As stated earlier, the teaching profession, since the recent past, has tried to insist that
any one to be employed as a teacher in Nigeria should have a minimum of Teachers'
Grade II Certificate. This is a bold step if one realises that there was a time primary
six pupils taught in our schools. But there are still some openings which delay the
journey to full professional status. For example, no teacher should be admitted to
teach until he is certified a Grade II or an NCE teacher. In some parts of the country
referred candidates teach pending the passing of their referred papers.
45
Graduate teachers or any other person who holds a recognised diploma in an area of
speciality should not be allowed to teach until he undergoes the prescribed
professional qualification which is a post-graduate diploma in education.
2. There is a strong organisation that is generally recognised as being able to speak for
all members within the profession. This organisation emphasises ideals of service
above personal gains.
In Nigeria, there is an organisation known as the Nigeria Union of Teachers (N.U.T.).
But it would appear that the NUT activities are centred around crisis moments and
moments to agitate for increase in wages. One of the important functions of a
professional organisation is the involvement of the organisation in the admission,
training and certification of new members. One is not sure how far the N.U.T. is
meeting these requirements in Nigeria. It may be true that the NUT is improving in
providing welfare schemes for its members but one may not be surprised to find out
that there are still few Nigerian teachers who have not registered as full members of
the union.
3. A profession has a code of ethics or standards of conduct set up by practitioners and
enforced by their representatives.
Like in other professions, teachers all over the world have professional organisations.
In America the teachers' organisation is called National Association of American
Teachers, in Great Britain it is the National Union of Teachers and in Nigeria it is
called the Nigeria Union of Teachers. It is the responsibility of the professional
organisations to draw a code of ethics which all members must subscribe to and
uphold with an oath. The ethics of any profession can be seen as standards of conduct
or n embodiment of the "dos" and "don'ts" of the-profession. Members who flout any
of the ethics more than once or twice may stand expelled and his license to practice
with drawn by the professional association. Government generally does not interfere
with the professional ethics of any profession.
The Nigeria Union of Teachers is striving hard to uphold the ethics of the teaching
profession. However the differences in standards of admission of new members into
the profession and even the admission of non professional graduates affects the
standard of the ethics of the teaching profession in Nigeria. In Nigeria the ethics of the
teaching profession provide:
1. That the personal life of the teacher must be examplary;
2. That contract should be fully executed both in spirit and in letter of law;
3. That the primary consideration of the teacher at any time should be on the
welfare of the pupils entrusted to his care;
4. That any teacher on leaving a position should leave enough records and
information for the guidance of the successor;
5. That relationship between co-workers should be characterised by the spirit of
cooperation;
6. That members of the teaching profession should avoid gossip and petty
criticism;
7. That members of the profession should not permit pupils to make derogatory
remarks about other teachers;
46
8. That teachers should not make derogatory remarks about the teaching
profession;
9. That teachers should not apply for a position they are not qualified for;
10. That teachers should defend members of the profession when members of the
profession are unjustly attacked or treated.
Outlining professional loyalty is not an end in itself. In addition to conforming to the ethics of
the profession, full professionalism requires that:
1. Teachers should be liberally educated. This means being exposed to a wide
knowledge not necessarily restricted to the pedagogical skills of teaching.
2. Teachers should possess a body of operational skills and knowledge, related to and
essential for the performance of the teacher's function.
3. They should be able to make rational judgements and take appropriate actions within
the scope of their activities and be responsible for the consequences of their
judgements and actions.
4. Teachers should place primary emphasis upon service to society rather than upon
personal gains.
5. Every teacher should actively participate with their colleagues in developing and
enforcing standards fundamental to the continuous improvements in the profession
and abide by those standards in their own practice.
6. Members of the profession should pay full-time attention to their calling and engage
in a continuous search for new knowledge and skill.
ACTIVITY III
1. List three conditions upon which you will base your judgement on whether teaching is
a profession in Nigeria?
2. List four ethics of the teaching profession in Nigeia?
SUMMARY
• WHAT IS TEACHING?
Teaching is a service profession. It is an art and science. It is an art because it involves
guiding, directing and stimulating learning. It is also a science because it involves the
possession of a body of specialised knowledge. The teacher is the hub of the
educational system because the school can not be better than its teachers. This is why it
is wrong to assume that teaching is what anybody can do if he knows his subject.
• HISTORY OF TEACHING IN NIGERIA
Until the coming of teacher training centres in the 19th century, most teachers received
instruction in the home of Reverend Fathers and Pastors in charge of the various
christian denominations. In 1896 St. Andrews College, Oyo, was established in its
present site. In 1921 Government founded the Katsina Training College for a five-year
training programme. This College tried to meet the local needs of the country in terms
of teacher education. In 1922 the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report made some
concrete recommendations which helped in the professional preparation of teachers. In
47
1926, the education code recognised the need for the registration of teachers and
introduced the four-year Teachers' Third Class Certificate examination. There were
some modifications after. By the time of Nigerian Independence a few Universities had
been established. They offered bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Bachelor of Science (B.Sc), and
Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) degree in their programmes for teacher education.
• IS TEACHING A PROFESSION?
For teaching to be accorded full professional status, it must satisfy three conditions.
1. In the learned professions, there is an extended training period before admission into
practice, usually with practitioners having an important voice in the training and
certification programmes.
2. There is a strong organisation that is generally recognised as being able to speak for all
members within the profession.
enforced by their representative.
• As soon as the teachers in Nigeria are able to satisfy these conditions and obey the
ethics of their profession, one would see them as full professionals.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain what is meant by teaching
2. Trace the major developments of the teaching profession from 1859 to 1962.
3. “Professional ethics is not an end in itself". What are other requirements of a teacher
aspiring to full professionalism?
REFERENCES
Fafunwa, A. Babs,_ History of Education in Nigeria London, George Allen & Unwin 1974.
Okeke, B.S. Teaching in Nigeria - A Case for Professionalisation Onitsha, University
Publishing Co. 1984.
48
UNIT 9 (EDU101.9): ISSUES IN NIGERIAN PRIMARY

EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 7 we examined the history of primary education in Nigeria. This unit highlighted the
major developments and problems which faced primary education during the first decade
after Nigerian Independence. Such problems as finance and student population affected the
three regions immediately after independence. In this unit we shall take some of these
problems or issues which disturbed and are still disturbing the growth and development of
primary education in Nigeria. Where possible we shall make some suggestions for the
solution of these issues.
OBJECTIVES
1. list at least three of the issues in Nigerian primary education;
2. examine critically any three issues raised;
3. suggest where possible some solutions to the issues or problems raised.

1. Read through once more the summary in Unit 7.
2. Then read through this Unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read.
Also as you read, look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
3. Then go back and study the unit step by step as the unit has been arranged for you.
Attempt all the activities given. Do not look at the sample answers provided before
attempting the exercises.
4. Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If you
carry out all the instructions above, then you will benefit from this unit.
THE NATIONAL POLICY

In 1977, and for the first time, the Federal Government of Nigeria brought out in pamphlet
form a comprehensive policy statement on the role and function of all levels of education.
This policy statement was revised in 1981.
The National Policy on Education (1981) revised) defines primary education as an institution
for children aged normally between 6 and 11 +. This document rightly observed that since the
rest of the education system is built upon it, the primary stage is the key to the success or
failure of the whole education system. It is under this assumption that we intend to examine
some of the issues which may be affecting this important educational stage.
49
LANGUAGE
One of the objectives of primary education in Nigeria is the inculcation of permanent literacy
and the ability to communicate effectively. This means that language plays a very important
role in the process of both formal and informal education. Language is more than an
instrument for the conveying of ideas. It is an instrument for working upon the feelings of
others and for self expression. Thus the language of education actively affects the
opportunites and possibilities of acquiring knowledge.
In the National Policy on Education (1981 revised) Section 3, 15 (4) it is claimed that
"Government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary school is initially the
mother- tongue or the language of the immediate community and at a later stage, English".
Admittedly, the language of education very significantly affects understanding. So, a serious
re- examination of our use of English as medium of instruction in our senior primary schools
is necessary. Unfortunately, some institutions start as early as primary one to use the English
Language. Such schools punish a child who used his or her mother tongue for self expression.
The use of the vernacular as a medium of instruction in the primary schools is hereby
strongly recommended. English may continue to be one of the languages offered as a course
in the primary school.
PRIMARY SCHOOL POPULATION

When Nigeria became politically independent in 1960, the country had 2,912,000 pupils. In
1964 a year after Nigeria had become a Republic, the number of primary school pupils came
slightly down to 2,849,500 primary school pupils. Part of the explanation for this decline can
be found in the unsettled political conditions that immediately followed independence in
Nigeria. Between 1966 and 1970 it was not possible to estimate the growth of primary
education in Nigeria. Most educational statistics of that period clearly excluded figures from
the war-affected areas. By 1971 however the statistics indicated that Nigeria had 15,324
primary schools with 3,894,500 pupils.
From then till 1974 the number of schools continued to decrease while pupils' population
continued to grow steadily. For excample, projections from the Imo State Schools
Management Board Owerri, Statistics Division, recorded about 672,000 primary school
pupils for the state in 1983/84 session. But the actual figures were 793,867. The picture can
be seen more clearly in the following tables.
50
TABLE 1
IMO STATE PRIMARY SCHOOL STATISTICS 1976/77 - 1984/85
YEAR PUPILS TEACHERS TEACHER –
PUPIL RATIO
1976/77 938398 27130 34.5
1977/78 1003826 29176 34.4
1978/79 1014467 31370 31.3
1979/80 1095023 30987 35.3
1980/81 1183300 30511 38.7
1981/82 854835 33562 25.4
1982/83 826584 27365 30.2
1983/84 793867 27562 28.8
1984/85 849703 20235 41.9
TABLE II
NIGERIA PRIMARY SCHOOL STATISTICS 1980/81 - 1983/84_
YEAR PUPILS TEACHERS TEACHER –
PUPIL RATIO
1980/81 13,777,973 369,636 37.2
1981/82 14,311,608 386,826 36.9
1982/83 14,676,608 383,989 38.2
1983/84 14,383,487 359,701 39.9
SOURCE: Statistics Section, Federal Ministry of Education- Science and Technology,
Lagos.
It is this phenomenal population explosion in Nigeria's primary schools that has motivated the
need for a search for a more effective organisational model for running our primary schools.
Projections based on the statistics section of the Federal Ministry of Education indicate that
taking into consideration some variables, the primary school population for the state by AD
2000 would be about 1.1 million while 16.5 million is projected for the whole federation. The
expansion that has characterised the primary education system started since 1974 when the
Federal Government announced a Universal Primary Education. With this increase in number
the phenomenon of large schools and over crowded classrooms began to be more noticeable
than before.
However a close study of Tables I & II would not support the idea of overcrowded
classrooms judging the teacher-pupil ratio of Imo State or Nigeria Primary school population.
But overcrowded classroom can be a phenomenon of a few urban schools. For example in
Imo State, a Primary School in Owerri, had the following statistics in 1983/84 session.
51
No. of supervisory Headmasters 4

No. of Classroom Teachers 78
No. of Pupils 3,500
Teacher-Pupil Ratio 1:43
But in the same session 1983/84 another primary school in Urualla, Ideato Local Government
Area had the following statistics
No. of Supervisory Headmasters 1
No. of Classroom Teachers 5
No. of Pupils 90
Teacher-Pupil Ratio 1:15
FINANCING OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

As we have seen in Unit 7, the Northern Region by the end of the first decade (1969), was
approaching very cautiously the issue of free education for all her primary school children.
The Eastern Region had set up the Ikoku Commission to help them find an alternative to free
education in all the primary school classes. They came up with fee-free education in classes.
1-3 while fees had to be paid for classes 4-6. The Western Region set up the Banjo
Commission which made some recommendations to stem the falling standard of education
said to be the direct result of the Universal Free Primary Education. With the outbreak of the
Nigerian Civil War in 1967 and the collapse of the first Republic, primary education was still
a major problem to all the Regions of the federation. However the Somade Committee of
1969 recommended that the Federal Government should take over the responsibility of
funding Primary Education in Nigeria. This resulted in the launching of Universal Free
Primary Education by the Federal Government on 6th September, 1976, with a view to
making it compulsory. Unfortunately, from 1974 to the end of the first two years of the
scheme (1978), the Federal Government had spent more than 1 billion naira. Of course, this
meant the collapse of the programme.
Reasons for the collapse are not far to seek. Too often, Nigerians depend upon poor planning
and statistics. In practice, the country condones high incidence of corruption. These, together
with excessive inflation of contracts, over-pricing and invoicing rendered the Federal
Government incapable of financing the universal free primary education in the country.
The Federal Government then pushed back the financing of primary schools to State
Governments. As of now all the State Governments are grappling with the problem
apparently without success. Some State Governments budget up to 30% of their recurrent
budget to Education and the payment of primary school teachers' salaries gulps a greater
percentage of the sectoral allocation. The various State Governments have made many
representations to successive Federal Goverments on the financial burden of the Primary
school education. For this reason, the Federal Government is planning to take another-bold
step over primary education. The Federal Government will soon start to absorb 65% of the
recurrent expenditure of all the primary schools in the federation. This is likely to lessen the
burden of primary education on the State Government.
52
PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

Different countries have different objectives for primary education. Whatever the chosen
objectives of education for any country may be, it is usually determined by the needs and
circumstances of such a country. For example Fafunwa saw the needs of primary education in
Nigeria as helping the child to:
a) Master the three Rs
b) Develop sound standards of individual conduct and behaviour.
c) Acquire some skills and appreciate the value of work.
Furthermore the National Policy on Eduction (1981 revised) had prescribed the following
curricular activities for the achievement of the stated objectives.
"The inculcation of literacy and numeracy, the study of science, the study of the social norms
and values of the local community and of the country as a whole through civics and social
studies, the giving of health and physical education, moral and religious education, the
encouragement of aesthetic, creative and musical activities, the teaching of local crafts and
domestic science and agriculture.
With such an ambitious curriculum for the Nigerian primary schools, there is the danger that
as the primary schools get bigger and bigger, as a result of population and explosion, more
and more organisational learning problems would emerge. Reports tend to show that some
sampled primary schools for scientific studies were finding it difficult to meet the stated
objectives of Primary Education in Nigeria. Such sampled primary six pupils were finding it
difficult to show evidence of permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to
communicate effectively. These are some of the basic objectives of primary education.
Federal and State Governments will have to ensure that all schools are properly equipped to
promote sound and effective teaching and in particular that suitable textbooks and libraries
are provided for schools. To improve upon primary school achievement, primary schools
should de-emphasize the memorisation and regurgitation of facts. They should encourage
practical, exploratory and experimental methods.
ACTIVITY I
1. List the three current issues in primary education in Nigeria discussed above
2 Explain briefly how language constitutes a problem in Nigerian Primary Schools.
3. Suggest three different ways of improving primary school pupils' scholastic
achievement.
LACK OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICES

Guidance aims and principles are concerned with helping the individual to become all that he
is capable of becoming without regard to family, class or social conditions. Counselling aims
at helping the client to become more effective in the solution of his problems. A close
examination of the concepts of guidance and counselling tends to show a close relation ship
between it and the objectives of primary education in Nigeria. This may explain why the
National Policy on Education section 3(10)c states that a number of teachers are undergoing
in-service training in the area of guidance and counselling for elementary schools.
Unfortunately not enough have qualified to be deployed to this level of the educational
system. During the past decade, programmes in primary school guidance have emerged and
53
experienced rapid growth. For example, in the U.S.A the demand for elementary school
guidance began as far back as 1964. This early start was based on the hope that early
treatment and prevention of problems will eliminate or reduce pupil behaviour disorders.
Furthermore early treatment of problems in the primary school stage might facilitate the
development of responsibility, decision-making skills and personal development of the child.
The elementary school counsellor has a very important part to play in the educational system.
His/her functions include:
1. counselling individual pupils;
2. counselling groups of pupils;
3. consulting with teachers, other school staff members and parents; and
4. evaluating the effectiveness of counsellor and guidance programme efforts.
If the objectives of primary school education are to be achieved, counsellors have to be
deployed to primary schools all over Nigeria. For example based on the statistics from the
Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Lagos, Imo State had in 1983/84
2,885 primary institutions with 793,867 pupils. The American Ratio for primary school
counsellors is 250 to 300 pupils per counsellor. This would have left for Imo State primary
schools alone about 2,646 Counsellors. When one thinks of the number to service the 21
states of the federation it then reveals why the provision of guidance counsellors is an issue
bugging Nigerian primary education.
POOR SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

Section II, 89 (3) of the National Policy on Education states that one of the objectives of
supervisory services in education is to "ensure quality control through regular inspection and
continuous supervision of instruction and other educational services." Many a time, in our
primary institutions, there is either lack of or poor supervision of instructions. This may have
been one of the reasons for the poor achievement on the part of our primary schools.
Supervision of instruction is that phase of school administration which focuses primarily
upon the achievement of the appropriate instructional expectations of educational systems.
One may even see instructional supervision as a live-wire of the educational system which is
concerned with the efficiency and effectiveness in school administration. Basically the
modern concept of instructional supervision emphasizes effective teaching and improvement
of learning. In essence, the teaching-learning situation becomes the central focus of the
supervisor. The old concept when school supervisors concentrated their attention on teacher
attendance to school and the classroom visitation no longer holds. Supervisors were then fault
finders. The purpose of modern classroom visitation is to observe, advise, guide, direct and
stimulate teachers and students so as to improve teaching and learning in schools. This is the
only way by which schools can achieve the desired educational objectives. When these lofty
aims are put side by side with the number of visitation for purposes of instructional
supervision one would realise why this poses a problem for the primary schools.
Many a time, lack of fund, transport, equipment and time factor militate against effective
supervision. Also the number of supervisors to primary school teachers is neither realistic nor
proportional to allow for effective execution of instructional supervision.
If our primary schools are to benefit from the advantages if well planned supervision of
instructions, government should provide adequate transport and make funds available to
supervisory personnel in the ministry, to enable them undertake visitations. More importantly
54
seminars and workshops should be organised more regularly for primary school teachers to
bring them in tune with the new concept of school supervision of instruction.
ACCESSIBILITY TO PRIMARY EDUCATION

Some factors are militating against the acquisition of primary education by many Nigerian
children. The issue of funding has been highlighted. Suffice it to say that economic factor has
had a great limiting factor over many children especially in the South who would have
otherwise benefitted from Primary education. This explains why the new steps the federal
government is taking in helping to fund part of the recurrent expenditure of primary
education is a welcome move.
Historical circumstances and religious norms may have affected the degree of acceptance of
western-type education in certain parts of the country. In some parts, Islam predated
Christianity and Arabic education dominated such areas. In other parts, Christianity predated
Islam and consequently western-type education dominated. Geographical factors also played
an important part. In Northern Nigeria where the desert is fast encroaching we have the
Nomadic Fulanis. These Nigerians are always on the move with their cattle. This poses a
great problem for their children who have to settle down at a spot for at least six years to
benefit from primary education. Thanks to the wisdom of the Federal Government in
designing the new programme for the nomads popularly known as Nomadic Education
Programme. This wonderful educational innovation is still at its embryonic stage. But,
basically, it would mean providing a mobile primary education programme which would
enable the nomads benefit from primary education. In the south, around the Niger Delta
territories, similar problems abound. How to build primary schools for the reverine peoples
who are for the most part of their lives on the move in the high seas fishing is a problem.
They move with their family. The government is also working out a scheme which will
enable their children benefit from primary education. Even in the so-called educationally
advantaged areas (if anything of such exists) children of the full time farmers have problems
with primay education. During the intensive periods of farming (April - October)their parents
withdraw them from schools and move into their farmlands many kilometres away from
schools. They provide the labour for their parents who can not yet afford mechanised
agriculture. During this time most primary schools are scanty. At the end of the farming
season many return to the former deserted villages and may have need for the primary
schools. Government may also examine this problem alongside with the riverine and
Nomadic education programmes. Perhaps migrating or mobile primary schools would be
properly established and funded in such a way that it would become a common feature in
these highlighted areas.
ACTIVITY II
1. List three other issues affecting Nigerian primary education.
2. How does supervision of instruction pose an issue to primary education in Nigeria?
SUMMARY
• The primary school stage is the key to the success or failure of the whole education
system. Some of the issues which may be affecting this important educational stage
include the following:
55
• LANGUAGE:
Language plays a very important role in the process of both formal and informal
education. It is more than the instrument for conveying ideas. If language affects
significantly the understanding of knowledge, then primary school education should be
through the pupils' mother tongue and not in English.
• PRIMARY SCHOOL POPULATION:

In 1960 Nigeria had 2,912,600 school children in the primary schools. Immediately
after the Republican status, the unsettled political situation in the country affected the
primary school enrolment. It came down to 2,849,500. With plans for the U.P.E in
1974 and the UPE in 1979 primary school population increased. By 1984/85 session
Imo State had 849,703 primary school pupils with 20,235 teachers, giving the state a
teacher-pupil ratio of approximately 1:42. Nigeria had in 1984 session 14,383,487
primary school pupils with 359,701 teachers and a teacher pupil ratio of approximately
1:40. This phenomenal explosion of primary school pupils has motivated the search for
different organisational models for primary education.
• FINANCING PRIMARY EDUCATION

The West tried to fund primary education through the 1955 UPE with a reasonable
success. The Eastern experiment of 1956 resulted in a partial success. Barely after two
years, the Federal Government UPE launched in September 1976, collapsed. A
staggering sum of 1 billion had already been sunk into the programme. Recently a
much more planned programme is about to be launched whereby the Federal
Government will absorb 65% of the recurrent expenditure of the primary schools in
Nigeria.
• PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN:
Among the stated objectives of primary education in Nigeria are the inculcation of
permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively. But
reports tend to show that some sampled primary schools were finding it difficult to
achieve the stated objectives of primary education in Nigeria. Pupils in such schools are
unable to show evidence of permanent literacy, numeracy and the ability to
communicate effectively
• LACK OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING: Counselling can be looked at
as the relationship which exists between a Counsellor and his client which aims at
helping the client to become more effective in the solution of his problems. A close
examination of the concepts of guidance and counselling tend to show a close
relationship between it and the objectives of primary education. Aware of the
importance of guidance and counselling in the primary schools, the National Policy on
Education emphasizes the training of more people in this area. Unfortunately not
enough have qualified for deployment. In addition to counselling primary school
pupils, primary school counsellors also evaluate the effectiveness of the educational
programmes
• POOR SUPERVISION: Many a time in our primary schools, there is either lack of
supervision or poor supervision of instruction, yet instructional supervision is the live
wire of any educational system. But, lack of funds, transport, equipment and time factor
56
militate against effective supervision. Secondly, the number of supervisors to primary

school teachers is neither realistic nor proportional to allow for effective execution of
instructional supervision. If our primary schools are to benefit from the advantages of
well planned supervision of instructions, government would have to provide adequate
transport and make funds available to supervisory personnel in the ministry to enable
them undertake visitations.
• ACCESSIBILITY TO PRIMARY EDUCATION:
Some factors are militating against the acquisition of primary education by many
Nigerian children. Eccnomic factor is one. Religion is another. In some parts of the
country, Islam predated Christianity and Arabic education dominated such areas. In
other parts of the country, christianity predated Islam and western- type education
dominated. Geographic factors pose their problems. Children in semi-desert, riverine
and farming areas of the country suffer. The geographical location of their parents
present to them occupations that make them nomadic. Government is working out the
possibility of providing mobile primary schools for children in these areas of the
country.
ASSIGNMENT
1. List any six major problems facing primary education in Nigeria.
2. How does the absence of Guidance and Counselling constitute a problem in primary
education in Nigeria?
3. Discuss briefly parts of the country which suffer as a result of their geographical
location in terms of providing primary education.
57
MODULE 1 Unit: 10 Historical Foundations of Education EDU101
UNIT 10 (EDU101.10): CONSOLIDATION OF 1 TO 9 AND

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION
We attempted to examine about nine different historical areas in Module I. In Unit 1 of this
module an attempt was made to show that before the coming of the Europeans Nigerian
societies had their own system of education. This was mainly the ability to use the resources
in their environment to solve their daily problems. It did not involve writing. It was called
indigenous education. Unit 2 discussed the coming of Islamic education into the country.
Both Indigenous and Islamic systems of education respectively had their history, philosophy,
curriculum, merits and demerits examined.
Unit 3 introduced the history of western education by highlighting the legacies of Greek and
Roman education to modern educational thought. Unit 4 dealt with the introduction of
western-type educational developments in Nigeria before and after Independence.
Unit 7 discussed the history of primary education in Nigeria in the first decade after
Independence. The teaching profession in Nigeria was discussed in Unit 8, and finally this
module discussed in Unit 9 some contemporary issues in primary education in Nigeria.
In this unit we shall review all the major points and issues which we discussed in Units 1 to 9.
This will help us to remember the basic elements of the history of Nigerian education which
is presented in this module.
OBJECTIVES
After you have read this unit thoroughly, you should be able to:
1. define indigenous education and list at least two merits and two demerits of
indigenous education;
2. state the philosophy of Islamic education and also list three reasons why the christian
missionaries succeeded in the spread of their religion;
3. highlight at least two major legacies of the Colonial Government and Private
Enterprise in the provision of western type education in Nigeria;
4. list at least four contemporary issues affecting primary education in Nigeria.

1. Read through all the summaries in Units 1 to 9 of module 1.
2. Read through the introductory part of this unit carefully, before reading the rest of the
unit.
3. Attempt all the given activities and assignments. Do not look at the sample answers
provided until you have written your last question.
4. To get the best result out of this unit, you should obey all the instructions.
58
INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
We defined indigenous education as a process which enables society to teach its younger
ones the life patterns of the society. Its major objectives include the development of the
physical, moral intellectual and vocational skills of the child. That process is not foreign. It is
part and parcel of the people. Two merits of indigenous education include the following:
a) It is culture oriented and makes an individual effective in his society.
b) It gives the child some saleable skills which he uses for the economic growth of the
society.
Two limitations of indigenous education are:
a) It lacked a universal system of writing:
b) It is not research oriented; hence valuable information usually dies with the
possessors.
ISLAMIC ECUCATION
Islam came into Nigeria when the religion was accepted by the Kanem ruler Umme Jibri who
ruled from 1085 - 1097 A.D. Islamic philosophy upholds that man is born into the world in a
state of innocence like his own parents. If during his existence on earth he yields to
temptation, that becomes his own responsibility to God. This therefore creates a contact
between man and his creator. To maintain this link with God man has to maintain his natural
goodness. Education in the Islamic sense is intended to build and develop this goodness.
Merits of Islamic Education: It provided free education and was a very cheap system to run
because it needed no school buildings. There was no fear of examinations to disturb the
pupils. Demerits of Islamic Education system: Islamic primary schools were very unweildy
because of the high numbers in a class. The fear of corporal punishment always disturbed
pupils' learning.
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION

The Christian missionaries who worked in Nigeria include Rev. T.B. Freeman of the
Methodist mission. Rev. Henry Townsend of the C.M.S. mission, Rev. Ajayi Crowther of the
same mission, and Rev. Hope Waddel of the Church of Scotland mission. The basic
philosophy of the Christian missionary education was to convert the heathen soul to Christian
faith and civilise him. To achieve this, the converts were to be literate in order to read the
bible. The following factors helped in the spread of Christian religion:
1. Every village needed a village school not because of their desire to embrace
Christianity but to acquire western education.
2. The freed slaves saws the new religion as part of their saviour and embraced it.
3. The commercial activities going on in the coastal towns of Nigeria needed some
knowledge of the white man's language. Contact with the white man's religion
provided the easiest way of mastering this language.
59
ACTIVITY I
1. State two merits and two demerits of indigenous education.
2. Give three reasons for the apparent success of the Christian missionaries in Southern
Nigeria.
GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION

Greek education had famous philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The Greek aim of
education was to produce the best men to govern the city state with justice. The Greeks called
these men philosopher-kings. Some of the legacies of Greek education to modern Nigerian
educational thought include the following:
a) Education should be geared towards the solution of societal needs.
b) The State should control education.
c) Education should instil national service.
d) Equal educational opportunities should be given to both men and woman.
Roman education had philosophers like Cicero and Quintilian. The aim of Roman education
was to produce Orators comparable to the Greek philosopher-kings. Some of the
contributions of Roman education to the Nigerian educational system include:
a) Education should aim at developing effective communication.
b) The State reserves the right to control education.
c) an educated man should be a possessor of all branches of knowledge.
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THE ROLE OF COLONIAL

GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
The first act of colonial government in the field of education was the grant of £10 (f20.00)
each to the three major missionaries operating in Lagos in 1872. The Colonial government
enacted the 1882 and 1887 ordinances which provided for a Board of Education with powers
to grant scholarships for secondary education. In 1903 Government established the first
department of education and appointed four education officers. By 1901 government had
established a primary school in Benin; Kings' College Lagos (1909) and Katsina Teachers'
Training College (1921). At Independence in 1960 Nigeria had the University College Ibadan
(established in 1948) and approval had been given for the establishment of the University of
Nigeria, Nsukka (1960).
Private enterprise by 1930 had started to appreciate the importance of white collar jobs and
its attendant social prestige. This led to an increase in the demand for education. Secondly,
the rise of African Nationalism led to the feeling that the few missionary schools perpetuated
colonial mentality. This led to the establishment of schools, mostly secondary schools by
Nigerians. Rev. Euba, on falling out with his Baptist employers, established Eko Boys Hig
School Lagos. Euba was the first Nigerian to establish a private school. In 1932 Aggrey
Memorial College Arochukwu was founded by Alvan Ikoku. In 1939, the National Institute
which later became the West African People's Institue, Calabar, was founded by Eyo Ita. The
New Bethel College Onitsha and African College Onitsha were established by M.C. Awgu
and Peter Chukwurah respectively. Another dimension to the role of private enterprise in the
60
provision of western-type education was the granting of scholarships and bursaries by ethnic
unions. Some Yoruba cultural organisations, Ibo State Union and philanthropic organisations
and individuals contributed money and sent some individuals overseas to study. Some went
further to establish institutions like Kalabari National College, Buguma and Ibibio State
College.
POST INDEPENDENCE DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION

PRIMARY EDUCATION
In the primary education sector, the Northern region after independence vigorously pursued
the policy of expansion. This was to ensure that it catered for at least 25% of the primary
school going population. The policy also helped Northern Nigeria to lay a solid foundation
for the future take off of its free primary education scheme. In the Western and Eastern
regions, the free primary education had taken off. The two regions were busy controlling the
population explosion resulting from their respective universal free primary education
schemes.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
The post independence period of secondary education centred around some problem areas.
This included the upsurge in demand for secondary education, the need to update curriculum
content of secondary education and falling standard of education. Government therefore
intensified its efforts in establishing new secondary schools and expanding existing ones.
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The regional govern-ments established trade centres, and technical institutes in their
respective regions. Notable among these were the Kaduna Polytechnic in the Northern
Region, The Auchi Polytechnic in the Western Region and the Institute of Management and
Technology in the Eastern Region. The Yaba College of Technology was established in
Lagos.
TEACHER EDUCATION
In order to ensure good quality education government took steps to have only qualified
teachers in schools. Teachers Grade III programmes were discontinued. While some of the
former Teachers' Grade III colleges were up-graded to Grade II institutions, others were
closed. Then more Teacher Grade II colleges were set up.
In 1962, a new teachers certificate, the Nigeria Certificate in Education (N.C.E) was
introduced. It was to be obtained from the newly established Advanced Teachers Training
Colleges (A.T.T.Cs). These have since been renamed Colleges of Education. Some of them
now prepare students for the Bachelors degree in Education (B.Ed).
In addition, the Faculties of Education in the various universities prepare teachers for the
B.A/B.Se Education and the B.Ed degrees. Graduates in other areas who want to take to
teaching work for the Post-Graduate Diploma in Education |(P.G.D.e). Many of these
institutions prepare Grade II teachers for the Associateship Certificate in Education (A.C.E).
The effort has been to produce qualified graduate teachers for secondary schools and even to
improve upon teaching at the primary school level.
61
HIGHER EDUCATION
The University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was established in 1960 the year in which Ibadan
University College was upgraded to a full fledged university. In the North, the university
established in 1962 was called Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. There were also the
University of Ife at Ile Ife (now known as the Obafemi Awolowo University - O.A.U.) and
the University of Lagos at Yaba.
The local communities and individuals contributed in the building of private secondary
schools. Most of the secondary schools were commercial schools.
ACTIVITY II
1. List two major contributions in Education made by the Greeks and the Romans.
2. State the contributions of the Private Enterprise in the provision of western-type
education before Independence.
HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

In Nigeria the stated objectives of primary education include helping the child to:
a) master the three Rs of Reading Writing and Arithmetic.
b) develop sound standard of individual conduct and behaviour; and
c) acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
By 1960 the Western Region had set up the Banjo Commission to review the progress of their
free primary education launched in 1955. The commission found that the standard of
education in primary schools was falling. There was a preponderance of untrained teachers in
schools. Classes were large and corporal punishment had been abolished. In the Northern
Region the Oldham commission reported in 1962 the need for a partnership in Education. In
the Eastern Region the Ikoku Commission recommended the consolidation of primary
schools, reducing the length of primary schools to six years and a three-year free tuition and
another three year fee paying in the primary schools.
THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Everywhere teaching is the hub of the educational system because no school can be better
than its teachers. It is also both an art and a science. In Nigeria, as elsewhere, teaching is a
service profession.
Until the last quarter of the 19th century there were no specific institutions for the training of
teachers. Usually, teachers received instruction in the home of the Reverend Ministers in
charge of a particular Christian body.
However, the Church Missionary Society first established a teacher training college in
Abeokuta in 1859. It was known as the Training Institution. After eight years, in 1867, it was
moved to Lagos because all Europeans were driven away from Abeokuta. Because the
missionaries did not consider Lagos a suitable place for the training of teachers, the training
centre was moved to Oyo, in 1896, as St. Andrew's College.
A year before, i.e. 1895, the Church of Scotland Mission had established a comprehensive
institution in Calabar. This was the famous Hope Waddell Training Institute (H.W.T.I) which
had a Normal College for the training of teachers.
62
An important institution for the training of teachers was opened in 1921 at Katsina. It was
primarily to cater for the needs of Muslim teachers.
Subsequent developments resulted from the Phelps-Stokes Commission which appeared in
1922. Some of its recommendations were taken into account in the professional preparation
of teachers in Nigeria.
The 1926 Education Code recognised the need for the registration of teachers into "A", "B",
and "C" teachers. The provisions of the Code introduced the four-year standard training for
the Teachers Third Class Certificate. In 1931, this became the Higher Elementary Teachers
Certificate.
By the time of Nigeria Independence a few Universities had been established. This offered
the BA/B.Sc degrees in Education.`
ISSUES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

The primary school stage is the key to the success of the whole education system. Some of
the issues which may be affecting this important educational stage include the following:
1. Language of Instruction
If language affects significantly the understanding of knowledge then primary school
education should be carried out in the pupils in their mother tongue and not in
English.
2. Population Explosion
Nigeria had in 1983/84 session 14,383,487 primary school pupils with 359,701
teachers and a teacher-pupil ratio of approximately 1:40. This phenomenal explosion
of primary school pupils has motivated the search for different organisational models
for primary education.
3. Funding
Funding of primary education had been a problem to different UPE schemes of both
federal and state governments. All these programmes failed. A much more planned
programme is about to be launched whereby the Federal Government would absorb
65% of the recurrent expenditure of the primary schools in Nigeria.
4. Falling Standard
Pupils in most Primary schools in Nigeria are finding it difficult to show evidence of
permanent literacy, numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively.
5. Supervision
Our primary institutions lack supervision or have poor supervision of instruction. If it
is true that instructional supervision is the live wire of any educational system. there is
then need for effective supervision in primary schools.
6. Geographical Obstacles
As a result of geographical factors some parts of the country are handicapped in the
provision of primary education. Government should study the peculiar circustances of
such areas and consider the possibility of providing mobile primary schools for
children in these areas.
63
ACTIVITY III
1. List the three major objectives of primary education in Nigeria.
2. State any five contemporary issues affecting the development of primary education in
Nigeria.
SUMMARY
• INDIGENOUS EDUCATION: This is a process which enables society to teach its
younger ones the life patterns of society. It is culture-oriented and possesses saleable
skills. However it lacks a universal system of writing and it is not research oriented.
• ISLAMIC EDUCATION: Islam came into Nigeria in the 11th century. Islamic
philosophy upholds that man is born into the world in a state of innocence. If however
during his existence on earth he yields to temptation, that becomes his own
responsibility to God.
• CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION: The Christian missionaries who
worked in the Southern parts of Nigeria include Rev. T.B. Freeman of the Methodist
mission, Rev. Henry Townsend of the CMS mission, Rev. Ajayi Crowther of the same
mission and Rev. Hope Waddell of the Church of Scotland mission. The following
factors helped the Christian missionaries in the spread of Christian religion. Every
village needed a school because of the advantages of western-type education. In the
quest for western-type education the natives embraced christianity. The freed slaves
saw the new religion as responsible for their freedom. The commercial activities going
on in the Nigerian coastal towns needed the knowledge of English Language. Only
those who embraced the new religion could learn the new language.
• GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION: Greek education had famous
philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Roman education had philosophers like
Cicero and Quintilian. The Greeks emphasised that education should be geared towards
the solution of societal needs. The state should control education and instil National
Service. Equal educational opportunities should be given to both men and women. For
the Romans the aim of education was to produce an orator comparable to the Greek
philosopher-king. The Romans emphasised effecttive communication, and the right of
the state to control education. The Romans insisted that the educational system should
be structured into stages while all educated men should be a moving encyclopedia.
• PRE AND POST INDEPENDENCE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: The
colonial government promulgated many edicts aimed at controlling educational
development. The colonial government established a primary school in Benin, Kings'
College Lagos, and Katsina Teacher Training College At Independence in 1960 the
University College Ibadan had been established (1948) and the University of Nigeria
Nsukka opened in 1960, Later in 1962/63 Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, University
of Ife and University of Lagos were all established.
In the private sector, it was felt that missionary schools perpetuated colonial mentality
and delayed the spirit of Nationalism. This gave rise to the establishment of secondary
schools by Nigerians. Such schools included Eko Boys High School by Euba, Aggrey
Memorial College Arochukwu by Ikoku, West African Peoples Institute by Eyo Ita and
New Bethel College vy Awgu.
64
On teacher education, teachers grade II colleges were established, and former grade III
institutions scrapped. Technical and vocational colleges such as the Auchi Polytechnic,
the Kaduna Polytechnic and the Institute of Management and Technology Enugu were
established.
• HISTORY AND ISSUES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION
Many commissions were set up by the then regional governments to study the problems
of Universal Free Primary Education and the State Control of Education. In the
Northern Region, the Oldham Commission was set up, in the Western Region the
Banjo Commission and in the Eastern Region the Ikoku Commission. As a result of
many commissions and edicts such as the phelps-Stokes Commission Report of 1922
and the Education Code of 1926 the teaching. After independence, Nigerian
universities offered courses leading to the B.A/B.Sc degrees in Education. By 1962/63
a new certificate known as the Nigeria Certificate in Education was introduced.
However there appears to be some unresolved issues still affecting Primary Education
in Nigeria. Some of them would include the issue of language of Instruction, Primary
school population, funding of primary education, academic achievement in primary
schools and equal educational opportunity of primary education in Nigeria.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain clearly what is meant by indigenous education. Give one merit and one
demerit of this type of education.
2. Show in five different ways, what modern educational thought gained from the study
of Greek education.
3. List and explain three problems still facing the development of Islamic Education in
Nigeria.
65
MODULE 1 Answers Historical Foundations of Education EDU 101
UNIT 1 (EDU101.1): INDIGENOUS EDUCATION IN

NIGERIA: DEFINITION,
OBJECTIVES, CURRICULUM,
METHODOLOGY, MERITS AND
DEMERITS
ACTIVITY I
1 Indigenous education is the process by which every society through its adult members
teaches the younger ones the life patterns of their society. The boys for example learn
their fathers' occupation such as hunting, fishing etc. The girls learn from their
mothers buying and selling, weeding of the farm and how to cook. All these are learnt
through imitation, observation and play.
2. (a) In the farm
(b) During moon light plays
(c) During hunting expeditions etc.
ACTIVITY II
1. Three objectives of indigenous education are:
1. The development of the child's physical skills.
2. Development of Vocational training.
3. Development of intellectual skills.
2. (a) moonlight stories of the deeds of local heroes (History).
(b) cooking or preparation of different local dishes (Home Economics).
(c) counting of seed yams, cassava cuttings or the local currency, as well as the
counting of herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. (Mathematics).
ACTIVITY III
1. The curriculum of indigenous education may not be easy to define. It may be best
seen as what is available to a child in his social setting which offers him the
opportunity to understand the environment. This would also include all that the
members of such a community is prepared to pass on to the child. These two elements
would make up the curriculum.
2. Unemployment was not a feature of traditional society because of the following
reasons. The education itself was vocation- oriented. In the process of going through
indigenous education one goes through the mastery of trade. The males must learn
how to farm since farming is basic to societies. He would then either basic to
societies. He would then either become a fulltime farmer or branch off to woodwork,
hunting or even to divination. Girls learnt to cook, buy and sell and work in the farm.
With the assured marriage of the traditional societies, no girl could claim to be
unemployed.
387
3. General indigenous education went on in an informal way. Teachers rarely were

aware that they were teaching. Of course no one became a full time teacher. Most
learning went on informally and largely through imitation, observation and play. these
strategies constitute the Informal Approach Methodology.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Indigenous education promotes the culture of the society.
2. Indigenous education inculcates in the people effective citizenship.
3. The white man called indigenous education primitive education because he did not
see the contents of this education in a written form. Most of the available information
was passed orally from generation to generation. The white man could see no
continuity or opportunity for research. Since his own education was basically a
written education the unwittingly dismissed the practice in Africa as primitive.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Five objectives of indigenous education would include:
a. Indigenous education aims at the development of the child's physical skills.
b. Indigenous education aims at character and moral training.
c. It develops intellectual skills.
d. It aims at the development of vocational skills of people.
e. Indigenous education helps to achieve the development of sense of belonging
and cultural heritage.
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2. When one says that Vocational training is one of the objectives of indigenous
education, it means that this type of education emphasises it. It is believed that
vocational education is the corner-stone of indigenous education. A child who passes
through the learning experiences of indigenous education cannot escape learning a
vocation.
Children take to the occupation of their parents. Some of these occupations include
farming, hunting, carving and weaving. In some cases a child goes as an apprentice to
a man specialised in certain skills such as Division or telling. Where this is the case,
prescribed fees are charged and paid by the apprentice. However the important point
is that no one can go through the process of indigenous education without mastering
one job which he will effectively perform to make a living. This has led a the claim
that unemployment is not a phenomenon of indigenous education.
Unknown to many people, indigenous education is rich in intellectual skills. This is
why it can be urged that what modern education is doing, indigenous education did.
The following school subjects of the modern education would be used as case study.
History: Indigenous education taught names of important events in and around the
community.
Geography: dealt with the names of rivers, valley, hills, mountains and rocks which
abound in the community.
388
Medicine: The system had great medicine men and herbalists. They cured some the
disease like epilepsy which medical science has not been able to grapple with.
Home
Economics Featured as girls learned the art of sweeping the house, cooking different
dishes, sewing and mending of the local clothing materials.
Health
Education Village squares and streams were kept clean by different age grade. People has
sections for taking their bath and washing of clothes.
So we can continue endlessly to show that indigenous education had intellectual subjects to
offer. It had opportunities for a variety of intellectual stimuli in the form of entertainment.
Indigenous education was life and it had mathematical games.
The following two reasons make a case for the continuation of indigenous education.
a. If education is meant to introduce a child to the culture of his society, then indigenous
education does it well. The child lives in the culture, practices the culture and conform
to the demands of the culture.
b. More importantly, indigenous education inculcates in the child the spirit of patriotism.
He is taught that there is virtue in fighting and, if need be, dying for the defence of his
community. Public oriented projects such as the shrines and market stalls are repaired
without charge by whoever possesses the relevant specialty.
However, indigenous education has some limitations.
a. Since it has no system of writing, it cannot be carried beyond certain depths. Vital
information, many a time, die with the person possessing such information.
b. The area of indigenous education is very limited. Its energies are directed to merely
meeting the immediate basic needs of the individual within his society. It is not future
oriented not research oriented.
It tends only to conform. This may be why modern education tends to see it as
primitive education.
UNIT 2 (ED101.2): ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:

HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY,
CURRICULUM, MERITS AND DEMERITS
ACTIVITY I
1. Islam originated from Mecca, Saudi Arabia in the 7th Century. The founder was
Prophet Muhammad.
2. The religion of Islam came to Nigeria through traders and they also helped to spread
it.
3. The Muslims brought with them the first written language known in West Africa and
all the benefits of Arab culture.
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ACTIVITY II
1. The philosophy of Islamic education is centred on enable individuals who acquire it
become the kind of people an Islamic society conceives. Islam as a religion upholds
that man is born into the world in a state of innocence like his own parents. If during
his existence on earth he yields to temptation, that becomes entirely his responsibility
to God. This therefore creates a contact between man and his creator. To maintain this
link with God man has to maintain his natural goodness. Education in the ISLAMIC
sense is intended to build and develop this goodness every individual has at birth so
that man can hope to remain a worthy servant of Allah.
Four aims of education derived from Islamic philosophy of education include the
following:
a. Islamic education aims at continuity of man's essential goodness. The Islamic
and never loses sight of his relation to his maker.
b. Education in Islamic concept believes in piety. It aims at developing
individuals who not only worship Allah but also lead a life that is in
accordance with his ways.
c. Education emphasizes service to Allah and man.
d. Most of the subjects offered in Islamic schools demand a high degree of
intellectualism.
ACTIVITY III
1. When pupils start school their first preoccupation is to learn by rote the first two
chapters of the Qur'an. The Mallam recites or reads from the Qur'an and the pupils
respect. The next learning task is the learning to recognise the twenty six alphabets of
the Arabic language.
2. The curriculum content of the Makarantun Ilmi centres on the task of learning the
meaning of the chapters committed to memory. Other subjects include:
Hadith which deals with the works and deeds of the Prophet Mohammad. Qur'an
which enables an individual to understand the Qur'an property.
Jurisprudence which deals with the theory of law.
Arabic Literature which deals with the Arabic verse, grammar, syntax, etymology and
rhetorics.
Theology which deals with Islamic doctrines of the one God.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Two merits of Islamic education include:
i. Moral Education: Individual pupils are well versed in morality because all
their teachings are based on the holy Quran.
ii. Vocational: After going through this kind of education and individual
graduates to become a Mallam. There are no cases of unemployment among
graduates of Islamic education.
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iii. Learning was at individual rate.

iv. The cost of Islamic education was cheap.
2. Two demerits of Islamic education include.
i. The curriculum was narrow.
ii. The organisation of the schools are very limited.
iii. There was extreme discipline.
iv. The teaching methods were limited for rote learning and lectures.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Three aims of education which are derived from Islamic philosophy of education
include:
a. Continuity of man's Essential Goodness: The Islamic man never loses sight of
his relation to his maker. Education for him is an unfolding of these strengths
and sensibilities which draw him nearer to God. It inspires in him a
consciousness of his obligations as the servant of God and teaches him to treat
the world as a trust which must not be abused.
b. The Development of Piety: Islamic education aims at developing individuals
who not only worship Allah but also lead a life that is in accordance with His
ways. The main task of the Makarantum Ilmi, which is the advanced level
course after the Qur'anic school, is the learning of the meaning of the chapters
in the Qur'an. Other subjects studied at this level include:
Hadith, which deals with the works and deeds of the Prophet Mohammad.
Qur'an is studied in detail and the individual students attempt some
commentaries on the chapters.
Jurisprudence deals with the theory of the law. Arabic Literature deals with
the Arabic verse, grammar, syntax, etymology and rhetoric.
Theology discusses Islamic doctrines of one God.
i. The following are two merits of Islamic Education system.
(a) Islamic education prepares the individual for difficulties he is likely to face in
later life. Students stay in the Mallam's house and render essential services.
Sometimes they go out to seek for alms.
(b) Graduates of Islamic education become Mallams. This means that there are no
cases of unemployment after school.
ii. The demerits of Islamic education system include the following.
(a) The teaching method available in Islamic schools is mainly learning by rote.
The Mallams read and the pupils repeat after them. Modern methods like
problem solving, demonstration and experimentation methods of teaching are
absent in Islamic schools.
(b) The curriculum of Islamic education is narrow particularly at the Quranic
school level. Little or nothing is taught in history, geography, the pure
sciences and social sciences. This poses a handicap when compared with
students who graduate in western education.
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UNIT 3 (EDU101.3): CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEK AND

ROMAN EDUCATION TO MODERN
EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT
ACTIVITY I
a. Egypt
b. Somalia
c. China
2. A Philosopher-king.
3. The Roman education aimed at producting an orator. The Roman orator was to be the
counterpart of the Greek philosopher-king. Although he would not be a philosopher,
he would be a speaker of good language. His discourses would be permeated by
philosophic principles.
ACTIVITY II
1. At the age of 18 Greek young men were brought to taken an oath of allegiance. This
oath
of allegiance was to the State. It was called the Ephebic oath. After taking this oath,
the Greek youth went on a National service for two years.
2. The six contributions of Greek education to modern education include:
a. Education for self-reliance
b. State control of education
c. Formulation of Educational theory and philosophy
d. Education for National Service
e. Education based on meritocracy
f. Equal educational opportunity for both sexes.
3. The Greek Olympic Games influenced Nigerian education. The Nigerian education
introduced sports festivals which involved all the 21 states of the federation. This was
just as the Olympic Games involved all the 48 Greek city States. All Nigerians
compete for honours. They run together, jump together, stay together, dance together
and see one another as belonging to the same country - Nigeria.
ACTIVITY III
1. Five major contributions of Roman education to Nigerian education include:
(a) Development of the educational system.
(b) The Education of the Orator
(c) Obeying psychological principles of Education
(d) State control of Education
(e) Spread of christianity through western-type education
2. The Roman system of education aimed at producing an Orator. This Roman Orator
would be an encyclopaedia. An encyclopedia is a book containing information on
every branch of knowledge known to man. In other words the Roman educated man
was expected to be a possessor of all knowledge. Because of this Romans became the
first people of embark on the compilation of an ENCYCLOPEDIA
392
3. The three major psychological principles derived from the Roman education would
include.
(a) The concept of individual differences among child must be observed.
(b) Overcrowding of knowledge should be avoided
(c) The teacher should try to manifest self-control but above all avoid the use of
corporal punishment.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Greek educational aims varied from state to state. For example, in Sparta which was a
military state, education aimed at producing the warrior citizen. But in Athens the
educational aim was for an all-round development of man. However later
philosophers like Plato who had the concept of one state submitted his aim of
education. In his theory of Education, Plato showed that the aim of Education should
be to produce able Governors for the State. These governors would rule the state with
Justice. Plato called them philosophizing.
2. Two major contributions of Greek education to Nigerian education would include:
State Control of Education: Plato saw education as too important to be left in the
hands of private individuals. He therefore called for a State control of education.
Since 1970 various Nigerian State.
Government have promulgated the Public Education Edicts. These edicts empowered
the various state governments to take over the control of education.
National Service: In the Greek city states young men at 18 took the Ephebic Oath,
which was an oath of allegiance to the state. This was followed by two years National
Service. In Nigeria, people under 30 years who complete their education in
institutions of higher learning undertake one year National service. It is called the
National Youth Service Corps (NYSC).
3. The Roman education had three major psychological principles which guided her
education. These principles appear very relevant to the Nigerian education. Concept
of Individual Differences: This would help the Nigerian educator to be aware that no
two pupils in his class are the same. This will also remind him about the slow
learners. A teacher who remembers this concept will vary his methods of instruction
to the advantage of all.
Overcrowding of Knowledge:
The Roman education recommended a variety of interconnected subjects. To achieve
this in Nigeria, all higher institutions mount a General Studies course known as the
Use of English. All students offer this course irrespective of their areas of
specialisation. This is because the Nigerian system expects every educated man to
communicate intelligently i.e. to be an orator.
Nigerian Education benefited from Roman education through the Roman concept of
Rule of Law. The Romans believe that all her citizens should be well versed in law
and should also be equal before the law. Nigeria as a civilised country has also
codified her laws. She is highly governed by the principle of rule of law. All citizens
are equal before the law. This explains why it is possible in Nigeria for a private
individual to take the State or Federal Government to court to seek redress. Many a
time such aggrieved individuals win their cases. This appears to be a legacy from
Roman education.
393
UNIT 4 (EDU101.4): CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: HISTORY,
PHILOSOPHY, AND CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY I
1. 1515 The Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission.
1842 The Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman of the Methodist mission.
1842 The Rev. Henry Townsend of the Church Missionary Society.
1845 The Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther of the C.M.S.
1846. Hope M. Waddell of the Church of Scotland Mission.
1850 Thomas Bowen of the Baptist Mission.
2. In response to the calls from Egbaland, a Methodist missionary Rev. Thomas Freeman
was sent to Badagry in 1842. By September 1842 Freeman had built a mission house
and started prayer meetings on Sundays. He also visited Abeokuta and opened a
mission for the emigrants there.
Rev. Henry Townsend, a lay minister of the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S)
landed at Badagry in 1842. In 1843 he moved to Abeokuta and established a mission-
school at Abeokuta. This paved way for the coming of the 1845 team under Rev.
Samuel Ajayi Crowther.
ACTIVITY II
1. The basic philosophy of the Christian missionary education was to convert the
Nigerian soul to Christianity and to civilise him. But to be able to communicate with
the missionary, the converts were compelled to learn how to read and write. Thus
Christianity encouraged an individual to be capable to reading the bible for the
understanding of the word of God. The reading of the bible assured the convert of
eternal salvation which remained the dominant philosophy of the missionary
education.
2. The Christian religion was referred to as the religion of the book because the converts
were to learn how to read and write in order to communicate with the missionaries.
The converts were to read the bible which contained the tenets of eternal salvation.
ACTIVITY III
1. Various Christian missionaries who established schools in Nigeria were interested in
producing people or converts who could read and write. They needed in their
curriculum English Language, Arithmetic, Religious Knowledge, Writing. Dictation,
Moral Instruction, and Singing. Every subject of instruction was given religious
interpretation because of the basic philosophy of the missionary education.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Christianity was seen by the downtrodden as a religion of the poor and lowly.
394
(b) It was a source of acquiring the whiteman's great-ness.

(c) Commercial activities along the coast needed know-ledge of English
Language which Christian mission schools provided.
(d) The protection and freedom of movement in the south encouraged the spread
of Christian education.
ASSIGNMENT
1. In the 1840s some of the rescued slaves went to Egbaland on trading mission where
they met their kith and kin. The Egbas hearing of the new life of their brethren sent
appeals to Sierra Leone to send missionaries to them. In 1842 a Methodist missionary
Rev. T.B Freeman was sent to Badagry. From Badagry Freeman visited Abeokuta and
established mission in those two stations. In 1843 Henry Townsend of the C.M.S. was
in Abeokuta where he succeeded in establishing a mission - School. This was
reinforced by Samuel Ajayi Crowther and his team in 1845. At Badagry and its
environs Crowther established for the C.M.S. two mission schools.
By 1846 Hope Waddell of the Church of Scotland Mission was establishing the
nucleus of what became the famous Hope Waddel Institute. Thomas Bowen assisted
late by Rev. J.M. Harden opened up mission schools at Badagry, Lagos, Oyo, Shaki,
Igbogbo and as far places as Ilorin. The Roman Catholic Mission established also a
mission school at Lagos in 1868.
2. The main philosophy of the Christian missionary education was to convert the
heathen to the Christian religion and also to "civilise" them. But to be able to
communicate with the local inhabitants intelligibly, the missionaries were compelled
to teach the natives their language. But the study of English Language would
incomplete without the ability to read and write. So it then became obvious that the
new converts or any one aspirating to Christian religion has to have a smattering
knowledge of western education. This will enable the new convert also read the bible
where the true teaching of the new religion was contained.
3. The following three reasons helped the Christian missionaries in the spread of their
religion and western education in Southern Nigerian.
In the first place, at this point in time almost every village or group of village
appealed for a mission school. These requests for schools indicated a desire for the
people to acquire the whiteman's power which was Western education. This
acquisition of literacy was a passport to the civil service job such as court clerks. the
missionaries were therefore welcomed when they came with their schools.
Secondly, commercial consideration was another important factor in considering the
initial success of the missionaries. The local people needed an understanding of the
whiteman's language and method of calculation. The missionaries came with their
mission schools to solve this problem. The natives welcomed them because they
provided the basic tool which qualified them to participate in the new lucrative trade
on palm oil.
Finally, there was an absolute freedom in the whole of Southern Nigeria for the
Christian missionaries. They had the permission from the colonial masters as well as
their protection to preach the gospel throughout the sub region. The situation would
395
have been different had the Christian missionaries suffered any restriction like the
type they experienced in the Northern parts of the country under Lord Lugard.
UNIT 5 (EDU101.5): EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA BEFORE INDEPENDENCE:
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
ACTIVITY I
1. The Colonial Government's first major involvement in the provision of western-type
education in Nigeria was the granting of 200.00 (#400.00) to each of the three major
missionary bodies operating in Lagos. This became the first major government grant
to education in Nigeria. Other government involvements came in the form of
education ordinances. In 1882 the Colonial Government enacted the first education
ordinance for the Colony of the Gold Coast, to which the colony of Lagos belonged.
This was followed by another ordinance in 1887. Both ordinances created a central
board of education with powers to grant scholarships for secondary education. In
addition, the local boards had powers to approved the opening of new schools.
As regards the opening of government schools, the colonial government did not do
much in the 19th century. However, in 1899 the Colonial Administration opened the
first primary school in Lagos. This was followed quickly in 1901 with another school
in Benin City presumably for the children of the Oba and his Palace Chiefs.
2. Activities of the Colonial Government in the field of Western- type education can be
listed under two headings.
Education Ordinances
a. The 1908 education ordinance divided southern Nigeria into three provinces: Eastern,
Western and Central provinces.
b. The 1926 education ordinance which checked the haph-azard development of
education in Nigeria.
Education Institutions
a. In 1901 a Government Primary School was established in Benin.
b. 1909 the first Government Secondary School in Nige-ria, the Kings College, Lagos
was established.
c. In 1927 the first girls school known as Queen's College, Lagos, was established.
d. In 1929 Two teacher training colleges at Umuahia and Ibadan were established. But in
1931 they became secondary schools for boys.
e. In 1925, the British parliament introduced the Memorandum on Native Education in
Tropical Africa.
f. In 1929, Mr. E.R.J. Hussey became the first Director of Education for both the
Southern and Northern groups of provinces in Nigeria.
396
ACTIVITY II
1. By the early 1930s most people in Eastern Nigeria had already begun to realise the
importance of western-type education. The new system of education did not only
enable those who had acquired it the opportunity to obtain white collar jobs. It also
bestowed social prestige on them. For this reason there was an increase in the demand
for education. The rise of African Nationalism was a factor which influenced many
proprietors. It made them realize that education was a means of emancipating the
people from ignorance. It was also felt that the existing mission schools perpetuated
colonial mentality.
There was then the need to liberate the people's mind so as to enable them join in the
struggle for African nationalism. For this reason the private proprietors had to emback
on the building of schools.
2. Rev. Euba forestalled the move by Rev. Griffith to sack him as a teacher under the
Baptist Mission by resigning. He founded the Eko Boys High School in Lagos, in
1913, thus becoming the first Nigerian to establish a private school. In 1932 Dr.
Alvan Ikoku founded the Aggrey Memorial College Arochukwu. This was followed
in 1938 by the National Institute (the forerunner of W.A.P.I.), Calabar, established by
Professor Eyo Ita. By the forties many Nigerians had built secondary grammar and
commercial schools. Some of them include New Bethel College, Onitsha, founded by
M.C. Awgu; African College, Onitsha founded by Chukwurah; Abbot Group of
Secondary Schools at Ihiala and Warri. These and many more proprietors established
schools throughout southern Nigeria to supplement the missionary effort.
ASSIGNMENT
1. By early 1930s most people in Eastern Nigeria had already begun to realise the
importance of western-type education. The new type of education did not only enable
those who had acquired it the opportunity to obtain white collar jobs, it also bestowed
social prestige on them. For this reason there was an increase in the demand for
education. The private enterprise came to meet this increased demand.
The rise of African Nationalism was another factor which influenced many
proprietors. It made them realise that education was a means of emancipating the
people from ignorance. It was also felt that the existing mission schools perpetuated
colonial mentality. There was then the need to liberate the people's mind so as to
enable them join in the struggle for African Nationalism. Because of these reasons the
private proprietors started to build several schools which would not colonize the
pupils' mentality.
2. The Highlights of Colonial Education Administrations'
Achievements in Education
(a) The following schools were established as government schools:
1899 Government Primary School, Lagos
1901 Government Primary School, Benin City
1909 Kings College, Lagos
1921 Katsina Teacher Training College
1927 Queens College, Lagos
1929 Government Teacher Training Colleges Umuahia and
397
Ibadan
1931 Umuahia and Ibadan reverted to Government Secondary
Schools
1932 Yaba Higher College
1948 University College Ibadan
(b) 1887 The first grant-in-aid to the three major missionaries
operating in Lagos
(c) Division of Southern Nigeria into three provinces - Eastern, Central and
Western provinces.
(d) 1925 Memorandum on Native Education in Tropical Africa.
(e) 1930 Appointment of Mr. E.R.J. Hussey as Director of Education for

Nigeria.
3. Some cultural unions, ethnic unions provided scholarships and bursaries for this
training of Nigerians in western-type education.
Philanthropists like Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Ozumba Mbadiwe and Nwafor Orizu
floated certain schemes which aimed at providing funds to enable Nigerians to go
further in education.
Some schools were established through communal efforts. Such schools include
Kalabari National College Buguma and Ibibio State College.
Some Nigerian businessmen contributed in the provision of western-type education.
Dr. Alvan Ikoku established Aggrey Memorial College in 1932. Professor Eyo Ita
established the forerunner of the West African People's Institute, Calabar, in 1938.
Mention can also be made of the following: New Bethel College, Onitsha, by M.C.
Agwu, African College Onitsha by Chukwurah, Abbot Group of Secondary Schools
by Okeke; etc.
UNIT 6 (EDU101.6): EDUCATIONAL DVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE:
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
ACTIVITY I
1. The major post-independence achievements of the Government in Primary education
can be summarised as follows: In the North, Government tries to reach by 1970 the
Ashby target of having at least 25% of her school age population in primary schools.
Foundations for the Universal Primary Education scheme were being laid.
In the South, the Universal Primary Education Scheme was launched. The East
pursued a vigorous teacher training policy aimed at improving primary school
education. The West set up commissions to arrest the falling standard of Primary
education.
398
2. The following four problem areas faced the Government in the area of secondary
education.
a. Expansion in primary school population created a demand for secondary
education.
b. The Ashby commision had called for increased numbers in the secondary
school population and revision of secondary school curriculum.
c. It was identified that the content of secondary school education as well as the
methods of instruction in such schools were inappropriate.
d. The bookishness of the school curriculum, and the poor science curriculum
also created problems for secondary school education
4. Five industrial firms which established training sections for their technicians within
their industrial set-up included the
a. United African Company (UAC)
b. United Trading Company (UTC)
c. Shell B.P
d. Public Works Department (PWD) (Ministry of Works) and
e. Posts and Telegraph Department (P&T).
ACTIVITY II
1. The major trend in teacher education in post-independence Nigeria included the
following:
1. The phasing out of grade III teacher training college and the upgrading of
some of them to Grade II teacher training colleges.
2. The establishment of more Grade II teacher training colleges.
3. The attempts at the establishment of Grade I teachers colleges.
4. The establishment of Nigeria Certificate in Education for the production of
qualified but non-graduate teachers.
5. The B.A/B.Sc degree in Education.
2. The University of Ibadan was not meeting the national requirement of graduates.
There was a great demand of high level manpower for the development of the
resources of the new independent country. Ashby commission had called for the
establishment of at least three new Universities to cater for the needs of the Nigerian
youths. In 1960 the University of Nigeria Nsukka was established. in 1962 Ife, Zaria
and Lagos Universities were established.
ACTIVITY III
1. Private enterprise contributed to the development of education in the area of
secondary education. The local communities and individuals established secondary
grammar and commercial schools. They produced the bulk of the secretarial staff that
took over from the British after independence.
399
The roadside artisans such as the mechanics and welders helped in training many
apprentices who also became self-employed.
2. The National Curriculum Conference held in Lagos was a major land mark. What was
unique about this conference was that it represented a cross-section of the Nigerian
society. The conference was not concerned with preparing a national curriculum, nor
was it expected to recommend specific contents and methodology. Rather, the
conference was to review the old education and identify new national goals for
Nigerian education, bearing in mind the needs of youths and adults in the task of
nation-building and national reconstruction.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Government identified the major problems of secondary education after
independence.
They centred around inadequate places for students and poor curriculum and
methodology coupled with the falling standards of education. Government embarked
on building of more secondary schools and expansion of existing ones. To meet the
growing number of teaching personnel, expatriate staff were hired. This however
affected the lean resources of government as allowances as well as passages of these
staff had to be borne by the government. The higher schools or sixth forms were
established. Unfortunately, because of the generally poor staffing, these forms did not
do well in their Higher School examinations. The only exceptions were in the
Government Secondary Schools where enough graduate teachers and well- equipped
laboratories were available.
2. After independence the various regional governments took steps to develop technical
and vocational education in their respective regions. Craft centres and technical
schools were established. One technical institute, the Kaduna Polytechnic was
established in the North.
In the Eastern Region, by 1966 thirtythree technical and vocational institutions were
established. A College of Technology was also established at Enugu. The Western
Region established four trade centres, and a technical institute now called the Auchi
Polytechnic. The famous Yaba
College of Technology was established in Lagos and another Yaba Trade School at
Surulere.
Some government departments had technical schools joined to their industries. These
enabled them to train the type of technicians or technologists they needed in their
organisations.
3. The private sector did not do much in the area of primary schools. Only corporate
bodies, like Universities, established private primary schools for the convenience of
their staff.
In the area of secondary education, the private enterprise did much. They established
many secondary grammar schools. Many established commercial secondary schools
which attracted many students.
400
It may be true that most of the private secondary schools were ill-equipped. They
recruited poor quality personnel. Yet, they provided the bulk of the secretarial staff,
which enabled the Nigerian bureaucracy to take off after independence.
The private enterprise also contributed in the area of artisans. Many roadside
mechanics, plumbers and vulcanisers acquired their skills from self-employed
artisans. The girls also learnt their needle work, sewing, catering and domestic science
in that way, too.
4. The National Curriculum Conference of 1969 identified the following key areas as
crucial to the attainment of the conference objective
a. National Philosophy of education
b. Goals of Primary Education
c. Objectives of secondary education
d. Purposes of tertiary education
e. The role of teacher education
f. Functions of science and technical education
g. The place of women's education
h. Education for living
i. Control of public education
UNIT 7 (EDU101.7): HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

IN NIGERIA 1960 – 1970
ACTIVITY I
1. In the Northern Region, government spent the pre-independence years in the
development of education in the rural areas and the promotion of adult literacy. The
region was not particularly interested in the development of a Universal Primary
Education scheme. In 1961 the Oldham Commission was set up to examine the
region's progress towards the U.P.E. The Ashby report had stressed the need to raise
primary school enrollment to 25% of the school age. The Oldham report, published in
1962, gave rise to an education law which established a partnership system of
education. This partnershipwas between the government and the voluntary agencies
and made an attempt to develop a public system of education.
2. The major educational development was the setting up in 1962 of the Ikoku
Commission to review the progress of education in Eastern Region. The Commission
recommended as follows:
a. Consolidation of primary schools and discontinuation of non- viable schools.
b. Complete government control of all primary schools.
c. Setting up of local school board and the involvements of local government
councils in primary education.
d. Reduction of the duration of primary school educa-tion from seven to six.
401
e. Improvement of teachers' conditions of service and the provision of in-service

courses for teachers.
This report resulted in the modification of the primary education plan by the Eastern Region.
The new system was a three-years free tuition and a three-year free paying system based on
Assumed Local Contribution (A.L.C.). This system remained in operation until the out break
of the civil war and continued till the end of the war in 1970.
ACTIVITY II
1. Three objectives of Primary school education include:
(a) To enable the child master the three R's (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic)
and thus develop permanent literacy and numeracy.
(b) To help the child develop a sound standard of individual conduct and
behaviour.
(c) To help the child acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
2. In the primary school curriculum the following subjects can be identified:

Arithmetic, Physical Education, History, Religious Instruction, Geography,
Elementary Science, Domestic Science, Needle Work, Cookery, Music, Singing, Fine
Art, Handwork, English Language and Vernacular Language.
3. There was decline in primary school population in the mid sixties. For example, in
1960 Nigeria had 15,703 primary schools with 2,912,600 pupils. But by 1964 both the
numbers of primary schools as well as the number of pupils had gone down to 14,976
and 2,849,500 respectively. Part of the explanation for this decline can be found in the
unsettled political conditions that immediately following the Nigerian Independence.
This situation continued to be explosive until in 1967 when it resulted to a civil war.
Infact, by 1969, there were 3,443,000 pupils in primary schools in Nigeria as against
11,185,000 children of school age. Statistically speaking, this represented a primary
school enrolment of 30.8%.
UNIT 8 (EDU.101.8) THE TEACHING PROFESSION IN

NIGERIA
ACTIVITY 1
1. resulted in free tuition in primary classes 1 to 3 and fee-paying for primary classes 4
to 6.
This system continued until the end of the civil war. In 1960 the Western Region set
up the Banjo Commission to review the existing structure and the working of the
primary and secondary school system. This commission noted the falling standard in
primary school work, preponderance of untrained teachers, lack of continuity in
staffing, emphasis on teachers' private studies at the expense of the children, two large
classes, restriction of corporal punishment and inadequate supervision and inspection
of schools. Government set up steps to meet these problems identified by the
commission without compromising the U. P. e. already launched.
402
2. The objectives of primary education include helping the child to:

a. master the 3 Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) and thus develop
permanent literacy and numeracy;
b. develop a sound standard of individual conduct and behaviour; and
c. acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
To achieve the aims of primary education, the following subjects are taught in
primary schools - Arithmetic, Physical Education, History, Religious Instruction,
Geography, Elementary Science, Domestic Science, Needle work, cookery, Music,
Singing, Fine Art, Hand-Work, English and one language of the locality, which is
taught as a subject and used as a medium of instruction for the first two or three years.
ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENT
1. Teaching is a service profession. A teacher guides learning by motivating the learner
or by arousing his desire to learn. The teacher helps the learner to establish goals by
stimulating the learner and giving him the opportunity to ask questions. Teaching is
said to be an art and a science. It is an art because it involves guiding, directing and
stimulating learning. It is an art because it involves guiding, directing and stimulating
learning. It is also a science because it involves the possession of a body of
specialised knowledge. The teacher is the hub of the educational system because the
school cannot be better than its teachers. It is naive therefore for one to assume that
teaching is what anybody can do if he knows his subject. This is not true. Before one
can teach effectively he must be schooled in the art and science of teaching.
2. The teacher is referred to as the hub of the educational system because the school
cannot be better than its teachers. The teachers constitute the most vital factor in the
educational system because it is upon their number, quality and devotion to duty that
the effectiveness of any educational system depends. One author said that education
unlocks the door to modernisation but it is the teacher that holds the key.
ACTIVITY II
1. In 1921 the colonial government founded the Katsina Training College.
2. Phelps-Stokes Commission affected teacher Education when its report was released.
The report stated that the educational needs of the masses for the training of teachers
and for the preparation of professional men should be clearly distinguished.
The report also emphasized the need for government to provide for the temporary
employment of teachers of lower qualification on condition that adequate supervision
could be supplied and facilities developed for the increased supply of better prepared
teachers. The report led to the promulgation of the 1926 Education Code which also
led to far-reaching changes in the educational development of Nigeria.
In 1896 St. Adrews Teacher Training College was established in Oyo. The early
products of this teachers college acted both as church teachers and school masters. As
early as 1901 products of primary schools were recruited as pupil teachers to ease off
the acute shortage of teaching personnel needed for the schools. In 1921 the Colonial
Government founded the Katsina Training College for a five-year training course for
teachers. In 1922 the PhelpsStokes Sommission made some concrete proposals for the
upliftment of the teaching profession in Nigeria. In 1926 an Education Code was
promulgated. This code recognised the need for the registration of teachers and
introduced the Teachers Third Class Certificate Examination A,B and C. With the
403
granting of independence to Nigeria in 1960, Nigeria opened many universities whose

faculties of Education began to award the Bachelor of Arts (B.A), Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc) and the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) degree in Education.
3. Professional ethics can not be an end in itself. For a teacher to be able to maintain its
professional status must keep to the following.
1. He must be liberally educated.
2. He must possess a body of specialised skills and knowledge related to and
essential for the performance of his teaching function.
The teacher must be able to make rational judgements and take appropriate
actions within the scope of their activities and be responsible for the
consequences of their judgements and actions.
4. He must place primary emphasis upon service to society rather than upon
personal gain.
5. A professional teacher must actively participate with colleagues in developing
and enforcing standards fundamental to continuous improvement in the
profession.6.Members of a profession must pay full-time attention to their
calling and engage in a continuous search for new knowledge and skill
UNIT 9 (EDU101.9): ISSUES IN NIGERIAN PRIMARY

EDUCATION
ACTIVITY I
1. There current issues in primary education in Nigeria discussed above would include
the following:
(a) Pupils' performance in primary schools. Many are feeling that it is becoming
difficult to show evidence of permanent literacy and numeracy among our
primary six pupils.
(b) Financing of Primary Education. It has been very difficult to finance from
public accounts primary education.
(c) Primary School Population. A phenomenal population explosion has been
noticed in Nigeria's primary schools. In 1983/84 session the primary school
population in Nigeria stood at 14,383,487 pupils.
2. The National Policy on Education states that government will see to it that the
medium of instruction in the primary school is initially the mother tongue and for a
five-year training course for teachers. It was designed primarily to develop the
personality of the teacher as well as his knowledge of the subjects. The curriculum
included spoken English, Mathematics and English Composition. Katsina Teachers
College had no parallel in the southern provinces that could rival it. It excelled in its
throughness in planning, staffing, specialisation and adaptation of the curriculum to
the local needs of the country.
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ACTIVITY II
1. The three conditions on which to evaluate whether teaching is a profession shall
include the following.
2. There must be an extended period of training before admission into practice.
Usually, practitioners have an important voice in the training and certification of
members.
The profession. This union must emphasise ideals of service above personal gains.
enforced by their representatives.
4. Some of the ethics of the teaching profession in Nigeria include:
1. The personal life of the teacher must be exemplary.
2. Contracts should be fully executed both in spirit and in letter of law.
3. The primary consideration of the teacher at any time should be on the welfare
of the pupils entrusted to his care.
4. On leaving a position, a teacher should leave enough records and information
for the guidance of the successor.
1. A teacher is one who teaches or instructs. Teaching is a service profession. A teacher
guides learning by motivating the learner or by arousing his desire to learn. Teaching
is an art because it involves guiding, directing and stimulating learning. It is also a
science because it involves the possession of a body of specialised knowledge. The
teacher is the hub of the educational system because no school can be better than its
teachers. Teachers therefore constitute the most vital factor in the educational system
because it is upon their number, quality and devotion to duty that the effectiveness of
any educational system depends. Education unlocks the key to modernisation but, it is
the teacher who holds the key at a later English. But given the problem of
comprehension of English found in our schools, primary four pupils find it difficult to
learn in English. This situation is even made worse by the fact that some schools start
using English as medium of instruction as early as in primary one. Such schools
prohibit the use of vernacular for self expression. The use of the vernacular as a
medium of instruction in the primary schools is hereby strongly recommended.
2. The major objectives of primary school education in Nigeria is a to enable the child to
show evidence of permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to communicate
effectively. Reports from some scientific studies tend to show that many primary
school pupils are finding it difficult to meet the stated objectives of Primary
Education in Nigeria.
One way of improving primary school scholarstic achievement is by asking Federal
and State Governments to ensure that all schools are properly equipped. This will
promote sound and effective teaching and in particular suitable textbooks and libraries
should be provided in the primary schools.
Secondly, to improve primary school achievement, the teaching methods employment
405
should de-emphasize the memorisation and regurgitation of facts. They should

encourage practical, exploratory and experimental approaches to learning. Finally,
there is the danger that in urban areas more and more schools are getting bigger as a
result of population explosion. It is hereby suggested that such schools should be split
into two shifts - the morning shift and the afternoon shift. If problems are likely to
arise then classes 1 to 3 may run the morning shift while classes 4 4 to 6 run the
afternoon shift.
ACTIVITY III
2. The three other issues affecting primary education in Nigeria are:
i. There is poor accessibility of primary education to some Nigerian children. As
a
result of historical or religious circumstances, geographical and occupational
factors, some children of primary school age appear to be disadvantaged in the
provision of primary school education.
ii. There is generally poor supervision of instructions in most primary schools in
Nigeria.
iii. The importance of Guidance and Counselling cannot be over emphasised in
the Primary school stage.
But most primary schools lack Guidance and Counselling services.
2. Section 11, 89 (3) of the National Policy on Education states that one of the objectives
of supervisory services in education is to ensure quality control through regular
inspection and continuous supervision of instruction. But many a time in our primary
institutions, there is either lack of instructional supervision or poor supervision of
instruction strategies. When this is the case, it contributes to the poor scholastic
achievement of primary school pupils. Supervision of Instruction is that phase of
school administration which focuses primarily upon the achievement of the
appropriate instructional expectations of the educational system. One may see
instructional supervision as the live wire of the educational system which is concerned
with the efficiency and effectiveness in school administration. Notwithstanding this
concept of supervision of instruction, many primary school teachers see their
supervisors as fault finders. They still hod to the old concept when school supervisors
concentrated their attention on teacher attendance to school. Where such unfortunate
situation still holds, the problem is that the teachers hide their instructional problems
when they have the opportunity to come across supervisors who would have discussed
the problems with them. Another problem is that many a time, lack of funds,
transport, equipment and time factor militated against effective supervisory
techniques.
1. The following are six major problems facing Primary Education in Nigeria.
i. Nigeria has the problem of the right choice of language for instruction in the
primary schools.
406
ii. There is a growing population explosion which poses organisational problems

in the primary schools.
ii. It is becoming difficult to finance primary education without the intervention
of the federal government.
iii. Many educators doubt whether primary school graduates show evidence of
permanent literacy, numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively.
iv. There is lack of Guidance and Counselling services in the primary schools.
v. Most primary schools in Nigeria lack proper supervision of instruction.
2. A close examination of the concepts of Guidance and Counselling tends to show a
close relationship between it and the objectives of primary education in Nigeria. The
philosophy behind the introduction of counselling services in the primary schools was
based on the hope that early treatment and prevention of problems will result in pupil
behaviour disorders that are less serious and short lived. Aware of the importance of
this helping service, the American School Counsellor Association ratio for primary
school counsellors is 1:300 pupils. Then if Nigeria wants the objectives of primary
education to be achieved, Guidance Counsellors should be deployed to all over
Nigeria. Following the American ratio, in Imo State for example about 793,867
primary school pupils in 1983/84 session would have needed about 2,646 Counsellors
in her primary schools alone. When one thinks of the number to service the 21 states
of the federation, it would become so obvious why the provision of counselling
services in the primary schools is at present a problem.
3. Environmental conditions in parts of Northern Nigeria force people to live a nomadic
life.
In such areas, the provision of primary education presents some problems. the
Nomadic Fulanis are always on the move with their cattle and families. How does a
child in this situation undergo his normal six-year primary education in one school.
In the Southern parts of the country where farming is the full time occupation,
primary education also poses some problems. The parents of children in this area take
them to their farms during the farming season. These farms are situated in remote
areas where the children have no opportunity to continue their primary education. The
cheap labour they provide is indispensable to their livelihood. How does a child in
these circumstances avail himself a six-year uninterrupted primary education.?
The riverine areas present similar problems. The whole family lives virtually in the
fishing boat on the high seas through out the year. Government should start thinking
in terms of mobile classroom for children in these apparently disadvantaged areas.
UNIT 10 (EDU 101.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 TO 9

AND FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY I
1. Two merits of indigenous education include the following:
i. Indigenous education is part and parcel of the culture and therefore enables
one to be effective in one’s society.
407
ii. This education has as its curriculum salable skills which a child learns and
uses to enable him survive in his environment.
Two demerits of indigenous education include the following:
i. Indigenous education lacks a universal system of communication such as
writing.
ii. Development in terms of research is non-existent in indigenous education.
2. The Christian missionaries made much progress in the southern parts of the country
because of the following reasons.
i. In the south, when the missionaries came, every village needed a mission
school.
This was not as a result of a burning desire to embrace Christianity a sure way
to embrace western-type education.
ii. The freed Africans remembered with joy what Christianity meant to them. So,
they longed to have it in their homeland.
iii. iii. The commercial activities going on in the Nigerian costal towns
needed a knowledge of the English Language which was the whiteman's
language. To acquire this powerful language, one had to embrace the
whiteman's religion and form of education.
ACTIVITY II
1. The aim of Greek Education was to produce philosopher kings who would rule the
city state with justice. In doing so the Greeks bequeathed otherlegacies to modern
education.
(a) The Greeks saw education as an instrument for solving the needs of the
society.
(b) Education for Greeks should be made available to all irrespective of sex.
The Romans saw their education as the training of the Orator. Quintilian and Cicero
were Roman orators who also discussed the place of the orator in Roman public life.
(a) The Romans emphasised effective communication as a cardinal objective or
Roman education.
(b) The Romans believed that the state should control education. In addition to
being an educated man an orator, should possess all branches of human
knowledge. Quintilian called him an Encyclopedia.
2. Private enterprise saw western-type education as the avenue for white collar jobs. It
also bestowed social prestige on the recipients. The missionary schools were few in
number. Nationalists also felt that they were breeding people with colonial mentality.
For these reasons, the private business men started to establish private secondary
schools. In 1913, Rev. Euba founded the Eko Boys High School in Lagos. In 1932,
Aggrey Memorial College, Arochukwu was established by Alvan Ikoku. In 1938, Eyo
Ita founded the forerunner of the African Peoples Institute, Calabar. By the 1940s
many Nigerians built commercial and grammar schools. Some of these institutions
408
include the New Bethel College founded by Awgu, African College Onitsha by
Chukwurah, Abbot Group of Schools at Ihiala and Warri by Okeke, Etukokwu School
of Commerce by Etukokwu, St. George's College, Enugu by Chiedozie and Eastern
Commercial Academy by Aro.
Another dimension to the role of the Private Enterprise in the provision of western-
type education was the granting of scholarship and bursaries by ethnic unions. The
Yoruba Cultural Unions, Ibo State Union, and Ibibio State Union sent out many able
men and women overseas to further their education.
Communities and private individuals sponsored some individual Nigerians abroad.
Furthermore, some educational institutions were the outcome of community effort.
Such institutions as the Kalabari National College, Buguma, established in 1938, and
Ibibio State College established in 1940 are examples.
ACTIVITY III
1. The stated objectives of primary education are to help the child to:
(a) master the three Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) and thus development
literacy and numeracy;
(b) develop sound standards of individual conduct and behaviour;
(c) acquire some skills and appreciate the value of manual work.
2. The following five contemporary issues affect the development of primary education
in Nigeria.
i. Language is said to affect very significantly the understanding of knowledge.
If this view is correct, primary school education should be communicated to
the pupils in their mother tongue and not in English.
ii. Primary school population is getting higher and higher, particularly in the
urban areas. For example Nigeria in 1983/84 session had a population of
14,383,487 primary school pupils with 359,901 teachers and a teacher pupil
ratio of nearly 1:40. This explosion of primary school pupils and perhaps the
under population in the rural areas has motivated the search for different
organisational models for primary education.
iv. Different state and Federal Governments had in the past attempted to fund
primary education fully from their coffers. Most of these attempts failed. The
issue now is the search for a formulae which will enable the governments to
float free Universal Primary Education. A plan is underway by which the
federal government will subsidise to the tune of 65% the recurrent budget of
primary education in Nigeria.
v. Among the stated objectives of primary education in Nigeria is the inculcation
of permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to communicate
effectively. But it appears that random sample survey indicate that a number
of primary school pupils find it difficult to show evidence of permanent
literacy, numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively.
vi. Economic and geographical factors tend to prevent many Nigerian children
from receiving primary education. For example the semi- desert regions, the
409
riverine parts of the country and the intensely farmed areas of Nigeria present
unique problems. Because of the occupation of their parents, children in these
region are always on the move thereby making it impossible for a majority of
them to settle down at a place for a six-year primary education.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Education involves more than going to school and ability to read and write. Our fore-
fathers learned how to use the resources in their environment to solve their day-to-day
problems. Every human society anywhere at any age has its own form of education.
So, before the coming of Europeans, Nigerian societies had their own system of
education. This type of education that went on before the introduction of modern
school is called indigenous education. It was part and parcel of the society.
One merit of indigenous education is that it made the child know about the cultural
heritage of his people. In this type of education the child is expected not only to know
but also to live and conform to the norms of the culture of his society. However, we
must admit that indigenous education had some very serious limitations. For example
indigenous education had no generally known system of writing. So many of its
valuable information particularly in the areas of medicine (curative herbs) were lost to
succeeding generations. There was neither continuity, nor research. Hence the white
man saw it as primitive education.
2. Greece was made up of 48 city states each of which was autonomous. Modern
educational thought gained from the study of Greek education in the following ways.
i. Sparta was a warrior city state; therefore, its aim of education was to raise
warriors. Athens was for an allround development of the individual. Athenian
education emphasized intellectual excellence. So, these two city states
channeled their systems of education towards the achievement of their societal
needs. In Nigeria, attempts are being made to use education for the solution of
relevant problems hence the introduction of the 6-3- 3-4 education system.
ii. Both Sparta and Athens ran public systems of education. Plato argued that
national objectives can only be achieved through a state-controlled education
system. In Nigeria some state governments (Imo, Anambra, Bendel etc) are
promulgating Public Education edicts which enable the state governments to
take over all primary and post-primary institutions in their respective states.
iii. The Greeks had philosophers who developed systematic and comprehensive
philosophy of education. For Spartans, the philosophy of education was to
produce the warrior citizen while Athens aimed at producing a philosopher-
king. In Nigeria, efforts are being made to formulate a philosophy of
education. The 1969 Curriculum Conference and the 1977 and later 1981
National Policy of Education are cases in point.
iv. All Greek city states took the Ephebic Oath at 18. After taking the Ephebic
Oath, the young men went on National Service for two years.
Perhaps, in Nigeria, the idea of National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) may
have been a legacy from Greek education.
v. Pleto's system of education was based on meritocracy. In the then Greek
system, higher education embraced the study of Dialectrics or philosophy.
410
This was structured in such a way that only those who were capable of
benefiting from it were admitted. Although Nigeria has a system of
examination (Meritocracy), one is not sure of the validity of these numerous
examinations.
3. As a system of education Islamic education has many obvious advantages. However
there exists some serious demerits in Islamic education, which Islamic scholar must
look at with a view to improving upon the system.
i. Islamic education tends to support the use of very poor teaching methods. For
example rote learning in which the Mallam reads and allows the pupils to
recite appears to be the only teaching method available to Islamic teachers.
Modern methods such as demonstration, problem solving approach, and
project method should be explored with a view to incorporating them in the
teaching of Islamic education.
ii. Related to the method of instruction is the use of extreme discipline in class
control. Learning is usually undertaken in a state of fear, for discipline is
always maintained by the use of the cane. One of the reasons for this may be
the unwieldy classes which the Mallams handle singlehandedly.
iii. Another limitation of Islamic education is the narrow curriculum which is
dependent upon the Quran. Subjects like history, geography, the pure and
social sciences are almost nonexistent in Islamic education curriculum. This
narrow education which the graduates of Islamic education receive puts them
at a disadvantage when they compete with the recipients of western- type
education. Even when there is no competition they appear to be ill equipped to
function in the modern society. Moslem scholars should take a critical look at
the curriculum of western-type education and see how to integrate its
components into the narrow Islamic curriculum.
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MODULE 2 Unit: 01 Sociological Foundations of Education EDU 102
UNIT 1 (EDU 102.1): THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY OF

EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
All human beings including you are social products because we live together as members of a
society which may be a family, village, school or community. All members of such a society
do certain things mostly as a result of the influence of various social forces or institutions.
For instance, child might be interested in schooling because his parents want him educated or
he is stimulated by the smart dresses of school pupils or because the government makes
education free and compulsory for all children. Similarly, you might observe a particular
pupil always coming late to school. This behaviour might be due to lack of parental care or
influence of his peers (friends). The way and manner the social institutions and forces like the
family, peer groups, economy, politics and so on influence the institution of education and
how education influences these social institutions which you are going to study in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of sociology;
2. state at least two reasons why sociology is regarded as a science;
3. explain the meaning of sociology of education;
4. describe the origin of sociology of education; and
5. identify at least three functions of sociology of education.

1. Master the "word study" below as it will help you to understand the meaning of the
words as used in the unit.
2. Study this unit, diligently and in steps as arranged, relating them to your observations
in the society.
3. You will benefit from the study of this unit if you observe all instructions and do all
activities and assignments.
4. CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT
WORD STUDY
Structure: Used here to mean parts or division of a whole or how something is
organised.
Value
Judgement: Used here to mean giving one's opinion which may be different from
other's about something.
66
MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY
Before you can fully understand what sociology of education is, you must first of all have an
idea of the meaning of sociology because sociology is the `father' of Sociology of Education.
Sociology started to attract people's attention and interest as a field of study as from the
second half of the nineteenth century. You might be tempted to ask what this subject called
sociology is.
Sociology is the scientific study of the society in order to formulate general laws about the
structure and development of the society. In doing so, it systematically studies man's
behaviour in his social relationships and how social institutions such as school, home, church
and so on influence his behaviour. It is concerned with gathering relevant information on the
causes and effects of social outcomes. For example, the sociologist is concerned with the
causes and effects of robbery or juvenile delinquency in the society by collecting relevant
data or information from different groups and individuals.
Sociology is concerned with pattern of leadership and role performance as well as how these
are effected by relationships. For example, the school is a society in itself and it is organised
on a system of division of labour among the head master, teachers and pupils. The sociologist
is interested in the various structures or groups, the roles they perform and how they
influence one another. He is also interested in how relationships, leadership and morale
influence the social outcome or the efforts or output of the social group. Thus, the main
theme of sociology is the society and its numerous institutions like the family, economy etc.
THE SCIENTIFIC NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology has been regarded as a social science because it is the scientific study of man's
behaviour in his social group relationship.
(a) As a science, it uses systematic methods of study including the definition of a
problem, formulation of hypotheses or possible solutions to be verified through the
gathering of relevant data, analysis of data before arriving at a conclusion. For
example, data gathered about man's behaviour, character and institutions like class
structure, religion, politics are used to formulate general laws about the society. Its
principal goal is to discover the basic structure of social organisations such as the
school and to identify the forces that promote the formation, continuity and
termination of social group. For example, the sociologist is interested in the motives
responsible for the establishment of the school, the role of individuals and groups and
the influence of the community and its culture in the maintenance of the school and so
on.
(b) As a Science, Sociology adopts a positive approach to the study of the society: It is
concerned with what was or what is or what will be, and not what ought to be. In
other words, sociology is concerned with stating, describing and analysing. For
example, in an investigation into the influence of the home on the educational
aspirations of the child, with the use of available data the sociologist states the
influences of the home - school relationship on the educational chances of the child.
Or in the case of drug abuse, he is concerned with identifying the causes and effects
of drug abuse in the society. He does not pass judgment on whether drug abuse is
good or bad; neither does he prescribe what should be done about it. This is, perhaps
what makes sociology look like a scientific field. That is, it does not concern itself
with making value - judgment.
67
Sociology analyses or describes social conditions such as religious or students riots without
drawing from them lessons to be learnt. That is not to say that sociologists are not interested
in morality. In their free time, they judge social situations like you and me in terms of their
individual opinions or beliefs or expectations.
In all, sociology is regarded as a science because it uses Scientific methods of investigation
and adopts positive approach. Thus, it is objective in its analysis or description of social
events. However, it should be noted that sociology is not a pure Science like Chemistry or
Physics because it deals with human beings whose behaviours are difficult to predict. It is
rather regarded as a Social Science. You should now pause over what you have learnt and
attempt this activity.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is the meaning of Sociology?
2. State at least two reasons why Sociology is regarded as a Science subject.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Views about sociology of education started to emerge at the turn of the nineteenth century
when people began to appreciate the essential relationships between the school and society.
That is, how one influences the other.
As a result of the modern society becoming more complex with the growth in urbanization, it
gradually becomes necessary to re- examine the needs and problems of people in different
social settings - rural or urban societies. In this way, we could distinguish between the level
of awareness and knowledge of the environment by the rural or village dwellers and those in
urban centres like Kaduna, Enugu. Thus we can say that a typical village child is fully aware
of the general like in the village. He understands the farming processes; how traps are set for
the animals to provide meat; how through communal efforts houses are built, how festivals
are celebrated and so on. He is therefore fully prepared for effective participation in the
society. But the story will be different from the child in the city. He has little or no
knowledge about the social life of where he lives. He uses the electricity, cooking gas and
cars, yet he does not know anything about how they are produced. He eats foods brought in
from the rural areas, yet he is not fully aware of the processes involved in the production of
the foods. It is therefore not surprising when some children in the cities say that yams are
plucked!
For education to be worthwhile, it must be able to increase individuals' awareness and
understanding of their environment. It follows that the environment or society determines
what education realizes or seeks to achieve. Again sociologists do not see education merely
as a means of transmitting cultural ideas and technical knowledge or skills, but as a tool for
influencing the individuals positively so that they become useful to themselves and the
society. It follows that the usefulness of the individuals and indeed of education is judged in
relation to a particular society. Education, therefore, can best be understood when we know
for example, for what society and for what purpose the individuals are being educated. In
fact, it has been said that education is an activity which goes on in the society whose aims
and methods depend on the nature of the society.
In essence, education does not take place or exist in a vacuum. It is a social enterprise and as
such its aims and methods are socially determined or directed. For example, it is the society
that sets up education to achieve some goals such as propagating its cultural values. In the
68
same way, the values of the society have serious influences on the education system. For
example, a society that is highly religious may not permit co-educational system or having
boys and girls in the same school. Education, therefore, seeks to realize itself in the context of
the society it serves.
In recognition of the essential relationships between education and society, it has become
necessary to have sufficient information or data about the nature, structure and development
of the society. Such information is useful to us in organising the educational system in
manners which are consitent or in line with the organisation of the society. For example,
education in a democratic society must be organised along democratic principles and
practice. It is the attempt to apply our knowledge of the society to the organisation of
education that has given rise to the field of Sociology of Education which we shall presently
discuss.
ACTIVITY II
1. Briefly describe the development of sociology of education. You should use
appropriate illustrations based on your experience in your environment.
MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

From our discussion so far, you must remember that Sociology is said to concern itself with
how the various social institutions influence one another. Education is one of such social
institutions and so influences and is influenced by the social environment in which it is
established. Sociology of education is, therefore, an attempt to examine the effect of such
social institutions like the family, peer group, culture, religious belief, and economy on the
institution of education and how the institution of education also affects the other social
institutions.
Sociology of education can then be regarded as an analysis of social processes involved in
educational institutions. By social processes we mean the way the school is organised, the
various structures or persons in positions of responsibilities, leadership, relationships and
how these processes help to promote or retard social outcomes or goals of the school. It also
tries to examine the functions of education to the society. To say the same thing in a different
way, sociology of education is an attempt to examine and understand the relationship
between the school and society by focusing attention on the following issues.
Influence of Culture on Education

To a large extent the cultural norms and values or beliefs of the society have a lot to do with
the aims and methods of education. For example, if the society is highly religious, religion
becomes the focus of the school. Also, co-educational schools may not be permitted. The
cultural environment could also determine the pace of educational development. A case in
point is the educational imbalance between North and South in Nigeria. To a great extent,
lack of harmony between the Christian religious aspects of western education and the values
of the Muslims prevented the quick spread of western education in the North.
Changing Need of the Society

The society is always changing due to improvements in man's awareness and understanding
of the environment. Consequently, new ways of doing things are discovered. These could be
in material form such as the use of machines or the form of attitude such as changing
69
consciousness. Unless education changes along with the society it becomes useless. Hence, a
knowledge of the dynamics or nature of the society is needed for the organisation of schools.
Class Structure of the Society

Every society, whether traditional or modern, is organised on a hierarchy. That is, a social
ladder on which individuals fit according to their socio-economic positions. In this social
stratification or division, individuals belong to either the upper, middle or lower class. In
some societies, there is social mobility for everybody. That is people have no barriers in
moving up the social ladder. In some, such barriers are there. For example there are traditions
in which female children are not encouraged to go to school with the reasoning that such
educational efforts would be reaped by their husbands. There are instances in which children
of a particular social class parents do not attend the same school as those of the lower class
parents.
These are parts of what distinguish one society from the other. The educational system cannot
be effectively organised unless it takes into account the nature and organisational structure of
the society.
Education and Economy

Education cannot succeed without material and financial resources. The well being of
educational system depends largely on the state of the society's economy. In examining the
relationships between education and society, the questions of how many schools are available
at every level; the number of students enrolled; the available infrastructures such as furniture,
library and laboratory facilities and so on are answered in the context of the society's
economy.
Education and Politics

Man as a social and political animal seeks power, recognition and representation. The school
is part of the body politics of the society and has to be organised along that line. For instance,
where the government has taken over control of schools, course contents or what should be
taught are usually determined by the government. Furthermore, membership of Boards of
Governors or appointment of Principals is dictated by political considerations, sometimes on
quota basis. Similarly, a country's political philosophy like democracy or socialism often
determines its educational system. Even political considerations usually determine how much
can be spent on education like number of schools, where they should be established and so
on.
On the other hand, education influences politics. It is in schools particularly universities that
learners often come into contact with political ideas and events. In Nigeria, education is now
being used as a means for promoting national unity for instance with the establishment of
Unity schools or Federal Government Colleges. You can now clearly see how political issues
influence education and vice versa.
These are some of the ways we can examine and understand the organization and functioning
of the school within the context of the society.
ACTIVITY III
1. What is the definition of sociology of education?
70
2. Enumerate any three ways in which the organisation of the school is influenced by the
society.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

At this juncture, it is necessary for us to discuss the functions and indeed the importance of
sociology of education.
i. Promotes Objectivity
As already noted, sociology adopts scientific methods of inquiry. It is therefore
positive and objective. To this end, sociology of education helps individuals to be
objective in issues relating to the organisation and administration of schools. In
sociological sense, data about the school as a society are presented as they are and not
how they ought to be. For example, the composition of pupils or teachers may show
some heterogeneity or differences in terms of their ethnic, religious, political and
social out look. The school is organised, based on this heterogeneity.
ii. Aids Formulation of Educational Policies
Sociology of education helps to provide positive aims and policies in
education by providing realistic analysis and description of the society. It sees
the school as a miniature or small unit of the society as it is and not what it
ought to be. For example, the problems of the society are examined and based
on some available data, and from these general laws are formulated. These are
useful in determining the aims of education. For example, if a relationship has
been established between the rate of female children pulling out of school and
their coming to school from their parents' homes, an education policy could be
that female school children be kept in boarding schools.
iii. Provides broad knowledge of the Society
Sociology of education provides us with broad knowledge of the society and its
influence on the school. Not only does it teach us to find out these social influences, it
teaches us not to take any of these influences for granted. Rather, we are to regard the
social environment as a set of patterns to be explored for their educational
significance. For example, when the leaders of the community are insistently willing
to know what is going on in the school, they should not be seen as trespassing or
interfering. Rather, we should examine the relationships between such individuals or
groups and the school and take advantage of the ways in which they can help to
promote the school's programme.
iv. Reinforces School - Community Relationship
Sociology of education draws attention to the fact that neither educational aims nor
techniques can be attained if there is disregard for the society. Education can only be
understood when we know for what society and for what purpose individuals are
being educated. Sociology of education helps to add meaning to the essence of
education thus bringing it to bear on human existence. It emphasises the need to
always examine the relationship between the school and society so that education can
be seen as a worthwhile venture.
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v. Understanding of the Various Social Forces Which Affect

Education
Ignorance or communication gap always leads to conflicts in a society. Sociology of
Education helps to remove this anomaly by providing learners with the knowledge of
the social forces that influence education. These social forces include religious belief,
economy, politics, class structure and the norms and values of the society. For
instance, knowledge of the nation's economy can prevent students' protests over non-
availability of some educational facilities like scholarships or allowances.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Name any four ways in which sociology of education contributes to educational
development.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed the following.
• Sociology is the scientific study of the society in order to formulate general laws about
the structure and organisation of the society.
• Sociology is considered a science because it adopts scientific methods of inquiry; it is
objective.
• Sociology of education originated from the growing appreciation of the essential
relationships between the school and society.
• Sociology of education means an attempt to examine and understand the organisation
of the school in the context of the society.
• Sociology of education helps us to be objective in examining social issues; aids
educational policy making; broad knowledge of the society, reinforces the school-
community relations and helps us to understand the social forces which affect
education.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of sociology.
2. State any two reasons to show that Sociology is Science.
3. Explain the meaning of Sociology of Education.
4. Explain the origin of Sociology of Education.
5. Identify any three functions of Sociology of Education.
REFERENCES
Ezewu, Edward, Sociology of Education, Lagos: Longman, 1983.
Ivor, Morrish, The Sociology of Education - An Introduction, _London: Unwin, 1972.
Uche, U.A., A Sociology of Education For N.C.E. Students. London: Unwin, 1980.
72
UNIT 2 (EDU 102.2): THE CONCEPT AND AGENTS

OF SOCIALIZATION: THE FAMILY,
THE PEER GROUP AND THE
SCHOOL
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we saw Sociology of Education means the process of examining the influence
of the institution of education on other social institutions and vice versa. Every individual as a
member of a society is expected to behave in acceptable ways. This is why when sometimes
some people behave abnormally, others tend to ask such questions as: where do they come
from? who are their parents? which school do they attend and so on. Others might attribute
such behaviour to lack of home training. These show that our behaviours often reflect the
way we were brought up.
In this unit, you will learn about how individuals learn to become acceptable members of the
society.
OBJECTIVES
By this of this unit, you should be able to:
1. define the term socialization;
2. enumerate at least three socialization functions of the family;
3. identify three ways in which the peer group contributes to the child's learning to live
in the society;
4. describe at least three roles played by the school in the socialization of the child.

1. Before studying this unit, go through the word study below.
2. Study the unit step by step as arranged for you.
3. Ensure that you follow all instructions and do all the activities and assignments.
4. CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND
ASSIGNMENTS AT THE END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Study the following words as used in this unit:
Norms: Used to mean the standard or expectations set for members of a group or
society.
Values: Used in this unit to mean the concepts of good and bad or right and wrong.
MEANING OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization may be defined as the process by which individuals learn the desirable norms
and values of the society or group in which they live. A newborn infant is taught to sit, walk,
73
talk, wear dresses and so on. As he grows older, he is exposed to the rules and regulations of
the society. These are values, beliefs and behaviours which are both customary and
acceptable to the society. This exposure or learning is necessary so that he will be accepted in
the society. However, the values which the child learns in the socialization process differ
from one society to the other depending on their culture. For example, while most parents in
Nigeria would disapprove of their children using the left-hand to eat, the practice is
acceptable in the European culture. Similarly, every group or organisation in the society has
its norms and values which its members must observe.
Once certain ways of life have been established in the community or group means are devised
to transmit or transfer them from one generation to another as a way of perpetuating or
maintaining the existence of the society. This is the socialization process.
You must, however, note that there are three basic stages of socialization. At the initial stage,
an individual is taught how to function effectively in the society. This might take the form of
learning how to speak the common language or the various values and beliefs of his society.
At another level the individual learns the various roles he is expected to perform like a boy
learning how to be a breadwinner for the family. The last stage involves learning certain
attitudes, skills, knowledge and values required of every member of a group. For instance, a
member of a particular age grade is expected to acquire certain knowledge or skills related to
his age grade.
Similarly, socialization can be either informal of formal. Before a child goes to school, he
learns from his parents such habits as cleanliness, respect for elders, participation in home or
farm activities and so on. This informal type of socialization takes place at school where the
child learns the habits expected of him - as a means of preparing him for adulthood.
ACTIVITY I
1. Briefly describe the term `socialization'
2. List the three stages of socialization
3. Distinguish between formal and informal socialization.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
There are many agents of socialization. These include the family, peer group, and school, the
Church or Mosque, the community and the Mass media. However, we shall concentrate on
the first three agents by highlighting their socialization functions.
(a) The Family
The family as a unit is made up of the father, mother and children and it is the first
socialization agent for the child. The role of the family in the socialization of the child
are as follows.
i. Moral Training: It is the family that lays the moral and spiritual
foundation for the child to build on in later life. Right from infancy, parents,
brothers, sisters and other members of the extended family teach the child
their own concepts of good and bad or right and wrong. As the child grows, he
is exposed to the culture of the wider society by teaching him the socially
approved way of behaving and inculcating in him cherished beliefs and values.
In this way, the family prepares the child for acceptance in the community.
74
The family can thus be regarded as a nursey where a child receives his primary
socialization.
ii. Intellectual Training: The foundation for the child's intellectual
development is laid at home. The family evolves a number of activities to help
the child grow intellectually. For example, it is the parents and other members
of the family who help the child to develop language. They listen to his
attempt to talk and encourage him to make progress by making sounds and
calling names of persons or objects for him to repeat. They help him by asking
him simple questions and answering those he may ask. His ability to express
himself makes learning interesting for him in school.
iii. Character Training: Charity, they say, begins at home. Whatever
manners put up by people in the public are often attributed to their family
background. The family is the first place where the child learns good manners.
It is the family that teaches the child not to be selfish; the need to be polite;
respect for elders and authorities. These help him to adjust fully in the society.
If the family fails to impart the right habits to the child before he gets to
school, he might become a social problem to the system. In fact most cases of
discipline in schools are traceable to deficient home training for some
youngsters.
iv. Love For Others: A society like Nigeria cherishes love for one another,
hence there is the emphasis on national unity. If a child is to develop human
feelings, it has to begin at home. Parents therefore should evolve a situation
whereby members of the family understand and love one another. For
example, showing concern for what happens to others; coming to others'
assistance when they are sick; interacting freely with others may help the child
to learn how to live in harmony with other people.
v. Vocational Training: There is no family that would want to be
associated with failures. Hence the family ensures that the child is prepared for
a vocation or trade for his future self-reliance. However, before he is of age,
the family ensures that he learns to do, if possible, what the parents do for a
living. For example, it is common to see the son of a tailor learning how to
sew through watching or observation of the father. When he becomes old
enough, he may decide to take up tailoring or go into other trades. In fact, the
family trains the child to be creative and hard working in preparation for
future life.
ACTIVITY II
1. Identify any two socilazation functions of the family.
2. Mention any two ways in which the family helps the child to develop human feelings.
(b) The Peer Group

Meaning of Peer Group_: By peer group we mean the association of, or the social
relationships between people who fall within the same age range. Members of the
peer group often have common characteristics or interest. During moonlight in the
villages, one usually finds children and youths in the group for various social
75
activities. The groupings often follow age line. Age or peer group has become very
significant as an agent of socialization. The following are some of its functions.
i. Democratic Living: The freedom and equal status of members of the
peer group help the child to learn to live in a democratic society such as ours.
In the peer group, members have equal right to express themselves, ask
questions and demonstrate their potentialities. No member claims superiority
over the others. The respect and loyalty which members have for the group
help them to fit into the wider society.
ii. Exchange of Cultural Ideas: Members of the peer group may come
from different cultural backgrounds. For example, a peer group in a typical
urban school in Nigeria may attract members of Igbo, Edo, Yoruba or Hausa
cultural backgrounds. In the course of interactions, the Igbo child may pick up
a few Hausa vocabularies. This promotes understanding among them. It also
helps to foster national unity. In a way, therefore, peer group discourages
social discrimination within the environment.
iii. Social Roles: One of the major influences of the peer group is that it
provides children with the opportunity to play many social roles. That is, they
try to play the roles of the adults in their activities. At times, some act the roles
of parents, a teacher, the doctor, lawyer and so on. Not only do they prepare
for adult life, they tend to show their interests for certain professions or
vocations. The peer groups also teache sex roles since boys tend to team up
more freely with boys and girls with girls though sometimes a group might
comprise both boys and girls, thereby preventing sex discrimination.
iv. Moral and Character Training: A child tries to observe the rules and
regulations of the peer group in order to keep his membership. If he fails and
misbehaves, he loses acceptance. At times when the peer group knows that a
member steals or wets bed at home, other members of the group might move
away from him. When the child becomes aware of this and feels rejected, he
might try to stop doing those things which are not acceptable to the group.
v. Intellectual Development: The atmosphere or condition of
relationships which exists in the peer group facilitate members' intellectual
development. That is, they are opportuned to learn from their interaction with
others. One of the major characteristics of children is that they are anxious to
know or learn. Unfortunately, most of the questions they ask in the home are
not answered by their parents. This may be because these parents are too busy
or such questions are not relevant. In the Nigerian traditional system, it is not
every question that the child asks that is answered. If the question has to do
with sex or some adult roles, most parents tend to ignore it. Thus his urge to
learn is suppressed. But when he is in the peer group, he asks his questions
freely and members who have the answers give them. Sometimes, members of
a peer group might meet to discuss problems of common subject like Social
Studies. By so doing, the peer group reinforces the intellectual development of
its members.
76
Moreover, some of the activities of the peer group in their play time help the
child to develop intellectually. For example, they engage in quizzes, riddles
and jokes and story telling. All these help the child to develop creativity.
vi. Leadership Training: Children in the peer group have been known to
be good planners, organizers and leaders, they decide on what kind of play or
activity to engage in. Some of these activities may involve role playing, they
assign roles to members and they direct one another in the course of role
playing. Mistakes in role-playing are corrected and those who cannot perform
are asked to stay out to watch. In this way the child learns to lead and follow,
these are vital requirements for effective citizenship.
ACTIVITY III
1. Define a peer group.
2. Explain any three ways in which the peer group helps to socialize the child.
(c) The School

The school is a social institution established by members of a society for the purpose
of:
i. transmitting their culture from one generation to another; and
ii. improving this culture by producing generations of people who are more
refined and enlightened than their parents or fore-fathers.
Among other things, the school has the following roles to play in the socialization of
the child.
(a) It helps the child to develop the desired moral values which are necessary for
his acceptance and survival in the society. To this end schools emphasize
moral religious instructions as a way of inculcating in the child, some basic
moral principles.
(b) The school helps to provide the child with skills necessary for survival such as
reading, writing and counting. The skills may have to do with vocations which
the child may choose to go into later in his life. For example, Music or Home -
Economics or Fine Art are taught in schools. Some of the pupils could develop
interest in any of the vocational subjects.
(c) Above all, the school helps to develop the child's social and civic
consciousness. This is necessary for effective citizenship. The Federal
Government is highly concerned with raising and sustaining the level of
awareness of Nigerians with its emphasis on War Against Indiscipline, (WAI)
and Mass Mobilization For Social Justice, Economic Recovery and Self
Reliance (tagged MAMSER) and Environmental Sanitation. In this light, the
school is expected to serve as agent for making people accept and live by these
ideals which are considered necessary for national development. Apart from
teaching basic hygiene, the school should demonstrate high level of sanitation
for the pupils to learn from. These could be by regular inspection of pupils'
77
teeth, nails and general cleanliness. Also they should be involved in sweeping
the classroom every morning. The school also introduces co-curricular
activities like Drama, Debating, Games, Scouting to socialize the children.
During such activities, children interact with one another and in the process
become socialized. To teach pupils to be considerate, patient and orderly,
these should be introduced into every aspect of the school life. For example,
the queuing culture can be inculcated through the conduct of morning
assemblies, orderly leaving of the classroom for recess and so on. In
performing its socialization functions, the school looks up to the home, which
is a unit of the society. It carries on and reinforces the roles of the home in the
up-bringing of the child. However, the point has to be made that homes,
depending on whether they belong to the upper, middle or working class, have
different values. Invariably, their expectations with regard to the functions of
the school are bound to be different. This poses controversy and confusion.
What should be the position of the school on this issue? In fact, the school is
organised to serve the community. Its programmes should centre around the
needs of the immediate community. This may help to resolve the crisis to
some extent since, in the majority of cases, children from the same community
have common needs and problems.
Again, it has to be made clear that there should not be a break or distinction between the
home and the school. Otherwise, the socialization and indeed the education of the child
would be adversely affected. It is therefore necessary that the school knows the values and
expectations of the home so that it can programme its activities for the promotion of these
values. On the other hand, the home should know what is happening in the school. The child's
performance in school work needs to be monitored by the home. The required school
materials need to be provided for the child and above all there should be feed-back from the
school to the home and vice versa.
ACTIVITY IV
1. State three activities of the school which may help pupils to develop good sanitation
habit.
2. Identify any two ways in which the school depends on the home in the performance of
its socialization function.
SUMMARY
• Socialization is the process of helping individuals to learn the ways of his people or
group so that he becomes accepted as a member of that society. A socialized
individual lives by the code of conduct of his group or the society. Socialization
involves three stages namely, learning to function, learning the various roles, learning
the attitudes, skills and knowledge of his group. Socialization can also be formal or
informal.
• Some of the agents of socialization are the family, the peer group and the school. Each
of them helps to inculcate the norms and values of the society in the individuals. They
also help to prepare the individuals for effective citizenship.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Define the term "socialization".
2. Identify any three socialization functions of the family.
3. Identify three ways in which the peer group contributes to the child's learning to live
in the society.
4. Describe any three roles of the school in the socialization of the child.
REFERENCES
Enoh, A. O. et al., A Handbook of Educational Foundations, Jos: Challenge Press, 1987.
Ezewu, Edward, Sociology of Education, Lagos, Longman Nig. Ltd., 1983.
Taiwo, O. Agencies of Education, Ibadan: Macmillan Nig. Publishers Ltd., 1981.
79
UNIT 3 (EDU 102.3): AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:

THE CHURCH, THE MOSQUE,
THE MASS MEDIA AND THE
COMMUNITY
INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you studied the meaning of socialization and the role of the family, peer
group and the school in the socialization of the child. A part from these three, there are other
agents of socialization. These include the Church, Mosque, mass media and the community.
These are what you will be studying in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify at least three socialization functions of the Church;
2. outline at least three ways in which the Mosque helps in the up - bringing of the
individuals;
3. highlight the places of the mass media in the socialization process;
4. state at least three roles of the community as an agent of socialization;
5. express your feelings on what would happen if any of these agents fails to plan its
roles in the socialization of the child.

1. Recall the meaning of socialization which you have studied in Unit 1.
2. This unit has been arranged step by step. So study it in that order.
3. Try and reflect on examples and illustrations used and then attempt to give your own.
4. You will get the best result out of studying this unit if you observe all instructions and
answer the question provided.
5. CHECK THE ANSWERS THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT
THE END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Sanction: Used in this unit to mean penalty intended to maintain respect for law
and authority.
Dynamic: Changing
Delinquent: behaviour in non-acceptable way
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THE CHURCH
Church activities started in the coastal areas of Nigeria in 1842 with the arrival of the
Christian Missions. Gradually, Christian missionary activities spread to the hinterland,
combining Church activities with establishing and running of schools.
Though we no longer have mission schools because the various governments have taken over
such schools, churches have found their ways into every nook and corner of Nigeria. The
question you might ask is what is the social significance of the Church in our present day
society? The Church has been found to be one of the most effective agents of socialization in
the society. But how does the Church perform this function? In many ways, the Church helps
to inculcate the desired norms and values of the society in the individual. Let us look at them
one by one.
i. As an agent of social change

One thing that is very common today in Nigeria is that during important national
events like Children Youth Days, Independence Anniversary, United Nations Day and
so on, the Church has become very vocal. The Church calls on the citizens to address
their minds to the issue of national unity, peaceful co-existence and progress. These
are usually supported by citing relevant portions of the Holy Bible. In essence, the
Church helps in the propagation of the individuals. In other words the state or
government can use the church to propagate certain social changes in the society like
the need for environmental sanitation. The slogan that "the sound mind lives in a
sound body" has both spiritual and hygienic implications. This helps individuals to
internalise the behaviours which are positive to government objectives.
ii. Moral Training

Another primary concern of the Church is to make the young persons dynamic and
morally progressive citizens and to expose them to influences or experiences or
conditions which might result in the achievement of good life. In fact moral and
spiritual training is the major concern of the Church. Just like every other agent of
socialization, the Church sees moral and character training as a necessary condition
for a child to be fully accepted in the society. Through congregational worships, the
church also socializes the youth in religious and ethical values.
In these activities, emphases are usually on emulating the good life and activities of
Jesus. Individuals are expected to hate vices and other negative tendencies. The
regular recitation of the "ten commandments of God" helps to instil the fear of God in
them.
iii. Intellectual Development

The activities of the Sunday School and Youth Fellowships in the Church help the
child to develop intellectually. They provide the child with some learning experiences
which will be useful to him at school. He learns because he is taught and he realises
himself or he gets self-satisfaction because his questions are patiently answered.
Moreover, the catechism activities of the Church do not only help to build the child
morally, they also help him to develop intellectually. They learn to read, memorize
and recite. These are dimensions of learning.
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iv. Obedience
Like every other human organization, the Church has its own code of conduct which
members must observe. Failure to do so attracts sanction. Apart from adhering or
keeping to the creed and the "Ten commandments of God" the Church also outlaws
anti-social behaviours such as fighting, stealing, adultery, blackmail and so on. There
are cases of members of religious groups being suspended or expelled from the
Church for serious misbehaviours.
Besides, the Church operates on a leadership system. It has structures and roles
performed by individuals or groups. There are authorities such as the Bishop,
Reverend Pastors and so on who must be respected and obeyed. In this way,
individuals learn to live as leaders and followers.
ACTIVITY I
1. State any three socialization functions of the Church.
2. List any three ways in which the Church can serve as an agent of social change in a
country like Nigeria oil.
THE MOSQUE
By the 11th century, there had been some traces of Islam in some parts of Northern Nigeria.
However, actual Islamisation did not start until the 15th century.
The Mosque is a building in which Muslims gather to worship Allah. It is very symbolic in
Islam. Like the Church, the Mosque has some basic roles to play in the socialization of the
individuals. However, such a process takes the Islamic pattern. In other words, emphases are
on Islamic culture. Let us again examine the various roles of the mosque in the socialization
process.
i. Moral and Spiritual Training

The primary objectives of Muslims going to the mosque are to pray to Allah and listen to
sermons based in the Holy Qur'an. The essence is to bring Muslims nearer to Allah and to
help the individuals develop morally and spiritually. In doing this, Muslims are told to
emulate the examplary life of Prophet Mohammed. This is not only seen as a condition for
entering into `Paradise' when they die, it is also seen as a condition for good life.
ii. Teaching the Qur'an

Islam as a way of life is so embracing that everything done by a muslim is connected to it. It
requires that individuals undergo the necessary orientation or socialization in order to fit into
the system. In other words, ability to read the Qur'an is part of socialization in Islam. In order
to achieve this, numerous Qur'anic schools are attached to most mosques or established by
individuals. In these schools, children are taught by Islamic scholars usually referred to as
"mallam". The children memorize the verses of the Holy Qur'an, though the meaning of what
they memorize is learnt later in their lives. The focus here has both religious and educational
implications. It helps the children to learn to read, memorize and recite. These are processes
of learning.
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iii. Teaching Islamic Laws

Another aspect of teaching in the Mosque is acquainting the individuals with Islamic
laws called the Hadith' and `Shari'ah'. This knowledge is required of every Muslim to
have basic ideas about the `dos' and `don'ts' in Islam as well as penalties for various
offences. This promotes good life.
Muslims are also taught to know about other matters concerning the Islamic religion
such as ablution, fasting, praying five times a day, alms giving and so on. In fact the
concept of socialization in the Islamic sense is associated with being very familiar
with the tenets of Islam.
iv. Teaching Routine Living

The Mosque is an organised setting, with its rules and regulations. Prayers and other
activities follow prescribed procedures. Time and day of the week for going to the
Mosque are known to all Muslims through the routine call for prayers. These help to
develop regularity and routine consciousness-attributes which are important to other
spheres of life such as school work, office or factory work.
v. Teaching Obedience
Moreover, there are authorities in the Mosque which must be respected. There are the
Imam and others vested with certain responsibilities and power. In the course of
organising others to get things done, they need to be respected and their orders carried
out. The youngsters begin to learn to be followers and leaders through their
experiences in the Mosque.
vi. Learning to serve Humanity

At times, members of the Mosque are made to render some selfless services such as
clearing and cleaning the Mosque premises, sweeping, watering the flowers and so
on. These could be on routine basis as it comes to one's turn. Not only does the child
learn the practice of sanitation, he also learns to be of service to humanity.
ACTIVITY II
1. Identify any three activities of the Mosque which help the child to devlop morally and
spiritually.
2. Explain one of the activities of the Mosque which promotes the child's intellectual
development.
THE MASS MEDIA

The mass media which comprises the newspapers, radio and television, has tremendous
impact on the way of life and attitudes of the people. The various arms of the mass media
perform three basic functions - as sources of information, education and entertainment.
However, three functions will be considered in relation to the socialization of the child.
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NEWSPAPERS
i. Development of Reading Habit
The Newspapers contain stories on the various aspects of life such as stories on
sports, arts, festivals, politics, economy and so on. If a child is fond of stories on a
particular column of the newspapers, the tendency is for him to show interest in
reading them. The habit he develops for reading is of educational value. It is therefore
necessary that newspapers publish stories or pictures which are of value to the society
in order to enhance the moral development of the child. These should be stories on
moral and character training.
ii. Sources of Information
At times the government depends on popular newspapers in putting some messages
across to the citizens. Such newspapers can also serve as agents for the propagation of
government programmes such as War Against Indiscipline, Environmental Sanitation,
Operation Food First and so on. These are aimed at increasing the people's
consciousness and making them to take actions which are positive to the realisation of
government objectives. For example, when the Federal Government wanted to
remove part of its subsidy on petroleum products, the proposed chance was
communicated to the people through a number of means including newspapers. This
is to make citizens to be aware and possibly take individual action that would help
them to adjust to the new situation.
RADIO AND TELEVISION

The radio has become very effective as an agent of socialization.
i. Radio as a Source of Information
Not only do radio broadcasts reach a wider audience, they help to bring international
communities together. Most people in the villages in Nigeria can operate their small
radio sets with dry - cell batteries and listen to news from any Nigerian radio station
and even the United States of America or Britain. Due to the increasing role which
radio now plays in the society radio programmes now focus on almost all aspects of
life - economy, politics, culture education commerce, agriculture and so on.
Programmes on these topics enrich the knowledge and capacity of the individual to
adjust to a changing society such as ours.
ii. The Television as a source of Education

Like radio, television provides educational services to viewers in addition to its
informative and entertaining function. This is aimed at helping the home and the
school in the intellectual development of the child.
For example, we now have School' Broadcasts on radio and television in which
subject specialists give instruction in their subject areas such as that on Instructional
Television (ITV) of the net - work service of the Nigeria Television Authority. Most
children learn from this.
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iii. Transmission of Cultural Values

Also there are television programmes on local customs and tradition or the cultures of
other people. While this helps the child to have broader knowledge and understanding
of the customs and traditions of his people, it also gives him the opportunity to have
an idea of the nature of other people's culture. For example, the Nigerian Television
Authority, Benin has a programme called "Bendel Magazine" in which issues and
activities relating to the traditions of the various communities in Bendel State are
highlighted.
There are also documentary programmes which relate to the historical and cultural past of
Nigeria. They help the child to know the origin of certain aspects of the ways of life of his
people. These include occupation, music, religion, marriage, taboos and so on. In fact,
television seems to be more popular because it combines sound with pictures. Thus, viewers
see and hear at the same time. Above all listening to experts casting news on radio and
television often inspires children not only to learn good pronunciation but also to develop
interest in broadcasting.
On the whole, the government should control or monitor the kind of material which the mass
media gives out to the public. Only those which promote the values of the society should be
allowed. These include those materials which relate to honesty, love, sympathy, patience,
positive creativity, patriotism, co-operation and so on.
ACTIVITY III
1. Mention the three major arms of the mass media.
2. State any three socialization functions of the mass media.
3. What do you think would happen if the government does not control the mass media?
THE COMMUNITY
The community consists of the immediate environment outside the child's home or school. It
can be a clan, a village, a city, a tribe, school or nation. The learning experiences which the
child goes through at home and in the School are based on the needs and problems of the
community. This is so because if the child is to be useful to himself and the community he
must learn what is relevant to the needs of that community.
As an entity, the community has numerous roles to play in the socialization of its members.
The community is organised, having rules and regulations, norms values and authority. In the
villages there are the elders, chiefs, and others of various levels of authority. In townships,
there are the district or ward leaders, counsellors, administrators, social welfare workers,
police and so on. These people help to ensure peace and order in the community. The
community as an entity helps in the socialization of the individuals in the following ways
i. Training in the values of the community

Every community has its own way of helping the individuals especially the
youngsters to adjust to rules and regulations. Activities are organized to inculcate in
the people certain elements of the ways of life of the people. These include festivals,
community drama, concerts, public lectures and so on. In this way, opportunities are
created to emphasise the values of the community.
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ii. Inculcation of Morals

The community also inculcates such virtues as collective responsibility or co-
operation. This is so because every member is proud to belong to his particular
community. He also recognizes the roles he has to play for the overall development of
his community. For instance, village members often gather to clear bushpaths, market
places, repair broken bridges and so on.
Members of the community also learn to depend on one another for their basic needs.
Even when members of a particular community meet one another in a foreign land the
sense of belongingness is reawakened and they are always eager to assist one another.
iii. Intellectual development

As soon as the child leaves the home he is thrown into the community for further
education. In African traditional societies the child belongs to the community and he
is educated for the well being of the community and he is educated for the well-being
of that community. Any adult member of the community is an automatic "Teacher"
of the young ones particualrly in matters relating to good conduct. In some societies,
the community regulates the type of education a child receives within his age grade.
In others, before a man or woman gets married, he/she must undergo certain
traditional rites performed by the community as a whole. In this way the child learns
how to behave in acceptable ways in his community.
iv. Recreational and Guidance Services

On the other hand communities, whether in the village or cities, may have to organise
a number of activities to engage the youngsters usefully rather than letting them grow
delinquent. These include developing village circles, amusement parks, museum, zoo,
drama, sports, public lectures and so on. They may also develop a system of guidance
and counselling to assist youngsters with social and emotional problems. In fact, the
department of social welfare should intensify efforts at assisting the youngsters to
gainfully spend their holidays. In this way, their tendency toward crimes may be
reduced.
v. Sanctions
Some traditional communities have very strict sanction systems. For example, there
are villages in which those who steal or commit adultery are stripped naked and
humiliated in the public. Some offenders can also be ostracized (that is people not to
communicate with them). A young girl may not get a suitor in her community simply
because the parents are known to have stolen in the past.
In urban communities, force is at times used to make people observe rules and
regulations. For example, police or traffic wardens are assigned to direct traffic or
vehicles. Motorists who violate the traffic regulations are taken to court for trial.
Offenders or those who break laws are tried in the court and those found guilty are
fined or jailed. This serves as a deterrent or example to others.
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ACTIVITY IV
1. Mention any three activities used by the village community to inculcate its norms and
values in the individuals.
2. Identify any two socialization functions of the Social Welfare Department.
SUMMARY
• In this unit, we discussed the role of the Church, Mosque, mass media and community
in the socialization of the child. Basically both the Church and Mosque serve similar
socialization functions, namely, inculcating religious and ethical values in the youth.
Children are taught how to live a Christian or Muslim life in accordance with the
tenets of the Holy Bible or Holy Qur'an.
• The mass media which comprises newspapers, books, radio and television provide
information, education and entertainment through their numerous programmes on
various aspects of life. Apart from broadening people's knowledge about happenings
within their immediate and outside environments, the mass media help to reinforce
desirable social attitudes or bring about social changes.
• On its parts, the community, through its rules and regulations as well as norms and
values inculcates desirable values in the youth. It also helps to enrich the knowledge
of the children.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Identify any three socialization functions of the Church.
2. Outline any three ways in which the Mosque helps in the upbringing of the child.
3. Highlight any three functions of the mass media in the socialization process.
4. Mention any three roles of the community as an agent of socialization.
REFERENCES
Taiwo, O., Agencies of Education, Ibadan: Macmillan, 1981.
Enoh, A. O., et, A Handbook of Educational Foundations, Jos: Challenge Press, 1987.
Ezewu, E., Sociology of Education, Lagos: Longman 1983.
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UNIT 4 (EDU 102.4): EDUCATION AND CULTURE
INTRODUCTION
We have examined the various agents for socializing the child. In every society, there are
rules which govern the behaviours and interactions of people. There are established
customary practices. For example, in most communities in Nigeria, it is forbidden to marry a
blood relation. Members of the society also device means of adapting to their physical
environment. For example, choice of occupation such as farming, choice of crops to cultivate,
and choice of methods of farming are all influenced or determined by the environment in
which people live.
At times, the need may arise for some of the above ways or practices to be modified or
dropped altogether. Now the questions we might be tempted to ask are: How are these ways
and practices sustained in the society? How do they influence other human endeavours or
activities? How are the socializing materials related to education? In this unit, you will be
studying the meaning of education and culture and how both concepts are inter- related.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:
1. explain the meaning of education;
2. explain the meaning of culture;
3. enumerate at least four characteristics of culture;
4. describe at least three ways in which education and culture are related.

1. Read through the objectives of this unit before you begin to study it.
2. This unit has been arranged step by step to make study easy for you. So follow it as
arranged.
3. Ensure that you observe all instructions and do all the activities and assignment as
honestly as possible.
MEANING OF EDUCATION
Education has been defined in various ways by different people. It is difficult, therefore, to
have a universal definition of the concept. The difficulty arises due to a number of factors.
Education is an activity which goes on in the society, whose aims and methods depend on
the nature of the society in which it takes place. But what is this activity? It is any purposeful
human endeavour capable of providing positive learning experiences. That is, the learning
experiences which are desirable and useful to mankind. For example, farming or dancing is
an activity which entails some processes, the unity of which helps individuals to cultivate
some skills or knowledge or appreciation. However, the aims and methods of these activities
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determine what is to be cultivated or learned. These aims and methods of human activities
differ from one society to another.
In spite of the above divergence or difference in what constitutes education, there is what
looks like a consensus or general opinion on the meaning of education. If considered from a
purely formal sense, education is a set of practical techniques for the instructions in schools,
colleges, and universities for the purpose of preparing the learners to become useful to
themselves and the society. In order to become useful to themselves and the society, certain
desirable qualities, capabilities, skills, knowledge, attitudes and values need to be inculcated
in the individuals. Education, therefore, is the process of transmitting what is worthwhile to
those who are committed to it, whether they are children or adults. The things which are
worthwhile include desirable skills, knowledge, attitude, aptitude and other capabilities which
are hoped will promote individual's usefulness to themselves and the society. However,
things worthwhile in education are relative.
They depend on the society and its culture. Since societies have different cultural values,
focus or aims in education differ from society to society. For example, fostering national
unity is one of the problems in Nigeria. To this extent, the education system is expected to
evolve means of inculcating the spirit of national consciousness and unity in the youngsters.
Whereas, more emphasis is placed on promoting democracy in the United States of America.
Put in a very broad sense, education is the process of socialization. It embodies all the
processes by which individuals are trained in the norms and values of the society. Education
which takes place in the school is formal while that which takes place in the homes, church,
mosque, peer group or through the mass media is informal.
Education could also be seen as the process of providing individuals with the means or tools
or knowledge for understanding their society and its structures. This knowledge is not an end
but a means to an end. That is, to help them create meaning out of the environment as well as
being able to influence the environment to their own advantage.
ACTIVITY I
1. Briefly state why it is difficult to have a definition of education that has general
application.
2. What is the meaning of education?
MEANING OF CULTURE
Definition of culture
Culture means different things to different people. For instance, a well dressed or well
behaved person or one who goes for native food may be regarded as a man of culture. To the
biologist, culture means the medium in which a colony of bacteria is observed or studied. In
sociology, culture is used to refer to the totality of a man's ways of life including behaviours,
knowledge, beliefs, customs and tradition, values, religion, music, art, dressing, food and any
other capabilities.
In explaining the concept of culture, it is important to distinguish between what is socially
learned and that which is generally transmitted. Culture is socially learned or transmitted. In
other words, whatever we learn to do as a result of the influence of the social and physical
environment constitutes culture. For example, a child learns to greet in a particular way,
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having learnt from his parents or older siblings or brothers and sisters. Also language is
socially learnt and not the influence of heredity or genetics. For example if parents expose a
child more sufficiently to the speaking of English Language than their native dialect, that
child will learn to speak more English than his native language. This is very common with
educated middle class families such as university lecturers in Nigeria.
Since culture is learnt and socially transmitted, it becomes a group product. No individual
exists outside the group or produces a culture. Culture develops out of group activities and
practices which could become norms and values. For example when people come together to
form an association, they establish rules and regulations to guide individual behaviours and
interactions. The same holds for every social group.
Dimensions of Culture
Culture has two major dimensions; material and immaterial culture.
Material culture refers to artifacts or monuments which represent the activities of the past.
For example, the FESTAC mask and the Emotan statute in Benin. These remind us of great
people of the past. Another aspect of material culture has to do with people's type and mode
of dressing.
For example, a typical Yoruba is easily identified by the type and mode of his dressing.
Material culture therefore refers to people's way of life which can be objectified or handled or
seen.
On the other hand, immaterial culture refers to people's ways of life which are invisible but
can only be imagined. For example, hospitality, respect, attitude, customs and tradition,
values and so on. However, material culture is the product of immaterial culture. For
example, the work of art for which Benins are known is the product of the people's
knowledge, skills, and aesthetics which in themselves are elements of culture.
ACTIVITY II
1. Define the term culture.
2. List any five elements of culture.
3. Identify the two categories of culture.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND CULTURE
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
It is assumed that by now, you must have had an idea of what culture is. If you are in doubt,
go back to the text before proceeding. Let us now have a brief look at the characteristics of
culture.
(a) Culture is continuous: Culture is believed to be a transmitter of a society's
values and behaviour to future generations. In that way, the continuity of culture is
maintained.
(b) Culture is relative: What this means is that what is culture to a particular
society might not be to another. For example, the mode of greeting elders differs from
society to society. While a Yoruba boy prostrates when greeting an elder, an Hausa
boy squats.
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(c) Culture has an element of dignity in it and this is why it is usually preserved.
(d) Culture is dynamic, that is, culture changes to meet the changing demands of
the society.
(e) Culture is shared and learned: People born into a society automatically
take in the society's culture by interacting with other members of the society. Culture
can also be learned when it is realized that every member of a society does not take in
the society's culture at the same time.
(f) Culture is organic: This means that culture has to do mainly with human beings.
You can never equate how human beings behave with that of animals, birds or insects.
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
(a) Education aims at inculcating in the individuals, those desirable knowledge, skills and
other capabilities to make them to become useful to themselves and the society.
(b) Education in any society plays the role of transmitting the norms and values of the
society from one generation to another. It thus serves as a means of socialization.
(c) Education has the capacity to propagate desirable social changes in the society. These
changes could be economic or political or cultural. For example, the change of the
Nigerian National Anthem and Pledge needs to be propagated. It is through the
education system that majority of Nigerians have learnt the new National Anthem and
Pledge.
(d) Apart from propagating changes, education can bring about certain social changes in
the society. By providing individuals with the knowledge and skills to understand and
influence their environment, it helps them to develop new ideas and ways of solving
some of the problems which confront the society. For example, practices could
change due to the influence of scientific and social innovations made possible by
education. Such changes include attitudes, foods, dressing, house types, family size
and so on.
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
(a) Culture establishes ways of meeting our biological needs. Sex education, marriage
and reproduction are all within the confines of culture. For example, individuals are
not expected to have sexual experiences until they attain certain ages. Also, most
cultures forbid people marrying their blood relation. In this way, our urge for sexual
satisfaction is controlled by the culture of the society in which we live.
(b) Culture establishes ways of solving problems in man's physical environment. In the
course of adapting to the physical environment, man evolves ways of survival or
doing things which over time become general practice or procedures. For example,
most people in West Africa are farmers because farming as an occupation has been
inherited from their forefathers. The same occupation was adopted or chosen by their
forefathers because of the influence of the physical environment. Similarly, the
availability of clay makes people in such area to choose pottery as an occupation.
(c) Culture provides identify for people. People who share common custom, value or
language tend to be united by those factors. For example, ethnicism plays an
important role in Nigerian politics.
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(d) Culture provides rules that govern individuals in adjusting to their environment. In
any society, there are norms and values which individuals must observe in order to fit
into that social group or society. For example, respect for the worth of others is an
attribute which individuals must cultivate in order to fit into the democratic society
such as Nigeria. A society without rules and regulations is likely to be in state of
confusion.
(e) Culture provides role - differentiation in the society. That is it defines the
responsibilities of the different groups in the society. For example, men or fathers
have their roles to play just as women or mothers. In the traditional sense, the father
provides the food or money for the family while the mother cooks the food and takes
care of the house. Though education has altered the social roles and functions of
women, there are still signs of this type of role-differentiation in most homes.
In a sense, there must be division of labour otherwise the society would quickly
collapse. Also it is against custom and tradition in most communities in Nigeria for
women to climb palm trees or offer sacrifices during ancestral worships.
EDUCATION AND CULTURE

Considering the meaning and functions of education and culture, the stage is now set to
highlight what connects the two concepts since education is said to reflect the culture of a
society.
(a) Education flourishes through the medium of language which is an element of culture.
Language is the vehicle with which education transmits knowledge or skills. In the
absence of language, therefore, education cannot take place.
(b) The essence of education in any society is to transmit the norms and values of that
society from one generation to another. Since these norms and values are vital
elements of culture, it follows that the culture of any society determines what
education must transmit. Culture as a body of ideas and knowledge can only be
assimilated through learning. Education, whether formal or informal provides
opportunities for individuals to learn the culture of the society. Today there is some
emphasis on Social Studies and Cultural and Creative Arts in Nigerian primary and
junior secondary schools. Among other things, they are intended to increase the
children's awareness and appreciation of Nigeria's cultural heritage.
(c) Culture as a way of life demands that means are evolved for patterning or moulding
human activities and relationships to guarantee the continued existence of the society.
In this way, not only are individuals prepared or trained to play their roles in the
society, they are also acquainted with the rules and regulations in order to avoid
conflicts. Thus, education provides them with the knowledge and skills with which to
understand and influence their social and physical environment.
It also ensures that the knowledge and skills so provided are capable of being
preserved and transmitted to generations to come. This helps to guarantee continuity.
An example of such knowledge and skills in language. Language is an important
symbol of culture and •can only become permanent if there are means for its
propagation.
(d) Though culture is the product of the past, it is not the final product. Rather, culture is
dynamic or capable of changing. It is like a living thing. For example most Nigerians
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have through the ages developed new taste for food, dress, house type and so on.
Today, mud houses are scarcely found except in the rural areas. Exposure to other
people's culture through education, travel, or mass media has caused some changes in
our old way of doing things. It is therefore important to note that education serves as
agent of cultural change. Education does not provide individuals with knowledge and
skills for their own sake. Rather, these knowledge and skills are supposed to help
them develop new ideas and ways of solving problems through scientific and social
innovations. For example, houses built in the past in most communities had few small
windows with the belief that wider windows or doors would make the homes
accessible to evil spirits. But through education, people have learnt about the need for
ventilation in their homes and they now have houses with many wide windows and
doors.
Furthermore, the interaction between education and culture can be seen in the various
subjects taught in schools. For instance, while Agricultural Science, Vocational and
Technological courses help to promote food production and technological
development, religious education helps to meet the spiritual needs of the society.
Similarly, while subjects like Geography help members of a society to be familiar
with their physical environment, courses in Military Science help to prepare members
to fight against external forces and curtail internal threats.
On the whole, education and culture sustain one another. In the absence of culture,
education would have nothing to build on. Similarly, without education or
socialization, culture cannot be propagated or transmitted.
ACTIVITY III
1. State any three functions of education in your society.
2. State any three functions of culture.
3. Describe any three ways in which education and culture are related.
SUMMARY
• Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills ideas, attitude values and other
capabilities to the individuals in order for them to become useful to themselves and
the society.
• Culture refers to the totality of a people's ways of life including norms and values,
knowledge, skills attitudes, aesthetics and any other capabilities which are learned and
socially transmitted. In discussing the functions of education it was stated that
education includes knowledge and skills in the individuals; transmits the norms and
values of the society, propagates and brings about desirable social changes in the
society. On its own, culture establishes ways of meeting social and biological needs of
man; provides rules and regulations which govern individual and groups behaviours
and establishes roles of different group that make up the society.
• Education and culture are interrelated. Culture provides what education transmits or
inculcates while education serves in propagating the cultural norms and values.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of education.
2. Explain the meaning of culture.
3. State any five characteristics of culture.
4. Describe any three ways in which education and culture are related.
REFERENCES
Ivor, Morrish, Sociology of Education, London: Unwin, 1972.
Uche, U., A Sociology of Education for N.C.E. Students, London: Unwin. 1980.
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UNIT 5 (EDU102.5): SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND

INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we concerned ourselves with the concepts of Education and Culture and how
each influences and is being influenced by the other. Yet the extent of such influence differs
from society to society and from individuals to individuals. This is why people often say that
fingers are not equal. Some people are very rich, some are averagely rich while others are
very poor. Some children can afford to go to school where exorbitant school fees are paid
while others have to be contented with "common" schools where no fees are paid. In most
societies, the ruling class dominates other social classes just as the wealthy and educated
dominated the lower social group. In all these situations, a number of factors are responsible
for the inequalities in terms of people's status, privileges and power. This unit is, therefore,
concerned with the hierarchical ranking of people in terms of social levels called "Social
Stratification". We shall also examine the relationship between this social stratification and
education within the Nigerian situation.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the concept of social stratification;
2. identify al least three factors which bring about social stratification in Nigeria.
3. describe at least three ways in which social stratification affects education in Nigeria;
4. state at least two advantages and two disadvantages of streaming.

1. Read through the objectives of this unit.
2. Master the word study below.
3. Study this unit diligently and in steps as arranged.
4. Remember to observe all instructions and do all the activities and assignment.
WORD STUDY
Social mobility: Used to mean the ease with which a person can move from a
lower social class to a higher one or within a class from one
segment to another.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Meaning of Social Stratification
Stratification means to divide something into a hierarchical order or levels or strata such that
there is a marked difference between one stratum or level and the other. By social
stratification, we mean the division of the society into strata or classes of people, each being
95
referred to as a social class. In most societies, there are basically three classes. These are
upper class made up of the wealthy and aristocrats; the middle class made up of the educated
elites and the professionals. The third class is the working class made up of masses and the
unskilled. However, it is common to group the first two as upper - middle class.
Bases of Social Class

A social class is made up of people who can be classified as having the same status,
privileges and power. These could be as a result of birth or social position or opportunity.
Consequently, people of the same social class are usually of the same educational standard or
attainment, income, occupation, or royal birth. For instance, University teachers make up a
social class as distinct from primary school teachers.
In a democratic society like Nigeria, there is what is called social mobility, that is, the
movement of people from one social position to another, whether vertically or horizontally.
An individual can move up along the social ladder through a number of ways. By acquiring
education, an individual can move from a lower social class to a higher one. By dint of
hardwork, an educated businessman can identify with those in the upper-middle class.
Furthermore, religion, economic and political structure as well as general social change can
lead to social mobility.
In the past, social stratification followed customs and traditions. Men of influence such as the
Obas, Obis, Emirs and Chiefs enjoyed very high status in the society. Some of these positions
were acquired or hereditary. It follows that members of the royal families automatically had
access to the social class to which their fathers belonged. However, a commoner could,
through hardwork, move to the chief class.
Today, with the influence of Western education, values have changed. Acquiring western
education is the most important determinant of social mobility now. Hence the first set of
Nigerians who took over the administration of the country from the colonial masters were
those who had formal education. These included Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo,
Ahmadu Bello (Sardauna) to mention just a few. Today, acquiring formal education is still a
symbol of respect and recognition.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is the meaning of Social stratification?
2. To which social class does a College Principal belong?
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ON EDUCATION IN

NIGERIA
The social stratification of the Nigerian society has the following influences on the education
system.
(a) Preference for Private Schools

One of the new trends in Nigeria's system of education is people's consciousness of
the superiority of private Nursery and Primary Schools. Those in the upper and
middle social classes regard public schools as generally ill-equipped and their
teachers at times unqualified and lacking dedication. Instead, they send their children
to private schools where more serious teaching and learning take place. Experiences
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have shown that children of top government officials, bank managers, professors,
schools and college Principals scarcely attend public schools. The irony of it all is that
most of those who send their children to private schools are the nation's education
policy makers. It can be deduced that they often show less concern for what happens
in schools because they are not directly affected. At all events, result of this
development is that children of the middle and upper class parents are better prepared
for school more adequately than those from the low social class.
(b) Establishment of Class Schools

Since private secondary schools have not become as popular as nursery and primary
schools, the upper and middle classes become selective in choosing secondary schools
for their children. Undoubtedly, this is one of the reasons for the establishment of
schools that may well be referred to as class schools. These include University
Demonstration Secondary Schools, Federal Government Colleges and so on. The
question is how many children of the working class have access to such schools?
They are usually very few. The high fees and levies charged can be seen as deliberate
attempts to scare children of the working class parents. A statistics of the parental
background of children in such schools will support this view. This is obviously
against the tenet of democracy. It tends to negate the policy of equalization of
educational opportunities for all Nigerian children.
(c) Social Class Influence in Educational Opportunity

It is generally accepted that parents or parental backgrounds have a powerful
influence on the life chances of their children. The following are some of the ways in
which parental social class affects the educational opportunity of the child.
i. Standards of living
Most working class families are large and therefore face economic problems.
The children hardly have enough food, shelter and school materials. These are
basic needs of the child, the absence of which make learning difficult for him.
On the other hand, the child from the upper-middle class is not wanting. He
has everything at his disposal and therefore finds learning more interesting.
ii. Motivation and Encouragements
Middle class educated elites are known to be anxious about the educational
success of their children. Such children often hear their parents discussing
secondary school or even university and are brought up to believe that some
day, they themselves would go to university. They are given the necessary
encouragement by advising them to work hard in order to pass with good
grades. They are at times promised that if they pass well, they would be taken
to Europe during holidays or bought dresses. As a result, they become anxious
to take their studies seriously. On the other hand, the working class children
rarely get any encouragement or motivation from the parents. They do not
hear their parents talk about education in the same way as children of the
educated elites. Working class parents hardly care to know what happens in
the school except at the end of the term or year when the child comes home
with his report card. There is also more incidence of parents inflicting corporal
punishmenton their children among the working class. On the whole, the
working class families do not possess the means or experience to stimulate
their children to learn.
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iii. Motive For Education_

The working class parents associate education with income. The result is that
majority of them emphasize practical education and that which will not last for
too long. They prefer that their children have more interest in commercial or
vocational subjects. This accounts mainly for the children of the working class
not staying long in school. Often, they stay away working before going to the
next level of education. On the other hand, children of the upper-middle class
stay much longer in school. The motive for the education of their children is
not economic as such, rather it is seen as a social necessity and means of social
mobility.
iv. Choice of Occupation
By and large the influence of the family is very powerful in the occupational
choice of the child. It is very common among the middle-class educated elites
for their children to go into the professions or occupations of their fathers.
Parents in noble or respectable professions like medical, legal and
architectural professions always anticipate that their sons would follow in their
foot-steps. This influences the educational arrangement which such parents
would have for the children. This is not the case with the working class.
Unless out of serious disadvantage, children of working class hardly follow in
their parents' foot- steps. Unfortunately, however, not many of them go into
the respectable professions partly due to high cost and long period of training
involved.
v. Social Class and Interaction
In a society where people are conscious of social class, interpersonal
interactions are bound to be adversely affected. Take the case of a student who
attends Queens College Yaba, a high rated Government Girls Secondary
School and who is a daughter of a top government official. This girl does not
believe she should mix up with other girls who attend community schools and
who perhaps come from a lower social class. Or think of a situation in the
classroom where a child wants to go alone because there are no children of the
same social class in the classroom to associate with. Or think of a situation in
which a particular child comes from a working class family and therefore is
unable to play freely with other children. All these amount to segregation
which makes some children feel rejected. Under this condition, the child is not
likely to find the school a happy place. This will adversely affect his learning.
(d) Provision of a good Model of English

In Nigeria, ability to speak or understand the English language is an asset to effective
learning because English is the medium of instruction in our schools. Children of high
socio-economic status are at an advantage over those from the low socio-economic
class because they learn to speak English early at home before going to school.
Furthermore availability of materials like textbooks, picture, radio, television help to
equip children of high socio-economic status more than those of low socio-economic
class. In a way, therefore, the home background of the child has much influence on
his education.
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(e) Education and Job Aspirations

In Nigeria, like in most societies, education has become a basic condition for
employment. Since children who attend the best colleges have a better chance of
going into the Universities and other post-secondary institutions, they are better
placed to read for courses which will prepare them for well paid jobs. The job in
return, determines one's social class.
You must, however note that there are exceptions to issues raised above. It is possible
to have a child coming from a high socio- economic class performing badly in school
while a child from a low socio-economic class might perform well in school. What
you should note as a teacher is that on the average, high socio- economic homes
encourage education more than low socio-economic ones. As a result, children of the
former class are likely to perform better in the school than the latter.
You must have formed the opinion that education is even encouraging social
stratification since "special schools" are designed for "special children," a system
which in turn makes such "special children" to later occupy "special jobs and
positions", thereby perpetuating their dominance over the less fortunate ones. On the
other hand it should be noted that education has been the means through which
individuals move from one social level to another. There are numerous former Grade
II teachers, like you, who now are professors in our universities.
What can be done to make the education system enhance natural social stratification
is to enlighten parents on the need to send their children to school. Furthermore, the
current 6-3-3-4 system of education must be vigorously implemented to enable the
learners receive functional education that will equip them for better life after school.
ACTIVITY II
1. Why do working class parents want their children to go for courses that will yield
quick-income?
2. How does social stratification affect the national policy on education?
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION WITHIN THE SCHOOL

This system is often referred to as streaming, where children are grouped according to their
ability and intelligence. The very bright children are grouped together to form one class while
the less bright ones form the next class in that order. Such classes might be labelled
A,B,C,D. in relation to the children's mental ability.
Many educators have argued both in favour and against this streaming. Those in favour argue
that such a system helps individual children to move at their own pace rather than being
dragged backwards by the slow learners. On the other hand, those who oppose the system
argue that it tends to kill the spirit of co-operation and that it is capable of creating
psychological problems for those in the lower groups.
We would not want to dwell deeply into this controversy. All that we can state is that the
streaming system is based on the performance of pupils in school tests; and that such
performances might be due to the influence of heredity or environment or the combination of
both. In most cases, children with high socio- economic background are better placed to
perform better than those from the low socio-economic class. In that case, the child from the
later group should not be made to suffer for his parents' inadequacies. It is, therefore,
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suggested that schools should not perpetuate social segregation which streaming implies.
Rather, equal opportunities should be given to every child to develop his potentials. By so
doing we will be assisted to live a happy life both within and outside school situations.
ACTIVITY III
1. Describe any two ways in which streaming can affect the attitudes of pupils in your
school.
SUMMARY
• Social Stratification is the division of the society into social classes according to status,
privileges and power which may be achieved or ascribed.
• Influences of social stratification on education include the following.
i. It encourages the rise of and preference for private schools.
ii. It has led to the establishment of class schools in Nigeria.
iii. It creates unequal educational opportunities for the child.
iv. It makes learning uncomfortable for some children due to the segregational
effects of social stratification.
v. It affects the ability to use the English language.
vi. It influences entry into occupations.
• Social Stratification also takes place in the school and this is called streaming. This
system has its advantages.
• Schools should not encourage segregation but allow each child to develop his potentials
to the highest level.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the concept of social stratification.
2. Name any three factors which bring about social stratification.
3. Describe any three ways in which social stratification affects education in Nigeria.
4. State two advantages and two disadvantages of streaming within Nigerian's primary
school system.
REFERENCES
Dubey, D.L., et al, An introduction to the Sociology of Nigerian Education, London:
Macmillan, 1979.
Ezewu, E., Sociology of Education, Lagos: Longman, 1983.
Uche, U. W., Sociology of Education for NCE Students, London: Unwin, 1980.
Uche, U. W., Sociology of Nigerian Education for Universities and Colleges, Owerri: New
Africa Publishing Co. Ltd., 1986.
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UNIT 6 (EDU102.6): THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL

ORGANISATION
INTRODUCTION
In Units 2 and 3, we examined the socialization process as well as the various agents of
socialization. You will remember that the school is said to be one of such agents. All these
agents of socialization are institutions by themselves. As a matter of fact, one of the things
that makes man unique in the animal kingdom is that he establishes various institutions to
help him solve his various problems. Such institutions like the family, peer groups,
community are referred to as informal institutions while the school is referred to as formal
institution. In this unit, we are going to concentrate on the formal social institution which is
the school. We shall look into its organisational structure, the various roles played by
members of the school organization as well as highlight the existing relationship among such
members.
OBJECTIVES
1. define the term social organization;
2. describe at least four characteristics which make the school a social organizarion;
3. draw a chart showing the social structure of typical primary school.

1. Before you study this unit, try and study the objectives carefully.
2. Study this unit carefully following the steps as arranged.
3. Observe all instructions and do all the activities and assignments.
4. When you come across any unfamiliar word, look up for the meaning in your
dictionary and use it in sentences of your own.
5. Try to relate what you learn to your primary school.
AT THE END OF THIS BOOK.
BASIC CONCEPTS
The School
The school is an institution established by members of the society to perpetuate or propagate
or transmit the culture of that society from generation to another.
Another purpose for it is to produce generation of people who are more refined and
enlightened that their parents or forefathers. The school exists at various levels - the nursery,
primary, secondary and post-secondary.
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Social Organisation
A social organisation refers to a group or community or society made up of inter-dependent
parts. It does combine a number of components - task or activities to be carried out;
relationships, roles, values, norms and beliefs. It also denotes social structures or
bureaucracy or accepeted order of doing things. In fact, it is a collective entity pursuing
specific goals which it is established to serve, such organizations include the Church or
Mosque, Clubs, Schools and so on.
Social Structure of the School

Like any social organisation, the school is set up to achieve specific goals which are usually
academic, vocational and moral. Various people combine to make up a school, each with his
own special functions but at the same time working in close relationship with others for the
smooth running of the school. Take a look at the diagram below which illustrates, the social
structure of a typical Nigerian primary school.
Headmaster
Assistant Headmaster (s)
Class Teachers
School Prefects
Class Monitors
Pupils
Cleaners and Messengers
The Social Structure of a Nigerian Primary School

You will notice in the above diagram that the overall executive is the headmaster. In a large
school there may be one or two Assistant Headmasters who are in some places referred to as
sectional heads. You can clearly see how the arrows show the lines of communication
between the various segments of the school. You will also notice the close inter-relationship
among the members of the social organisation. This is as it should be for the smooth running
of the school. However, to ensure this smooth running, the headmaster is not expected to
arrogate to himself the position of an authoritarian or dictator. Rather, he should interact
freely and directly with his teachers and to a lesser degree his pupils by involving them in the
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administration and decision-making process. By so doing, the prestige of the teachers and
pupils will be enhanced and they will be eager to co-operate with the headmaster in the
various school activities. This is an important point to note by those of you who are already
headmasters. This does not mean that the headmaster should drag himself so low that he
should be disrespected. All we are saying is that a headmaster should use his position to make
every member of the school contribute effectively to the progress of the school. On some
occasions, the headmaster might deal with his pupils indirectly through the prefect or class
teacher but this should not be a standing rule all the time.
Besides the above point, there is a network of social relationships within and outside the
school. The headmaster deals with several people both inside and outside the school. For
instance, he has relationships with government officials, parents and other members and
pupils and his non-academic staff. Other relationship exist between teachers and teachers,
between teachers and pupils and between pupils and pupils. This network of relationship is
controlled by the rules and regulations set for the school. However, there might be cases
when the roles of a section or the headmaster might find himself playing different roles like
that of a government official, a social welfare officer or even a technician. Such a headmaster
or teacher should only try to understand the existence of these conflicting roles from time to
time so that he could adjust himself to perform effectively in the school.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is a school?
2. What is Social Organisation?
3. Draw a diagram showing the social structure of your primary school.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ORGANISATION
Human organizations have some common characteristics, be it social, economic or business
organisation. Let us examine such characteristics one by one.
1. Purpose
An organisation arises when a group of people come together to strive towards a
common purpose. Motive or goals are fundamental factors underlying the existence of
any organisation. These goals are developed around some felt needs or problems
which need to be solved. Hence a school is usually established for a specific purpose
and the moment it stops to fulfill that purpose, it will be shut.
2. Leadership
As soon as an organisation has been found on some goals, it needs to be organised on
a number of activities needed to be carried out to facilitate the attainment of such
goals. In order to do this, the organisation needs leadership.
3. Hierarchy of Positions of Authority

In any social organisation, positions are normally organized in an hierarchical order.
Take a look at the diagram showing the social structure of a typical Nigeria primary
school. You will observe that at the top there are usually fewer officials than those
below. For instance in a primary school, there may be only one headmaster with
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teachers and hundreds of pupils. At each level, an official takes authority from above
and hands down instructions to his subordinates. Every official is usually held
responsible for the actions of his subordinates. By this, some members of the
organisation are given extra authority and responsibilities to lead others towards the
attainment of the set goals. This requires the creation of various structures or positions
or roles to which every body is assigned beginning from the top to the bottom. For
example, in between the principal of a school and the cleaners, there are many other
positions which people are assigned to perform given responsibilites.
4. Division of Labour
For any organization to succeed in its activities, everyone of its members must have a
way of contributing. In other words, the activities of the organisation are divided
among the members so that everybody knows what to do at any given time. This is
division of labour which characterizes any normal organization in such a way that no
single individual can boast he is solely responsible for the success of the
organisation. In other words, the roles played by everybody are as important as
those of others.
5. Rules and Regulations

In any social organisation, there are specific rules and regulations binding every
member in the discharge of his duties. Where there are no such rules and regulations,
there will be chaos. These rules and regulations can be formulated either from outside
like the Local Government's Education Officer or from within the organisation itself
like those regulations on the pupils. In both cases, the rules and regulations must not
conflict with one another particularly since the internal ones are usually approved by
the external bodies.
6. Flexibility
Every organisation needs some measure of stability or continuity in its goals and
methodology. However, it has to be as flexible as •possible. That is, it should not be
very rigid in accepting changes or innovations in the system. Again, as part of its
flexibility,time should be taken to give certain policies a fair trial before they are
renewed or changed. Otherwise, wrong decisions will be the order of the day. Any
organisation that is too rigid cannot move with time and that which is too flexible
cannot establish any tradition.
7. Resources
For any organisation to perform the roles for which it is established, it must have all
necessary resources. These include human, financial and material resources. It would
be foolish to think of a business without assurance on how to get the money to start
with. If any school is to be established provision must be made for the buildings,
furniture and other equipments, teachers and pupils.
8. Impersonal Approach to Duties

Since the social organisation is not a personal enterprises, its members are not
expected to treat it on personal basis in their dealings with customers or other
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officials. In a school system, the headmaster and teachers are expected to act in
accordance with the laid down rules and regulations. A teacher is not expected to
show undue favouritism to his child or relative at the expense of others. For
instance if a teacher decides to award marks as he likes to a particular child, he is
giving the impression that the school is his. This kind of bias or partiality is bound to
create confusion in such an organisation.
9. Security and Sense of Belonging

In any organisation, members must have a sense of security as long as they discharge
their duties conscientiously and efficiently. A feeling of insecurity lowers morale and
affects the productivity of members. If teachers see that the headmaster has less
qualifications with less teaching experience, their ability to work will be undermined.
10. Evaluation
An organisation established to achieve certain goals must ask itself once in a while
how far these are being achieved. This is the question of evaluation. It therefore sees
it as part of the organisation to ensure that its activities are capable of being
evaluated. Other-wise, there would be false impression of progress which would lead
to unexplainable failures. This is why business organisations usually prepare their
balance sheets, at the end of each year. Similarly, pupils are tested periodically to
determine the amount of progress made.
ACTIVITY II
1. Mention any four characteristics of an organisation.
2. Who should be regarded as the greatest contributor to the success of any organisation?
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION

Since the school is a social organisation, it is necessary to examine the extent to which it
possesses some of the above characteristics of an organisation.
The goals of the School

Generally, the school at any level is set up for the following purpose:
a. to provide sound academic programme for the learner;
b. to provide a balanced curriculum with appropriate emphasis on general education and
vocational education. These are meant to promote individual effectiveness and self-
reliance in the society.
c. to provide special programmes for the gifted children and those with special
disabilities.
d. to provide effective guidance and counselling services to the young persons.
e. to evolve a climate that engenders or stimulates in the youth a spirit of enthusiasm to
search for knowledge and truth.
f. to provide an educational environment that makes youth to be proud of their national
heritage, freedoms of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. At any given time or
105
stage, the society shows concern for the attainment of these goals. In fact, such
concern is justified because the school is the creation and property of the society. It
should therefore want to find out if the existence of the school is justified.
In this sense, one can confidently say that the school is a social organisation because it is set
up for a purpose.
School Leadership
The school as an organisation is established on a system of leadership and followership. At
the top is the principal or Head-Teacher who is the chief accounting officer to whom every
other member of the organisation is responsible. He plans, organizes, directs, supervises and
evaluates the activities of the school - mainly teaching and learning including extra-curricula
activities. He is not the only one who leads. Others below him lead at various levels - the
vice-principal, the form master, the house master, the prefects and so on also have some
measures of leadership responsibilities. The same system applies at the primary school level
as shown by the earlier diagram.
Resources of the School

For the school to achieve its goals as an organisation it must have the resources to work with.
These include land on which the buildings are erected, and for the play ground and farms. If
needs labour including the teachers, office workers labourers, cleaners, guards, cooks,
stewards and so on. It needs finance for the day-to-day running of the school especially for
buying materials like books, chalks, dusters, soap, towels, buckets and so on. Above all, the
school needs motivation. This is an important in-put in any organisation. When workers are
highly motivated, their morals will be high thereby enhancing their productivity. Motivation
needed by the school has to do with pleasure and conducive conditions of service for the
teachers and good learning environment for the learners.
Division of Labour in the School

The school as an organisation is like the human body that is made up several systems.
Though the system have their respective functions to perform, they do not exist or perform
these functions in isolation. In a sense, there is a complex of inter- dependence among them
to the extent that if one of the body systems is not functioning well, the entire body will be
affected. For example, if one has problems with lungs, the heart and the other systems of the
body will be in trouble. Similarly, the school is made up of units or departments or divisions
which interact in the course of performing their basic roles. Unless all of them are performing
their basic roles, the entire organisation will collapse. This is division of labour. Let us
imagine a situation in which the cleaners refuse to perform their duties because of some
grievances. Sooner or later, the conditions in the toilets and refuse bins will become
unbearable and could lead to epidemics which can cause the temporary closure of the school.
Or take the case of the water tank driver failing to perform its duty on time. This will slow
down the preparation of students' meals thereby causing late conduction of morning
assembly. This will affect the take-off of the first lesson as scheduled. In the type of division
of labour in the school no single individual can say that the school could have failed but for
his roles alone.
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Evaluation in School
Evaluation has become an important aspect of the school system. Today, emphasis is on
continuous assessment aimed at having regular feed-backs on the extent learning is taking
place in the school. Against the background of the goals of the school which have been
outlined in this unit, a number of issues are being considered in evaluating the school
programme. These include the following.
(a) Pupils' academic attainment

Apart from the regular tests, schools conduct examinations at the end of each term
and year to measure the extent each pupil has mastered the concepts or information or
skills imparted to him over a period of time.
(b) Moral Standard

Today, one of the major problems facing schools in Nigeria is indiscipline among
youths. It is therefore part of the schools' programme to inculcate high moral standard
in the youths not only as a way of preparing them for usual life but also to earn a good
name for the school. But who is the judge here? It is the community that judges the
moral standards of the school. It expresses its views in a number of ways. This could
be on the pages of the newspapers or through speeches during important school
gatherings such as sports competitions or graduation days. There are times when the
community has to intervene in the moral and disciplinary issues community might
come to report to the head master or principal on students' misbehaviors outside the
school. There are also occasions when the community or government awards prizes
for the best disciplined school. This is a way of evaluating the moral standard of the
school.
(c) Judicious use of Resources

Most school heads have been found guilty of reckless spending of school money.
Hence at the end of the year, the schools set up audit committees to look into how the
resources of the school have been used.
There is also the tradition of auditing what amount of money is given to the school to spend.
That is to show with documentary evidence how the money has been spent. These are forms
of evaluation and that possesses the basic characteristics of an organization.
ACTIVITY III
1. List any four characteristics which show that the school is a social organisation.
2. Explain any two ways through which the school is evaluated.
SUMMARY
• This unit is concerned with the school as social organisation. The school was defined
as an institution established to preserve and transmit the culture of the society and to
prepare the learners for life. A social organization was also defined to mean a group
of enterprises made up of interdependent parts with shared responsibilities or roles to
play. The social structure of the school was highlighted showing the interrelationships
among the various segaments and members of that organization.
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• The attributes of the school which make it a social organization are:

i. It is purposeful, that is, it has goals.
ii. It has leadership.
iii. There is a hierarchy of positions of authority.
iv. There is division of labour among members.
v. There are rules and regulations which govern every member.
vi. It is flexible and not static.
vii. It makes use of resources.
viii. There is impersonal approach to duties.
ix. It provides security for its members.
x. There is a system of evaluation of its programmes.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Using appropriate illustrations, what is a social organisation?
2. Describe any five characteristics which make the school organisation.
3. Draw a diagram to show the network of inter-relationships of your primary school.
REFERENCES
Datta, Ansu, Education and Society: A Sociology of African Education, London: Macmillan
Publishers, 1984.
Enoh, A. O., et al, Handbook of Educational Foundations, Jos: Challenge Press, 1987.
Uche, U.W., Sociology of Nigerian Education for Universities and Colleges, Owerri: New
Africa Publishing Coy Ltd., 1986.
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MODULE 2 Unit: 07 Sociological Foundation of Education EDU 102
UNIT 7 (EDU102.7): THE STATUS AND ROLE OF

THE TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
Everybody in the society is expected to behave in manners or ways which benefit his social
positions. For example, the `mother,' `father,' `pupil' and so on all occupied peculiar positions
in the society. These positions dictate the way in which individual or group is expected to
perform or function. Now, let us look at the teacher in the society and the roles he is expected
to perform judging from the crucial role he plays in socializing the child.
OBJECTIVES
1. define the term status,
2. list at least three factors which influence the status of the teacher in Nigeria,
3. define the term `role,'
4. describe at least five roles of the teacher.
__________________________________________

1. Go through the objectives of this unit before you study the unit.
2. Study this unit step by step as arranged for you.
3. You will benefit more from this study if you observe all instructions and do the
activities and assignment.
THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER

Meaning of Status
Status refers to the position occupied by a person, family or group in social system. For
example there is a marked difference between the father or mother and their siblings or
brothers and sisters. There is also a difference between the respect or regard which members
of the public have for classroom teacher and the commissioner for Education. Obviously, the
commissioner commands more respect and regard than the classroom teacher or the office
messenger because of the differences in their social positions or status.
THE TEACHER IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY

The status of the teacher in Nigeria like any other occupations has been affected by a number
of factors. Let us examine such factors one by one.
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(a) Influence of religion

In the early days of Islamic education, Qur'anic schools were organised around the
Mosque under the tutorship of Islamic Scholars referred to as `Mallams'. Their
services were regarded as God's work and therefore did not attract any remuneration.
They depended on alms and gifts from the public. They were erroneously regarded as
beggars and therefore commanded low status among members of the publics.
Similarly, teachers who taught in the Christian mission schools were expected to
serve as agents of Christianity. They were expected to be simple and detest worldly
things. Though they were poorly paid, they commanded respect from members of the
public. This was partly because the numbers of educated Nigerians and indeed
teachers at that time were few. Teachers then enjoyed a lot of privileges and respect.
However, as education became wide-spread and the society grew more complex, the
number of educated Nigerians and indeed teachers continued to be on the increase.
The high esteem with which teachers were held started to diminish.
(b) Economic Factors

The get-rich-quick attitude of the Nigerian society has contributed to the low status in
which the teacher is held. His income is comparatively lower than those of his
contemporaries or equals in the private sector or other professions such as Law;
Medicine and Architecture. For example, there are cases of people being humiliated
or ridiculed in the public by being called `teacher' if they do things to show that they
are not well-off. If you go to a typical Nigerian market and persistently haggle over
prices you might end up being called a teacher. In fact, the Public rating of the
teacher's status in Nigeria is very low. Against this background, it becomes clear why
most people would not want to go into the teaching profession in the past due to low
material project. That was when there were countless job opportunities in the other
sectors of both the private and public sectors. However, the picture is no more as
gloomy as in the past. With the increasing need for teachers at all levels of education,
and review of salaries, teachers' remuneration can compete favourably with others.
(c) Professionalism
Every profession has code of conduct, skill in a well-defined field and public
recognition for members to operate in specific ways. For instance, no Medical
practitioner can operate without being duly registered to do so.
For many years, the teaching profession in Nigeria has remained a field for all,
including the untrained and those who merely want to use teaching as a stepping stone
into more lucrative jobs or occupations. This is the case due to inability of teaching to
require full Professional status. The lawyer or pharmacist is proud and confident
about the respect and regard which members of the public have for him because he
belongs to a clearly defined profession. Nobody wakes up in any other profession for
example engineering to say "next week, I will apply for appointment as a medical
officer" because he has not got the prescribed professional training. But an engineer
can wake up and jump into the teaching job and may be accepted to teach what he
thinks he can teach. This is a sad situation for teaching and the professional teacher
because it undermines the status of the teacher.
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(d) Conditions of Service

Generally the teachers' conditions of service are deplorable. A visit to most primary
and secondary schools in Nigeria will reveal the amount of regard which the
government and the public have for teachers. What one finds in most of the schools
are cracking walls and floors, blown up roofs, windows without shutters, non-existent
material resources, inadequate seats and desks and so on. What respect do you expect
the teacher to command when he squeezes himself into the small chairs and desks
meant for children. When one compares the teachers' conditions of service with those
of the office assistants in the Ministry, it becomes obvious that those of the office
assistants are more pleasurable and conducive.
When all these are put together, there is no gain-saying that the status of the teacher
is low in Nigeria. It should be pointed out that the continuous low status of the
teacher in Nigeria does not augur well for the well-being of the educational system.
Not only does this have negative influence on his morale and output, likely to deter
or discourage new entrants into the profession in the future. In fact, when the nation's
economy would have improved enough to create new job opportunities in other
occupations or sectors, most of those presently in the teaching profession might move
out.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define "status".
2. Mention any three factors which influence the status of the teacher in Nigeria.
3. On the average, how is the teacher's status rated in Nigeria?
THE ROLES OF THE TEACHER

Meaning of role
Role is the way in which an individual is expected to perform according to his social position
or status. The social positions which we occupy or our status determine what functions or
roles we are expected to perform. Thus we are judged according to what is expected of us.
For example, the roles of the father are not the same as those of the mother.
Roles Expected of the Teacher

The teacher has a lot of roles to play in the success of any education system. Unlike the
medical doctor, or engineer who plays specific roles, the teachers' roles are so complex and
diverse that one does not know where to begin and where to end. It is not unusual for a
teacher to play the role of a nurse, technician, agricultural officer, social welfare officer and
so on. Indeed, the teacher plays various roles at various time and at various places either in
the pupils' homes, on the sports field, on an educational tour and so on. In spite of the diverse
nature of the roles of the teachers, we shall try to highlight some basic ones.
(a) Imparting Knowledge

The teacher is seen as an embodiment of knowledge. He knows the values, attitudes
and expectations of the society. The society relies on him •for the imparting of the
desired knowledge, values, ideas, concepts, information, principles and skills to the
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young generations of people. The teacher must, however, be knowledgeable in his

subjects so that he does not impart wrong knowledge to the unsuspecting children.
(b) Creativity
As a teacher, a lot depends on him to make learning possible. A number of conditions
may make teaching and learning unpleasant such as lack of material resources. Out of
creativity, he is expected to promote effective teaching and learning no matter how
intolerable the situation might be.
(c) Foresight
The school as social organisation is subject to change. What social change there is in
the society, the school is bound to be affected in some ways. The teacher in his
foresight, anticipates problems of educational policies and takes necessary actions to
solve them. For example, the Universal Primary Education Programme led to an
increase in school enrolment. The teacher had to cope with the problem of over
crowded classrooms, over-aged pupils and inadequacy of materials to work with. The
same applied to the recently introduced 6-3-3-4 system of education. The new system
demands new approaches ranging from educational objectives, contents and
methodology. The teacher is expected to combine foresight with creativity in order to
cope with problems of changing education policies.
(d) Understanding Pupils

Affection and sympathetic understanding of pupils is an important role of the teacher.
For the teacher to succeed in his job, he must understand the pupils he teaches. This is
necessary because without understanding someone's behaviour or reactions or
attitudes it may be difficult to deal with him or predict him. In a sense, understanding
the pupils helps to select the best methods to use in teaching. It is then he knows the
individual differences and how to cope with them. In fact the teacher is expected to
interact with his pupils. He should be a confidant and father so as to assist his pupils
to meet the changing demands of the society. It is through such understanding that the
teacher can help his pupils to socialize.
(e) Honesty
The teacher is expected to demonstrate high sense of honesty by using his advanced
academic and professional training for the improvement of mankind. He is expected
to be a teacher and not a "cheater." In another way he should demonstrate attributes or
qualities worthy of emulation. In fact, he should be the mirror of the class. That is,
source of example for the pupils.
ACTIVITY II
1. List and briefly explain any six different roles a teacher may play in one day.
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THE TEACHER'S ROLES IN CLASSROOM SITUATIONS

i. Planning
For any teacher to go into the class to teach without any idea about what he intends to
do or achieve would amount to lack of seriousness. It is like a farmer leaving home
for farm without any plan of what to do. Before we do anything, therefore, there is
need for planning so that we know what to achieve and how to go about it. The
primary role of the teacher preparing what to teach is to determine or specify the
objectives to be attained. These are what he expects the pupils to be capable of doing
at the end of the lesson . These will guide him in the selection of subject-matter and
techniques to be used to achieve the set objectives.
ii Organising
Learning follows a systematic procedure and it only takes place when there is
continuity in arrangement and presentation. It is the role of the teacher to arrange and
present the lesson so that it has unity, sequence and organisation. Thus he organises
the materials of instruction to meet these conditions.
iii. Guiding or Leading

It is high time the teacher stopped thinking that he knows everything which the pupils
need to be taught. Emphasis should shift from passive learning to active learning
whereby, the teacher leads or guides the pupils to discover things for themselves. He
is expected to have a good knowledge of the various teaching techniques as well as
the different factors which affect the learning situation. These include the physical
condition of the class, the pupils' emotional condition, their health, family background
and so on. In this way he would be able to guide pupils to learn according to their
individual learning capabilities.
iv. Evaluation
Teaching is not carried out for its own sake. Rather it is supposed to achieve certain
objectives. Its success therefore depends on how much of these objectives are
achieved. It is the role of the teacher to integrate evaluation procedures into his
teaching. Evaluation in education is the use of certain procedures or techniques to
measure the extent to which the stated instructional objectives have been achieved.
Whatever goes on in the class needs evaluation. But if the stated objectives or the
selected contents or techniques of teaching. Evaluation results help the teacher to
improve on his performance.
ACTIVITY III
1. Mention the attribute that determines an individual's roles.
2. Mention any three roles of the teacher.
OTHER ROLES OF THE TEACHER

Apart from the roles discussed so far, the teacher plays other roles in the community in the
administration of the school and among his colleagues. Let us discuss each briefly.
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The Teacher's Role in the Community

In traditional Nigerian Societies the teacher is regarded as an embodiment of wisdom. He is
accordingly regarded as a leader, consultant or adviser, secretary, judge and so on. However,
with the emergence of modern civilization, the teacher no longer plays all these roles.
Nevertheless, the community expects the teacher to help in fulfilling its aspiration. The
community also expects the teacher to behave well. For instance if a teacher puts a village
girl in the family way, heavens will be let loose whereas if it involves an ordinary villager,
the community will not make much noise.
The role of the teacher in the administration of the School

Apart from his normal classroom work, the teacher is assigned specific roles like being a
gamemaster, scoutmaster, or housemaster. The friendly climate that will develop in the
overall administration of the school depends largely on the leadership style of the headmaster
and the attitude of the teacher. If the headmaster is a dictator, he is not likely to win the co-
operation of his teachers. Some teachers might even organise a rebellion against such
headmaster. Headmasters are therefore urged to adopt a democratic approach in their
administration to enable teachers play their expected roles in the overall administration of the
school.
The Teacher's Role Among His Colleagues

The teacher's role among his colleagues is expected to be that of a friend or helper to solve
problems. Teachers are therefore expected to co-operate with one another, exchange ideas
freely and behave professionally towards one another. But this is not usually the case due to
such factors as religious differences, tribal or ethnic affiliations and so on. Teachers should
see themselves as partners in progress and not as enemies. By so doing there will be harmony
in the school.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List any four roles a teacher may play in a typical village school.
SUMMARY
• Status refers to the social position or rank of an individual.
• Roles refer to the tasks individuals are expected to perform in the society depending on
their status.
• The status of the teacher in Nigeria is relatively low due to:
(a) Heritage
(b) Neglect by the government
(c) Lack of professionality etc.
• Roles of the teacher include:
(a) imparting knowledge;
(b) serving as model for the young people;
(c) planning instruction;
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(d) organising instructional materials;

(e) leading or guiding pupils to learn;
(f) evaluation of instruction.
• The teacher also plays other roles in the community, in the administration of the school
and among his colleagues.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Define the term "status"
2. Explain any three factors which influence the status of the teacher in Nigeria.
3. Define the term "role".
4. Describe any four roles of the teacher within the classroom situation.
REFERENCES
Datta, Ansu, Education and Society: a Sociology of African Education, London: Macmillan
Publishers, 1984.
Dubey, D.L. et al, An Introduction to the Sociology of Nigerian Education, London:
Macmillan Publishers, 1979.
Uche, U.W., Sociology of Education for NCE Students, London: Unwin, 1980.
Africa Publishing Company Ltd., 1986.
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UNIT 8 (EDU102.8): EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important issues in the study of man and his environment is his changing
nature. Societies are always changing. As new problems arise, values change and the processs
of solving old problems change. In this unit, you shall be studying social change and how it
affects the education of a given society.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the concept of education;
2. explain the concept of social change;
3. identify at least three factors which bring about social change in the society;
4. describe how social change influences the education system of a given society.

1. This unit has been arranged in steps, so following the steps in that order.
2. Where examples have been given, try to give your own too.
3. Do not hurry over your study of this unit.
4. You will gain from studying this unit if you observe all instructions and answer all
questions given.
MEANING OF EDUCATION
Education can be defined in may ways. It is the transmission of the cultural values of the
society from one generation to another. In other words it is the process of socialization.
Education can also be used to refer to all activities which go on in the schools, colleges or
universities. These activities are aimed at imparting desirable knowledge or ideas or concepts
or skills to the learners so that they might become useful to themselves and society.
In every society, individuals and governments take education seriously because of its great
influence on the lives of the individuals and the nation. It is seen as a tool for the individuals'
social mobility and the transformation or changing of the society. There seems to be a general
belief that education, to a very great extent, dictates the level of economic and political
developments in any society.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define "education"
2. Give two examples or aspects of our National life which education should transmit.
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SOCIAL CHANGE
Meaning of Social Change
Social change may be defined as the process by which changes occur in the norms and values
of the society. There is no society that is static. Everyone of them is always changing from
time to time. Whenever new problems or needs or interests arise, man would begin to think
of new ways of meeting these challenges. Social changes may take either of the two forms -
adoption of new ways of things or reflection of these innovations. An example of social
change may be given with respect to the change from left-hand to right-hand driving on
Nigeria roads. For so many years Nigerians had already got used to left hand driving. But the
need for a change arose. For one thing, the countries from whom Nigeria imported cars had
changed the design of the cars to meet their local requirements. Similar explanations could be
given for the change from imperial system to decimal system of measurement.
Social change can also be seen in age distribution, average educational level, birthrate,
movement from rural to urban settlements, changes in the relationship between workers and
employments, between husbands and wives and so on. In a way therefore, social change
involves transformations in social organisations or activities.
ISSUES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

There are three basic issues in social change namely:
(a) Innovation or Invention

Before social change occurs, there has to be innovation or invention or new ways of
doing things or solving problems. In a sense, there have to be alternatives for example
the 6-3-3-4 system of education came as innovation to replace the old system of
education.
(b) Diffusion
This is the process by which the inventions or innovations or the new ideas developed
are communicated to the members of the society. The communication inlcudes
information on the aims and nature of the social change as well as englightening the
public on how to adapt to the new situations. This is where the mass media becomes
useful. The diffusion might also take place between groups when they interact. For
instance a society with simpler technology might borrow from a technologically
advanced society.
(c) Consequences
There are changes that occur in the society as a result of the adoption or rejection of
the innovation. It should be noted that social change could lead to stability or
instability or confusion depending on whether the change is desirable or not. It also
depends on whether or not the social change puts the characteristic of the society into
consideration. For example, most Nigerians especially the illiterates, found voting
difficult during the 1987 December Local Government elections in the country. There
were people who were more or less used to voting through a recognition of party's or
candidate's symbols clearly on the ballot papers. Contrary to their expectations, the
ballot papers only carried lines or strokes, each number of strokes representing a
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candidate. Above all, the arrangement of the strokes on the ballot papers was in
descending order. This led to serious problem and lack of interest of the voters. This
innovation was defected because it was not diffused through communication.
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change has three dimensions or aspects. These include the following.
(a) Structural Changes

These refer to changes in the structural forms of the society, for example changes in
class structure or the emergence of new roles or responsibilities. They also include
changes in instructions or practices.
(b) Cultural Changes

Innovations or inventions may give rise to new elements in the culture of any society.
Also cultural borrowing through contacts or mass-media can bring about integration
of new elements into the existing culture. For example most educated elites in Nigeria
use cutlery to eat such that food goes to the mouth through the left hand. This is a
social change through cultural integration.
(c) Interactional Dimensions

This focuses on changes in social relationship in society. At one time, the tendency is
for people of the same status or social class to associate. At other times, forces could
bring people of different social classes together. This could bring about a change in
their social outlook. For example a black man getting married to white lady.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SOCIAL CHANGE

A number of factors influence social change.
These include the following.
(a) Geographical factors

Change in man's physical environment - climate, vegetation, soil fertility and so on,
will induce him to these changes. In this way, he thinks about new ways of meeting
the challenges which the changes present. These ways which he innovates are
continuously subject to change. For example, man has no choice than to adjuts his
farming calendar accordingly.
(b) Populations
Growing world population is constituting a lot of problems for man. These include
population movement, shortage of social amenities in the labour in the urban areas
and shortage of farm labour in the rural areas. These are social changes. The
movement of population from rural areas disrupts or alters the existing structure of the
village. It also alters the performance of certain functions. For example the old man
who used to watch while the grown up sons did most of the farm work has to do it
himself because other sons have all left for the cities.
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(c) Government Policy

A number of social changes occur in the society as a result of government policies.
Take the case of government policy on workers' retirement. To retire very many
workers or sack others at the same time will alter the structure of the system in terms
of who does what. The recent emphasis on War Against Indiscipline and
Environmental Sanitation are clear government policies which can bring about social
change. By these programmes, people are made to develop new attitudes and ways of
life in anticipation of a society with new social outlook.
(d) Interactions
It is a common saying that man learns from experience. His association with his
fellow men exposes him to cultures other than his own. This becomes more influential
if interaction cuts across cultures. In this way, new tastes or values may be developed.
Any attempt to adopt new ways of doing things in order to meet these new conditions
necessitates social changes.
(e) Attitudes and Values

A society which holds tenaciously to its beliefs, traditions and habits will change but
slowly. This is so because when a culture has been relatively static for a long time the
society might be unwilling to change. However, rapidly changing societies are
always ready to effect change in various aspects. Such societies might begin to
question some aspects of their traditions and so will consider altering them. This is
why it is believed that literate and educated people tend to accept changes more
rapidly than illiterate and uneducated ones.
(e) Perceived Needs

A society tends to change when the need for such a change is felt. In other words
societies do not change just for the mere fun of it. For instance, a farmer might
decide not to sell his farm produce until there is need for it. There have been cases
where parents sell out their wearing apparels or jewelries to offset debts or pay their
children's school fees or build a house.
ACTIVITY II
1. Give three examples of social change in Nigeria.
2. Mention at least three causes of social change.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Education has been recognized as a powerful agent of social change. The schools which are
agents of education are established by the members of the society to preserve and transmit
their culture from one generation to another. Since culture changes, education which
transmits it must also change. Therefore, the culture of a society determines the education
practised.
In the event of any social change, education becomes the agent for effecting the diffusion of
this change. There are some social changes which cannot be accomplished overnight. They
may take a fairly long period. For example national consciousness and citizenship education.
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They can only be built into the school curriculum and made part of the school's instructions.
They would become permanent element of the education in that society until the situation
arises that they have to change.
Education in itself can bring about social change. It is supposed to help individuals to acquire
experiences, knowledge, ideas and skills which would help them understand and manipulate
their environment to their own advantage. In doing this, new needs or problems may arise
calling for new approaches or ways of solving them. In a way, education tends to alter the
social, economic and political systems of a society. For instance huge sums of money are
needed to build schools, appoint teachers and provide equipment for our rapidly growing
school populations. Many of such school leavers might not succeed to read further or secure
employment. By so doing societal problems crop up. Many people have postulated that the
increasing rate of armed robbery in Nigeria is partly due to unemployment. In fact, in the
course of socialization, individuals become more aware and are able to anaylse existing
situations and possibly come up with innovations. For example, it is common in the villages
to find that majority of those who lead in community development projects are those with
some formal education. This is so because their initiative and innovation capacities have been
developed through education.
On the other hand, social change influences education. As the social system is altered, new
changes are created some of which have to do with new social roles, norms and values.
These used to be learnt by members of the society. Education as an agent of socialization has
to be flexible enough to accommodate these changes. For example the creation of new states
in the country will alter the existing school curriculum on Geography and Social Studies.
This calls for new approaches in the objectives, content and methodology of education. You
will now want a child to say that there are thirty-six states in the country as against his former
concept of twenty-one or thirty states. The same thing applies to change of leadership either
at the Federal or State or Local levels. The changing demands of the society can also alter the
content of education. For instance, the introduction of the 6-3- 3-4 system of education has
brought about the inclusion of entirely new subject areas at all levels of education.
ACTIVITY III
1. Give two instances in which social change is influenced by education in Nigeria.
2. Should education always respond to social change? State the reason for your
response.
SUMMARY
• Education is the process of transmitting the cultural values of the society from one
generation to another.
• Social change means the process by which changes occur in the social roles, norms,
values and structures of the social system or society.
• The stages of social change are innovation, diffusion and consequences.
• The dimensions of social change age structural, cultural and interactional.
• Causes of social change include
(a) geographical factors;
(b) population;
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(c) government policy;

(d) interaction;
(e) attitudes and values; and
(f) perceived Needs.
• Education helps individuals to acquire knowledge, skills and experiences which help
them to understand and discover new ways of solving the problems in their
environment.
• Social change demands new focus and approaches in education.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the concept of education.
2. Explain the concept of social change.
3. Identify any three factors which bring about social change in the society.
4. Describe how social change influences and is influenced by the education system.
REFERENCES
Datta, Ansu, Education and Society: A Sociology of African Education, London: Macmillan
Publishers, 1979.
Dubey, D.L., et al., An Introduction to the Sociology of Nigerian Education, London:
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UNIT 9 (EDU102.9): EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Most people see education as a means of social mobility. This is why some parents, who
never had formal education, do everything to see their children through education. Such
parents strongly believe that their educated children will help in the maintenance of the
family. The government is also aware that education has the capacity to transform a society
socially, economically and politically and so often budget large sums of money for education
at all levels.
In this unit, you will be studying the relationship between education and the economic
development of a society.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the concept of education;
2. explain the concept of economic development;
3. describe at least three ways in which education influences development;
4. explain how the economy influences education.

1. Read through the objectives of this unit once more.
2. Study this unit diligently and be guided by the objectives.
3. Observe all instructions and answer all questions as accurately as possible.
4. CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ASSIGNMENT AND ACTIVITIES
WORD STUDY
Malleable: Used in this unit to mean capable of being changed or redirected
Potentialities: As used here to mean all these things a person is capable of doing
MEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATION

As we mentioned in the last unit, education is an activity which goes on in a society, whose
aims and methods depend on the nature of the society in which it takes place. It is therefore
difficult to give a definition of education that is generally acceptable. Whatever may be the
nature of the society, education may be seen as a process of socialization. It is the process of
transmitting or transferring the values of a society from one generation to another. However,
these values differ from society to society. Considered in a formal sense, education could be
seen as a set of practical techniques for the instructions given in schools, colleges and
universities for the purpose of preparing the learning to become useful to themselves and the
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society. This is a conscious and deliberate attempt by the society, through the agency of the
school to help individuals develop their physical, social and intellectual capabilities or
potentialities.
However, the point has to be made that the development of the individuals' potentialities is
something which goes on outside, as well as inside the home and the school. Education is
therefore the activity of the whole community. It is the whole life of the community and
learning to live that life. However, emphasis will be on formal education in this unit.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define education.
2. Explain one reason why it is difficult to have a generally acceptable definition of
education.
MEANING AND DIMENSIONS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In order to help you have a good understanding of economic development let us first of all try
to define development. Development means some kind of change in terms of an increase in
capacity to perform some more difficult tasks and functions. It involves the process of
modern technology to produce goods more than before. Development also means some
improvements in both the community and individual ways of living. It could therefore be
social, economic or political development.
Economic development refers to the upward movement of the entire social system. It
involves growth in the nation's per-capita income, elimination of miseries or poverty,
reduction in unemployment and inflation, and the elimination of all institutional or customary
obstacles to progress.
Economic development is a vey broad concept. It involves some of the changes in the society
which cannot be measured. For example, it is not possible to measure changes in attitudes of
people or social justice. Whereas, growth in the national income or expenditures can be
measured. Such growth is not economic development unless it has led to improvement in the
living condition of majority of the citizens.
To be more specific, economic development refers to the economic growth and how these are
channelled to the improvement of human life. It has to do with growth in industries,
agriculture, transportation, communication, education, health, social relationships, citizenship
and so on. The issue of economic development has remained the major concern of every
nation. Thus, they make every effort to promote economic development in order to enhance
the living condition of the people.
In Nigeria, the level of economic development is low and its pace is relatively slow compared
to economically advanced countries of the Western World like Great Britain, Germany. A
number of factors are responsible for this unfavourable state of affairs. Among the things, the
system of education being practised in Nigeria has been picked as one of the factors
responsible for our slow level and pace of economic development. It is the opinion of a good
number of people that the kind of educational preparation Nigerians have is not conducive to
economic development. In fact, the emphasis on certification and de-emphasis on practicals
and creativity have made Nigerian graduates and school leavers ineffective in their
contribution to the economic development of the nation. It follows therefore that there is a
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close connection between a country's economic development and the education system in
operation. The relationship will be discussed in the next segment of this unit.
ACTIVITY II
1. Explain the concept of economic development.
2. List any four features of economic development.
INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The following are some of the ways in which education influences the economic
development of a nation.
i. As Agent of Social Change
Education as agent of social change plays an important role in bringing about the
desired social transformation or change in the society. Existing practices and attitudes
which constitute obstacles to economic development can be eliminated through the
school. This is important because bringing about social change is more successful
with children who are still malleable or in their formative stage. In this way, the
schools carry out activities or instructions to discourage old but unprogressive
practices such as uncontrolled birth rate, the erroneous •belief that vaccination causes
fever and so on. These can be made part of the Social Studies or Primary Science
instructions in schools. The desired change or attitudes or beliefs may be impressed
on or inculcated in the pupils. These changes promote economic development through
happier and healthy living. For example, when the rate of population growth is
controlled, it would be easier to reconcile between the population and available
resources such as food, water, houses, health facilities and so on. In this way, the
problems of shortages in essential commodities and services as presently experienced
in Nigeria would be reduced.
ii. Citizenship Training
Patriotismn is an aspect of economic development. This is one attribute that is lacking
in most Nigerians today. Efforts of the government to re-inform the people have not
been very fruitful because of the relatively high rate of illiteracy. These people do not
seem to be making their maximum contribution to national development because they
are not aware of their civic rights and obligations. Education is therefore seen as a tool
for increasing the awareness of the citizens. This promotes their participation as
members of the society. For example, mass literacy of the masses of the population is
expected to improve their awareness and understanding of the socio-economic and
socio-political development in the country. They would be able to assess the
economic problems of the country such as fall in the nation's foreign earnings (that is
money from exports) due to unfavourable conditions in the world market. It would
make them to understand and appreciate the need to contribute or make personal or
group sacrifices for the economic recovery of the nation.
More over, education would make them to know their civic rights and duties. They
may no longer shy away from exercising their voting rights or accepting leadership
responsibilities in the community.
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iii. Manpower Supply

The economy depends on the education system for the supply of manpower to the
various sectors. Unless there is reliable and regular supply of the needed manpower in
the economy, development will slow down. In fact, the society thrives on collective
roles. That is people or groups perform one function or another. They are thus trained
to perform in whatever capacity in the society. The supply of these skilled manpower
is the pre-occupation or concern of the education system. It provides for the training
of people in different skills or occupations so as to service the various sectors of the
economy. In the 1960s for example, the low level of economic development was
partly attributed to shortage of high level manpower. This was due to the relatively
poor system of education in the society at that time.
iv. Vocation Training
Education through its agencies such as the technical schools, polytechnics,
universities and so on , impart vocational skills which help individuals to sustain
themselves and the society. For example, people go to school to study music, art,
type- writing, accounts, engineering, medicine and so on. The problem Nigeria is
facing today is that of self-reliance. There is therefore the need for citizens to apply
themselves in productive ventures for the economic development of the country. In
order to do this, they need to acquire some skills. This is the emphasis in the 6-3-3-4
system of education recently introduced in Nigeria. By this system, pupils are taught
basic vocational skills at the junior secondary school level so that they can fit into the
factory or work on their own when they leave school. In doing this, education helps
to mitigate or reduce the problem of unemployment which has reached an alarming
stage in Nigeria. If most of the school leavers and graduates can engage themselves
based on the vocational training got through education, not many of them will indulge
in social vices such as stealing, robbery, rape, prostitution and so on. If education
helps to minimize all these problems, it would have greatly enhanced economic
development
v. Increasing Productivity
Low productivity per man due to inadequate technical-know-how and conservatism
has been identified as one of the causes of the slow pace of economic development in
Nigeria. Most Nigerian farmers still do their farming the way their fore-fathers did.
They tend to be slow in imbibing scientific innovations. These account for their low
productivity. If economic development must occur, this trend has to change-the
farmers have to change in their attitudes and beliefs as they affect farming practices.
Education is one of the most effective means of bringing about such desirable
changes.
Through the teaching of basic Agricultural Science in schools, the child learns about
modern techniques of farming. He sees the weaknesses of some traditional farming
practices. These, he may take home to convince the parents about the need for a
change in their method of farming.
Apart from the above approach, extensive adult education classes help to inculcate
new and progressive ways of doing things in the adult-learners. Depending on the
major occupations of the community, emphasis will be on how to improve their
productivity. For example, it will be useful to teach a group of adult farmers the need
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for the use of fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, crop selection and education,
preservation techniques and so on . These will be of help to them as individuals and
the society in terms of the multiplier effects which increased productivity has.
ACTIVITY III
1. State any four influences which education has on the economic development in
Nigeria.
INFLUENCE OF THE ECONOMY ON THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

The economic system and the education system are segments or sub-systems within the social
system. These and the other sub- systems are inter-related. It is possible therefore to look at
the ways in which the economy of a nation affects its education system.
i. Financing Education
Education has become one of the most expensive ventures in the world. The success
or failure of education depends to a large extent on the nation's economy. If the
resources are there, expansion of schools, increase in enrolment, provision of basic
infrastructures and employment of the required number of qualified teachers and non-
academic staff like office clerks, gardeners, cleaners, cooks, stewards and so on would
be possible. This is perhaps why education in the United State of America and Japan
differ from that in Nigeria. In these countries, the education system is sound,
organised and adequate. Unfortunately, the education system in Nigeria is faced with
a lot of problems most of which are linked with lack of funds or finance. For
example, the 6-3-3-4 system of education currently operated in Nigeria has not
actually taken off effectively. Most of the required equipment are yet to be made
available to schools due to poor financial position of the government. However, in
fairness to the Nigerian government, the money needed for the development of
education in any society will depend on the nation's economic resources,
transportation and other segments of economy. This therefore, means that education
cannot develop without a corresponding development of the nation's economy.
ii. Employment for School Leavers
Products of the school system have to be gainfully employed. But where the economy
is bad, those leaving school will find it difficult to employ themselves because the
poor state of the nation's economy would also be affecting the demand for their
service or products. These are exactly the experiences of most school leavers and
graduates in Nigeria today. This is why some people are becoming sceptical about
the need to go to school at all.
As a result of the connection between economy and education, some state
governments in Nigeria have resorted to streamlining education in their states by
closing down some Secondary Schools, Polytechnics and Colleges of education. The
governments have also put a ceiling •on the number of students which institutions of
higher learning should admit yearly. These are done in order to cope with the
economic situation in the country.
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iii. The Curriculum

The curriculum also reflects the nation's economy. An industrial country will tailor its
education towards industrialization by training adequate number of efficient
individuals to man the various segments of the nation's industries. The 6-3-3-4 system
of education is introduced with the hope that it will train the much needed manpower
for the nation's technological development.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Mention any two ways in which the economy influences the education of a nation.
SUMMARY
• Education refers to the activities which go on in Schools, Colleges and Universities.
It is also the process of socialization.
• Economic development refers to the upward movement of the entire social system,
including economic growth, social attitudes and practices, production relations and
so on.
• Relationship between education and economic development include:
i. Education produces manpower for the economy.
ii. Education transmits vocational skills required for economic self- reliance.
iii. Education increases citizens' awareness, consciousness, and productivity.
iv. Education serves as an agent of social change in the society.
• The state of the economy also determines the level of educational development in
any country.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the concept of education.
2. Explain the concept of economic development.
3. Describe at least three ways in which the education of a country influences its level of
economic development.
4. Give two examples of how the economy of a nation influences its level of educational
development.
REFERENCES
Enoh, A.O.A. Handbook of Educational Foundations, Jos: Challenge Press, 1987.
Uche, U.W. Sociology of Nigerian Education For Universities and Colleges, Owerri: New
Africa Publishing Company Ltd.; 1986.
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UNIT 10 (EDU102.10): CONSOLIDATIOIN OF UNITS 1 - 9
INTRODUCTION
Man is a social creature because he lives in communities and belongs to social groups. He
also fashions out social institutions to regulate and promote his activities and solve the
numerous problems of the society. These social institutions and forces include the family,
school, peer groups, church, economy, politics, culture, religion and so on. These social
forces and institutions neither exist nor function in isolation. Rather, they are inter-woven or
closely connected with one another. You would have learnt in Units 1 - 9 the various ways in
which these social institutions and forces influence education and how the institution of
education also influences the other social institutions. In this unit, we will be summarizing all
that you have learnt in the preceding units.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the meaning of sociology of education;
2. describe some roles of the agents of socialisation;
3. explain the influence of culture, economy, social stratification and social change on
education;
4. describe the school as a social organization;
5. explain the roles of the teacher.

1. Try to recall what you have learnt in Units 1 to 9.
2. Study this unit diligently.
3. Do all the activities and assignment in the unit.
THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the basis of Sociology of Education. Therefore it is necessary that you know
what sociology is about. Sociology is the scientific study of the society aimed at formulation
general laws about the structure and development of the society. In doing this, it concerns
itself with the study of human interactions and relationship as these affect how the society
operates. This field of study began during the second half of the 19th century.
Sociology, a Social Science subject, adopts a scientific method of inquiry. It is systematic and
positive in approach and does not concern itself with making value-judgement. However, it is
not exactly a science subject like, Physics and Chemistry. It is not purely a Science because it
deals with human beings whose behaviours cannot easily be predicted.
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SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Views about Sociology of Education came to the lime-light at the turn of the nineteenth
century when people started to appreciate the relationships between education or school and
the society. This awareness became necessary because of the growing significance of the role
of the school in transmitting the ideals of the society. Consequently, the need for sufficient
information about the society has become very important as a way of promoting the essential
relationship between the school and the society. It is an attempt to apply the knowledge of
sociology on the organisation of education that has given rise to Sociology of Education.
Sociology of Education is therefore an attempt to examine the effect of such social
institutions like the family, peer groups, culture, religious beliefs, economy and politics on
education and how the institution of education influences them. In looking at these
interactions, forcus is on the changing needs of the society, the class structure of the society,
education and the economy as well as education and politics.
The importance of Sociology of Education includes the following.
It provides objectivity in educational matters. Because it uses scientific approach, the
information produced is highly positive and not based on value judgement.
It also provides a lot of information about the society which in turn is useful for formulating
educational policies. Some of the generalisations and principles help to clarify the
environment on which the educational policies are based. Furthermore, Sociology of
Education helps to promote an effective relationship between the community and school. By
this its nature, its concern is to explore the essential relationships between the school and
society.
Finally, Sociology of Education also helps us to understand the various social and
institutional forces which influence education.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define Sociology.
2. How did Sociology of Education develop?
THE CONCEPT AND AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is the process by which an individual gets to learn the ways of his people. Every
social group has its norms and values. The family, school, peer groups, church and others,
have their norms and values which members must respect if they have to fit in. However,
those norms and values differ from society to society. As soon as certain ways of life have
been established, the group devices some means for their transmission. These means by
which learning occurs are referred to as agents. These agents include the family, peer group,
school and the church. Agents of socialization play a number of roles to make individuals
learn the ways of their people. These include the following.
i. Moral Training
It is one of the central concerns of every social group whether the family, peer group
or the school to ensure that its members develop the moral standards for the social
group. These moral standards are by and large a reflection of the norms and values
of the society.
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ii. Intellectual Training

The various agents of socialization have their roles to play in the intellectual
development of the child. For example, the family helps the child to learn a language,
provide answers for his questions and ask him a few simple ones. Peer groups satisfy
the child's curiosity and initiative while the school teaches him the numerous subjects
to promote knowledge. Even the mass media like newspapers, radio, television are
very useful for the intellectual development of the child.
iii. Character Training
In every social group, there are laid down standards for members' behaviours. They
emphasize respect for others and the constituted authority, loyalty and good manners.
Members are taught to obey group rules and regulations. These forms of training are
considered very necessary for the child's participation in the society.
iv. Vocational Training
The need to prepare the child for a self-reliant living is very central in the roles of the
agents of socialization. The home and the school are very important in the vocational
preparation of the child. In the home, the child learns mainly by imitation and
performance. For example, a child learns the skills of hunting by watching his father.
But in the school, a number of subjects and programmes are used to expose the child
to the desired vocational experiences. For example, technical subjects like
Woodwork, Metal work, Accounts, Home Economics, Typing and so on are taught in
the school.
v. Leadership Training
The peer group provides free and democratic environment for the child. Here,
members enjoy equal status and opportunities. The peer group activities provide
leadership training for members. For example, the social roles which they play
provide them the opportunities to play the role of the adults. Also, they organise
their activities, some playing the role of leaders and others as followers.
ACTIVITY II
1. What are the major agents of socialization?
2. Discuss the roles of any two agents of socialization.
SOME BASIC ISSUES OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

i Culture and education
Culture refers to the totality of a people's ways of life including norms and values,
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and so on which are learnt and socially transmitted. It
forms the essence or basic of man's existence. People have different cultures
depending on the society.
Culture has both material and non-material aspects. Material aspects refer to artifacts,
or remains of objects like pots or the dead while the non-material aspects refer to
values and attitudes.
130
On the other hand, education is an activity which goes on in the society whose aims and
methods depend on the nature of the society in which it takes place. It is also the transmission
of the norms and values of a society from one generation to another.
Culture and education are interrelated. Culture is concerned with what people should do or
know while education serves as an agent for transmitting the cultural ideals and elements.
Culture establishes ways of solving problems in man's physical environment, while education
which takes place in every society depends very much on the culture of that society.
ii. Education and Economy
Education has been defined in the preceding section of this unit. When considered in a
formal sense, education becomes a set of techniques for instructions given in school
for the purpose of preparing the learners to become useful to themselves and the
society.
Formal education requires human and material resources, such as teachers,
administrators, buildings, laboratories, workshops and equipment.
On the other hand, economy refers to the overall state of demand and supply of
resources or the level of wealth of the society. Thus, there is a strong connection
between education and the economy of any nation. While education guarantees the
regular supply of the needed man-power for economic development, the state of the
economy determines how much money will be available for the overall provision of
education. It also determines how many of the school leavers can be employed.
iii. Social Stratification and Education in Nigeria
Social stratification is the division of a society into strata or levels in such a way that
people find themselves in a given stratum called social class. This division follows
some criteria or conditions depending on the society. For example, royal birth,
education, wealth and so on could define the social class one belongs to. There are the
upper, middle and lower class, each having its characteristics. The interests and
attitudes of the members of a given social class determines largely the type of
education they need. For example, because the lower class attaches economic gains to
education, their children do not usually remain in school for long. Instead they go in
for courses that last for a short period so that they can easily obtain jobs immediately
after leaving school. These are mainly commercial and technical courses. The upper-
middle class children on the other hand go in for prestigious courses which might
require longer periods of study e.g. Medicine.
In the same way, where social stratification is widely accepted and practised, the
tendency is to have different schools for different social classes. For example, there
are numerous upper- middle class schools in Nigeria such as the University Staff
Schools, the Federal Government Colleges and a host of others. Though it is claimed
that any child could attend these schools there are certain social obstacles like quota
system and very high school fees which prevent lower class children from attending.
Social stratification is also practised when schools adopt streaming system whereby
intelligent children are selected and kept in a particular class. This system tends to
affect the relationships between the pupils in the school.
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iv. Education and Social Change

At this stage, you should be able to explain education, having come across the concept
a number of times.
Social changes is the process by which alterations or drastic changes occur in the
norms and values of the society to give way for new ones. Every society is a dynamic
one, and so it is always changing. Changes occur when new needs or problems arise
and new ways are brought for solving them. For example, measures to cope with
indiscipline, population explosion and unemployment are forms of social change.
A number of factors' influence social change. These include geographical factors (like
climate, vegetation, erosion and so on,) population, government policies, interactions,
attitudes and values and perceived needs.
Social change could bring about a change in the aims and methods of education. In
fact, since education is meant to provide the individuals with the knowledge, skills
and capabilities for coping with his environmental problems, it has to be dynamic and
adaptive to the needs of time. Otherwise it will be worthless. In a sense, social
change brings about curriculum restructuring. However, education itself can also be
used to initiate social change.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the relationship between education and culture.
2. Briefly describe how education and economy are related.
THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION

The school is a social institution established by members of a society to transmit the culture
of that society from one generation to another. It exists at various levels of education, namely,
pre-primary or nursery, primary, secondary and post- secondary. On the other hand, an
organisation is a group or community or society or concern made up of inter-dependent parts.
In other words, the components are related in existence and functions. For example, in the
school, we have the head master, assistant headmaster, the teacher, prefects, monitors and
other pupils. There are also maintenance staff like cleaners, drivers gardeners and so on.
Their functions are inter-related in such a way that if one group fails, the functions of the
others will be affected. Some of the characteristics which make the school a social
organisation include the following.
(a) Purpose or goal orientation
(b) Leadership
(c) Hierarchy of position of authority
(d) Rules and regulations
(e) Division of labour
(f) Use of resources
(g) Flexibility
(h) Impersonal approach to duties.
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ACTIVITY IV
1. What is a school?
2. Explain any five characteristics of the school which make it a social organisation.
THE STATUS AND ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Status refers to the position occupied by a person or group of person in a social system, for
example the clerk does not command as much respect as the Governor.
The status of the teacher in Nigeria has been affected by a number of factors including the
influence of religion, economic position, professionalism, conditions of service and so on.
To some extent, one's status affects the role he is expected to play in the society. Thus we are
judged according to what is expected of us.
(a) He imparts knowledge.
(b) He uses his creativity to influence children in positive ways.
(c) He is foresighted, plans for the needs of children and takes care of problems that may
arise from present government educational polices.
(d) He shows affection and sympathy for his pupils as he tries to understand them.
(e) He demonstrates honesty.
(f) In the classroom situation, he plans, or organises, guides and evaluates pupils'
learning.
(g) In addition, he establishes good school-community relationship and assists in other
administrative matters in the school.
ACTIVITY V
1. Define status.
2. Briefly describe any five roles of the teacher in Nigeria.
SUMMARY
• Sociology is the scientific study of the society so as to develop generalised laws
about the structure and development of the society.
• Sociology of Education developed out of the growing awareness of the essential
relationships between the school and the society.
• As a Social Science subject, using scientific method of enquiry, Sociology of
Education, provides positive information for educational organisation.
• Socialization is the process by which individuals learn the norms and values of his
people.
• Agents of socialization include the home, peer group, school, church, mosque and the
mass media.
• Functions of the agents of socialization include:
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i. moral training;
ii. intellectual training;
iii. vocational training;
iv. character training.
• Culture defines what is to be learnt while education provides avenues for learning
them.
• Education guarantees the supply of manpower to the economy, while it depends on
the economy for financing.
• Social stratification is the division of the society into strata or levels called social
classes according to some criteria.
• Social stratification leads to having different schools for social classes or streaming
children into classes according to their level of performance.
• Social change is the process of drastic change in the norms and values of the society
due to a number of factors.
• Since education is the servant of the society it can only serve well if it is dynamic and
responsive to social change.
• The school is a social institution established by members of the society to perpetuate
its culture. It is a social organiszation because it possesses the characteristics of an
organisation.
• Status is one's social position in the social system. The teacher's status in Nigeria has
been influenced by religious factors, economic factor, professionalism and
conditions of service.
• Among others, teacher's roles include imparting knowledge, understanding pupils,
planning, organising, guiding and evaluating learning, establishing good school-
community relationship.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of Sociology of Education.
2. Explain any five roles played by the agents of socialization.
3. Describe the influence of culture, economy, social stratification and social change on
education.
4. Explain the roles of the Nigerian teacher.
REFERENCES
Datta, Ansu, Education and Society: A Sociology of African Education, London: Macmillan,
1984.
Dubet, D.L. et al., An Introduction to the Sociology of Nigerian Education, London:
Uche, U.A., Sociology of Education For NCE Students, London: Unwin, 1980.
Africa Publishing Company, 1986.
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MODULE 2 Answers Sociological Foundations of Education EDU 102
UNIT 1 (EDU 102.1): THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY OF

EDUCATION
ACTIVITY I
1. Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of the society in order to formulate
general laws about the structures and organisation of the society.
2. (a) Sociology uses scientific method of inquiry.
(b) It is positive.
ACTIVITY II
1. Sociology of Education emerged out of increasing awareness and appreciation of the
essential relationships between the school and society. Students should use
appropriate local illustrations.
ACTIVITY III
1. Sociology of Education is an attempt to examine and understand the organisation of
the school in the context of the society or how the school influences and is being
influenced by such social institutions like the family etc.
2. (a) The quantity and quality of educational facilities depend on the economy of
the society.
(b) The cultural values of the society influence the structure and orgnisation of the
school.
(c) The class structure of the society influences the structure and organisation of
the school.
(d) The politics and changing needs of the society also influence the structure and
organisation of the schools.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Sociology of Education provides us with broader understanding of the
(b) It aids educational policy making.
(c) It helps us to do objective analysis of social problems and issues.
(d) It helps to reinforce school - community relationships.
(e) It provides broad knowledge of the society. (Any four will do).
ASSIGNMENT
1. Sociology is the scientific study of the society in order to formulate general laws
about the structure and development of the society,.
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2. (a) Sociology uses scientific method of inquiry.

(b) It is positive and not normative.
3. Sociology of Education is an attempt to examine and understand the organisation of
the school in the context of the society.
4. Sociology of Education emerged out of the growing appreciation of the essential
5. (a) Sociology of Education provides objective examination of the social process
in educational institutions.
(b) It provides broader knowledge about the relationship between the school and
society.
(c) It reinforces school - community relationship.
(d) It promotes understanding of those social forces which influence education.
(Any three will do).
UNIT 2 (EDU 102.2): THE CONCEPT AND AGENTS OF

SOCIALIZATION: THE FAMILY, THE
PEER GROUP AND THE SCHOOL
ACTIVITY I
1. Socialization is the process by which an individual learns how to behave in acceptable
ways within the society.
2. i. Learning to function in the society.
ii. Learning the various roles.
iii. Learning certain attitudes, skills, knowledge expected of his group.
3. i. Informal socialization takes place at home.
ii. Formal socialization takes place mostly in the school.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Moral and character training.
(b) Vocational preparation.
2. (a) Showing concern for members of the family who have problems. For example,
those who are sick.
(b) Showing love for one another in the family.,
ACTIVITY III
1. A peer group is an association of (or social relationships between) people who fall
within the same age grade.
2. (a) The child's free interaction in the peer helps him to learn to live in democratic
society.
413
(b) The loyalty which the child has for the group by observing its rules and
regulations prepares the child to live in the society that is full of rules and
regulations.
(c) Children in the peer group learn to play leadership roles. They plan what to do
or what kind of play or activity to engage in . They also organise themselves in
this way, they play the leadership and fellowship roles.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Regular inspection of pupils' teeth, nail and clothes.
(b) Involving them in regular cleaning of the school compound.
(c) Teaching them hygiene.
2. (a) The school draws its curriculum form the values of the home.
(b) The school depends on the home as the evaluator of its program.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Socialization is the process by which individuals become used to the norms and
values of the society or group.
2. (a) Moral training.
(b) Intellectual training.
(c) Inculcating natural values.
(d) Vocational training.
3. (a) Democratic living.
(b) Exchange of cultural ideas.
(c) Providing members the opportunity to learn.
(d) Social roles.
Any other acceptable answer.
4. (a) Moral education.
(b) Vocational training.
(c) Citizenship education.
(d) Involvement in co-curricular activities.
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UNIT 3 (EDU 102.3): AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION: THE

CHURCH, THE MOSQUE, THE
MASS MEDIA AND THE
COMMUNITY
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) The Church is an agent of social change.
(b) It gives moral and spiritual training
(c) It also gives some intellectual training.
(d) Leadership and followership training is also given.
(Any three will do.)
2. (a) Through Public Sanitation campaigns.
(b) Through campaign for national unity.
(c) Through preaching against indiscipline.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Listening to the sermons or reading the Holy Qu'ran.
(b) Praying five times a day.
(c) Teaching the Hadith and Shariah.
2. Early memorization of the Qu'ran lays foundation for the child's future education.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Newspapers.
(c) Radio.
(c) Television.
2. (a) Public enlightenment and information.
(b) Transmission of cultural values.
(c) Promotion of learning.
3. (a) The children might be exposed to bad influence e.g. through stories, pictures,
etc.
(b) The mass media might print or broadcast issues that might cause confusion in
the society.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Festivals (d) Story telling
(b) Cultural.
(c) Legislation (Any three will do).
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2. (a) It organises youngsters in gainful activities.

(b) Provides guidance and counselling services to those who need them.
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) The Church helps to build the child morally and spiritually.
(b) The church provides opportunity for the child to learn to follow and lead.
(c) The Church helps the child to develop intellectually through Bible study
2. (a) The Mosque, through prayers and fasting, helps to inculcate the fear of Allah
in the youngsters thereby developing morally and spiritually.
(b) The routine activities of the Mosque help the child to get used to regulations.
(c) The organization of the Mosque helps the child develop the spirit of
followership and leadership.
3. (a) The mass media helps to propagate desirable social attitudes and ideas.
(b) It serves as agent for social change.
(c) The mass media helps children to learn new things. It is therefore of
educational importance.
4. (a) The community sets the standards which members have to conform to.
(b) The community appoints or delegates people who see to it that members
conform to the norms and values of the system.
(c) The community provides activities and events which help in the transmission
of desirable attitudes and values to the youngsters.
UNIT 4 (EDU 102.4): EDUCATION AND CULTURE

ACTIVITY I
1. Different societies have different values hence the aims and methods of education
differ thereby making it difficult to have a straight-away definition of education.
2. Education is the transmission of what is worthwhile in the society.
ACTIVITY II
1. Culture is the totality as a people's ways of life.
2. (a) Knowledge.
(b) Attitudes.
(c) Skills.
(d) Language.
(e) Music.
3. (a) Material culture.
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(b) Immaterial culture.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Education inculcates knowledge and skills in individuals.
(b) It transmits norms and values.
(c) It propagates cultural change.
2. (a) Culture establishes ways of doing things.
(b) It provides rules which govern behaviours.
(c) It unites people.
3. (a) Education transmits cultural values.
(b) Education helps to propagate culture.
(c) Education could bring about desirable cultural change.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Education is the transmission of the values of the society from one generation to
another. These include knowledge, skills and other capabilities. However, values
differ from society to society.
2. Culture refers to the totality of a people's ways of life including language, customs
and traditions, religion, foods, dressing, attitudes, knowledge and other capabilities
which are learnt and socially transmitted from one generation to another.
3. Characteristics of Culture:
(a) It is continuous.
(b) It is relative.
(c) It is dynamic.
(d) It has an element of dignity.
(e) It is shared and learned.
(f) It is organised
4. (a) Culture provides the materials which education transmits.
(b) Education serves as an agent for propagating culture and cultural changes.
(c) Education could bring about cultural change in the society.
UNIT 5 (EDU 102.5): SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND

ACTIVITY I
1. Social stratification means the division of the society into social classes according to
status, privileges and power.
417
2. Middle Class
ACTIVITY II
1. Because they associate education with income and status.
2. It tends to negate the philosophy of equal educational opportunities for every Nigerian
child.
ACTIVITY III
i. It can make the bright ones to be unnecessarily proud.
ii. It can breed inferiority complex among the dull ones.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Social stratification means the division of the society into strata or social according to
people's status, privileges and power.
2. (a) Education.
(b) Wealth.
(c) Royal birth.
3. Social stratification influences education in Nigeria in the following ways.
(a) It encourages the shift from the public schools to private schools.
(b) It encourages the establishment of class schools.
(c) It creates unequal educational opportunities for children.
4. Advantages of streaming:
i. It allows the individual child to move at his own pace.
ii. It allows a child to participate freely in his class.
Disadvantages:
i. It promotes segregation in terms of ability.
ii. It promotes psychological problems.
UNIT 6 (EDU 102.6): THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL

ORGANISATION
ACTIVITY I
1. The school is an institution established by the society to preserve and transmit its
culture.
2. Social organisation refers to a group or entity or concern made up of inter-dependent
parts and shared roles.
3. The diagram will be relative but reflect that in the text.
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ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Goals.
(b) Leadership.
(c) Resources.
(d) Division of labour.
2. Nobody, because the roles of every one is as important to the success of the
organisation as those of others.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) The school has goals.
(b) It makes use of resources.
(c) It has leadership system.
(d) It is based on division of labour.
2. i. Through pupils' academic attainment.
ii. Through Moral Standards.
iii. Proper use of resources.
ASSIGNMENT
1. A social organisation refers to a group or concern made up of inter-dependent parts
with shared roles. Students should give appropriate illustrations.
2. (a) The school has goals.
(b) The school has leadership.
(c) There is division of labour.
(d) It makes use of resources.
(e) It has a way of evaluating its programmes
3. The diagram should reflect the network of social relationship of a typical Nigerian
primary school, putting the headmaster at the centre with connections with those
outside and inside the school, like the community, school inspectors, parents,
teachers, non- academic staff and student's.
UNIT 7 (EDU 102.7): THE STATUS AND ROLE OF THE

TEACHER
ACTIVITY I
1. Status is the social position or rank occupied by a person or group in a social setting.
2. i. religion
ii. economy or remunerations.
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iii. general conditions of service.

iv. professionalism.
3. The teacher's status is low in Nigeria.
ACTIVITY II
i. teacher - teaching in the classroom
ii nurse - treating a pupil's wound.
iii. carpenter - mending a broken chair
iv. coach - teaching pupils how to play football
v. agricultural officer - taking children to the school farm to plant crops
vi. judge - listening to pupils' complaints
vii Counsellor - assisting pupils to solve their problems.
Any other acceptable answer.
ACTIVITY III
1. Status of social position.
(a) Imparting knowledge
(b) planning instructions
(c) serving as a model for the children
(d) evaluation of instruction.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) A Judge
(b) Interpreter
(c) A pastor or Mallam.
(d) A Secretary
ASSIGNMENT
1. Status means position occupied by an individual in a society
(a) Religion.
(b) General conditions of service.
(c) Professionalism.
3. Rolemeans the way a person is expected to perform his social position.
4. a. Planning instruction
b. Organizing instructions.
c. Guiding pupils to learn
d. Evaluating instructions.
420
UNIT 8 (EDU 102.8): EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

ACTIVITY I
1. Education is the process of socialization.
It refers to all the activities which go on in the school
2. (a) Culture
(b) National Unity
(c) Technology, etc
ACTIVITY II
1. a Change in school year.
b. Military intervention.
c. Adoption of the 6-3-3-4 system of education.
2. Causes of social change include:
i. geographical factors;
ii. population;
iii. government's policies;
iv. perceived needs;
v. attitudes and values;
vi. interaction.
ACTIVITY III
1. a. Life style of educated elites.
b. Attraction of youths to education and desertion of farming.
2. Yes, because it is an agent of social change.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Education is a process of socialization.
2. Social change is the process by which alteration occurs in the social system.
3. a. Geograhpical factors.
b. Popuplation.
c. Government policies.
4. a. Social change redirects the focus of education.
b. Education generates social change through the development of the individual
innovative capacities.
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UNIT 9 (EDU 102.9): EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. Education is a process of socialization. It also refers to all the activities which go on
in the school, colleges, and universities, and even outside school situations.
2. It is difficult to have a generally acceptable definition of education because the values
which are inculcated in the individuals differ from the society to society.
ACTIVITY II
1. Economic development refers to upwards movement of the entire social system.
2. a. Economic growth.
b. Positive change in attitudes.
c. Elimination of unprogressive practices.
d. Reduction in misery and poverty.
ACTIVITY III
1. a. Training of manpower.
b. Increasing productivity.
c. Vocational training.
d. Citizenship training.
ACTIVITY IV
1. a. Funds to expand the education system.
b. Funds to train and employ qualified teachers.
c. The economy determines the chances of school leavers gaining
employment.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Education refers to the activities which go on in school, college and university. It is
also a process of socialization.
2. Economic development refers to the upwards movement of every aspect of the social
system, including social attitudes and practices, human relations, economic growth
and so on.
3. a. Education supports the economy in the training of manpower.
b. It provides vocational training which sustains individuals and the economy.
c. It provides citizenship training which promotes individual contribution to
national development.
4. (a) The state of the economy determines how much resources will be available for
422
educational development like building of schools, employment of staff and so

on.
(b) How many of the school leavers will get jobs depends on the state of the
nation's
economy.
UNIT 10 (EDU 102.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1-9

ACTIVITY I
1. Sociology is the systematic study of the society so as to provide generalised law about
structure and development of that society.
2. Sociology of Education grew out of the growing awareness of the essential
relationships between the school and the community.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) The home.
(b) The school.
(c) Peer group.
(d) Mass media.
(e) Church and mosque.
2. (a) Moral training.
(b) Intellectual training.
(c) vocational training.
(d) Character training
ACTIVITY III
1. Culture stipulates what is to be learnt and education facilitates the learning.
2. Education sustains the economy with the supply of manpower while the economy
determines the scope of educational development.
1. A school is a social institution established by the society to transmit its culture from
one generation to another.
2. (a) It has leadership.
(b) It is purposeful.
(c) It makes use of resources.
(d) It is flexible and not static.
(e) It has rules and regulations.
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ACTIVITY IV
1. Status refers to the social position occupied by a person or group of persons in a social
system.
2. (a) He imparts knowledge.
(b) He plans for pupils' learning.
(c) He organises.
(d) He guides pupils' learning.
(e) He evaluates.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Sociology of education is the application of the knowledge of the society to the
organisation of education.
2. Agents of socialization include the home, peer group, school, church, mosque and the
mass media. Their primary function is to prepare individuals to become members of
the society by inculcating in them, the norms and values of the society including:
(a) moral training;
(b) intellectual training;
(c) vocational training;
(d) character training;
(e) leadership training.
3. (a) Culture defines what is to be learnt and education propagates them.
(b) Education provides the manpower need of the economy while the economy
guarantees the funding and expansion of the education system.
(c) The class structure of the society determines whether or not there would be
separate schools for different social class.
(d) Education is the servant of the society. It fulfills its obligation only if it is
dynamic and responsive to changing needs and problems. Social change calls
for changes in the aims and methods of education.
4. The school is a social institution established by members of the society for the
perpetuation or propagation of its culture. It is a social organisation because it
possesses the characteristics of an organisation.
5. Roles played by the Nigerian teacher
(a) He imparts knowledge.
(b) He promotes learning through initiative and creativity.
(c) He plans, organises, guides and evaluates learning.
(d) He does other administrative duties in the school.
(d) He helps to establish good community-school relationships.
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MODULE 3 Unit: 01 Educational Psychology I EDU 111
UNIT 1 (EDU111.1): THE MEANING, NATURE AND

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
There is a popular saying that teachers are born not made. Nothing could be farther from the
truth. Teachers are born and made. Teaching is becoming more scientific these days and the
teacher requires an extensive background in foundation courses in education. One of these
foundation courses is Educational Psychology, which aims at equiping the teacher with
insights regarding student behaviour and learning. why, for instance, do you think that a child
who lives near your school continues to come to school late even when he has been
constantly punished? Too much housework? Probably not. Lack of interest in school? Not
really. It is quite possible that he finds coming to school late rewarding since it satisfies his
need for attention. When he comes late, he is noticed and he enjoys that attention. The
Educational Psychology course may not provide answers to all your questions but it should
certainly help you to be a more effective teacher by providing research guiding based
information, principles, techniques etc. for guiding students behaviour and learning.
OBJECTIVES
by the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. define Educational Psychology;
2. list 4 characteristics of Educational Psychology;
3. state the aim of Educational Psychology;
4. give at least 3 content area of Educational Psychology; and
5. give the major components of this course.

1. Read through this unit noting the important ideas as you read. Look up any unfamiliar
words in your dictionary.
2. Go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities. Do not
look up the sample answers until you have completed the activities.
3. Try and do the assignment at the end of the unit. If you find any part of the
assignment difficult, go back and study the part of the unit concerned.
4. To obtain the best results, you should obey all the instructions and observe all the
rules.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS AT
WORD STUDY
Psychology - a science of behaviour.
135
THE MEANING AND NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Before we attempt a definition of Educational Psychology, let us first of all try to understand
the ideas contained in the two component words i.e. èducational' - pertaining to education
and `psychology'. we can immediately say that Educational Psychology is the psychology
which relates to education. Let us explore the words further.
As you are well aware, every society tries to educate its young members in the ways of the
society. Sometimes the education is informal. However, when the aim is to produce highly
skilled, knowledgeable and independent members who are concerned not only with personal
survival but also with the progress of the community, the education becomes more formal. In
our country today education is formally provided in schools for different categories of people
with specified curricula and trained personnel. Education is provided at a tremendous cost for
the development of the individual's potentials and for the overall development of the nation
through provision of highly skilled manpower, effective utilisation of resources, etc. By
helping to make learning more effective, Educational Psychology helps to ensure that the
aims of education are realised.
Psychology is a science concerned with the study of various types of behaviour. It studies
how people think, respond and feel, learn, why they behave the way they do, what initiates
and sustains their actions. These processes are fundamental to our understanding of the way
children learn and think. The aims of psychology are to understand, predict and control
behaviour in terms of modifying, guiding or changing it. There are many branches of
psychology, each branch trying to study behaviour from its own standpoint. so, for instance,
developmental psychology tries to study how the various processes as they relate to groups.
Since all the branches study behaviour there is overlap and therefore borrowing of ideas and
interchange of information. Educational Psychology borrows ideas from other branches
including developmental and social psychology.
Now we can define Educational Psychology after the background that is given.
DEFINITION: Educational Psychology is an applied branch of Psychology which deals

with educational matters. Because it is a branch of psychology it is a science and because it is
related to education, it is concerned with the learner, learning and instructional processes and
different conditions of learning.
We can go further and discuss the specific characteristics of Educational Psychology.
i. As Science it uses methods which can be replicated by anyone and in different
places.
ii. As a branch of psychology, it has links with other branches and borrows principles,
research techniques and ideas.
iii. As an applied area of study, it is concerned with real problems encountered in the
process of learning and it seeks objective solutions to these practical problems.
iv. In the course of studying the problems associated with learning it has generated
theories, accumulated a large body of knowledge, some principles and techniques.
Thus, it is discipline.
The aims of Educational Psychology are:
1. the improvement of learning and instruction in the expected direction. It seeks to
achieve this aim by understanding the learner, the learning process and the specific
136
techniques that can be applied in different settings so that the teaching - learning can
be more precisely controlled.
ii. equipping the school psychologist and teachers with adequate tools to make students
benefit from education to the maximum.
ACTIVITY I
1. Write TRUE OR FALSE after each statement.
i. Educational Psychology is an applied branch of Psychology.
ii. Educational Psychology is the same as developmental psychology.
iii. Educational psychology has a body of knowledge of its own therefore it does
not need to borrow ideas from psychology.
iv. Educational psychology deals with student learning and student behaviour.
v. Educational Psychology is useful for school psychologists only.
vi. Educational Psychology helps in the achievement of the aim of education.
2. Complete the blanks in the following sentences. Choose words from the list given
below.
i. The aim of educational psychology is the ...... of student learning.
ii. Educational psychology aims at providing more precise tools for
...............psychologists and............... to assist them work..........................
iii. Educational psychology seeks to understand how .........takes place in ...........
Words:
school, effectively, improvement, teachers, learning, different settings, primary school,
social.
3. List 4 characteristics of Educational psychology:
i............................................................................................
ii...........................................................................................
iii..........................................................................................
iv..........................................................................................
THE SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of educational psychology is quite extensive. You will recall that in the last
section, we said that the focus of Educational Psychology is on the learner, the learning
process and conditions of learning. These have been further expanded into 5 broad areas.
1. Human Growth and Development.
In order to get people to learn, we have to understand their capabilities, what they
already know, how they think, etc. So, the various facets of human development
(animals are excluded since we do not teach them in school) - physical, intellectual,
linguistic, moral, social etc. are of great interest. Besides, we do know that people are
137
differently endowed and hown their environments have made them different. Of
special interest are the environmental factors that have been very beneficial in
development.
2. Learning and Instruction.
Educational Psychology is concerned with the general nature of the learning process,
the factors that influence learning, how and when different types of materials are
learnt. Do people learn skills? Of particular concern is how to ensure that knowledge
acquired in school is transferred to life outside school not just immediately it is learnt
but several years after the students have left school.
3. Personality and Adjustment.
Educational Psychology is interested in how people develop and maintain healthy
personalities and attitudes especially students and teachers. Social relationships and
how students adjust to the school situation, make friends and interact with everyone in
the educational setting as well as character formation are subjects under the purview
of Educational Psychology.
4. Psychological Measurement.
Educational psychology is interested in measuring those psychological characteristics
on which individuals differ e.g. intelligence, learning ability, aptitude and in the
applications of the results of the measurements to enhance learning and development.
5. Research, Techniques and Methods.
The scientific study of educational problems and practices are of interest to
Educational Psychologists. The implementation of research findings, of techniques in
the classroom settings is also of primary importance. Therefore research interest is
also focused on how to findings and develop techniques useful for the classroom
teacher as we had mentioned earlier, there is a large body of knowledge in each of
these areas on which your course is based. But fortunately your course has been
designed to select just what you need to know from these areas.
Your course in this first cycle starts with the learner urging you to try to study and
understand the way he develops during the primary school years. The different areas
of development are discussed and how you can encourage development in these areas.
Your course also shows you simple non-professional ways of assessing children's
behaviour
Your course tries to point out the development of personality with the needs and the
tasks which primary school children face and how you can help them meet the needs
and carry out the tasks.
The course also discuss problem behaviours which you encounter in the classrooms.
The second cycle will move into how these children learn.
You will find that cycle 1 of your course covers four of the five broad areas of
Educational psychology
138
i. how the primary school child corresponding with 1 above

develop
ii. personality, need satisfaction corresponding with 3 above
coping with problem behaviour
iii. methods of studying children corresponding with aspects of 4
&5
iv simple assessment techniques corresponding with aspects of 4
&5
ACTIVITY II
1. List any of the 5 broad areas of Educational Psychology
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Name the major components of your Educational Psychology course in Cycle I
i.
ii.
iii.
SUMMARY
• Educational psychology helps to achieve educational goals. It is an applied branch of
psychology concerned with the improvement of learning. The major areas of study are:
- human development
- learning and instruction
- personality and adjustment
- psychological measurement
- solution of Educational problems through research.
• This cycle of Educational Psychology course focuses on
(a) development of the primary school child
(b) child study techniques
(c) simple assessment techniques
(d) personality and coping with problem behaviours and needs of children.
139
ASSIGNMENT
1. define Educational Psychology
2. Describe Educational Psychology under the headings given below:
(a) Aims (give 2)
i.
ii.
(b) Characteristic features (give 4)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
(c) Scope or areas of study (give 4)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3. Some of the areas which I will study in the first cycle of Educational Psychology are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
REFERENCES
Eke, E. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan: Heinemann (Nig)
Educational Publishers, (In Prin).
Akinboye, J.O., et al., Psychological Foundations of Education, Ibadan: Heinemann (Nig)
Educational Bookss.
Oladele, J.O. Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education, Lagos: John-Lad
Ent., 1984.
140
UNIT 2 (EDU111.2): IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY TO THE TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
Educational Psychology occupies a central role in the preparation of a teacher because it
helps the teacher to understand better whom he is teaching and how he should teach.
Experties in a subject matter does not necessarily make the teacher effective but according to
research evidence, the single most important factor in the teacher's effectiveness is his
personality including the way he relates to the children in his class. In what ways can
Educational Psychology help the teacher to improve his effectiveness so that students can
learn and perform well? Although this question will be answered throughout the course this
unit will give a summary of the support Educational Psychology can give the teacher.
OBJECTIVES
1. state in what 4 ways Educational Psychology helps the teacher to improve learning
and teaching;
2. explain the ways in which Educational Psychology helps the teacher personally to
improve learning and teaching;
3. give two benefits which a teacher personally derives from the study of educational
psychology; and
4. decide whether Educational Psychology promotes the cause of Education or not and
why.

1. Read through the unit once. If there are any words you do not understand, look them
up in the dictionary as you read and refer back to the Word Study.
2. Go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities. Do not
look up the sample answers until you have completed the activities.
3. Try and do the assignment at the end of the unit. If you find any part of the
assignment difficult, go back and study the corresponding section of the unit.
4. To obtain best results, you should obey all the instructions and observe all the rules.

OF THIS BOOK.
WORD STUDY
genetic - inherited
heterogeneous - containing different groups e.g. of different intellectual ability.
Mentally - of very low intelligence and therefore retarded slow in learning.
hyperactive - very active and restless
141
exceptional - children who are very different from the children of the same
age in physical, intellectual and social characteristics e.g.
physically handicapped children who are blind, deaf.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO THE

TEACHER
Educational psychology is important to the teacher for the following reasons:
i. It helps the teacher to understand the leaner.
ii. It helps the teacher to improve learning and teaching.
iii. It facilitates the teacher's understanding of himself.
iv. It helps to advance the course of education through proper appreciation of its role and
through research.
We shall now take them one by one and study them in details.
1. UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNER

It is important that the teacher should understand the child whom he teaches and
educational Psychology furnishes him with this knowledge.
a. Understanding how children develop:
The pre-school child behaves differently from the child in lower or upper
primary and the teacher realises that the handling of the children must depend
on their developmental levels. So Educational Psychology furnishes the
teacher with knowledge of the development of the child as he progresses from
infancy through childhood to adolescence. The major characteristics of the
different stages are discussed and these can be very well untized for learning
efficiency.
b. Understanding Individual Differences:
Children are different one from another. some come to school rather young
others are more mature, some develop fast, others are not. Educational
Psychology helps to explain the ways in which individuals differ, and suggests
ways of coping with these differences. Genetic and environmental factors
which gives rise to and affect these differences are also explained. At a times
of mass education, each class is heterogeneous in composition and the teacher
needs to know how to assess individual differences for effective management,
how to present material for effective learning, how to motivate and channel
the different interest and abilities in the class for effective learning and optimal
development.
c. understanding & Educating Exceptional Children
Closely allied to the idea of individual differences is that of exceptionality.
There are physically handicapped and mentally retarded children in our
school. There are also gifted children. These children are special in some ways
that make the, different from the majority of children in the class. The deaf or
hard of hearing, the blind or partial blind, those who have suffered loss of
142
limbs or any form of structural damage are physically handicapped children.

There are others who are very slow in learning although they may look normal
physically but their intelligence is low. There are those children who are
superior in intelligence. Educational Psychology equips teachers to provide
adequate learning experiences for these children first by contributing towards
their identification and specifying how they can be rehabilitated.
d. Understanding Problem Behaviour of Children
Educational Psychology helps the teacher to acquire knowledge of children's
behavioural problems. Some problems are normal and will disappear with age
and greater maturity. Some are genetic while others have environmental
origins. For instance some children tell lots of lies, others are aggressive,
some are hyperactive, some children are truants. Not only must the teacher be
familiar with these, he must also know how to help children grow out of them,
and how to manipulate the environment to prevent children from becoming
maladjusted in school.
ACTIVITY I
List 4 ways in which Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand primary school
children.
i
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Fill in the blanks with the words selected from the list given below. Educational
Psychology helps the teacher to understand the things contained in the statements
below.
i. Educational Psychology outlines__________, ____________ and
_______________ of different stages of development.
ii. Classes are made up of ___________ groups or mixed groups of children.
Therefore the teacher needs to know about_________
iii. ________________ ______________ means ways in which children are
different from one another.
v. Some children have special characteristics that set them apart from others.
They are usually referred to as _______ children.
iv. Not only mentally retarded but also ____________ children are referred to as
________ children.
v. Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand ______________
behaviour such as ___________ and __________
viii. Educational Psychology does not only help teachers to understand children but
suggests ways of ________ certain behaviours.
143
Choose from the following words:-

a. handling b. genetic
c. needs d. exceptional
e. problem f. heterogeneous
g. telling lies h. characteristics
i. environmental j. truancy
k. tasks l. individual differences.
m. gifted.
2. IMPROVEMENT OF INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING

a. Knowledge and Use of a Variety of Techniques. It is known that when
children do not learn, the teaching environment and methods are at fault.
Educational Psychology has proposed tested principles and techniques, which
promote learning. For instance, strategies to get the learner to be very active as
well as the use of rewards and incentives have been proposed. These
techniques and principles are specified for different learning and teaching of
different types of materials - skills, concepts, problem solving etc.
b. Relating Materials and Methods to the Development
Level of Learners
People learn materials which they find relevant. By discovering the needs,
characteristics, interests and abilities of different groups of children, the
curriculum, and its interpretation can be made relevant. Teaching methods too
can be related to the needs and level of maturity of learners. Educational
Psychology provides help in deciding whether certain categories of learners
would benefit most from individualized instruction, small group or whole
class instruction. Indeed, the Distance Learning techniques - another
contribution of Educational Psychology. But, although this system is used for
learners, who are far away, it can profitably be used too in class for some
groups of children.
c. Assessment of abilities, progress of learning and
learning outcomes.
Educational Psychology assists the teacher not only to assess the abilities of
students but also learning progress. Although some of the psychological traits
can only be measured by professional psychologists, there are certainly may
facets of the learner's behaviours which the teacher has to assess. When
children make mistakes the teacher may mark the answer wrong but a more
helpful way is to ask why the child made the mistake. Errors arise from
application of correct procedures in wrong situations due to limited
information.
Sometimes knowledge of abilities changes the teacher's attitude and orientation towards
learners and learning procedures.
144
Altogether Educational Psychology enjoins the teacher to appreciate and use continuous
assessment that has become mandatory since the adoption of the National Policy on
Education.
ACTIVITY II
1. List 3 ways in which Educational Psychology helps the teacher to improve instruction
and learning.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Write True or False after the following statements.
i. Education Psychology suggests to the teacher a variety of principles and
techniques which can make learning better.
ii. Educational Psychology provides information on the use of incentives in
teaching.
iii. Educational Psychology advises the teacher to use the same teaching methods
for children at all levels of development.
iv. Teaching methods and materials should be related to the needs of children.
v. Distance Learning System, for learners who are not present, has no basis in
Educational Psychology.
vi. Teachers can not analyse children's errors and learning progress.
3. TEACHER'S UNDERSTANDING OF HIMSELF

a. Self acceptance:
Many of you will be learning about certain facts of development for the first
time and these may lead to greater in-depth knowledge of yourselves. Be
honest. Did you know that the noise level in your class is a reflection of your
own noise level? Teachers are models for learners and therefore some of the
things they do mirror back out qualities. Also in learning about and trying to
impart certain skills e.g. social and other adjustment skills, we can not help
assessing and improving our own skills too. The same applies to leadership
qualities. Educational Psychology helps us to understand and accept our
strengths and weaknesses.
b. appreciations of Limits of the Teachers' Contribution
By analysing the various factors that influence development and learning,
Educational Psychology makes the teacher understand what he can influence
and what he cannot change. Although Educational Psychology encourages you
to promote learning, not all children can learn to the same level even with the
best of teaching techniques. Similarly, a teacher uses the instructional
techniques that fit in with his personality. so even when Educational
145
Psychology presents many theories, techniques etc. the teacher still has to
choose those with which he can profitably make use of.
ACTIVITY III
1. State 2 ways in which Educational Psychology benefits the teacher personally.
i.
ii.
4. ADVANCEMENT OF THE CAUSES OF EDUCATION

a. Appreciation of the Importance of Educational
Intervention
One of the first things you will learn is that human abilities are not fixed, that
development is not static. Because of this, the teacher can have tremendous
influence on the course of development. Educational Psychology analyses for
us the influence of our environment on development, on learning and other
aspects of behaviour. Sometimes, the environment has retarding effects on
development and schooling. With good stimulating learning environments the
teacher can overcome such retarding effects. Educational psychology thus
enables teachers not only to improve the environment by to try to convince
others ofthe need for educational intervention for the good of our children.
b. Research Orientation
Our people are not research conscious and yet the only way to understand our
children better and improve learning is through research. The educational
Psychology course is based on the results of research. It therefore impresses
on the need to conduct private child study within the classroom. It also
encourages teachers to keep records of behaviour. You are now taking a
course with NTI, perhaps some of your assignments may require that you
carry out some research. Perhaps some staff of universities, colleges of
education etc. may come to ask that you help with data collection. Now that
you know how important research information is, will you help? Suppose you
have difficulties with your DLS courses, it is only by keeping records of such
difficulties and feedback that NTI can improve its course offerings.
Educational Psychology assists teachers, to develop a more positive attitude to
research both in terms of consuming research results and participating in
research.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Name two ways that Educational Psychology has helped the teacher to further the
cause of Education.
i.
ii.
2. Beside the statements below write True if the statement is true and False if you feel
that the statement is incorrect.
146
i. A teacher can apply the results of research in the class.

ii. Education can help children to develop better.
iii. Teachers are not yet qualified to help in collecting data in research.
SUMMARY
Education Psychology is very important to the teacher in a number of ways.
• It helps the teacher to understand children better in the following ways:-
i. By furnishing the teacher with information on the needs, characteristics, tasks
and accomplishments of children at different stages of development.
ii. By making the teacher aware of individual differences and the fact that genetic
and environmental factors contribute to these differences.
iii. By making teachers able to identify exceptional children and learning how to
cope with them.
iv. By enabling teachers to understand and handle problem behaviours.
• It helps teachers to improve instruction and learning by:-
i. Providing them with a variety of techniques and principles to choose from.
ii. Enabling them to relate instruction to the level of development of children.
iii. Showing them how to assess different aspects of learning and other behaviour.
• Educational Psychology helps teachers to understand themselves and appreciate the
limits of their achievements in doing their work.
• It helps teachers to understand the importance and need for educational intervention.
Also it makes them value and participate in research.
ASSIGNMENT
1. State briefly 4 ways in which Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand
children.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Explain 2 ways in which Educational Psychology helps to improve instruction and
learning.
i.
ii.
3. Does Educational Psychology benefit the teachers in their lives? State 2 benefits.
i.
ii.
147
4. Do you agree that Educational Psychology helps to promote the cause of Education?
Give 2 reasons.
i.
ii.
REFERENCE
Educational Publishers, (In Print).
148
UNIT 3 (EDU111.3): THE CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Modern school tends to point out that as teachers, we are supposed not only to know our
subject matter but also the child we teach. The knowledge of the child should include the
child's growth and development. But one may ask us why do we have to bother ourselves
knowing or studying the child? Perhaps one or all of the following reasons may justify our
effort to study the growth and development of the child we teach.
1. A knowledge of the child as he is presently will assist the teacher in guiding his
future.
2. To understand a child as he is presently, we must try to understand what had gone
before.
3. There is the need to study what happened during the child's early development in case
the teacher comes across some who had encountered problems earlier on. The teacher
can then give adequate help to these children and even help them overcome their
difficulties.
Because of the above mentioned reasons, this unit will examine the concepts and
principles of Growth and Development.
OBJECTIVES
1. define correctly the major concepts of growth and development;
2. list and explain the major group of factors which affect growth and development;
3. list and explain correctly seven principles governing growth and development; and
4. list and de-scribe briefly the broad stages of human growth and development.

1. Read through this unit once. Note the important ideas as you read, while you look up
unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
Do not look at the answers before attempting the exercises.
3. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If you observe all these rules you will
benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
We have tried to explain the meaning of the following words which may not be familiar with
you.
bodycells - This means the body tissues which make up the human body.
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maturation - This is the process of organic growth towards maturity. When

this happens it enables the organism to perform higher
functions.
heredity - This is what is transmitted from parents to their offsprings,
such as colour of the skin.
biological - The features of the body transmitted from traits- parents to their
offsprings such as colour of the skin.
Chronological
Age - This is the actual age of the child when calculated from his date
of birth.
Chromo somes - Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes. The chromosomes
contains the different biological traits which are transferred
from parents to offsprings.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

After birth the child grows and develops until he finally becomes an adult. Such a march
towards adulthood involves four basic types of changes, namely, growth, matu-ration,
learning and development. Although we will explain each separately, we must realise that
they occur simultaneously and are often interwoven.
1. Growth
Anything that lives grows. Growth refers to change in dimensions especially change
of a quantitative nature. When we say that a child is growing, we mean that the child
is getting taller or has added more centimeters to his height. He could also be heavier.
In other words, growth is brought about by the multiplication of the body cells.
Growth could be horizontal when we wish to show that the child is becoming fatter or
vertical when we refer to increase in height.
Our examples so far have been concerned with physical growth but growth can occur
in other areas. We often talk about growth in the size of a child's vocabulary. We
mean by this that the child has learnt a quantitative number of new words.
2. Maturation
Unlike growth, which is quantifiable and obvious, maturation involves change of a
qualitative and imperceptible nature. Maturation involves relatively innate changes
which enable the child to function at more advanced levels. In some respects
maturation brings about certain functions in a fixed order although the timing may
vary in individuals. For example, a child must sit before he can stand, must stand
before he can walk. These functions are controlled by maturational changes.
Maturation directs biological changes.
3. Learning
Learning is another form of change which comes as a result of experience. When the
teacher presents a child with situations so that the child can practice, sole problems,
memorise or copy things we say that learning is taking place. Unlike maturation,
learning depends much on external stimulation.
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4. Development
Development is the sum total of all changes that occur in an individual. It combines
the effects of growth, maturation and learning. Therefore, it entails structural and
functional changes. Development is brought about by innate and environmental
forces. The progress of development can be seen in all aspects of an individual's
functioning. So, we will be talking about physical, intellectual, motor,, language,
social and emotional development.
It is important to warn that growth and development are often mistakenly used
interchangeably. But, you now know, don't you? that growth is quantitative but development
is a broader term. It is quantitative and qualitative.
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain what is meant by growth
2. Explain what is meant by development
3. Explain what is meant by maturation.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Heredity
Heredity is the sum total of what parents pass to off-springs at the time of conception.
When a sperm cell of the male penetrates the ovum (egg) of the female, fertilisation
takes place. Each normal cell has 46 chromosomes. Because of cell division any
single sperm or ovum contains 23 chromosomes i.e. half the number of chromosomes
of each of its parent cell. When fertilisation takes place, the mother donates 23 and the
father 23 and so the fertilized egg has 46 chromosomes again. Each of these inherited
chromosomes contains many genes which carry the hereditary traits of the off-springs.
Through these genes parents transmit their traits to their children. These traits are
hereditary characteristics which are genetically determined. Genetical inheritance
determines in large part growth (physical structure) and also helps to influence other
traits. A child could inherit from his parents, his rate of growth, eye colour, height,
texture and colour of the skin and hair. Generally the individual's intelligence is
dependent upon the type of brain and nervous systems inherited from his parents. This
would mean that heredity affects and influences most growth patterns of a human
organism.
2. Environment
Environment refers to different types of surroundings in which a developing child find
himself. Apart from the hereditary factors, environmental factors also affect the
growth and development of organisms. For example, a child who finds himself in a
good environment such as wealthy parents, good homes, good water supply, medical
facilities, radio and television sets etc. is predisposed to a high functioning level and
therefore high development. But a child who finds himself in a poor environment such
as poor parents, illiterate parents, inadequate food supply and lack of stimulating
home is likely to have problems in his growth and development as a human being.
For these two children, their growth and developmental levels will differ significantly.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Explain the meaning of the term environment.
2. Explain the meaning of heredity.
PRINCIIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Growth generally precedes function. A muscle must grow fully before it
can become functional. For example, at age seven or eight, the brain growth of a child
is complete. It is only from this age that the child can engage in abstract thinking.
2. Development has directional trends - cephalocaudal and proximodistal.
You can observe the cephalocaudal (head-to-tail) trend in young children. A boy first
has control over the heads, then the trunk and finally the legs. That is why he first lifts
its head, then sits, before he can stand. The other direction is proximodistal from the
centre to the outside or periphery. The child can control the trunk before the arms and
the arms before the fingers.
Growth and Development have direction, order and sequence.
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3. Development is for the most part orderly and sequential. All

normal children babble before they talk, sit before they crawl and stand before they
walk. Even teeth erupt in an orderly sequence.
4. Development behaviour is largely controlled by needs. A child
who needs nutrients will concentrate on food and forget about other things. Similarly
a child who needs to get into a peer group will strive to do so at the risk of other
aspects of development.
5. Different aspects of growth proceed at varying rates due to
hereditary and environmental factors. Thus a child may be tall for his age but average
in language development. The Typical child therefore has many "ages". For example
a child who is chronologically ten, might have a mental age of twelve.
6. Growth and Development are continuous. Growth is not always
smooth and gradual. There are "growth spurts" (a sudden jump) during •infancy and
adolescence.
7. There are critical period in the development of certain organs and functions
of the body. If anything interferes with the organ at the particular time, it may result in
permanent deficiency or mal-function. Examples of such organs are the heart, kidney
and the eyes. There is also a critical period for the development of language. At that
time a child can learn almost any language.
8. All aspects of development are inter-related. The mental, physical
and social aspects of development are inter-related because in the final analysis only
one organism, the child is growing. So, the child develops as a unified whole.
9. There are individual differences in development. Although all
children progress towards maturity, children develop at different rates. They also
develop distinctive features and traits. They end up with different body dimensions
and different levels of adjustment and abilities.
ACTIVITY III
1. Write True or False as the case may be.
a. Function precedes growth.
b. The direction of development is from head to tail.
c. A child can have more than one age.
d. Development is generally orderly.
2. What is a critical period? Give examples?
STAGES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The Concept of Stages
Human beings from birth till they age and die have many characteristics. These
characteristics appear at different times in a person's life. Some characteristics appear
relatively together and aim at achieving certain types of growth and bodily function
(development) at that particular time. Therefore any period when a group of characteristics
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appear on a human organism with a view to furthering certain growth and development is
known as a stage. This would mean that any human organism has many stages of growth and
development. We shall therefore look at these stages here.
Stages of Human Growth and Development
Human body grows in stages as we have mentioned earlier. Each stage has its dominant
characteristics. Each stage is related to the next stage but is not clearly distinct from it. In
other words, no individual passes from one stage to another on a particular birth day. We
shall now list in broad outline these stages of human growth and development. Only the first
six periods up to adolescence concerns us in the primary school.
(a) PRE-NATAL (O-BIRTH)
This is the period from conception to birth. The period lasts for about 280 days during
which growth is very rapid. This growth involves bodily structures hence the baby in
the womb is active and movements can be observed. Unit 6 of this Module will
describe the period in detail.
(b) INFANCY (BIRTH - 2 YEARS)
At the early stages the skin is red, and wrinkled, Growth is still very rapid. The bones
are pliable. The infant controls the muscles which support his head but depends on
others for all his needs. He can in some cases control the elimination of body wastes.
(c) EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 - 5 YEARS)
The child learns to control his body and seeks to gain control of his environment. The
child begins to speak in simple sentences to express his thoughts. He can hop and
skip. The child prefers association plays. He loves self accomplishments.
(d) MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 - 8 YEARS)
This is the period when the child enters the junior primary school. As the child leaves
the home and nursery school for the primary school, he moves from his family
relationship into a wider social group. His speech improves. He enjoys associative
plays. His thinking is closely tied to his immediate experience but he can not yet
generalise.
(e) LATE CHILDHOOD (9 - 11 YEARS)
This is the senior primary school age. Differential growth of bones, muscles and other
organs continues to take place. Personality development and socialization are marked
in this stage. Late childhood is usually referred to as the "gang age" because of group
activities which begin to play important roles in the child's life. The child learns to get
along with age mates mostly of the same sex.
(f) ADOLESCENCE (12 - 18 YEARS)
Adolescence may be seen as the last step in the long period of growth which began at
conception. Growth which began at conception. Growth which is rapid at this stage
generally ends at the end of the adolescence period. Adolescence is characterised by
rapid physical growth, changes in the child's physique and the maturing of primary
sex characteristics. The child reacts to frustration by verbal attack and hates disgrace.
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The child can conceptualise a variety of possibilities and begins to ask why? He tries
to to crystalise his self concept and sense of identity.
(g) ADULTHOOD (18 - 60 YEARS)
The individual is ready to take his place, in the circle of marriage and parenthood.
(h) SENESCENCE (60 AND ABOVE)
This is the period of old age during which the individual gradually disengages from
social relationships. Retirement from different active facets of life occurs often
voluntarily. There is also a decline in physical structures. You have seen old people
who have lost their teeth, are bent and tend to shuffle along.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Rearrange the following broad stages of human growth and development to agree
correctly with the years.
a. Pre-natal Birth - 2 years
b. Infancy 2 - 5 years
c. Early childhood 0 - birth
d. Middle childhood 9 - 11 years
e. Late childhood 6 - 8 years
f. Adolescence 18 - 60 years
g. adulthood 12 - 10 years
h. Senescence - 60 years and above.
2. Explain what happen in:-
(a) Late Childhood
(b) Adolescence period.
SUMMARY
• It is important for teachers to know and understand the growth and developmental
patterns of the children they teach. This is because a knowledge of the growth and
developmental patterns of the child will help the teacher in his classroom dealings with
the children.
• Growth is brought about by the multiplication or increase in size of the body cells.
Human growth could mean becoming heavier or fatter; or becoming taller or both.
Maturation refers to qualitative changes which are innate in nature. It leads to the
unfoldment of inherited potentials and enables the child to function at a more advanced
level.
Learning involves changes brought about by experience and practice.
Development on the other hand encompasses growth, maturation and learning and goes
further to mean the ability to use the organs in the performance of certain functions.
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• The following two groups of factors influence growth and development -

Heredity: This is the sum total of what children inherit from parents.
Environment: Environment refers to the surroundings in which a developing oganism
finds himself.
• There are many principles of growth and development. These include:
1. Body structures grow fully before they can function.
2. Development tends to follow certain directions e.g from head- tail
(cephatlocaudal) and from inside and outside (proximodistal).
3. Generally, development is orderly and sequential.
4. Development and behaviour are largely dependent on needs.
5. Different aspects of development proceed at different rates.
6. Growth and Development are continuous but uneven. Growth spurts do appear
in the process of human growth.
7. There are critical periods in human growth and development.
8. All human growth and development are inter-related since it is one organism
that is growing.
9. There are individual differences in development.
• Finally the broad stages of human growth and development fall under the following
headings:-
1. Pre-natal (0-Birth). This is the period of conception up to birth.
2. Infancy (Birth - 2 years). The major characteristics include red, wrinkled skin
and very rapid growth.
3. Early Childhood (2-5 years). The child can use language competently, hop
and skip about.
4. Middle Childhood (6 - 8 years). The child leaves his home for a wider
socialisation. Often, this happens when he begins formal schooling in junior
primary school.
5. Late Childhood (9 - 11 years) This is the gang age
6. Adolescence (12 - 18 years). A period of rapid growth with much physical
changes taking place on the child's body.
7. Adulthood (18 to 60 years). The individual extends his relationships in life
through marriage and parenthood.
8. Senescence (60 years and above). Old age is a period of disengagement.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) Define the concept of Growth
(b) Define the concept of development
2. Show how the following affect growth and development.
(a) Heredity
(b) Environment.
3. State and explain the principle which governs the direction of growth and
development.
4. List the six stages of child development which may take us to the end of primary
school.
5. Write a short note on (a) Infancy (b) Early Childhood.
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UNIT 4 (EDU111.4): METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF

STUDYING THE CHILD
INTRODUCTION
In unit 2 of this module, we saw that understanding children can be very beneficial to the
teacher. The knowledge about children's needs, characteristics and development has come
from careful studies of the children themselves. Psychologists have spent time conducting
these studies. You too must study the children you teach so that you can get to know them
better. If you know them better you will be able to teach them better. You are lucky you are
in constant contact with children so you have many opportunities of studying them. We will
only select some of the many methods which can be used in studying children. So, in this unit
we wish to open your eyes so that you can see more and know more about those children
whom you teach. You can get to know them better by looking at them, asking others about
them, playing games with them, etc. But you must promise not to interpret and judge too
quickly until you have collected enough information about the child.
OBJECTIVES
1. give 2 reasons why teachers must study primary school children;
2. list at least 4 different methods of studying children;
3. distinguish among the different approaches to the study of children;
4. say what method can be used to study selected types of behaviour; and
5. apply at least one method in a study of children in your school.

1. Before you read through this unit you should revise the summary of Module 3, unit 2.
2. Read through this unit step by step as it has been arranged for you. If there are any
words you do not understand, look them up in the dictionary as you read and check
meanings in the Word Study too.
3. Try and do all the activities that you are given. Do not look up the sample answers
until you have completed the activities.
Attempt the assignment at the end of the unit.
4. To obtain the best results, you should obey all the instructions and observe all the
rules.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT

WORD STUDY
Checklist - a list of items to assist the teacher in recording observations.
Anecdotal - record of very important and significant activity a child does. also, it is
a free recording of what a child does and says.
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clinic interview - asking questions as the need arises without predetermining what those
questions should be.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CHILDREN

1. The overall importance of studying children is that the teacher gets to understand
them better. He appreciates the way they behave, feel and think.
2. Increased interest and awareness attracts positive responses from children. Many of
our children come from backgrounds where children may not have been encouraged
to speak freely with adults. But if the teacher shows interest in them, is friendly and
asks them about themselves and their problems, the children too will respond
positively. Children are very quick to sense genuine interest. They are likely to open
up, tell the teacher things about themselves and be motivated to learn what the
teacher teaches.
3. Greater knowledge of children e.g. of their needs and interests, enhances the
teachers's work. When the teacher knows the capabilities, needs and interests of
children in his class, he will definitely teach better and more meaningfully. He may
decide to group the children depending on their interest. He may know what stories to
tell, what examples to use, whether they should bring and use certain learning aids,
etc. What is more, the teacher will try to reach all the children in the class.
4. Problems will be detected early and treated. When the teacher studies young children,
the chances are that problems can be referred to specialists for proper diagnosis and
early treatment. Parents can be informed so that they and the school can decide on
what to do about such problems. Maladjustment problems can definitely be prevented
if there is early detection. Problems which are arise from malnutrition can also be
handled if teachers talk to parents. There is a lot that can be done if teachers study the
children in their
ACTIVITY I
1. Give 2 reasons why it is important for the teacher to study young children.
i.
ii.
METHODS OF STUDYING CHILDREN

Some Basic Approaches
We will discuss three approaches to the study of children:-
- the longitudinal approach
- the cross section approach
- the case study.
i. Longitudinal Approach
Sometimes we want information on how children develop in our own locality possibly
to see whether any environmental factors have important effects on their
development. A classroom teacher, such as you, may not want to do an elaborate
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longitudinal study but still may be able to carry out short studies of a longitudinal
nature. What is a longitudinal study? It is a study of the same individuals over a long
period of time. The period may be a school year, two terms or extend for several
years. Let us assume that you want to find out how well the children in your school
are growing. As a school you may decide to take height measurements of the children
in Primary One B. Perhaps two or three measurements are taken again. The same
process is repeated until they get t o Primary 6B. It will be possible to see how each of
these children has grown in the 6 years.
However, we can be less ambitious about the length of time. As a class teacher, you
want to study your children for just one year. You take periodic measurements of all
the children probably 6 times in the year. That, too, is a longitudinal study. The two
requirements are:
ii. Cross Sectional Approach
The Cross Sectional approach entails taking different groups of children and studying
them just once or twice per group within a short time. For instance, in the example we
used, instead of waiting for 6 years to know how children in your school grow, the
study could be concluded in two weeks! All the children in Primary One B, Primary
2B, Primary 3B and so on to Primary 6B could be measured at about the same time.
Different groups of children would be measured but then you would also know the
average height of children in the classes 1,2,3,..6.
You will agree with me that it takes a shorter time but you will not be able to say how
a particular child, say Okon, grows over 6 years.
iii. Case Study
Let us recommend very highly the case study for the classroom teacher. Case studies
are in -depth studies of single individuals or single cases. Suppose you have a
problem child in your class and you want to find out what has gone wrong. You
would need to study all aspects of the child's background, home life, friends,
performance in school, interests, etc. When you dig into details about a single case, all
aspects of a case, then you are involved in a case study.
The major advantage for you is that you will have enough information about the case
to take a decision on the cause and nature of the problem. Knowing the root or source
of a problem makes the solution or remedy easier.
ACTIVITY II
1. List 3 different approaches to the study of children
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Describe one of the approaches.
3. Name the approach you would use for the following:
i. finding out why a child's performance in school has suddenly become poor.
ii. how a group of children in your school will grow for the next three years.
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SPECIFIC METHODS: OBSERVATION, INTERVIEWS,

QUESTIONNAIRES, ETC.
1. Observation
Observation involves looking at children with a purpose in order to see specified
types of behaviour. It is a direct way of obtaining information about how a child does
things, how often and when he engages in the behaviour. It is a basic way of taking
notice of what children do and say.
To observe objectively sometimes aids are needed. For instance, the teacher may need
to record what the child is doing, so there has to be paper and pen. Recording
everything the child does is not easy. Sometimes that type of free writing or
description of behaviour is necessary. It is called _anecdotal record._ Sometimes, too,
the teacher may use a _checklist_ of a list of items to aid the accuracy of recording
behaviour. The teacher would then just simply check and tick the items he observes.
Sample Name: Lati Ilo Tuni

A. Items assembled on desk
i. Pen
ii. Pencil
iii. Dictionary
iv. Exercise Book or writing paper
v. Eraser
B. Methods of Study
i. Silent reading
ii. Note making
iii. writing
iv. Oral reading
You can see that the task of writing is minimised.
2. Asking Questions
i. Interview
The interview is a direct way of obtaining information from children in a face-to-face
situation by asking oral questions. The teacher has ample opportunity of asking
questions. Questions may be asked in an informal manner.
A Clinical Interview is informal like the situation where the doctor asks the patients
questions about their health. One question leads to another and there are no questions
structured and written before hand.. The famous psychologists, Piaget whom you will learn
about, used clinic interviews to study children's intellectual behaviour. Sometimes, questions
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are drawn up before hand and all the children get asked those specific questions. We refer to
interviews with set questions as structured interviews.
A teacher can interview children when they are carrying books for him/her, when they are
sitting in the class, outside in the playground. Anywhere is convenient for asking questions
especially in case studies. Sometimes the teacher ask other children questions to obtain
information about a particular child. The parents could also be asked about their child. So,
interviews or oral questioning in a face-to-face situation are of two basic types. There are
informal or clinical interviews and structured interviews. The teacher can ask the child
directly or ask others about the child.
ii. questionnaires
Sometimes, because there is no time to ask children questions individually, questions
may be written down on the board or on paper for many children to answer at once.
Such a written set of questions aimed at obtaining information on a topic is known as
questionnaire.
Questionnaires are good for use with groups. But if children cannot read then
questionnaires are not suitable Interviews are, in such cases, better for eliciting
information.
3. Tests and Other Measurements

You are familiar with tests, a set of tasks or a task that can be scored. But you are also
familiar with the tests you make in the class. We will not spend time discussing that
type of test which is normally used for assessing cognitive performance or
knowledge.
There are other types of tests of development. There could be tests to determine which
hands a child prefers to use (given in unit 9)when we want to find out whether the
child is right or left handed. There are tests of strength. Other psychological tests exist
and some can also be used by the teacher.
We will describe a situational test of honesty, an aspect of personality. Suppose you
have given children a written assignment. You collect the assignment, score them but
without writing on the exercise books or entering the marks. Then you can give the
books back to the owners and ask them to mark. When you collect back the work
which has been scored by their owners, you compare the scores with the ones you
had given. warning: Only one instance of dishonesty does not mean that the child
should be labelled a cheat. The point about studying children is that repeated
observations must be made before taking a decision.
Actual Measurement of height, weight, strength, etc can also be taken to assess
aspects of the child's physical and motor development.
4. Sociometric Techniques
Sociometric techniques are ways of studying individuals' standing in a group, whether
they are accepted, popular, rejected and generally well known in the group. We will
describe two such techniques which are quite-easy to use in primary school.
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"Guess who?" technique can be used in any class. The teacher uses it to find out how
children percieve one another in the class. The teacher may use a pair of precise
statements and ask the children to name who the descriptions fit. e.g.
1. a. Here is someone who cannot sit still, is always moving around the class.
Guess who?
b. Here is someone who can sit still, and work quietly at his/her desk. Guess
who?
2. a. ere is someone who is always smiling and saying something nice to people.
Guess who?
b. Here is someone who never seems to smile at people and does not often say
nice things to people. Guess who?
The information so gathered from individual children will give the teacher the collective
impression of the class about others. The teacher can see and help the child who is being
liked and for what reason and the one who is tending towards being unpopular.
Another technique is to ask children with who they would want to do or perform certain
activities.
1. Who would you want to play with? - 1st choice
And who else? - 2nd choice
And who else? - 3rd choice
2. Who would you want to go to a party with?
And who else?
And who else?
By the time the teacher collects names from the class and tabulates them, it will be obvious
which children are isolates and which ones are very popular. Your contact teacher will teach
you how to construct a detailed chart but you can tabulate the information thus,
Name of Child No. of Times Chosen Activity

Adamu 3 Play
Nwankwo 30 Play
Inyang 45 Play
If there are 30 pupils in the class, you can see at a glance that Inyang was chosen by at least
50% of the class children if they chose him 3 times for that one activity or even more children
in the class. On the other hand, Adamu may have been chosen by 1 child three times, by 2 or
3 different children. Adamu would definitely need help in making more friends.
5. Rating Device
You are already familiar with rating scales, whereby an individual is placed on a point
in a scale. Usually the rating is done with respect to a characteristic or an aspect of the
person's personality e.g. neatness, punctuality. The person may rate himself or others
may rate him.
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We know that teachers normally rate their students but we want to emphasise that the
children can rate themselves too. Let us take the example of the child who is rated
either for punctuality i.e. keeping to and doing things in time. We can describe the
points (3) for very young children, 5 for older ones) and have children rate the
classmates who are named.
Very punctual sometimes not punctual

most of the time punctual _ at all
You will soon be convinced that the children know themselves better than you know them.
ACTIVITY III
1. List 5 methods or techniques of studying the children in your class.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
2. Describe a method you would use for studying a child's popularity.
3. Match the items on tests A and B
A (i) To look and see what children B (i) Sociometric are doing and saying
(ii) Guess who? (ii) rating
(iii) Asking questions in a written form (iii) actual measurements
(iv) Finding out from other's height (iv) Questionnaire
(v) Finding out from others (v) observation
a person's standing on a scale
SUMMARY
• In this unit, we have discussed the importance of studying children and how you can
study them as a school and as individual class teachers. We said that it was important to
study children for the following reasons:
i. To understand them better.
ii. To benefit from the positive response of children.
iii. To enhance our teaching job. Knowledge of their interests, needs, and
capabilities will guide our teaching.
iv. Because we can then detect incipient or beginning problems and deal with
them.
• In the next section, three approaches to the study of children were introduced - the
longitudinal, the cross sectional approaches as well as the case study. In the
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longitudinal approach the same group of children is studied from time to time over a
long period of time. In the cross-sectional approach, different groups of children are
studied at once. The case study focuses on one case or an individual child and obtains
detailed in-depth information about the case or child.
• We also discussed some specific methods or techniques of studying children. These
were:
i. Observation, where teachers look with a purpose to notice what children are
doing and saying.
ii. Interviews, where teachers ask questions orally or in a written format known
as questionnaire.
iii. Tests and actual measurements.
iv. Sociometric techniques. Here teachers find out the relative standing or
popularity of children in their various groups.
v. Rating Device. This method requires that the teacher or the children determine
a child's relative point on a scale with regard to a characteristic or personality
trait.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain 2 reasons why teachers should study the children they teach.
2. How is the longitudinal approach different from the cross- sectional approach?
3. Write True or False after each statement.
i. I can use observation to study how aggressive a child is.
ii. The best method to use in studying a child's performance in mathematics is
questionnaire.
iii. Guess which technique is very useful method to use in studying why a child is
never punctual.
iv. The questionnaire is the best method to use in studying opinion of children in
primary one.
v. A case study is very useful if the teacher wishes to investigate a child's
problem behaviour.
4. Use the rating scale of 3 points in your class to find out those who should do the job
of "monitor" or class prefect.
Use the Guess who techniques to find out whom the children would like as monitor or
class prefect.
(Clue: Let them guess who tries to lead, offers assistance to others, is well liked and
listened to; stops noise making in class; etc).
REFERENCES
Maynard, Norman, J., Child Study: Some Practical Techniques for the Teacher, London:
OUP, 1970.
Educational Publishers, (In Press).
165
UNIT 5 (EDU111.5): THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY

AND ENVIRONMENT ON GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The child you are looking at bears marks of his in-born characteristics which he inherited
from his parents and the environment in which he lives. Does he resemble his parents
physically? If he does, then his looks can be generally attributed to his genetic endowment.
Does he speak Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba or any other Nigerian language fluently? Then his
language competence is mostly a mark of environmental influence for the child could have
spoken Spanish if he lived in Spain. In this unit we will examine how genetic and
environmental factors contribute to and influence growth and development. We are not
interested in how much each set of factors influences development because we can not and
nobody else can tell their individual contributions. Rather, we want to know how they co-
operate and interact to produce the different children whom we see in our classes. We will
continue to explain the interaction for the rest of the course but the major framework is
presented in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the meaning of heredity and environment;
2. state the relationship between heredity and environment;
3. list the 2 broad categories of inheritance;
4. explain how heredity determines individual differences;
5. give, at least 5 examples of traits inherited or strongly influenced by heredity;
6. list any 4 environmental factors that influence growth and development; and
7. list traits under environmental control.

1. Read the introduction and the summary of this unit first.
2. Read through the unit step by step as arranged. Look up unfamiliar words in your
dictionary and in the Word Study as you read. Attempt all the activities given.
Do not look at the sample answers until you have completed the exercises.
3. Try and observe all the rules. Remember to attempt the unit assignment. If you carry
out these instructions faithfully, you will certainly benefit from this unit.

OF THIS BOOK.
166
WORD STUDY
Heredity - everything passed on from parents to children
Chromosomes - chemicals in the nucleus of cells on which genetic materials are
arranged.
Genes - the genetic materials which are passed on from parents to children
Correlation - the degree to which things are alike; usually expressed as a decimal
between n - 1 and + 1
Peers - age mates with whom the child interacts.
MEANING OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

When we talk of heredity, we mean the sum total of what parents pass on to their off-springs
or children at the moment of conception. Our heredity is our inheritance.
Environment, on the other hand, can be regarded as anything that can influence individuals
starting immediately after conception. So the environment of the womb can be important as
we shall see. The physical environment influences the child. The psychological environment
of how people relate to and care about the child is also important.
RELATIONSHIP OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

The relationship of heredity and environment is a very interesting one. It is like the plan of a
house and the actual building. Without the plan you can not start building, the plan gives you
possibilities. But the actual building depends not only on the plan but the building materials
and the builder. Heredity provides the plan, the potentials, how far we can go and
environment determines the building, the accomplishments, how far we do go. Heredity and
environment interact all the time to influence growth and development. While heredity
determines the limits, environment determines how far we get towards those limits.
ACTIVITY I
1. Fill in the missing words in these statements. Choose the words from the list provided.
i. Another word for heredity is _____________
ii. The _____________ of what is passed on from_________ to children
constitutes heredity.
iii. Heredity is determined at the time of _____________________
iv. Environment is _____________ which influences the individual
after__________
v. Environment could be ________________ or _________________
vi. Even the environment in the __________________ is important in
development.
List of words: inheritance, womb, physical, psychological, sum total, conception,
parents, anything.
2. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false and indicate your
decision.
167
i. Heredity influences us all through life.

ii. Environment is important only after birth.
iii. Environment sets the limits of how far we can go.
iv. Heredity and environment work together to determine development.
v. Heredity determines what we can do.
vi. Only the physical environment determines what we can achieve.
HEREDITARY INFLUENCES
Two Types of Inheritance
There are two major categories of inheritance. We inherit those things that make us truly
members of the human race and we inherit the things that set us apart as individuals.
In the first category of specific inheritance every normal human being inherits two hands and
legs, two eyes, ability to walk in an upright posture. He also inherits sleeping-waking cycle
for all human beings must sleep and wake up. In the second category we inherit our
individual characteristics such as light or dark complexion, shape of the nose etc. Experts say
that no two individuals in this world have the same thumb print!
Inheritance
Type A …………………………..
Species specific Individual

i. human structure Child i. complexion
ii. upright posture ii. blood type
iii. sleeping-waking cycle etc iii. thumb print etc
Heredity and Individual Differences

These are many sources of individual differences but we will consider two important ones
related to heredity. The first is related to the way genes are distributed and the second to the
sex of the child.
Gene action: Genes are the heredity materials which parents pass on to children. There are
several thousands of genes located on chromosomes, i.e. chemical substances in cell nucleus.
Normally there are 46 (23 pairs) of chromosomes in the cells of the body. But since the child
has to inherit from father and mother nature has arranged that in the sperm cells of males and
the egg cells of the mother only 23 chromosomes are contained. You see how wonderful
nature is ? When the sperm fertilizes the ovum or female eggs cell at conception, the correct
number of chromosomes is restored i.e. 46. Now, the most important thing to remember is
that thousands of genes are distributed randomly into the 23 chromosomes. So, it is almost
impossible to have the same genes distributed into the different egg cells of male and female
168
which could unite at conception, then you will understand why even two brothers or two
sisters are usually different. In fact it is a wonder, that they manage to look alike.
Sex Determination
The second way in which heredity contributes to individual differences is in the
determination of the sex of the child at conception. Boys and girls are different not only
because of upbringing but in terms of inheritance. Two types of chromosomes determines sex
- they are referred to as X and Y sex chromosomes. The father can donate either X or Y sex
chromosomes at conception. The mother can only donate X sex chromosomes. If both father
and mother donate X sex chromosomes so that there is XX combination, then the baby is
female. If the father donates Y and the mother her usual sex X then you have XY
combination and a male child is born. (Explain to parents who blame the wives that it is not
the woman who is responsible for failure to produce a male child).
Father Mother Child
X X XX Female
Y X XY Male
Specific Traits Determined by
Heredity
We have already said that it is difficult to determine what traits heredity endows that are not
influenced by environment. However, there are some that must be mentioned.
i. Physical features
It is easy to see that children are very often like their parents and grand parents. We
do not mean that they can be exactly like their parents because as we have just learnt
they inherit from both father and mother.
ii. Intelligence
From studies of twins especially identical twins, it has been found that under normal
circumstances both twins are alike intellectually. When they are reared together, the
degree of alikeness also known as correlation is very high .88. Even when they are
reared in different places the correlation is .79, also very high. So we conclude that
intelligence tends to be inherited somehow.
iii. Disorders
The commonest form of inheritable sickness in our environment is sickle cell anemia.
People should know more about how this condition is inherited. Unfortunately we can
not go into it now. Other forms of disorders and diseases are also inheritable.
iv. Sex-related traits
We mean here certain traits and conditions which are passed on the X sex
chromosome and therefore show up either in one sex only e.g. baldness or colour
blindness.
169
v. The rate of development

Also seems to be inherited. Generally a child that is fast in crawling will tend to be
fast in walking and in many other aspects of physical development.
vi. Blood type
People normally say blood is thicker than water. Perhaps we should say that a child
always inherits the blood type of his parents. That is why a child or a close relation
can donate blood for a person.
ACTIVITY II
Do the following exercises.
1. State the 2 major types of inheritance discussed.
i.
ii.
2. Fill in the missing words. A list of words has been provided for you. You may use a
word more than once.
i. Two of the ways in which inheritance contributes to individual differences is
through ___________ and _________ action
ii. Genes are ________ materials which children inherit from _____
iii. There are _________ of genes and they are distributed in a ______manner into
the egg cells.
iv. The __________ which unite to make a baby are also selected randomly.
v. Many __________ are needed to detemine a single organ or trait.
vi. The ____________ of a baby is determined at conception.
vii. _________ and ___________ are genetically different.
Words: sex, thousands, egg cells, males, gene, parents, females, random, hereditary.
3. Write True or False after each statement
a. Thee are only 2 genes (one from the mother and one from the father).
b. Genes are distributed to brothers in the same way.
c. Not only identical twins but all brothers and sisters have the same inheritance.
d. The male child receives a Y-sex chromosomes from the father.
e. Heredity helps to make individuals different in many ways.
4. List 4 traits that are inherited or strongly influenced by heredity.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
Factors
You will recall that we define environment in terms of all the factors which affect the
individual after the moment of conception. To understand these factors we will try and group
them. We can only list some of them.
(a) Pre-natal factors
These are factors in the womb which can influence growth and development. The next
unit discusses these factors. They can affect development positively or negatively.
(b) The family members: The child is born into a family and it is there that he first
learns many things. The family has a very strong and long lasting influence on the
developing child. Every aspect of the child's development is affected. Whether he is
fat or thin depends on how much he is given to eat. His values depend on the family,
his relationship with people outside his home etc.
ii. The peers or mates: age mates and friends influence the behaviours and the
development of children.
(c) Institutions
i. School: The school has tremendous influence on the conduct, learning and
other behaviours of the child, it is here that the child acquires a lot of skills,
knowledge, etc.
ii. The religious Institutions - church, mosque, influence some aspects of the
child's development.
iii. The media: radio, television, newspapers. Even in the rural areas, some of
these do have an impact.
d) The physical environment
i. The conditions of a place affects the health and subsequently all other aspects
of a child's development. Is there enough and right type of food? Is there clean
drinking water?
ii. Facilities for learning exercise and interaction also affect development. Is
there space for exercise and are there play materials?
How Environmental Influences Development

Since environment makes it possible for hereditary gifts to grow and bloom we can say that
all aspects of development are influenced by environment. Environment provides food for
growth as well as opportunities for learning. However, there are some which are virtually
under the control of environment.
These are mostly the aspects of development which are learned and only a few examples will
be given.
i. Language: The child's competences in language depends on the way he is taught
language in the home, in school etc.
171
ii. Social relationship: How the child relates with people depends on his experiences
and the skills which he has for interacting with people.
iii. Motor skills: Although the child does not need to be taught how to crawl, stand,
walk, how he performs many skills depends on the environment. For example, we can
all walk but you will agree that marching which is a kind of walking has to be learnt.
If you have watched the march past during Children's Day or Independence Day
celebrations you will understand what I mean. The same thing applies to many other
motor skills - jumping, throwing etc.
iv. Intellectual ability: Even though we have said that heredity has a strong influence,
the child has a strong influence, the child has to be stimulated for intellectual
development to progress well.
v. Physical development: Environment can not change the physical structure except
there is an incident and a limb or other part is completely destroyed. But how well a
child grows depends on the nutrients and generally healthy conditions free from
infections and other debilitating hazards.
vi. Moral values and judgment are learnt in the family and the home in which the
children live. The way we are attached to our families and kin group here, the way we
respect elders in our communities are not universal. They are important to us in our
environment.
ACTIVITY III
1. List 5 environmental factors that influence development.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
2. List five specific areas of development which are greatly influenced by environment.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv
v.
3. Respond with True or False in the spaces provided after reading the following items.
a. Environmental factors can affect development in a negative way only.
b. Environment has very great influence on those aspects of development which
are learnt.
c. Environment cannot affect physical development.
d. The family has the most long lasting influence on a person's development.
172
SUMMARY
• In this unit we have discussed the influence that heredity and environment have on
growth and development. we have defined heredity and environment. While heredity
constitutes everything, which we inherit from parents, environment means everything,
which influences the individual after the moment of conception. Therefore both
heredity and environment influence all aspects of development and contribute towards
individual differences.
• This statement notwithstanding there are specific traits which are very much under the
influence of heredity, since we inherit species specific traits or traits common to all
members of the human race we can say that heredity controls those traits. Heredity
contributes to individual differences through gene action and sex of the child.
• Heredity greatly influences the traits on which individuals vary including:-
i. intelligence
ii. disorder
iii. physical features
iv. blood type
v. sex related traits e.g. baldness
vi rate of development.
• Some of the major environmental influences which we will continue to discuss
throughout the course can be seen in the following factors:- These are:
i. the factors in the womb
ii. the people among whom the child develops especially the family and peers or
mates.
iii. the institutions such as school, the religious institutions e.g. church and
mosque as well as the media.
iv. the physical environment (through healthy and sanitary condition facilities to
stimulate learning and various forms of development).
• Among those aspects of development which are much influenced by environment are :
i. physical development
ii. language competence
iii. social relationship and skills
iv. motor skills
v. intellectual ability.
vi. moral judgment and values.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of heredity and environment.
2. Explain the relationships between heredity and environment.
173
3. Specify the two broad types of inheritance.

(a)
(b)
4. Explain in a few sentences how heredity makes individuals different.
5. What traits are inherited or strongly influenced by heredity. Mention at least 5
examples.
6. List 4 environmental factors that affect growth and development.
7. What aspects of development are greatly influenced by environment? Name 4. Write
one sentence explaining why.
REFERENCE
Durojaiye, M.O.A. A. New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans, 1976.
174
UNIT 6 (EDU111.6): PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT AND

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
When we talk of the pre-natal period, we refer to the nine calendar months when the baby is
growing in the womb. The medical people count the period in weeks - 40 weeks. Although
we can not see the inside of the womb, we can tell that rapid growth is taking place. Not only
does the pregnant woman's stomach get bigger, at a stage the baby moves and kicks. You
may wonder what a teacher has to do with an unborn child. Be patient and read through this
unit. What happens during pregnancy is not only important for the survival of the baby, the
effects may be long lasting. This means that the teacher needs to know much about the child's
early history even before birth to understand fully some of the classroom behaviours.
This unit will discuss the major growth processes and those factors that help to shape growth
before birth.
OBJECTIVES
1. state the importance of pre-natal development for teachers;
2. explain major developments in the pre-natal period;
3. enumerate the major factors that influence pre-natal development;
4. state the relationship of at least four factors to specific aspects of the child's
development and
5. state at least two implications of pre-natal development for teachers.

1. Before you read through this unit, you should revise the summary of Module 3, Unit
5.
2. Read the introduction and the summary at the end of this unit.
3. Look through the Word Study for the meaning of key words. The words will be
explained also in the text.
4. Read through this unit step by step as it has been arranged for you. Look at the
illustrations that go with the various sub units. If there are words you do not
understand, look them up in the dictionary as you read.
5. Try and do all the activities that are given after each sub-unit. Do not try to look at the
answers before attempting the exercises. Remember to do the assignment at the end of
the unit.
6. To get the best result, you should obey all the instructions and observe all the rules.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS WITH THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE END OF THE
BOOK
175
WORD STUDY
pre-natal - before birth.
Trimester - three months
Mitosis - cell division
Fetus - unborn baby after different parts of the body have been formed
mental retardation - a condition where it is difficult for the child to learn and look
after himself.
THE NEED TO STUDY PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

Although, out of convenience, we say that a child's birthday is the day he is born, we know
that he has been in existence for about nine months before then. After fertilization, the baby
grows in the environment of the womb. Many important changes take place. Development
before birth helps to mould the type of child who will attend your classes. Studying this
period enables the teacher to have a better understanding of some aspects of children's
behaviours.
Specially, the teacher learns -
1. that the period lays an important foundation for later growth and development,
2. how the period can influence later behaviour.
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PRE-NATAL PERIOD

As you already know, the pre-natal period refers to the approximate 40 weeks which the baby
spends in the womb. Growth is very rapid at this time. The one fertilized egg. of organism at
conception, known as _zygote,_ grows into billions of cells at the end of the period. The
result which we see at birth is a fully grown baby.
How did the baby manage to grow so big by the ninth month? The explanation is that there
have been increase in number and size of cells, with accompanying changes in their
functions. The food and energy for such rapid growth have been provided by the mother. We
will discuss these in more detail.
To discuss the developments meaningfully, the pre-natal period is normally divided into
phases. For our purpose, we will talk about the first three months or first _trimester_ (tri-
three, mester- months) and the remaining six months, known as the period of the _fetus_.
FIRST TRIMESTER
In the first three months, three important happenings should interest us.
1. Increase in number of cells: The zygote begins growth through a process of sub-
division called _mitosis_ (cell division continues throughout our growing life but starts now).
Cells multiply at a rapid rate. The zygote sub- divides into two identical daughter cells, these
two daughter cells sub-divide into four, then the four to eight and so on. We can say that the
process of growth starts during the first trimester.
176
Figure 1: Cell Division (Mitosis)

2. The Placenta link is established: The growing baby establishes a link with the mother
known as placenta. The placenta is made up of the umbilical cord and other members
that attach the baby to the mother. The baby is kept alive throughout the 9 months
through the placenta. The mother's blood carries nutrients, oxygen etc to the baby and
removes waste products. All these are done through the placenta. So, nothing must
happen to this vital connection for the survival of the unborn baby.
3. Cell differentiation: The very important process of cell differentiation also takes
place. There is division of labour. Cells are assigned to form the different parts of the
body - skin, legs and arms, nervous system, internal organs e.g. kidney, liver, heart,
and the bones and muscles etc. Once the assignment is given, the cells migrate to their
proper locations and begin to grow. So cells which were originally identical at some
stage take on different assignments and begin to form different parts of the body
through a process of cell differentiation. Nothing must tamper with this process
because if any danger attacks and kills the few cells meant to build up a part of the
body, that part of the body might be missing in the baby!
THE PERIOD OF THE FETUS (THE REMAINING 6 MONTHS)

Elaboration of what was laid down in the first trimester takes place during the period of the
fetus. However we must mention three important development too for this sub-period.
1. Increase in cell-size: An aspect of the elaboration is the growth in cell size as
well as cell number. This is part of the reason for the increase in size and weight of
177
both the pregnant mother and child. This is why the weight of the pregnant woman is
taken at intervals at the antenatal clinics to ensure that the baby is growing normally.
2. Rapid growth of the Brain: Special mention must be made about the very
rapid growth of the nervous system especially the brain. The nervous system of all the
systems in the body undergoes spectacular changes in the period of the fetus. The
growth is so rapid that at birth, the brains has almost the total number of cells it will
have throughout the life of the individual. Everything must be done to support this
growth and if any-thing prevents it, experts doubt that the harm can be reversed.
3. Functional systems are established: As part of the elaboration of growth,
systems are established. For instance, as soon as the baby is born, breathing
commences, feeding can take place. So both the •respiratory and digestive systems
were ready before birth. Other systems and organs for seeing, hearing, smelling,
tasting and feeling too are ready before birth. Indeed, the circulatory system functions
long before birth because heart beat starts at about four weeks after conception. So not
only do organs grow, they are organised into functional systems. All these organs help
a child to grow normally, preparing him for the ability to learn.
Think of the importance of each of these developments. If we are to have normal
babies and subsequently normal children to teach in our country, can we afford to
allow anything to go wrong with any of these developments? In the next section, we
will discuss some of the pre-natal influences and how they can influence these
developments within the growing baby.
illustration that is given below summarises the major developments and their timing.
You may want to refer to it when you are reading the next section.
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS OF THE PRE-NATAL PERIOD
Development Prenatal Period

First Trimester Period of the Fetus (last 6 months)
Increase in Cell No
Cell Differentiation
Increase in Cell Size
Establishment of
Placenta
Brain Growth
Functional System
N.B: stands for the rate of growth.
ACTIVITY I
1. It is important for teachers to study pre-natal development. Give two reasons.
i.
ii.
178
2. Fill in the blank spaces with words from the list below. You may use a word more
than once.
Pre-natal means (1)........ During the first three months or (2)......of pregnancy, certain
important developments take place. These include increase in (3)....... and (4).......of
(5)........ The last six months of pregnancy can also be called the period of the (6)........
The growth of the baby during pregnancy is due to increase in cell (7)........and
(8)............. .. Nutrients are taken to the baby through the (9)......... that links mother
and child. (10)........... products are also sent out by the same way.
The first trimester is very important because cell (11) ...... takes place so that different
parts of the body can begin to grow.
The period of the fetus witnesses a very rapid growth of the (12) ....... Any mishap or
accident at this time could have very (13) ..... results in growth of the (14)......... It is
important to (15) anything that can have negative influence on the unborn baby.
Words
1. size
2. number
3. differentiation
4. prevent
5. serious
6. trimester
7. before birth
8. brain
9. placenta
10. waste
11. cells
12. fetus
PRE-NATAL INFLUENCES
Many factors influence the development of the unborn child. When everything goes well, the
baby is healthy and normal. When there are negative influences, serious damage can occur.
Some of the factors could affect the structures and result in permanent damage. But, quite
often, with good handling and natural processes the damage is temporary.
FACTORS
i. Nutrition: We want to emphasize the importance of nutrition or good food in our
African environment. Through poverty, economic difficulties and ignorance the
pregnant woman may not be well fed. Rather, the husband saves money to prepare for
the ceremonies after birth! Good nutrition, provided by a balanced diet, helps the
unborn baby to develop optimally. A balanced diet contains proteins, carbohydrates,
fats and minerals. Nutrients help to provide the building materials and energy to
179
support rapid cell growth and development throughout pregnancy. The faster the
growth, the greater the demand for nutrients. Where the mother is malnourished, that
is not eating balanced diet, the baby who relies on the mother for its nutrient
requirements can not grow properly. The organ which has most rapid growth, i.e. the
brain, is usually the worst hit.
Research results show that prolonged malnutrition has many effects. The brain does
not have its full number of cells. Sometimes a condition known as MED, Minimal
Brain Dysfunction occurs. The child appears normal in every respect except that there
are slight defects or damage in the brain. Learning of certain types of materials can be
affected in later years. Other effects associated with malnutrition are still births (a
baby dying before birth) miscarriage, difficult labour and low birth weight.
ii. Health: Closely associated with nutrition is health. Good health is very important in
our environment. When the pregnant mother is healthy, the unborn baby develops
normally. But, poor health of the mother can affect her ability to nourish and protect
the unborn baby. There are certain infectious diseases which can affect the growth of
the baby. German measles or _Rubella_ can have very serious consequences. An
attack of German measles in the first trimester of pregnancy may result in defective
eyesight and mental deficiency. Some forms of sexually transmitted diseases such as
gonorrhea, syphilis and the much dreaded AIDS can be passed on to the unborn child.
Mumps could also have bad effect. Even continuous attacks of malaria can make the
mother anemic and therefore unable to furnish the baby with the normal oxygen
supply and perhaps nutrients too. So the baby may be born small.
iii. Drugs: Drugs have to be used carefully during pregnancy because they too can have
serious consequences. In our environment, young unmarried girls may try to get rid of
unwanted pregnancy by taking "strong" or potent herbs. Also, some pregnant women
including those who can not afford to pay for medical antenatal care, engage in self
medication. Although the effects of these practices have not been specially
documented, there is evidence that potent drugs affect the unborn babies. A German
drug, thalidomide, which was prepared to help pregnant women cope with "morning
sickness" resulted in the birth of babies with physical defects. The drug apparently
affected the process of cell differentiation and growth since it was taken in the first
trimester of pregnancy. So many of the babies were born without arms and legs.
On the other hand, certain drugs which were medically prescribed for mothers whose
pregnancies were threatened helped to make their children grow well. Research
results show that generally they performed better than other primary school children
in school work.
iv. Age of the mother: Another factor which can affect the well being of an unborn baby
is the age of the mother. Very young mothers and old mothers tend to have
complications. Research has found that young adolescent before the age of 18 years
and first time mothers after 35 years tend to have problems and difficult labour. In
some part of Nigeria where child marriage is still practised, the mothers and babies
suffer because all the organs associated with birth are not adequately mature. As we
will soon see difficult labour can be dangerous. The older mothers tend to have more
multiple births - twins and triplets. Although many older mothers have normal babies,
there is greater likelihood of their giving birth to "mongoloid" children. _Mongolism_
is a condition where the children are mentally retarded and do not have normal facial
180
features. Their eyes are small, and narrow. The children have great difficulty looking
after themselves and learning.
v. Accident: A light fall may not affect a pregnant woman and her unborn child
adversely. But if she falls from a bicycle or is involved in an accident or a fight where
she experiences heavy impacts, the baby may be affected. The placenta be partly
detached or completely cut. This means that the baby may not have the usual
nutrients. Bleeding may occur, there may be miscarriage or other complications.
Certainly the development of the baby will be affected if the placenta becomes
inefficient so that brain damage, small size or premature birth may result.
vi. Irradiation (the use of x-ray): The use of x-ray and "burning” effect of similar
materials is to be discouraged. Only the medical doctor should order an x-ray to be
taken when necessary. If for some reason the x-ray is taken in the first trimester of
pregnancy, some cells might be destroyed. Without replacements, the baby could be
deformed. The eyes and the brain are usually the badly affected organs. The heart and
respiratory system too can be affected.
vii. Alcohol, Tobacco and Smoke: For some years now, the W.H.O. (World Health
Organisation) has been warning people in developing countries about possible
harmful effects of drinking alcohol and tobacco smoking. Also, recently, the toxic
effect of inhaling smoke constantly from cooking with firewood, cowdung, etc. on
pregnant and other women has been discussed. The effect is particularly bad when the
fire is in encloded places. Generally, the babies of women who drink and smoke
heavily are smaller. Small babies stand a higher risk of infections after birth than
bigger babies. Alcohol, tobacco (chewed or smoked) and smoke may affect appetite
and reduce nutrient intake. This, in turn affects how much nutrition the fetus obtains
from the mother.
viii. Blood Incompatibility: Sometimes certain blood factors of the father and mother of a
baby do not agree. They are said to be incompatible, they cannot work together even
for the sake of the baby. One such factor is known as Rh factor (Rhesus factor). If
there is such disagreement or incompatibility, some complications result in such a
way that miscarriage may occur or the baby may experience health problems.
ix. Emotional stress: Generally in our country, pregnant women are happy. The husband,
in-laws the woman herself have a very positive attitude toward pregnancy. Everyone
prays for the safe arrival of the baby. However in some circumstances this may not be
the case. Death in the family, unwanted pregnancy, ill treatment from husbands and
in-laws and other bad news may depress the pregnant woman. Emotional shock and
stress may reduce her appetite and so the quality and quantity of nutrients also
become reduced. Even if she eats well, her body may refuse to utilise the food well.
There is evidence to show that certain deformities may occur, the baby will be small.
There could be mental retardation and some other nervous system disorders such as
epilepsy. There could also be other physical defects.
x. Difficult labour: Because of the fact that medical facilities are not sufficient, also with
ignorance, and poverty many babies are born outside hospitals and medical clinics. It
is only when labour becomes very prolonged and difficult that some pregnant women
are rushed to the hospital. Sometimes the babies die before birth - still birth.
Sometimes the supply of oxygen to the brain cells is poor so some brain cells die off.
The child then suffers from MBD (Minimal Brain Damage) or even mental
181
retardation which is more severe. Later in class the child is unable to learn certain
subjects. Sometimes, physical defects such as disfigured limbs, occur. These defects
can last throughout life.
As you can see, even after conception there is need to protect the unborn baby. Many
of the factors can leave a permanent damage if the tissues of organs are destroyed. We
have seen that the brain, eyesight can be permanently damaged. If this is so, the
children in our classes can not learn well. Even when we can not see the damage,
learning problems do occur.
Sometimes we can see the damage and they show up as physical handicap. Directly
and indirectly, such handicaps influence the way the children see themselves - their
self concept - and the way they relate to other children. the teacher has a big
responsibility not only in helping to educate people but in helping children who could
have suffered from ill effects of pre-natal factors.
Figure 2: Factors that affect pre-natal development
182
ACTIVITY II
1. Match the two sets of terms from list A and B.
List A List B
1. Poor nutrition a. Mongolism
2. Rubella (German measles) b. brain defect
3. Older mothers c. babies with defective limbs
4. Thalidomide d. defective eyesight and mental deficiency
2. Explain how (a) accidents (b) difficult labour can affect the affect the unborn baby.
3. List 7 factors that can affect the development of the baby before birth.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
We had asked why the teachers need to know about an unborn child if their job is in the
classroom. The major reason is that later behaviour and development are usually affected by
events in the pre-natal period. We will now consider in greater detail what the teacher can do.
1. Teacher can try to gather more information from parents about children with learning
problems, physical handicaps and other forms of behavioural problems. Such
questions should go back to the period of pregnancy. The information should improve
the teachers' understanding of individual differences.
2. The teacher can make allowances for children with learning problems by showing
down, repeating, and using different techniques to teach them.
3. The teacher should make seating arrangements which accommodate those who have
defects. The children should be made to feel wanted and accepted in the class.
4. The teacher can train children to make up for the areas of deficiencies. There are
certain skills and crafts which slow and mentally retarded children can do.
5. It is very important to enlighten the parents and other members of the public about
pre-natal influences. When they know what to avoid, the babies will be protected and
the children we teach will have fewer problems. The students can also begin to learn
about some of the factors such as the importance of good nutrition, health, effects of
drugs, alcohol and smoking.
183
6. Female teachers of child bearing age can practice what they have learnt. The male
teachers can help to protect their wives and babies during the pre-natal stage by
making sure that they avoid the ill effects of the factors we have discussed.
ACTIVITY III
Do the following exercises:
State True or False in the spaces provided after each statement.
1. A teacher can benefit personally from the knowledge of the events of pre-natal
development. ...........
2. The teacher should not educate parents, students and others about what could go
wrong during pregnancy..........
3. The knowledge of the effects of pre-natal development should make the teacher more
patient in dealing with children with physical and learning problems...............
4. The teacher who studies pre-natal influences should have a greater appreciation of
individual differences. ................
SUMMARY
• The pre-natal period is very important for the development of the child. It can affect the
intelligence of the child, the way the child learns and the way the child grows. The two
areas of development thus directly affected are intellectual and physical development.
• Different things happen at different stages of pregnancy. First there is cell division,
then the cells move and form different parts of the body, they grow very fast to produce
a normal baby after approximately 40 weeks.
• Many factors can effect the unborn baby for bad or for good. Some of these include:
i. nutrition
ii. health
iii. drugs
iv. age of the mother
v. the use of x-rays
vi. accidents
vii. alcohol, tobacco
viii. emotional stress
ix. blood Incompatibility.
• It is important that the teachers should know about these development so that they can
understand the behaviour of children and help them. Some of the ways in which the
teacher can help are:
ii. practising what they have learnt
iii. helping children to cope with their deficiencies.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Give 2 reasons why a teacher should study pre-natal development.
2. Name 3 major development in the unborn baby.
3. State how any 4 pre-natal factors influence development
4. State three implications of pre-natal period of development for teachers.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology; London: Evans, 1976.
185
UNIT 7 (EDU111.7): MEANING OF PHYSICAL

DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
You will recall that in the last unit we discussed the growth and development of the child in
the womb. We will now follow the development of our baby from infancy to adolescence.
This should cover mostly the primary school years although we will briefly mention
development in adolescence.
I do not know whether you ever wondered how very quickly the children seem to grow these
days. In most cases they grow faster and taller than their parents. This trend is noticed
throughout the world. Some say it is because they are "fertilizer" children! It is true that
improved nutrition has help physical growth and development tremendously. There are other
factors too which we will discuss in this unit. And do you know that if we monitor the way
children grow we can spot signs of problems and even prevent any problems? Physical
development is very important because all other aspects of development rest on the physical
structure. This unit will discuss many interesting points about physical development.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the meaning of physical development;
2. state the importance of physical development and why a teacher should monitor it;
3. list at least 5 factors that influence physical development;
4. identify the major landmarks in some aspects of physical development;
5. list the important aspects of physical development which a teacher must know and
6. name those aspects of physical development which the teacher is encouraged to
monitor.

1. Read the introduction and the summary very well.
2. Read through the unit step by step as arranged. Look up unfamiliar words in the
dictionary and in the Word Study as you read. Please attempt all the activities given.
Do not look at the sample answers until you have completed the exercises.
3. Try and observe all the rules. Remember to attempt the unit assignment. If you carry
out these instructions faithfully, you will certainly benefit from this unit.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE END OF

THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Cartilage - soft bone like the bridge of your nose popularly known as "biscuit
bone" in this country.
Ossification - hardening of bones.
186
Adolescence - the period of development between childhood and adulthood when

physical maturity occurs.
growth spurt - rapid growth is the early adolescent period.
reflects - automatic body reaction to situation
trunk - the body
skeletal
Development - development of bones and teeth.
MEANING OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

In Unit 3, we had said that development involves change. So, by physical development we
mean different types of changes which occur in the body from conception to adolescence.
There are many kinds of change. The changes occur in:-
i. Size. The body grows taller, weighs more and the proportions change.
ii. Kind. At birth the bones of the baby are soft bone structure or cartilage but with age
they harden.
iii. Number. The teeth change in number until the full complement or set is obtained.
Also if you recall from the discussion on pre- natal development in Unit 6, major
growth implies increase in cell number.
iv. Function. Mouth used initially for sucking becomes used for speech, etc.
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

i. Physical development is very important because it sets the limit to what the child can
do at any particular moment. For instance, how he interacts with the environment
depends on what physical equipment are mature enough for such action.
ii. Physical development precede development in other areas and they all depend on the
state of the physical structures.
Examples
- Brain development allows for learning and other form of intellectual work.
- muscle development allows the child to move around and engage in sporting
activities.
iii. Physical development is related to the child's feelings about himself and how others
regard him.
Examples
- When a child is too small in size among his class mates, he tends to feel inadequate.
- When children are choosing a leader, they tend to look for the big boy or girl so that
he/she can protect them.
- Physical size is important in certain jobs. There is an unwritten rule that the United
States President should be tall! In Nigeria, height is one of the considerations for
selecting policemen and soldiers.
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Monitoring Growth is Important

The teacher needs to monitor physical development so that if anything should go wrong, it
can be detected early. What is more, adequate monitoring can help to prevent any problem.
Another major benefit from monitoring physical development is that the teacher focuses
attention on the children. Children have a basic need for attention so if the teacher shows an
interest in their physical development, among other things, the child's need for attention will
be satisfied.
(Unit 9 will discuss specific things that the teacher can do to monitor and promote physical
development).
ACTIVITY I
1. a. Explain what physical development means.
b. List 4 types of change involved in physical development.
2. Why is physical development important? Give 2 reasons.
i.
ii.
3. Give 2 reasons why a teacher should monitor physical development.
i.
ii.
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

i. Nutrition
We had seen in our discussion of pre-natal development that nutrition was very
important for growth of the baby especially for the rapid brain development. After
birth the brain still continues to develop rapidly and therefore still needs nutrients.
Physical growth is at one of its most rapid periods too. Initially the mother's milk is
sufficient but after weaning, good food must be given not only in the pre-school days
but throughout the primary and even secondary school years.
Children who are malnourished do not grow well. They tend to be smaller and their
overall height is lower. Well fed children tend to grow bigger and stronger than their
parents!
Some special problems like rickets, poor teeth formation, a type of blindness can
result from poor feeding. Over feeding with carbohydrates may lead to obesity not
only in childhood but in adult life.
ii. Health
Good health is related to good physical development. Sickness slows down growth
and if the sickness lasts for long period, the over all size, weight and robustness of the
child is adversely affected. If the sickness is of short duration, the child usually tries
to "catch up" and the teacher and parents should help in the catching up process.
188
iii. Clean and healthy environment

Many things make up a good healthy environment conducive to growth. Available
clean drinking water, good ventilation and clean surrounding help to prevent the child
from falling ill. And as you know many infection diseases come from dirty water and
surroundings in our country and they can set back the child's physical growth and
development. When houses are built, care must be taken to have good ventilation so
that children can have enough oxygen for growth.
iv. Exercise and Rest
Exercise helps the body to grow and function well. When the child exercises, blood
flows well and supplies oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body. Also it helps to
send out waste products through perspiration. A balance of exercise and rest is good.
Having sent round the food, the rest period allows it to be used for growth and not
burnt up too fast. Physical education is a compulsory subject in primary school
because it is beneficial to the body. It helps the body to be strong enough to fight
diseases.
v. Sex
Girls and boys grow differently. Right from the start girls mature faster than boys;
their teeth erupt earlier than boys', they have more fat than boys and the boys more
muscle. You will find that these differences are reflected in the type of games the
play.
vi. Heredity
Some children have the tendency endowed by heredity to be tall, to be fat, to grow
fast, to have a particular skin or colour and so on. If the environment is favourable all
these inherited potentials show in the nature of physical development we witness.
In some instances, some physical ailment like short - sightedness or long sightedness
or diabetes are hereditary. The peculiar nature o the environment tends to reflect the
nature of physical development in the child.
vii. Socio Economic Status
Many studies have found that children from well-to-do homes grow bigger and faser
than children from poor working class homes. There is no magic about this. The
difference is mainly environmental. The children tend to feed better. They are
healthier because of feeding and the fact that parents immunizes them against
infections diseases. They also have more time to rest and relax.
ACTIVITY II
1. List five factors that affect physical development.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
189
2. List any three of these factors that apply to children's physical development in your
area.
i.
ii.
iii.
MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

After birth, physical development continues and manifests in different types of changes. The
dimensions we will discuss are:-
i. changes in height and weight
ii. changes in proportions
iii. skeletal development
iv. brain development
v. development of the reproductive system
vi. the issue of sex differences in development
vii. the issue of early and late maturers
viii. the issue of handedness
i. Height and Weight

There are two periods of very rapid growth in life - in infancy and early adolescence.
For the first two years of life the child grows very fast and the growth shows in height
and weight. So fast is growth that by 2 - 3 years the child has reached about 59% of
his final adult height. Increase in weight is also very fast but weight change depends a
lot on the quality of food the child eats. From about three years until late childhood or
the upper primary school years, growth is steady.
You may have observed that the girls in your school begin to grow quite tall in
primaries five and six, much faster than the boys. The second period of last growth
occurs around this time - about 9 - 12 years for girls and 12 - 15 for boys. We have
this broad elastic age span because of individual difference and the fact that children
from middle class homes tend to mature faster. At this period there is what is
normally referred to as "growth spurt", a remarkable jump in height and weight. After
a few years the rate of growth slows down until it finally stops between 16 - 18 for
girls and 18 - 20 for boys. Our concern is with children in the primary school years
although research has shown that there are also adolescents of 18 and 19 years in
primary schools in this country.
ii. Proportion
The changes in proportion help the teacher to deter-mine how mature a child has
become. At birth, the baby tends to have a large head since it takes up about 20% of
body length. The legs are very short compared to the rest of the body. The diagram
which is given helps to present points we discuss. So the pre- school child too has a
head while the trunk or body tends to be thick with a protruding belly and no "shape".
190
During the primary school years the head begins to occupy less proportion of body
length until finally in late adolescence when the head is only about 8% of the body
length. The trunk begins to thin down in the primary school years and by adolescence
the girl appears to have a figure which looks like "8" and the boy a somewhat stocky
figure.
Different proportions of the head, legs and trunk of a child as he grows from birth
to adolescence.
The legs which were proportionally short in infancy become longer in childhood.
During the growth spurt of early adolescence, because the growth is mostly in the
long bones of the limbs, the child looks like he is "all legs"!
iii. Skeletal Development
By skeletal development we are referring to changes in bone structure and teeth. At
birth, the bones of the baby have a high water content and are mostly cartilage, what
is referred to as "biscuit bone" like the bridge of your nose. The bones gradually begin
to ossify or harden. The process of ossification occurs gradually from infancy to
adolescence, when growth stops.
Number of bones increase too especially in the hands and the wrist. By taking an x-
ray of the bones of the wrist and counting the number of bones it is possible to tell the
age of the child. At birth there are only 3 but by late adolescence there are 28 bones in
the hand.
The bones also increase in size, in length and the most remarkable and obvious one is
during the growth spurt. The lengthening of the long bones of the legs, thigh and arms
make the child awkward not just in appearance but also in behaviour.
Children lose their baby teeth mostly in the primary school years. Since the loss and
eruption of teeth is normal, the only problem is that it can affect their speech. But
teeth erupt in a particular sequence and the deviation from the sequence could mean
serious problems.
191
iv. Brain Development

The rapid brain growth and development which started in the pre- natal period
continues immediately after birth. Although the number of brain cells is virtually
complete there are other development which will enable the child to function well.
During the first two years, the cells get bigger, a few more may be added but the main
thrust of development is in making connecting links between the different areas of the
brain. By 6 months about 50% of major development are completed, by about two
years 75% and definitely by 6 years virtually all the development in the brain is
completed. The major lesson is that whatever help is required must be given in the
pre-school period. The help is in the form of feeding and careful development of
certain skills that could stimulate connections.
One way that teacher can help to screen children if they feel that something is wrong
with the development of a child is to see if some reflexes still persist. Many reflexes
drop out after the first year of life, some earlier. The Babinsky reflex is the reaction
that, can be seen when one strokes the bottom of the foot of the baby. First the baby
spreads out his toes and then he curls them in. If the reflex is still present in older
children coupled with other observations of the teacher then there is likely to be a
brain problem.
v. Reproductive Systems
Under normal circumstances the children in the primary school should not be sexually
mature. But these days, many well fed children are maturing earlier than before so it
is important for the teacher to know what to expect.
At about the same time as the growth spurt, the girls develop breasts and mature
physically. Many of them menstruate, a sign that the body is almost ready for
reproduction. Some boys too become physically mature with deeper voices and their
sex organs can produce mature sperms so that they may be able to become father.
There are still some areas in our country where girls and boys of primary school age
are expected to marry.
The teacher should be able to enlighten the children about the changes they
experience and advise them accordingly.
vi. Sex differences in development
We have already made the point that girls tend to mature faster than boys right from
birth. And also that during the growth spurt, the girls have an earlier start of about 2-3
years than boys. But there are individual differences so that some boys may start early
and some girls later. However, on the average girls mature earlier. This development
notwithstanding boys have a higher terminal height than girls. On the average they are
taller, heavier and stronger than girls in late adolescence.
Of course, as you are well aware, there are differences in many of the physical
characteristics which become mature in boys and girls e.g. the girls develop breasts
and the boys do not.
vii. Early and Late Maturers
For reason of heredity, environmental variations, some children mature fast and others
late. The early maturers can have problems in primary school especially if the teacher
joins in some of the embrassing comments that could be made about the girls. But
192
with good handling, both male and female early mauterers should be able to accept
that early maturing could be an asset. On the other hand, late maturers should be
assisted to adjust by telling them not to lay undue emphasis on their physical
inadequacies.
viii. Handedness
It is important to explain to primary school teachers that some children are meant to
be right handed and some left handed by nature. The point is that the right side of the
brain controls the left side of the brain and the left side of the brain controls the right
side of the body. If the left side of the brain is dominant, then the child is right
handed, right footed etc. If, on the other hand the right side is dominant then the child
is left handed, left footed etc.
Our culture frowns on children's use of the left hand as the dominant one. They cannot
offer or accept objects with the left etc. The teacher must ensure that if a child is left
handed, no attempt must be made to confuse the child because changing the hand that
is used does not also change brain dominance! Rather the consequences may be
negative for the child.
The dimensions to monitor

Unit 3.9 will discuss what the teacher can do to foster physical development. We merely wish
to list those aspects that the teacher should observe carefully. Careful study of these areas will
definitely make the teacher grow in understanding of the children and help to reduce
problems among our primary school population.
1. height and weight
2. change in proportions
3. teeth eruption
4. arm circumference
5. sexual maturity
6. handedness
7. early and late maturity
ACTIVITY III
1. List 5 important aspects of physical development.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
2. Write True or False after each of these statements.
i. Growth spurt refers to the rapid growth during infancy and early adolescence.
ii. There are sex differences in the rate of physical maturity throughout life.
iii. If the right side of the brain is dominant the child is likely to be left handed.
iv. Brain growth and development includes teeth eruption, loss and development.
3. List those aspects of physical development which the teacher is encouraged to
monitor.
193
SUMMARY
• We have discussed physical development in this unit. Physical development was
defined as changes in structure (number, kind and size) and function of the body.
• Physical development is important because it sets the limit to what the child can do,
contributes to the child's feelings of adequacy, and provides the basis for other aspects
of development. Therefore, the teacher is urged to monitor physical development
especially:
i. height and weight
ii. teeth eruption
i. changing proportions
ii. arm circumference
iii. sexual maturity
iv. handedness
vii. early and late maturity.
• These same dimensions were discussed. It was noted that there are two periods of rapid
growth, viz: infancy and early adolescence. Initially, the head is out of proportion to the
rest of the body occupying as much as 20% of body length but the rest of the body
gradually grows and this proportion is reduced. The soft bones of the baby ossify or
harden as the child grows and the process is complete in late adolescence.
• Brain development occurs early in life and is virtually complete before the child arrives
in primary school. the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and vice
versa. This is how handedness is determined.
• The maturity of the reproductive system is achieved in adolescence with girls moving
faster than boys. But there are individual differences not just in this area but in all
physical development and late maturers.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain briefly what is meant by physical development.
2. Why is physical development important?
3. Name those aspects of physical development which a teacher should try to monitor.
4. Explain the following:

a. early and late maturity
b. change in body proportions.
5. List briefly any 5 factors that influence physical development.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans, 1976.
Eke, Elizabeth, Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan: Heinemann
(Nig) Educational Publishers Ltd., (In press).
Bickerstaffe, E., A Practical Course in Education and Child Development. Looking at
School, Ibadan: Evans Brothers (Nig. Publishers) Ltd., 1977.
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UNIT: 8 (EDU111.8): MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Can you think about Nigerian Children and youth who are widely known and famous
throughout the world? They are likely to be those who have used their motor skills very well.
Athletes like Chidi Imoh, Innocent Egbunike, Akeem the famous basketball player, Odizor
the tennis player, the late Sam Okwaraji, the junior national football team (the Golden
Eagles), etc are likely to be on the list. This is not peculiar to Nigeria. As a group, the most
highly paid and famous people in the world today are not teachers, not doctors, not lawyers,
not professors but sportsmen and women, singers etc. These are people who have highly
developed motor skills. Think about it and resolve to help children not only in academic work
but in the development of motor skills if they are gifted in that area. But above all, motor
development is truly important for all of us. Without it, we would be so bored we would die!
However, this motor development undergoes series of stages which we shall closely examine
in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
1. explain the meaning of motor development;
2. state at least 5 points in support of motor development;
3. give at least 3 reasons why a teacher needs to monitor development of his pupils;
4. list and explain at least 3 characteristics of motor development;
5. specific and classify the mojor motor skills of the pre- school and primary school
period;
6. list and explain at least 5 factors which influence motor development;
7. explain the meaning of some key terms; and
8. describe a sequence for a motor skill either based on personal observation or reading.

1. Read the introduction and the summary very well.
2. Read through the unit step by step as arranged. Look up unfamiliar words in the
dictionary.
3. Attempt all the activities given. Do not look at the sample answers until you have
completed the exercises.
4. Try and observe all the rules. Remember to attempt the unit assignment. If there are
any parts of the assignment that you find difficult, go back and study the
corresponding sections again.
If you carry out these instructions faithfully, you will benefit from this unit.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE
END OF THIS BOOK
195
WORDS STUDY
Locomotor - skills which involve movement from one place to another skill
non-locomotor- skills which involve movement but in a stationary position skill
manipulative - movements which involve the handling of objects movements
exphalo - from "head to tail" direction
caudal
proximo - from centre to the outer areas
distal
rooting - an inborn action whereby the body makes sucking movements when
the side of the face is touched.
reflex
THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Motor Development
At birth, the baby only reacts reflexively, there is no conscious control over his movements
but as he grows older, he can move the muscles at will. This is a clear evidence of motor
development. When we talk of motor development, we are basically referring to change
towards greater coordination and control over movements of various muscles and
coordination of muscles occur naturally without training as in walking. But, many aspects of
motor development are learnt. When we talk about motor development here we include both
those aspects that occur without training and the motor skills we promote in school.
Quite often when people think of motor development, they only remember the large muscles
e.g. those used in walking swinging the arms etc. However, there are other equally important
but smaller muscles e.g. those which control eye movements as well as those that control
bladder and bowel movements.
Importance of Motor Development

As we had said in the introduction, motor development is extremely important.
i. Motor development enables us to perform those actions that are essential for life and
for our well being. The act of eating requires co-ordinated movements! Imagine for a
moment what life will look like if you are permanently inactive, e.g. if you could not
even turn your head and eyes to look at things. It is obvious that life would be totally
impossible without controlled movements.
ii. Motor development enables the child to interact with people and objects in his
environment and thereby learn. Interaction with the environment promotes learning
and thinking. The child who moves around and talks to people learns about people
and makes friends. Indeed, he does many other things which are related to other
aspects of his environment.
iii. Motor development enables the child to engage in play and games. As you know, play
is a very useful device for practising how to grow up. Games help to bring people
together as well as enable them let off bottled up energy in a recreational setting.
196
iv. It promotes better physical and mental health. Movement enhances circulation,
removal of waste products from the body, builds up healthy muscles and leads to
increased resistance to disease. Motor development helps people to be happy since
they are able to do things to remove frustrations and keep them occupied.
v. Exercise of muscles helps the muscles to grow further. On the other hand, lack of use
leads to atrophy or wasting away of muscles. So, we say that this is an example of
how motor development helps to promote further growth.
vi. Motor development is at the basis of all school learning. Whether the child is writing,
answering questions orally or reading, different facets of motor development are
involved. You are presumably aware that the psychomotor domain is involved in all
the subjects which we teach in the primary school.
vii. As we had said dramatically in the introduction, motor development provides the
gateway to many vocations. The glamorous vocations including sports, fine and
performing arts depend on highly developed motor skills. Similarly, many other
vocations too require good control and co-ordinated movements. Secretarial work
(which involves typing), fashion design and dress making, engineering etc are
dependent on motor development. How would you like to be operated on by a
surgeon whose hands are not steady?
ACTIVITY I
1. State the meaning of motor development.
2. "Motor development is very important".
Give 5 points to support this statement.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3. Say whether the following statements are true or false by writing True of False beside
the statements below.
i. Motor development involves primarily the movement at of very important
small muscles of the eye etc.
ii. Motor development is essential for life.
iii. Motor development promotes aggression.
iv. There is no action which does not involve an aspect of motor development.
v. Motor development promotes physical development.
vi. Motor development involves controlled movements which occur naturally and
the motor skills which are learnt.
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FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

The factors which influence motor development are similar to those which influence physical
development. Remember that these factors may act singly but quite often they are combined.
i. Nutrition: Movements require energy. If the supply of energy is poor or irregular, the
chances are that the children will not be as active as they should be in order to
conserve energy. Also, there is evidence to show that poor nutrition in the early years
of life affects motor co-ordination in later life.
ii. Health: A child who is healthy and strong plays and moves about vigorously. But, on
the orther hand, the child who is ill or sickly will be weak and so will not be in a
position to expend more energy in moving around.
iii. Race: African babies tend to be precocious faster than their European and American
counterparts or mates in motor development. However, due to poor feeding, illness
and harsh environmental conditions, they lose this precocious start. Only children of a
higher socio economic background continue to develop well.
iv. Sex: There are definite differences in the motor development of boys and girls. These
differences are due to genetic and environmental influences. For instance, 40% of the
total body mass of nature male adolescents is muscle and the female's is 24%. The
boys are generally stronger and faster in races. Sex differences also show is game
preferences. Whereas boys prefer games of strength, girls prefer games of skills and
less energy. Look out of the window at break time and see what the boys and girls in
upper primary classes are doing.
v. Facilities for exercise and learning: Every normal human being engages in exercise of
muscles. But, some do it under guidance, in recreational and pleasant circumstances.
Some exercise many muscles of the body, others just a few under hard labour.
Recreational opportunities enable children to practise motor skills. Some motor skills
can only be developed if there is opportunity to learn. For instance, there is a body of
water in which to learn how to swim. Unless children are taught, they cannot learn
how to write, and draw. Furthermore, availability of several toys and apparatus as
well as opportunity to watch other children using such equipment help to promote
motor development.
vi. Interest: Certain aspects of motor development occur naturally but there are motor
skills which children acquire because of interest. Sometimes it is a matter of the child
having a special talent. Sometimes the child admires someone who has the skill. But
where there is interest, the particular motor skill is learnt more quickly and
pleasurably.
vii. Height and weight: Both also influence the motor development of individuals. You
must have noticed that only few people play such games as basketball effectively.
Similarly, stocky people are very good in weight lifting or discuss throwing. Thus,
even if the interest is there, if the child does not possess the prerequisite height or
weight, he might not perform well in particular skills.
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ACTIVITY II
1. List five factors which influence motor development.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
2. Explain how nutrition and sex influence motor development.
MAJOR TRENDS AND THE NEED TO MONITOR THE PROGRESS OF

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
TRENDS
Motor development is characterized by five major trends.
These are:-
i. involuntary to voluntary control
ii. directional trends
iii. orderly and sequential progress
iv. unco-ordinated to co-ordinated movements.
v. spontaneous practice and expression.
i. Involuntary to Voluntary Control

At birth, the baby has no voluntary control over his movements. The movements are
reflexive in nature. For instance, when the side of the cheek is touched, the baby
immediately responds by making sucking movements and turning in the direction
where he was touched. This is the rooting reflex. Again if you place any small object
or your finger in the baby's palm, he will fold his fingers around it and hold tight. In
fact, at birth the medical people test this reflex by putting two fingers in the palms of
the baby and lifting him suspended on those two fingers. There is no voluntary control
in this grasping reflex. But by the time the child is in pre-school most of the reflexes
are gone. The movements are under voluntary control. Consider too the relatively
controlled, voluntary and calculated movements of the goal keeper in your school's
football team. He, and his team mates and classmates have come a long way.
ii. Motor development follows a directional trend
You will remember that in unit 3, you learnt about the cephalocaudal and proximo-
distal principles of development. Maturation and control of muscles proceed from
hand through the trunk downwards i.e. cephalocaudal directions and from the centre
to the outer parts i.e. proximodistal direction. So, the baby can hold up his head before
he can sit, to be able to stand. Similarly, the baby can move the arms which are closer
to the centre before achieving full control of the fingers.
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iii. Motor development is orderly and sequential

It can be observed that there is an orderly sequence in motor development. Although
we do not know whether all children go through all sequential steps in motor skills,
there are many indications that definite sequences exist. Gesell, a famous psychologist
studied motor development. The analysis showed that children tend to pass through
specific sequences. Other later studies have also looked at different types of motor
behaviours some of which we will describe in the next section. The sequence help us
to judge the maturity of the child and to decide on training procedures.
Even without being told there is a sequence which is very familiar to us here. There is
a sequence which begins with the reflexive walking movements of the baby. From
that first step the child proceeds through the milestones to running. Reflexive walk
starts with crawling then to standing to walking and finally running. Every child
passes through this sequence but as you will see there are other details.
iv. Motor development proceeds from unco-ordinated to co-
ordinate action
It is important to note that all the basic movements are mastered quite early in the pre-
school years. What is left is to integrated or put together the basic movements into
longer units. Let us use the example of writing. The child can move and focus the
eyes in the first year of life. By about three years of age he can hold a pencil. Writing
requires that these two separate units of behaviour, among others, be integrated into
one co- ordinated act.
No motor skill which is taught in school is even completely new. The basic units will
be present and we merely have to help the child put them into an integrated, well co-
ordinated and smooth whole.
v. Any motor skill which the child acquires is spontaneously
expressed and rehearsed
This is done many times in an attempt to master and enjoy it. If you watch the
spontaneous play and games of the primary school children, you will find that they
love running about, jumping and skipping to rhythm. They do not spontaneously
engage in many sedentary games. The younger they are, the more running they do.
These skills develop at about that time too. Teachers should take note and provide
opportunities for expression of newly acquired skills. They should not allow junior
primary school children to sit for too long!.
vi. Maturation and readiness precede motor development
Human being are not robots that can be manipulated anyhow. The performance of any
motor skill can be possible only when the child has reached the maturation and
readiness stage of that skill. It is very doubtful if any amount of training can make a
four year old child learn to drive a motor car.
The Need to Monitor Motor Development

We have always emphasized that in order to understand children and teach them effectively,
there is need to study them. This need applies also to the motor aspect of motor development.
The specific reasons for monitoring motor development are discussed below.
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i. There is need to monitor motor development so that the teacher can understand better
the nature and sequence of the children's movements. No matter how much one reads,
there is nothing like actual observation in promoting real understanding of children's
behaviour.
ii. Again, the attention the children receive while the teacher studies and monitors their
progress is bound to lead to better rapport and better teacher- pupil relationship.
iii. A teacher who monitors the child's motor development knows when the child has a
problem and is in need of help. It is necessary to give timely help in the form of
training to enable a child get over a problem at an early stage.
iv. Continuous assessment enjoins the teacher to access and report on the psychomotor
domain. Teachers often believe that it is only those in creative and cultural arts, or in
physical education that can assess and report on the psychomotor domain. How wrong
they are. As long as a child reads, writes, makes any observable movements within
the context of the curriculum (and sometimes in co-curricular activities), the teacher
has ample opportunity to observe psychomotor functioning.
ACTIVITY III
1. Name 4 major characteristics of motor development:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Give 3 reasons why a teacher needs to monitor motor development.
i.
ii.
iii.
3. Explain the meaning of the following:-
i. rooting reflex
ii. cephalocaudal direction
iii. orderly sequence of motor development.
MAJOR CATEGORIES AND SEQUENCES OF SELECTED MOTOR

SKILLS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
We can classify motor skills into three, namely: locomotor, non- locomotor and
manupulative. Locomotor skills are those that have to do with moving around e.g. walking.
Non-locomotor skills are those involved in movements in a stationary position e.g. bending.
Manipulative skills are movements which involve the handling, receiving and sending out of
objects. We will list some of the frequently used action of children in your school and their
categories.
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The list can be extended. But the classification is clear. With the exception of the physical
education teacher, where one exists, most primary school teachers concern themselves mostly
with manipulative skills particularly with writing and drawing.
Although we have adopted a certain classification, we are also aware that some actions tend
to cut across the boundary and may belong to two categories. You will observe that "dancing"
appears under categories A & B, locomotor and non-locomotor. Some Nigerian dances
involve very little if any locomotor actions. Besides, when some young primary school
children dance, they are so concerned with body movements that they cannot manage to co-
ordinate feet movement at the same time.
Teachers need to take note of all three categories of motor skills in the assessment of the
psychomotor domain! Try it, your assessment is likely to be more accurate especially if you
create opportunities for children to exhibit these skills.
Motor Skills
Category A. B. C.
Locomotor Non-locomotive Manipulative
walking, bending writing,

running, sitting, drawing,
jumping, turning, throwing,
Examples
skipping, dancing, catching,
dancing show of hand, kicking
etc pointing, etc etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS
Sequences of Selected Motor Skills

Children tend to arrive at motor skills by going through sequential actions. It is only through
guidance and practice that they achieve competence in such actions as writing. The naturally
acquired skills similarly pass through a series of steps.
We want to emphasise that the appearance of and competence in some skills depend on the
level of maturity of the child's previous experience and the complexity of the skills. Where a
large number of basic acts have to be co-ordinated, the achievement of the skill is slower. Let
me illustrate with an example.
Example Stand up. Write O with your right forefinger and the big toe of your right leg. Let
your finger write it in an anti- clockwise and your toe in a clockwise direction simultaneously
What was your experience? Let your experience teach you to be patient and painstaking in
teaching children mastery of what you may consider simple motor skills. Co-ordination of
basic actions may not be very easy especially if the hands and the legs are doing difficult
things.
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Remember that you can use the sequence of skills to judge not only the child's levels of
maturity but also the need for help.
(a) Major Steps in Running
i. At about 3 years, running is just like a hurried walk since the two feet do not
leave the ground at the same time. (Perhaps none of the primary one or
kindergarten children is still at this step).
ii. At another level, the child may be able to run but does not stop and start well.
Does not swing arms to support running effort.
iii. The child can run, start and stop well and tends to swing arms but takes short
strides, and speed is slow. The child finds it difficult to run within limited
tract.
iv. By about seven years the child does not only run well, stepping and starting at
will but does so with some speed. Good co- ordination of arm leg and strides
get wider.
(b) Jumping
i. Tries to jump but only one foot leaves the ground.
ii. Can jump off the ground or low object but one foot leads the other. It is as if
the child is afraid to lose contact with the ground or object.
iii. Jumps with two feet off but the arms swing back-wards.
iv. Two feet take off the ground or the object from which they jump and arms
swing forward.
(c) Throwing
i. Child throws with a fixed or right motion with hands pushing ball or object
from under. The whole trunk moves forward rigidly to support both arms
which are held out rigidly in front of and at right angles with the body.
ii. Turns the body in the act of throwing but does not use a forward step with
opposite throwing arm.
iii. Co-ordinates movement of throwing arm with opposite forward step of foot.
Competence in throwing even with training does not occur until about 7-9 years of
age.
(d) Writing
i. Holds pencil or crayon with a fist-type grasp i.e. with the whole palm. There is
no evidence of thumb and finger opposition. Cannot write on a line. Tends to
scribble.
ii. Child advances to a stage where there is a measure of thumb and finger
opposition but awkward. Mature but inexperienced children may hold pencil
at right angles with writing surface or slanting in the opposite direction from
the hand. Can write within large space but not on line.
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iii. Holds pencil or crayon like an adult and is fairly competent. Can write on a
line. Writing either too tiny or too large. Tends to use too much pressure to too
little.
iv. Can write within confined space and writing fairly straight and smooth. These
descriptions of sequences are meant to be guides.
There is no substitute for your own observation.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List the three categories of motor skills.
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Classify the following motor skills appropriately saying the type of category(ies) into
which they fall.
(a) i. clapping of hands
ii. show of hand
iii. catching a ball
iv. painting
v. skipping
vi. tossing a coin
vii. measuring on object
viii. long jump
ix. sweeping
x. playing football
3. Describe the sequence for drawing. You may need to observe 3 children - a pre-
school child, a primary one child and an older child.
4. List 10 other frequently used motor skills in primary school and classify them.
category
i. a
ii. b
iii. c
iv. d
v. e
vi. f
vii. g
viii. h
ix. j
x. k
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SUMMARY
• In this unit we have discussed many aspects of motor development. We have said that
motor development means improved movements which the child makes in terms of
better control and co- ordination of actions. We have also explained that motor
development is very important not only for life itself but for school learning and
vocations which people practise in our environment.
• We have classified motor skills into three depending on what they involve: moving
from place to place - locomotion, handling of objects - manipulation, or none of the two
- non-locomotion. Motor development has certain directional trends and other
characteristics such as progress towards greater integration of actions. What is more,
motor skills which our primary school children develop tend to have definite sequences
while both maturation and readlines precede the performance of motor skills.
• We also described some of the sequences involved in some general motor skills like
running, jumping, throwing and writing.
• All you need to do as a primary school teacher is to observe your children carefully
when they perform any of the various motor skills either voluntarily or through your
direction.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of motor development.
2. State why motor development is important. Give 5 points.
3. Discuss why a teacher should monitor motor development.
4. Select and explain 3 characteristics of motor development.
5. List 5 factors which influence motor development.
6. Observe and record the major sequences in a selected motor skill frequently used by
30 children in your school. 30 marks.
REFERENCES
Eke, E, Child Development in a Changing Cultural content. Ibadan: Heinemann (Nig)
Educational Books, (In Print).
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UNIT 9 (EDU111.9): THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN

FOSTERING PHYSICAL AND
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will discuss what the teacher can do to help children develop well especially
in the physical and motor areas. You will need to revise the major points in Units 7 and 8. We
will refresh your mind on any point we wish to emphasise.
You will recall that we said you should monitor their development. You will also recall that
we said certain factors such as nutrition and the provision of clean environment with adequate
facilities should be provided if children are to develop well. Some of the information you
have acquired should not only assist you in coping with children in your class, you should
share the information with others. The main thrust of this unit will discuss these points in
greater detail.
OBJECTIVES
1. list at least 4 aspects of physical and motor development which you should monitor;
2. state how you could monitor these 4 areas of physical and motor development;
3. apply a technique to study an aspect of physical and motor development and
4. explain at least 3 ways other than monitoring development that the teacher can use to
help foster physical and motor development.

1. Read the summaries of Units 7 and 8 of this Module.
2. Read this module through once. Take note of any important ideas as you read. Also
look up any unfamiliar words.
4. To obtain maximum benefit, try and observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to try
the unit assignment.
CHECK UP YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE

END OF THIS BOOK
THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN FOSTERING MOTOR AND PHYSICAL

DEVELOPMENT
The teacher needs to promote physical and motor development very actively. One of the most
important ways of doing this is by constant monitoring of growth and other aspects of
development. Then the teacher should reflect the knowledge obtained in instruction as well as
help to educate others. This section will discuss and illustrate how the teacher can monitor
physical and motor development. It will also show other ways in which the teacher can foster
physical and motor development.
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MONITORING PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Monitoring entails being watchful in an objective way. Is the child developing well or not?
The only way a teacher can answer this question is by keeping constant watch, keeping
accurate records that he and others can look at and interpret.
i. Anthropometric measurements
Anthropometric measurement simply refers to measurement of the body, its parts and
functions. We recommend measurements of height, weight and arm circumference twice a
term. In addition, it will be necessary to have additional information on proportions. So
measurement of head, trunk and legs twice a year will be helpful.
(Your course tutor will show you how to take the measurements and interpret them. Only the
most basic ones of height and weight are described.)
Example: Height
Let the child stand quite erect without his shoes in such a way that the heels of the feet touch
the wall. Shoulders too should touch the wall. The teacher places a ruler on the crown of the
head straight on to wall, which is then marked. If the wall had been pre-marked, then the
teacher merely takes a reading. If the wall was not pre-marked, the teacher can then measure
the height.
Measuring height
The weighing procedure is that the child removes his/her shoes and if possible any heavy
items of clothing. The scale is adjusted to "O" or zero. The child stands on the scale
distributing his/her weight evenly on it. The reading is carefully taken and recorded.
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How to Record measurements

You need an exercise book but preferably a note book. Allow a page per child in the class.
Mark out the page as shown in the illustration below. The table will be in the top half of the
page.
Name: Babatunde Taiwo Sex: Male

Age:
Measurement 1st 2nd Term 3rd Term
Term
A B Comment C D Comment E F Comment
Height
Weight
Arm
Circumference
Prop. Head
Trunk
Legs
The bottom half of the page will have two small charts to show the trend of the readings like
these.
208
50 70
65
45
60
40 55
35 50
45
30
40
25 35
30
20
25
15 20
10 15
10
5
5
0 0
1st
2nd
3rd
5th
6th 1st 2nd 3rd 5th 6th
No. of Measurements No. of Measurement
No. of Measurements No. of Measurements

Measurement of Height Measurement of Height
i. Determining
It is important to check within the first term in the figure, the height of Babatunde at
the first measurement was 35 cm, then 36, then 36.5, then 36.8, then 39 cm. Since we
expected that there should be steady increase, something may have gone wrong and
prevented his height from increasing between the 2nd and 4th readings. However
there is evidence of "catch up growth". May be the child was ill, we do not know until
we check other records. It could just be the child's own normal pattern of growth. But
if we look at the weight chart, we find that he actually has a problem. Of course the
teacher would have looked into the problem before the end of the year. It is preferable
you use a graph book for easy calculation of your readings.
ii. Determining Handedness
It is important to check within the first term of the school year, the handedness of
children. Usually by that time handedness has been fully established. Of course,
during the pre-school periods you may have tried to train the child to use the
culturally preferred hand. But as was explained in Unit 8, the brain dominance was
not altered.
Example of Techniques to Use for Testing Handedness

Observe which hand the child uses most, of the time to pick up things, hold the pencil, etc. If
you are undecided still do the following:-
(a) Roll up a sheet of paper and ask the child to look at an object through the hole in the
cylinder you have made with the paper.
Note and record which eye the child uses whether it is right or left.
(b) Drop a ball suddenly in midline i.e. between the child's legs and ask him/her to kick it.
It has to happen fast so that the child reacts without thinking.
Note and record which foot was used.
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(c) Present an object e.g. a small ball, sweet or ruler suddenly in a game - like situation
and ask the child to take it as fast as he/she can. Remember to present the object
which can be held with one hand and to present it in _Midline_. Note and record the
hand that is used.
Having decided on the child's handedness, you should allow the child to use the
preferred hand. Never attempt to alter it.
iii. Observing and Rating Motor Skills
Motor skills can be observed and rated with the help of rating scales. Select the skills
you wish to concentrate on. Study the sequences of those given in unit 8. Additional
information can be provided by your course tutor on any other skills you wish to
monitor. You will rate the children's performance on a scale.
Example
1 2 3 4 5
poor good very good

For Sweeping, Writing, Throwing, Measuring, Movements in Role play, etc. The most
important thing is to try to be clear about what the numbers represent. Try describing to
others what the rating points 1,2,3, etc stand for. You can ask your class children to help out
in rating provided you do not allow for opportunities to ridicule one another but you make it a
learning exercise.
iv Determining Motor Immaturity
In the previous sections, we have merely indicated what the teacher can do in rather normal
circumstances. The example which we are about to give is slightly different. If the teacher
observes signs that the child is slow and repetitive, the teacher may try out some of the child's
reflexes, etc. The teacher may continuously report observation to the headmaster and parents.
Example - Tests to determine nervous system immaturity.
i. Try out the Babinsky reflex. Stroke the sole or bottom part of the foot and observe the
reaction. (b)
(a) giggles and withdrawing of the foot?
(b) extending the toes upwards and then curling them in?
(c) none of the above.
If the reaction is the second i.e. (b), look for other observational evidence and
report to the headmaster and parents so as to seek medical opinion. Remember
that you must have observed other problems in the child's behaviour. You may
need to observe the child on a couple of times before arriving at a conclusion
so that your decision is objective and valid.
ii. Play a game with the child in which you put an object e.g. a key in the child's
hand which is cupped behind his/her back. Ask child to name the object.
Ensure that it is an object which the child can identify in normal
circumstances.
210
v. The Practice of Monitoring

Initially, monitoring the way children grow and develop physically may look like much work.
It is true that compared with what the teacher is doing now, monitoring physical and motor
development may be taxing. But then guiding children and teaching them becomes more
meaningful. What is more, if a teacher gets into the habit of monitoring, the time spent on
measurements etc becomes really reduced to the barest minimum. Anthropometric
measurements can be done for the whole class in just over an hour - that is a total of 2 hours a
term! As you measure one of your pupils could record. We have not really emphasised
interviews because we have already discussed them in Unit 4. Informal interviews can help
teachers obtain information for screening or for confirming hunches or assumptions.
Interpreting what data you have obtained comes with experience. The more you monitor, the
more adept you become with explanations and interpretation.
Your course tutor will give you experience in interpreting real observations.
Think about a timely diagnosis of a problem which is prevented from becoming serious. It is
wonderful that you could do that to save your pupil; is it not?
However, for confidential purposes, you may need to keep your pupils' records in a safe place
where others can not gain easy access to them. If others see such records they might use
them to ridicule some pupils and this will create more problems for you in the classroom.
ACTIVITY I
1. List 3 different ways in which a teacher can monitor a child's growth and/or motor
development.
211
i.
ii.
iii.
2. List 4 aspects of children's physical and/or motor development that the teacher should
monitor.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
OTHER WAYS OF FOSTERING PHYSICAL AND MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT
1. Promoting factors which Aid Physical and Motor Development
In Units 7 and 8 we discussed several factors which affect development in the two
relevant areas which we are considering. Some of these are health, nutrition, exercise
and rest. We had also seen that our infants come into the world with an advantage in
motor development but that they lose it due to certain factors in the environment.
Sometimes, irreparable damage or damage which can not be reversed is done. Quite
often, the damage manifests in lack of proper motor co-ordination. What can you as a
eacher do to help? Perhaps your example, ideas, concern and supervision can help.
a. Health
Keeping a clean, healthy environment does not necessarily require much
money. Sanitation in the school premises, the toilets, the classroom can be
achieved through constant supervision. One is sometimes shocked by the way
the classroom drinking water is handled. Surely the children can be supervised
to wash containers, cups and hands clean. A walk around the premises too to
remove sources of standing water that breed mosquitoes may inculcate good
healthy habits in children. Prompt detention of the outbreak of infectious
diseases in the school may save many other pupils. And you should also check
and ensure that your pupils have been immunised. Daily or weekly inspection
of your pupils' hair, teeth, nails, clothes and so on will also go a long way in
ensuring healthy habits among the pupils. You may even need to invite
medical personnel, say once a term, to talk to the children on the importance
of good health.
b. Exercise and Rest
The importance of exercise can not be overemphasized. The National Policy
on Education has ensured that there are avenues for exercise through Physical
Education, Cultural and Creative Arts, which are essential subject areas in
primary school. You can achieve a lot by example here. Jog along with your
children, exercise with them in class and outside. Act and dance with them.
The practice of some lazy teachers sending out children to go out and run
around the field during Physical Education periods should be avoided. You
212
must ensure that all pupils are actively involved in physical exercise. Work
experience or agriculture should be taken seriously in the school. The school
should allow time and space for both structured and unstructured movements
for all. Movement in dance, etc. should be appropriate for the age group and
the level of their motor development.
Unfortunately there is a tendency to concentrate on the star pupils who
represent the school in competitions to the neglect of others. We are concerned
with the development of all our children so, adequate adjustments should be
made for the stars and the others. You must also teach them the need to rest
when necessary. Discussion with parents on this issue is essential since some
make their children work almost throughout the day. When you observe a
child sleeping most of the time in the class, it might be due to insufficient rest
at home
c. Nutrition
Children should be taught about the importance of a balanced diet using local
food stuff and its relationship to development. Many schools are already doing
this but unfortunately such instruction is done in a way that is divorced from
practical implications in the home! Do not forget that feeding is sometimes
poor because of ignorance and not necessarily poverty.
Another point which teachers must fight for is the institution of school meals.
Do you really believe that every child in this country does not deserve one
balanced meal a day? Surely where there is a will, there is a way. Surely the
parents, the privilege, the firms, the states, the religious institutions in the
country can afford to feed our children well once a day.
So, you have to try to inculcate good feeding habits and help to ask for one
meal a day since you know the importance of nutrition in the development of
children. The overall success of your pupils' depends largely on sound mind in
a sound body.
2. Enlightening Others
As a teacher, you are privilege to know much more about development of children
than some others. If through your courses with NTI you have learnt useful
information about the way children develop, share the relevant aspects of the
information with others. The PTA can inject talks on such topics as nutrition,
sanitation, clean drinking water, need for rest and good ventilation. Aspects of
physical and motor development could be discussed. Forcing children to change
handedness, as you know, has negative consequences for the child both in terms of
attitudes and performance.
There is much useful information that you could share with the children, parents, and
other friends. But, be careful about the way you give information so that people may
not think that you are merely trying to show off. It is important to enlighten others.
One sure and safe way of enlightening the community is by embarking on community
based projects which involves the children in their homes, compounds and
neighborhoods. A campaign for "safe drinking water", to exhibit health foods in the
community, to fight mosquitoes and malaria etc. can get the community involved.
213
3. Guidance and Training

Children will have questions, needs and problems as they grow. Worries about the
changes in the body, about maturing early have to be allayed. You as a teacher and
friend who has been monitoring their development, are in a good position to advise
and explain.
Also, when you observe that a child has a motor problem, you have to make special
effort to train the child to achieve competence where possible. Your course tutor
should be able to suggest specific games and materials to use in developing different
skills. For instance, if there is a problem with fine motor co- ordination practice in
stringing beads, copying, trying and loosening knots, etc there are games that can
help. If the problem is with precision in large muscle control, some of the games the
children play can be modified. Some seed games, walking on tiptoe, on a straight -
narrow path etc come to mind.
If children have problems in learning with one sense, an integrated approach using
combined senses - touch, smell, vision can be used. Also movement makes children
have a sense of space, so vocabulary for space, for different types of movement can
be integrated as teacher gives instructions and the children describe what is
happening. This last point will become clearer in later units. The important point is
that the children should be helped to see
development as a healthy normal process where problems normally occur and become
mastered.
4. Physical Provisions in the School

The school has to endeavour to provide certain facilities to assist physical and motor
development.
a. A safe environment for play and games and where possible with certain
equipment is important. In some areas, the school is the meeting place and
town centre for the community. Even if one can not stop this practice, there
must be no sharp materials and broken bottles, discarded tins etc left behind.
The bush must be cleared so that snakes do not lurk around, pits filled to
prevent accidents, etc.
b. The school should take the selection of uniform seriously. Shoes and styles
that are beneficial for growth are preferable. For instance, sandals should be
the types that guide the feet in growth. Tight uniforms should be discouraged
at all times especially in upper primary where "growth spurt" could occur.
c. Children are different sizes. When we make uniforms for them, we get
different sizes. But, when desks are being made, they are all of one size! Some
of the bigger boys and girls develop aches from crouching etc. Desks should
be of graduated sizes.
d. Finally you must always keep at the back of your mind the concept of
individual differences. You must be alert to identify peculiar problems of
individual children and take immediate and appropriate steps to solve them.
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We have deliberately discussed a few of the items that require ideas not
money to show that there is a lot the school can do to promote growth and
development.
ACTIVITY II
1. List 3 ways other than monitoring development that a teacher can use to foster
physical and motor development.
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Explain how the teacher can use public enlightenment to foster physical and motor
development.
SUMMARY
• In this unit, we have discussed the many ways in which a teacher can foster the
physical and motor development of children.
• One of the ways of monitoring physical development is by taking anthropometric
measurements or different measurements of the body. Measurements of height, weight,
arm circumference as well as measurements to determine proportions were discussed.
These measurements are to be recorded in exercise books.
• The teacher should also help to determine handedness. Various techniques like
throwing a ball in midline for child to kick and other techniques for determining the
dominant hand were given.
• It was suggested that various motor skills such as sweeping, writing, throwing,
measuring should be monitored. Rating scales, observation etc. were recommended.
• Signs of immature motor development could also be investigated. Trying out reflexes
and object identification were suggested techniques.
• Apart from these specific tests, the unit discussed general provision in the school and
what the teacher needs to do to foster physical and motor development. These include:-
i. helping children to be health conscious
ii. providing for exercise and rest
iii. emphasising good nutrition
iii. public enlightement
iv. guidance of children and special training to overcome individual problems
vi. provision of safe environments, appropriate uniforms, seats and desks.
215
ASSIGNMENT
1. List 4 aspects of physical and motor development which you should monitor.
2. Describe how you could measure height.
3. Determine the handedness of two young children aged between 4 and 7 in your
compound or school. Use a ball, sheet of paper, a cap or keys. Record your findings.
4. Explain three ways of a teacher can use to promote physical and motor development
other than tests and measurements.
REFERENCES
Eke, E, Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan Heinemann (Nig)
Educational Books, (in Print).
Bickerstaffe, . A Practical Course in Education and Child Development. Looking at School,

Ibadan: Evans Brothers (Nig. Publishers) Ltd., 1977.
Maynard, Norman, J. Child Study: Some Practical Techniques for the Teacher, London:
OUP, 1970.
216
UNIT 10 (EDU111.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding units, we have introduced you to some aspects of Educational Psychology.
You will recall that Educational Psychology, a branch of psychology, which deals with
educational matters, is designed to help you teach more effectively. To enable you do this,
some basic concepts, principles and facts of child development have been discussed. The
belief is that a teacher can only teach well if he/she understands the learners and how they
learn. Important factors which affect the child's growth and development have also been
discussed.
Specifically, in unit 4 we tried to arm you with methods of studying the child so that on your
own you could gain more insight into their behaviour.
In units 6 - 9, we traced the development of the child not only in the womb but after birth.
Our focus in units 7 - 9 has been on the physical and motor aspects of his development and
how you can help him grow well in these areas.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain how Educational Psychology is relevant for your work as a teacher;
2. list the stages of development used in this course;
3. explain at least 3 principles of development;
4. name at least 4 environmental factors which affect development;
5. describe two methods of studying children;
6. explain the meaning of heredity and its influence on development;
7. state the importance of physical and motor development;
8. mention 3 aspects of development that could be influenced during the pre-natal period
and by what factors;
9. distinguish between physical and motor development; and
10. state 4 ways in which the teacher can positively assist the physical and motor
development of the child.

Since this is mainly a revision unit, you are advised to:
1. Read through all the summaries of units 1 - 9 of module 3.
2. Read through the unit quickly taking note of unfamiliar points, if any. If you had
taken notes on any of the units, 1 - 9, look through the notes. Remember to look up
the meanings of unfamiliar words.
3. Study the unit step by step as arranged for you. Attempt all the given activities and
assignments. Do not look at the sample answers provided until you have completed all
the exercises.
217
4. To get the best out of this unit, try and observe all the rules.
END OF THIS BOOK.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE

TEACHERS' WORK
Remember that in Module 3 Units 1 -2, you learnt about the meaning of Educational
Psychology, its nature, scope and importance to the teacher.
Basically, Educational Psychology, as you can recollect is an applied branch of psychology
which:
(a) applies ideas and principles of psychology to educational matters;
(b) is a discipline of its own with theories and research techniques;
(c) is concerned with the improvement of learning and instruction; and
(d) covers human development, learning and instruction, personality and adjustment,
psychological measurement and research in educational problems of a psychological
nature.
Educational Psychology, among other things, helps the teacher:
i. To understand children's development and behaviour in a variety of ways. These
include providing not only information on how children develop, but on individual
differences and their sources, as well as problem behaviour and how to cope with
them. It even teaches how to study children.
ii. To appreciate the need to make the curriculum to be based on psychological
principles. Any meaningful curriculum must take into consideration the maturation,
growth, development, individual differences, readiness, etc of the learners.
iii. To improve instruction and learning by providing the teacher with instructional and
assessment techniques to choose from and enabling him to relate teaching to the
children's level of development.
iv. To understand himself, appreciate his strengths and limitations and what he can
accomplish in his job.
v. To be research conscious and appreciate the value of educational intervention.
The scope of Educational Psychology is broad or very wide but related to the following:
i. What the teacher is expected to do in the classroom.
ii. The types of classroom problems the teacher has to face and method of attack.
iii. How learners are expected to learn.
iv. Proper motivation of learners.
v. Consideration for learners' level of development.
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vi. Assisting learners to solve their problems through guidance and conselling.
vii. Evaluation of learners' levels of understanding through the use of measuring
instruments like teacher-made tests, observation, standardized intelligence tests and so
on.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is Educational Psychology?
2. Explain the relevance of Educational Psychology for the work of the teacher.
STAGES, CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

In Unit 3, you will remember that we said it is usual to discuss development in stages. These
stages and their approximate ages were given as follows:
i. pre-natal (i.e. before birth)
ii. infancy (0 - 2 years)
iii. early childhood (2 - 5 years)
iv. middle childhood (6 - 8 years)
v. late childhood (9 - 11 years)
These are the stages of great interest to us in the primary school but as you know life
continues after primary school. The subsequent stages are:
vi. Adolescence (12 - 18 years)
vii. Adulthood (21 - 60 years)
viii. Senescence or old age (60 onwards).
You will also recollect that we discussed some principles and concepts. Growth was defined
as increment in size; and development as encompassing growth, maturation and learning.
Some of the principles, which we mentioned, will be reviewed here. We learnt that:-
i. growth generally precedes function. So the physical structure must be present before
functional use. Example is growth of muscle and its use in movement.
ii. development has critical periods.
iii. growth and development are continuous. The child is always growing though the pace
may differ from time to time.
iv. all aspects of growth and development are inter-related since it is one child that is
growing.
v. development proceeds in a cephalo-caudal (or head-to- tail) and proximodistal (or
centre-to-outside) direction. There are individual differences in development. Such
differences are obvious in physical features and in behaviour.
vi. development and behaviour are largely dependent on needs and the way the needs are
satisfied.
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ACTIVITY II
1. List the stages of development from birth to the end of the primary school years.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
2. Explain the following principles of growth and development.
(a) critical period (b) all aspects of development are inter-related
(c) individual differences.
HOW TO STUDY THE CHILD

In Unit 4, we discussed several methods of studying children.
Approaches to the study of children. We learnt that there are different approaches to child
study. We could use:-
(a) The longitudinal approach to study the same group of children for a fairly long period
of time. The children should be tested or given the treatment at specific times for the
duration of the study. The approach allows the teacher to follow the progress of
individual children as well as to obtain information on group averages.
(b) The cross-sectional approach. Different groups of children are studied at the same
time when this approach is used. So, it is possible to have group averages and the
approach yields quick results.
(c) The case study. Here, one child or a case is studied in depth. The approach is good
especially when teachers are trying to investigate problem behaviour.
Specific methods were also discussed. These included:-
i. Observation: the teacher had to notice what children did and said. Observation
could be subjective so it is necessary to record what is seen and sometimes to
use such aids as checklists.
ii. Interviews or asking children oral questions: We learnt that we could use
clinical or structured interviews. In every case there is a person-to-person
contact.
iii. Questionnaires: Here questions were asked from large groups of children at
the same time. This group procedure is possible because the questions are
written. Questionnaires are useful for children who can read and write.
iv. Sociometric techniques: When we are interested in finding out the social
structure and a child's relative standing in his class, we use one of these
techniques.
220
v. Tests and actual measurement: We can measure children's height, weight etc.
We can also use tests for cognitive skills and some aspects of personality.
vi. Rating scales: We can use rating scales for those aspects of affective
behaviour we wish to study. Classmates can assist us to rate but we need to
teach them how to do so.
ACTIVITY III
1. List the different methods of studying children.
2. Describe how you would use rating scales and interviews to study children.
THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

In Unit 5, we learnt that heredity constitutes everything which we inherit from parents.
Environment, on the other hand is anything that influences an individual right after
conception. Both heredity and environment interact and whereas heredity determines the
limits, environment decides how far an individual can get towards those limits.
Heredity influences traits on which individuals vary.
Examples
i. intelligence
ii. disorders
iv. blood type
v. sex related trails
vi. rate of development.
Environment influences development in many ways. The factors include:

i. Factors in the womb
ii. The people among whom the child develops especially the family and peers.
iii. The institutions the children come in contact with e.g. the school, religious
institutions.
iv. The physical environment e.g. facilities to stimulate learning.
The specific aspects of development, which are greatly influenced by environment are:
(a) physical development
(b) language competence
(c) social relationships and skills
(d) motor skills
(e) intellectual ability
(f) moral judgment and values.
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ACTIVITY IV
1. What does heredity mean and how does it influence development?
2. List 4 environmental factors that influence development.
PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT was discussed in Unit 6. We learnt that what happens

in the pre-natal period can have long lasting effects on the child. Many factors can affect the
unborn baby for bad or for good. These factors include:
i. nutrition
ii. health
iii. drugs
iv. age of the mother
v. the use of x-ray
vi. accidents
vii. alcohol, smoking
viii. emotional stress
ix. blood incompatibility
x. difficult labour.
The events of the pre-natal period can result in physical deformities or slight structural
damage, mental deficiency, eye, heart and brain damage. It is important for the teacher to
know that what happens at this very early period in life can have very long lasting influences
on development. Sometimes, the effects cannot be reversed.
ACTIVITY V
1. Name 8 pre-natal factors that can influence development.
2. Name two aspects of development that can be affected at the pre- natal period.
i.
ii.
PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Units 7, 8 and 9 discussed physical and motor development and how the teacher can foster
them. While physical development involves structural change and growth, motor
development is change towards better muscle co-ordination and control.
We learnt that physical development is important because it provides the basis for all other
aspects of development. Because of its importance, the teacher was urged to monitor
different, aspects of physical development. Some of these are height and weight, teeth
eruption, handedness, changing proportions etc.
The major milestones in different dimensions of physical development were discussed. In the
case of proportion, we learnt that the baby's head occupies about 20% of body length at birth
but gradually the rest of the body grows to reduce the proportion of the head. The soft bones
of the baby ossify. Brain development occurs early in life and is virtually completed by the
222
time the baby goes to primary school. On the other hand the reproductive system does not
begin to mature until adolescence.
Motor development is important for life, for vocations, for physical and mental health, and
for school learning.
Of the many characteristics of motor development which we learnt some are extremely
important for the primary school. Motor skills have ordered sequence so that the teacher can
monitor pupil's progress. Also, the fact that newly acquired motor skills are spontaneously
expressed and practised is helpful to the teacher. He can assess the developmental level of the
child and his readiness for certain actions.
You were urged to study the sequences of common motor skills in primary schools. The
motor skills were classified as locomotor (those involving movements from place to place);
non-locomotor (movements in a stationary position) , and manipulative (movements which
involve the handling of objects).
Unit 9 discussed several techniques which a teacher could use to promote physical and motor
development.
First and foremost, you must monitor the physical and motor development of your children.
Not only does this bring you closer to the children, it helps you to identify problems which
are about to start.
Then you must help to ensure that your pupils feel well, are healthy and study in clean
environment, that they take their exercise and rest. You should also try to help children with
special problems by training them to overcome skill deficiencies. It is important that you
enlighten parents and others so that they can join you in keeping children physically fit. At all
times you should be an example to your children.
ACTIVITY VI
1. Distinguish between physical and motor development.
2. State 4 ways in which the teacher can foster the physical and motor development of
his learners.
SUMMARY
• In this consolidation unit we have reviewed the materials in Units 1 - 9.
• We started by defining Educational Psychology as a Science, an applied branch of
psychology, which focuses on educational matters. We noted that Educational
Psychology is important for the teacher since:
i. it helps the teacher to understand students;
ii. it helps them to guide children and handle problem behaviour;
iii. it assists the teacher to improve instruction;
iv. it makes teachers understand themselves better and
v. it makes teachers to be research conscious.
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• Unit 2 gave us the stages of development in life

infancy (0 - 2 years)
early, middle and late
childhood (3 - 11 years)
adolescence (12 - 18 years)
adulthood (19 - 60 years)
senescence (60 years and above).
Growth, maturation, learning and development were explained too. Growth is change in
dimensions while maturation is innate change of a qualitative •nature. Learning is change
brought about by experience and practice. Development encompasses them all.
Some of the principles of growth and development which were listed had to do with
individual differences, the importance of needs in behaviour and patterns of development.
Methods of studying children were also discussed. The longitudinal, cross-sectional
approaches as well as the case study were explained. Specific methods of studying include:
i. observation
ii. interviews
iii. questionnaire
iv. tests and actual measurements
v. sociometric techniques
vi. rating scales.
• We also discussed how heredity sets limits but environment determines what we
achieve within those limits. We learnt that heredity influences physical features,
intelligence, disorders, rate of development, sex linked characteristics and blood type.
• Environment too influences development through many avenues: the family, the media,
religious institutions and physical surrounding. The aspects of development so
influenced are physical development, language, intellectual ability, motor skills, etc.
• You learnt about the first environment of the child - the pre- natal environment. The
womb nurtures the child which grows very rapidly. But many factors can influence the
development of the child positively or negatively.
Some of these include:-
i. nutrition
iii. health
iv. natural age
iv. alcohol and smoking
v. emotional stress
vi. blood incompatibility
vii. the use of x-ray and
ix. difficult labour.
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• If care is not taken, the child may become mentally deficient, physically handicapped
or infected at that stage.
• The last section discusses physical and motor development and what the teacher can do
to foster them. Both physical and motor development are very important because they
provide the basis for other aspects of functioning.
• The dimensions of skeletal development, proportion, height and weight, etc were
discussed. Discussion of Motor development focused on characteristics and sequences.
• The teacher was encouraged to monitor height and weight, proportions, motor skills
and then sequences among others.
• Many activities to foster physical and motor development were also discussed. These
include ensuring that food is provided for the children, keeping the place clean and
teaching them good health habits. Providing safe environment, exercise and
enlightening others not only on development but on ways of furthering it are other ways
in which the teacher can help.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. What is Educational Psychology?
ii. Name 5 reasons why Educational Psychology is important for the teacher.
2. i. Distinguish between Growth and Maturation.
ii. Enumerate any 5 principles of Growth and Development.
3. i. Briefly explain 3 approaches of Child Study.
ii. List the different methods of studying children.
4. i. What is the relationship between Heredity and Environment?
ii. List any 6 traits that are influenced by heredity.
5. i. Distinguish between physical and motor development.
ii. Explain 5 ways in which you as a teacher can promote the physical and motor
development of your pupils.
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MODULE 3 Answers Educational Psychology 1 EDU 111
UNIT 1 (EDU 111.I): THE MEANING, NATURE AND

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
ACTIVITY I
1. i. True
ii. False
iii. False
iv. True
v. False
vi. True
2. i. Improvement
ii. school ... teachers ... effectively
iii. learning ... different settings.
3. i. it is a science (with methods that can be replicated)
ii. it is an applied area (psychological principles applied to education)
iii. it is a branch of psychology (borrows from other branches)
iv. it is a discipline (has its own theories, body of knowledge etc.)
ACTIVITY II
1. i. human development
ii. learning.
iii. personality and adjustment.
iv. psychological measurement.
v. research.
(Any 4 of the above will do.)
2. i. child development.
ii. methods of studying children.
iii. personality and coping with problem behaviour.
iv. research in Educational Psychology.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Any definition that includes its being an applied branch of psychology. Also, that
principles are borrowed from psychology and applied to education for improvement
of education or learning.
2. (a) 2 aims of educational psychology

i. It aims at improving student learning and instruction; and
425
ii. equipping school teachers with adequate tools to make students benefit
to the maximum from education.
3. (b) Characteristic features are
i. As a science, it uses methods which can be tested by anyone and in
different places.
ii. As a branch of psychology, it has links with other branches and
borrows principles, ideas etc.
iii. As an applied area of study, it is concerned with real problems and
solutions in learning.
iv. As a discipline, it has generated theories.
(c) Scope or areas of study
i. Human growth and development
ii. Learning and instruction
iii. Personality and adjustment
iv. Research
4. Areas of Study in the first cycle of Educational psychology are:
i. How the primary school child develops.
ii. Personality, need satisfaction, coping with behaviour problem.
iii. Methods of studying children.
iv. Simple assessment techniques.
UNIT 2 (EDU 111.2): THE IMPORTANCE OF

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO
THE TEACHER
ACTIVITY I
1. By learning about
i. the needs, characteristics, tasks, accomplishments etc. of different stages of
development.
ii. individual differences.
iii. exceptional children.
iv. problem behaviours.
2. i. needs, characteristics, tasks

ii. heterogeneous .. individual differences.
iii. individual differences.
426
iv. genetic, environmental.

v. exceptional.
vi gifted
vii. problem behaviour ... truancy and telling lies.
viii. handling.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. By providing a variety of principles and techniques to choose from
ii. By helping them to relate instruction to the level of the child's development
iii. Teaching them assessment techniques for different types of learning and other
behaviour.
2. i. True.
ii. True.
iii. False.
iv. True.
v. False.
vi. False.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. helps him to understand himself
ii. helps him to appreciate the limits of his achievements in the course of his
work
ACTIVITY IV.
1. i. By understanding the importance of educational intervention.
ii. By appreciating research and participating in the conduct of research.
2. True.
True.
False.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Four ways in which Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand children:
i. By furnishing the teacher with information on the needs, characteristics, tasks
and accomplishments of children and accomplishments of children at different
stages of development.
ii. By making the teacher aware of individual differences and why
iii. By making teachers able to identify exceptional children and learning how to
cope with them.
427
iv. By making teachers understand and handle behaviour problems.

2. Two ways in which Educational Psychology helps to improve instruction and
learning.
i. providing teachers with a variety of techniques and principles to choose from,
ii. enabling teachers to relate instructions to the level of development of children.
3. Two benefits to the teacher
i. Educational Psychology helps teachers to understand themselves and
appreciate their limits.
ii. It makes teachers value and appreciate research.
4. a. Yes.
i. By stressing the importance of educational intervention.
ii. By engaging in relevant research and making he teacher appreciate research.
UNIT 3 (EDU 111.3): THE CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. Any living thing grows. Growth means becoming larger and heavier. If we refer to a
child as growing, we mean that such a child is either getting taller or adding more
weight. It could also be both.
2. Development is growth plus the ability to use the organ in the performance of certain
function. It is a process towards maturity. Development means changes in the
individual's level of functioning.
3. Maturation refers to qualitative changes which are innate in nature. It leads to the
unfoldment of inherited potentials and enables the child to function at a more
advanced level.
ACTIVITY II
1. The different types of surrounding around oneself can be called environment.
Environmental factors could include a child's home, his parents, his school, his peer
group and the medical facilities available to him.
2. Heredity is the sum total of what parents pass on to off springs at the time of
conception. A child could inherit from his parents, his rate of growth, eye colour,
height, texture and colour of the skin and hair, etc.
ACTIVITY III
1. a. False
b. False
c. True
428
d. True
2. Organs and functions of the body have what we call critical periods. This is a stage in
an organ's development, where if anything negative happens to it, the result may be
permanent deficiency or a malfunction of the organ. Certain aspects of development
e.g. language learning also have critical periods.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Pre-natal (0 - Birth)
(b) Infancy (Birth - 2 years)
(c) Early Childhood (2-5 years)
(d) Middle Childhood (6-8 years)
(e) Late Childhood (9-11 years)
(f) Adolescence (12-18 years)
(g) Adulthood (18-60 years)
(h) Senescence (60 years and above).
2. (a) LATE CHILDHOOD
This stage falls between 9 to 11 years. It is the period of senior Primary School
age. Growth of bones, muscles and other organs continue. The child continues
to learn how to get along with other peers mostly of the same sex.
(b) ADOLESCENCE
This period roughly falls between 12 and 18 years of age. Growth is very rapid
at this stage. There are rapid changes in the child's physique and the primary
sex characteristics begin to mature. He puts finishing touches of his self
concept.
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) The concept of growth refers to changes in dimension due to increase in
number and size of body cells of an organism. If a child is adding more weight
or getting taller we refer to such a child as growing. It is important to note that
all living things grow.
(b) The concept of development means the capacity of using the organs in the
performance of certain functions. It may include growth, maturation and
learning but development is much more than each of them. When a baby is
able to walk with his legs such a baby has developed. If he cannot walk with
his legs he has grown but not yet developed.
2. (a) Heredity is the sum total of what is passed on from parents to their children.
Things that can be transmitted through the chromosomes include potential for
a child's height, intelligence, colour of the skin, or of the eye; some behaviour
patterns etc. Growth may be distorted because of hereditary factors from either
or both parents. A child may inherit certain traits which may hinder his
language development. No matter the level of stimulation in such a child's
429
environment he may still perform below the average. You can see that
heredity has affected such a child's growth and development.
(b) Environment is the type of surrounding in which the child finds himself. This
environment could be a good one made up of good homes, educated parents
and good school. It may be a poor environment. This may be made up of
illiterate parents, poor feeding, lack of well equipped school. A child for
example who finds himself in a healthy environment where medical facilities
are available is likely to have a more stable growth and development. Another
child who stays where there are no medical facilities might even have a
stunted growth. His academic performance may be affected by poor health.
This shows that environment can affect growth and development.
3. The direction of development proceeds from head to tail (cephalocaudal) and centre to
periphery (proximodistal). For example a young child lifts his head before he can sit,
sits before he can stand. Also he moves his arm but as he matures he develops finer
body movements; he uses his fingers to pick a small object accurately.
4. a. Pre-natal (0 - Birth)
b. Infancy (Birth - 2 years)
c. Early Childhood (2 - 5 years)
d. Middle Childhood (6 - 8 years)
e. Late Childhood (9 - 11 years)
f. Adolescence (12 - 18 years)
5. a. INFANCY
This period starts from the birth of the child to when the child is about two
years of age. The child grows very rapidly but his bones are still pliable. The
child depends on others for all his needs such as eating, washing and dressing.
With time, he learns how to sit, how to crawl and how to walk.
b. EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 - 5 YEARS)
This is the next stage after infancy. The child gradually begins to control his
body, and his movements. He can speak simple sentences to express his
thought. He is able to hop and skip about. The child is particularly interested
in associative plays.
UNIT 4 (EDU 111.4): METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF

STUDING THE CHILD
ACTIVITY I
1. Any 2 of the following will do:
i. It is important to study children to understand them better.
430
ii. Attention paid to children will elicit a positive response so teacher - pupil
relationship will be very good.
iii. The teacher will get to know their interests, needs and capabilities and
knowledge which will influence his/her teaching positively.
iv. The teacher will able to detect problems early and handle them and might even
be able to prevent problems from occurring.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. Longitudinal approach.
Iii. Cross-sectional approach.
iii. Case study.
2. Description (Any one of the following will do).
In Longitudinal approach, the same group of students is studied for a long period of
time - months, years. Within that period they are tested (or given any other treatment)
a number of times.
If the cross-section method is used several groups of children are studied at the same
time. An example could be the study of classes one, two, three, six where differences
of class and age are used to group children for study.
In case study, one child or a single case is studied in depth. All available information
is collected from different sources before any decision is taken.
3. i. case study.
ii. longitudinal approach.
ACTIVITY III
- observation
- interviews (clinical or structured)
- questionnaire
- sociometric techniques - guess who?, etc, tests, actual measurements.
- rating scales.
2. Description of a sociometric device.
Asking children whom they would want to do certain things with e.g. play; visit;
attend a party. After the responses are obtained, the number of times each child is
chosen is totalled to show his relative standing in the group. Also how many children
have chosen gives a more accurate picture.
3. Ai Bv
Aii Bi
Aiii Biv
Aiv Biii
Av Bii
431
ASSIGNMENT
1. Any two of the following will do.
i. To understand children better.
ii. To establish better relationship with children since the attention they receive
also clicits positive response from them.
iii. To help teachers teach better because they would know the children's needs,
interests and capabilities.
iv. To help them prevent and handle problems before it gets too late.
2. Longitudinal approach is different from cross-sectional approach in that:
(a) Longitudinal approach studies the same group of children while cross-
sectional approach studies different groups of children.
(b) Longitudinal approach studies or tests children many different times in the
course of the study but with cross-sectional approach all are tested or studied
once or twice at the same time.
(c) Longitudinal approach takes a long time but cross-sectional approach takes a
shorter time.
3. i. True
ii. False
iii. False
iv. False
v. True
4. Practical. Student to supply answers.
UNIT 5 (EDU 111.5): THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY

AND ENVIRONMENT ON GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. i. inheritance
ii. sum total ... parents
iii. conception'
iv. anything ... conception.
v. physical .... psychological
vi. womb
2. i. True
432
ii. False
iii. False
iv. True
v. False
ACTIVITY II
Any answer which means the following:
i. Special specific inheritance which endows us with trait that all human beings
possess.
ii. Traits specific to individuals or traits which vary from one individual to
another.
2. i. sex ... gene
ii. hereditary ... parents
iii. thousands ... random
iv. egg cells
v. genes
vi. sex
vii. males ... females
3. a. False
b. False
c. False
d. False
e. True
4. Any 4 from the following will do:

i. intelligence
ii. disorders or disease
iii. Physical features
iv. blood type
v. sex related traits
ACTIVITY III
i. the factors in the womb before birth
ii. the family
433
iii. the peers

iv. the school
v. religious institutions e.g church or mosque
vi. the media -radio, television, news-papers etc.
vii. healthy and sanitary conditions in the physical environment e.g. clean drinking
water.
viii. facilities to stimulate learning and development.
2. Any 4 of the following will do.
iv. motor skills
v. intellectual ability
vi. moral values and judgment
3. a. False
b. True
c. False
d. True
ASSIGNMENT
1. Heredity refers to the sum total of genetic materials from parents to children or off
springs. Environment is the sum total, (totality or everything) that affects the
individual after the moment of conception.
2. The relationship between heredity and environment is one of cooperation and
interaction. Whereas heredity determines the limits or how far we can go,
environment determines what we can accomplish or how far we do go.
3. (a) Special specific inheritance which makes all human beings alike e.g human
form, 2 legs, 2 hands, upright posture etc.
(b) individual inheritance whereby we inherit those traits in which individuals
differ.
4. Heredity makes individuals to differ through gene action and sex. There are thousands
of genes and these are distributed randomly into the egg cells which are again
randomly selected at the moment of conception to make the baby. Besides males and
females are other differences genetically for instance in physical features, rate of
maturation.
i. intelligence
ii. disorders or disease
434

iv. blood type
v. sex-related traits e.g baldness and colour blindness
i. environment factors in the womb
ii. the family
iii. the peer group or age mates
iv. the school.
vi. the media e.g radio, newspapers, television
vii. healthy and sanitary condition in the environment e.g good drinking water
viii. facilities to stimulate learning and development
7. Any 4 of the following will do
iv. motor skills
v. intellectual ability
vi. moral values and judgement
Because environment makes it possible for the children to learn the skills and
provides the nutrients and facilities for hereditary gifts to grow and bloom.
UNIT 6 (EDU 111.6): PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT AND

DUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) it helps him to know that the period lays foundation for the future growth and
development of the child.
(b) it helps him to understand how the period influences later behaviour.
2. 1. before
2. trimester
3. size (or number)
4. number (or size)
5. cells
435
6. fetus
7. 7 & 8 size and number
9. placenta
10. waste
11. differentiation
12. brain
13. serious
14. brain
15. prevent
ACTIVITY II
1. List A List B
1b 4c
2d
3a
2. a. Accidents may result in the dislogding of the placenta and therefore
nutrients and other products cannot reach the baby.
b. Difficult labour can result in removing the baby by force thus causing physical
defects. Also oxygen supply to the brain can be cut off leading to brain defect.
i. poor/good nutrition
ii. health and disease
iii. emotional factors
iv. drugs
v. alcohol and smoke
vi. age of the mother
vii. irradiation
viii. blood incompatibility
ix. difficult labour
x. accidents.
ACTIVITY III
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
436
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. Because the period lays the foundation for future development
ii. Because the teacher can learn specific ways in which pre-natal period can
affect later behaviour.
i. Growth through increase in cell number throughout pregnancy
ii. Forming different organs in the first trimester through cell differentiation.
iii. Rapid brain development
iv. Establishment of mother - child link (placenta) through which nutrients,
oxygen, vital agents etc are passed to unborn baby.
v. The functional readiness of systems and organs of the body.
i. Nutrition: good nutrition leads to healthy normal baby but poor nutrition may
result in small babies and brain defects.
ii. Health - good health leads to healthy normal baby but disease affects the
baby's development adversely. Example rubella is linked with eye defects and
mental deficiency. Certain infections can be passed on to the baby e.g. AIDS.
iii. Drugs are associated with structural defects and behavioural consequences e.g.
thalidomide is linked with deformed limbs. But some hormonal drugs help
later mental performance.
iv. Age of mother: Too young mothers present pregnancy problems and difficult
labour. When old, mongolism, multiple births and difficult labour occur.
v. Accidents - if placenta is affected, poor nutrition and poor oxygen supply can
cause brain defects, small size of baby and prematurity.
vi. Use of x-rays and radioactive materials is linked with eye and brain defects.
vii. Alcohol and smoke is linked with small babies.
viii. Blood incompatibility is associated with miscarriage, still birth and health
problems after birth.
ix. Emotional stress is associated with small babies, nervous and physical defects.
x. Difficult labour is associated with brain defects and physical deformities.
i. Greater understanding and appreciation of individual differences.
ii. Teachers can enlighten others
iii. Teachers can be more humane and try to make provisions for different
categories of children especially in instruction.
iv. Knowledge can be very useful for the teachers' own personal lives.
437
UNIT 7 (EDU 111.7): PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. a. Physical development means changes in kind, size, number and function of
structures in the body
b. size
kind
number
or function.
i. It determines the limit of what a child can do at a particular point in time
ii. Physical development precedes other aspects of development.
iii. Physical development is partly related to a child's self concept and how others
perceive him.
3. i. To detect early development problem.
ii. It makes the teacher to pay serious attention to every child.
ACTIVITY II
1. Any five of the following will do:
i. Nutrition
ii. Health
iii. Clean and healthy environment
iv. Exercise and rest
v. Sex.
vi. Heredity
vii. Socio economic status
2. Answers are relative, depending on those that apply to each student's environment.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. changes in height and weight
ii. changes in proportions
iii. skeletal development
iv. brain development
v. development of the reproductive system.
2. i. True
ii True
438
iii. True
iv. False
v. True
3. i. height and weight
ii. teeth eruption
iii. change in proportion
iv. arm circumference
v. sexual maturity
vi. handedness
ASSIGNMENT
1. Physical development implies changes in kind, size, number and function of
structures in the body.
2. i. It determines the limit of what a child can do at a particular moment.
ii. Physical development precedes other aspects of development and therefore
exposes the inherent relationship.
iii. Physical development is partly related to a child's self-concept and how others
perceive him.
3. i. height and weight
ii. teeth eruption
iii. change in proportion
iv. arm circumference
v. sexual maturity
vi. handedness
4. (a) early maturity refers to a situation where a child matures faster than most of
his contemporaries while late maturity refers to a situation where a child
matures slower than most of his contemporaries.
(b) change in body proportions implies changes that occur within the parts of the
body in proportion to others e.g child's head at birth in relation to other parts
of the body is bigger than that of an adult but this size decreases with age.
Furthermore, a child's legs are very short and stocky in proportion to his trunk
or body but they become longer as he grows older.
5. i. Heredity
ii. Health
iii. Nutrition
iv. Sex
439
v. Socio-economic class or status

vi. Clean and healthy environment
vii. Exercise and rest.
UNIT 8 (EDU 111.8): MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. Motor Development refers to changes towards better control and co-ordination of
movements.
a. motor development helps us to perform actions that are essential for us to live;
b. it promotes interaction with the environment and among pupils;
c. it enhances involvement in games and sports
d. it promotes better physical and mental health;
e. it helps improved growth of muscles;
f. it helps in many lucrative vocations;
g. it is the basis of all school learning;
h. it promotes further physical growth.
3. i. False
ii. True
iii. False
iv. True
v. True
vi. True
ACTIVITY II
1. Any five of the following will do:
i. Nutrition
ii. Health
iii. Race
iv. Sex
v. Interest
vi. Facilities and equipment for exercise and learning
vii. Height and weight
440
2. Nutrition: Motor development requires energy. If energy supply is poor and irregular,
the chances are that the children will not move around much. Also poor nutrition
could cause structural damages and this may affect motor co-ordination.
Sex: There are both genetic and environmental factors that result in sex having an
influence in motor development. Girls do not have as much muscle mass in the body
as boys so that boys are stronger than girls. Also culturally, there are certain motor
skills which girls are not expected to perform but boys can.
ACTIVITY III
i. involuntary to voluntary control
ii. directional trends
iii. orderly and sequential progress
iv. maturation and readiness precede motor development
v. proceeds from unco-ordinated to co-ordinated actions or movements
vi. new motor skills are spontaneously expressed and practiced
2. i. It helps teachers to understand the nature and sequence of children's
movements.
ii. It promotes better rapport between the teacher and the pupils
iii. It helps teachers to incorporate the psychomotor domain in the continuous
assessment
iv. It helps the teacher to detect problems early enough.
(Any three of the above will do).
3. i. Involuntary sucking movements produced when the side of a baby's face is

touched. The baby immediately turns his head in the direction of the touch
ii. control of muscles from "head to tail" direction
iii. motor development following the pattern of one step, then another in an
orderly manner. Each motor skill has a sequence. Some of the sequence, e.g.
for walking tend to be universal.
ACTIVITY IV
1. i. Locomotor
ii. Non-locomotor
iii. Manipulative
2. i. Non-locomotor
ii. Non-locomotor
iii. Manipulative
441
iv. Manipulative
v. locomotor
vi. Manipulative
vii. Manipulative
viii. locomotor
ix. Manipulative (but if it involves moving around, it could also be locomotor as
well).
x. locomotor
3. Students to provide the answer on the basis of their observation.
4. Students to provide the answers. But you must ensure correct classification of each
motor skills.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Motor Development refer to changes in movement which a child makes in terms of
better control and co-ordination of actions
2. i. Motor development assists us to perform action that are essential for our lives
ii. It promotes good interaction among pupils
iii. It enables pupils to participate in play and games
iv. It promotes improved physical and mental health
v. It helps to build up muscles
vi. It forms the basis for many vocations
vii. It assists in all school learning.
(Any 5 of the above will do).
3. i. It helps teachers to understand the nature and sequence of children's
movements
ii. It enhances effective rapport between the teacher and his pupils
iii. It makes it possible for the psychomotor domain to form part of the continuous
assessment.
4. Any 3 of the following will do.
i. Involuntary to voluntary control. When a baby is born, the movements are
reflexive and uncontrolled. However, as maturation proceeds, the baby can
move his limbs, eyes and other parts of his body voluntarily
ii. Maturation also enables the baby to control muscles of the head first before
the body and legs. So movement follows a cephalocaudal direction.
Similarly, there is control of the central parts of the body before the periphery.
So another direction of muscular control is proximo-distal.
iii Motor development proceeds in an orderly sequence. It is possible to map out
sequence. It is possible to map out sequences for many skills. Some of the
442
sequences for natural motor skills such as walking tend to be common for all
children.
iv. Motor development proceeds from unco-ordinated to co-ordinated action.
Even if a baby wishes to pick up a colourful toy, he cannot link the action of
his eyes and hands but later with maturation, this can be done and he picks up
a tiny object.
5. i. Nutrition
ii. Health
iii Race
iv. Sex
v. Interest
vi. Availability of facilities
vii. Height and weight
Any 5 of the above will do.
6. Students to choose any motor skill frequently used by primary school children. The
sequences of such motor skill should be carefully and appropriately described.
UNIT 9 (EDU 111.9): THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN

FOSTERING PHYSICAL AND
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. Any three of the following will do:
i by taking anthropometric measurements e.g. of height, weight, arm
circumference etc.
ii. by determining the handedness of the child through tests.
iii. by determining the immaturity of motor functioning through simple tests of
reflexes and object identification.
iv. by observing and rating motor skills
2. i. anthropometric dimensions e.g. height, weight, proportions
ii handedness
iii motor maturity
iv motor skill performance
ACTIVITY II
1. Any three of the following will do.
i. helping children to be health-conscious
443
ii. providing exercise and rest

iii emphasising good nutrition including pressing for school meals
iv. Public enlightenment of students, parents and other adults
v. guidance of children and giving training for specific identified problems.
vi. help in providing of safe environment for children, graduated seats and desks
as well as comfortable uniforms.
2. i. Through organisation of PTA meetings.
ii The mass media could be used.
iii Specialists like medical personnel/public health personnel, physical education
experts could be invited to talk on the pupils.
iv. Through organisation of community projects in the environment.
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) Body growth through measurement of the body (anthropometric
measurements) e.g. height, weight arm circumference etc.
(b) Handedness
(c) Motor Immaturity
(d) Motor Skill Performance
2. By asking the child to remove his shoes and making stand against the wall. The heels
of his feet, his shoulders and head should rest against the wall. With a straight flat
object placed on the crown of the head e.g. a ruler, I should mark off the height on the
wall. I would then read off the measurement if they had previously been marked, or I
would take the readings with a tape measure or any other type of long ruler or
measuring stick.
3. Answer to be supplied by student.
The teacher could:-
i. Help children to be health conscious by teaching them how to purify and store
drinking water; by emphasising how to keep the environment clean; by
encouraging them to be immunised against infectious diseases.
ii. Teach them about exercise and rest and practise the teaching in the school.
iii. Make them understand the importance of good nutrition. The teacher could
teach them the use of local foodstuff and also press for school meals.
iv. Engage in public enlightenment. He could explain to parents and others the
importance of health, nutrition etc and the progress of physical development.
He could help them solve practical problems.
v. Guide children to overcome developmental problems and provide specific
training as the need arises.
444
vi. Help to make the environment safe for children. He could help in ensuring
that adequate graduated seats and desks are provided for the children as well
as comfortable uniforms.
UNIT 10 (EDU111.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9
ACTIVITY I
1. Educational Psychology is an applied branch of psychology which is concerned with
educational matters. It applies the principles of psychology to education. It is a
science of its own with a body of theories and research techniques.
2. Education Psychology is relevant for the work of the teacher. It helps the teacher to
understand the children. Such understanding enables the teacher to guide the
children's development, behaviour and learning. It encourages the teacher to study the
children too by equipping him with the tools to do so.
The more the teacher studies the children, the better the teacher - pupils relationship.
Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand and accept himself better.
When the teacher is at peace with himself, accepts his strengths and weakness, he will
definitely be better equipped to do his work.
Educational Psychology helps the teacher to be research conscious. Keeping abreast
with new information and participating in research can only enhance the work of the
teacher.
ACTIVITY II
1. 0 - 2 years infancy
3 - 5 " early childhood
6 - 8 " middle childhood
9 - 11 " late childhood
11- 18 " adolescence
2. (a) There are critical periods in development. Various organs and dimensions of
development have critical periods. For example, the brain develops very
rapidly during pregnancy until about 4 years to 6 years. Nutrients taken after
then do not assist brain development anymore. Similarly there is a period
when language learning is very easy-the childhood years. After the primary
school years language learning becomes a problem. The younger the child the
more fluently he learns the language.
(b) The child develops as a unified whole. Although different aspects of growth
may proceed at different rates, yet it is only one child that is developing.
What happens in one area is bound to affect development in other areas.
(c) Children develop at different rates, have different features and traits. They have
different interests too.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. observation
445
ii. interviews
iii. questionnaires
iv. tests or measurements
v. sociometeric techniques
vi. rating scales
2. (a) I would describe the distances of the scale and the behaviour for the different
points. I would then ask those to rate the behaviour to do so using the scale I
provide. For instance a 5- point rating scale could be used as shown
Most Very Punctual Very Always

Punctual punctual late late
b) I would draw up some questions based on what I want to find out. It would
then sit the child in a quiet place and ask the questions I had drawn up. The
answers would be recorded but in a way that would not disturb the child.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Heredity means the sum total of what we inherit from parents. It places the limits on
development.
- Family
- Peers
- Pre-natal factors
- Institutions - school and religious institutions
- Physical surroundings
ACTIVITY IV
1. Any 3 from the following will do:
nutrition
health
drugs
age of the mother
the age of mother
the use of X-rays
accidents
alcohol, smoking
emotional stress
446
blood incompatibility
difficult labour
physical deformity
mental deficiency
brain, heart and eye damage.
ACTIVITY VI
1. Physical development involves structural change and growth while motor
development implies change towards better muscle co- ordination and control.
2. Monitor the physical and motor development of children.
Ensure the children are well fed, live in clean environment, have sufficient exercise
and rest.
Parents and others should be enlightened on how to keep children physically fit.
Teachers should show good examples.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Educational Psychology is a science and an applied branch of psychology which
focuses on educational issues.
2. It helps the teacher to understand his pupils.
It helps the teacher to be equipped with the appropriate skill of handling pupils's
problems.
It assists the teacher to understand himself better
It helps the teacher to relate the curriculum to the psychological need of the pupils.
It encourages researches.
2. i. Growth means increment in size while maturation implies innate
change of a qualitative nature.
ii. Growth generally precedes functions Growth is continuous.
Development has critical stages.
All aspects of growth and development are interrelated.
There are individual differences in development.
3. i Longitudinal approach is where the same group of children is studied
for a long period of time.
(b) Cross-sectional approach is where different groups of children are studied at
the same time.
(c) Case Study: The study of a particular child in depth.
ii. Through observation
447
Through interviews
Through questionnaires
Through sociometric techniques
Through rating scales
Any others
4. i. Heredity sets limits while environment determines what we achieve
within those limits.
ii. Physical features
- Intelligence
- Disorders
- Rate of development
- Sex related characteristics
- Blood type
5. i. Physical development involves structural change and growth while
motor development involves change towards better muscle
co-ordination and control.
ii. The physical and motor development of the pupils must be monitored.
- Ensure that children are properly fed, learn under a healthy
environment, take sufficient exercises and rest.
- Assist them to overcome their problems
- Enlighten parents and others on how to keep their children
physically fit.
- Show good example for the pupils.
448
MODULE 4 Unit: 01 Educational Psychology II EDU112
UNIT 1 (EDU 112.1): INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT:

THEORIES AND STAGES
INTRODUCTION
Many words are used to describe intelligence in children. Teachers say `he is a clever child'.
Others use such adjectives as `bright' and `sharp' meaning that the child understands easily.
Some look at the scores and other aspects of performance and judge that the child does well
in school or they cite the position or rank in class. These show some of the many sides of
intelligence.
Intelligence is related to the child's ability to learn, remember and solve problems even in the
àbstract' and `difficult' subjects. It is related to the child's ability not only to know but to be
able to communicate the knowledge in words and action.
In this unit we will read about what intellectual development is, how it proceeds and consider
the theory of a famous psychologist, Jean Piaget.
OBJECTIVES
1. discuss the concept and meaning of intelligence;
2. state the general characteristics of intellectual development;
3. list the stages of intellectual development (as proposed by Piaget);
4. describe the characteristics of the children's behaviour in relevant stages (stages 1- 3);
5. list at least 4 major lessons you have learnt from the unit;
6. apply one Piagetian task to assess a child's level of development

Instructions
1 Read the introduction carefully.
2 Read through the unit once. Note the important ideas and make sure that you look up
the unfamiliar words in the dictionary.
3. Go back and study the unit, step by step as arranged. Change all the subheadings in
the text into questions as you re-read.
4. Attempt all the activities. Some activities can be done when you are reading. Do
those immediately. Those other activities that involve working with children must be
done soon but at a convenient time.
OF THIS BOOK
226
WORD STUDY
Cognitive - intellectual, academic, knowledge
Conservation - understanding stable properties of objects which do not change with
external re- arrangement.
Component - part of a whole
THE CONCEPT AND MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE

When we were talking about physical development in Unit 7 of Module 3, we urged you to
look at the growing child. You could see the different parts of the body that we discussed.
Now we will be discussing intelligence. No one can see intelligence. We can only infer
intelligence from people's behaviour. A teacher picks out ìntelligent' children from the way
they learn, answer questions and act generally in the class. But as was stated in the
introduction, intelligence means different things to different teachers.
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
The meaning of intelligence does not pose problems only for teachers. Even psychologists
who have studied intelligence for a long time have many varied definitions of intelligence.
This lack of agreement on a single definition not withstanding, we can say that they conceive
of intelligence in certain basic ways.
i. Intelligence is an idea or a construct i.e. a way of looking at a quality which cannot
be seen physically. The psychologists now agree that it is not fixed at birth but that it
grows so that people can have and exhibit different amounts of it.
ii. Because psychologists (and educators) are interested in saying how one person
differs from another, intelligence is seen as being made up of components or parts.
Even a leg which is set physically has toes, nails, ankle etc. Of course, since the
psychologists cannot see and count the number of parts as is the case with a physical
object such as the leg, they disagree on the actual number of units. Whereas some
think of intelligence as onegeneral attribute, others can break it down to three
components (Binet),five (Thustone) and even 120 components (Guilford).
This idea of intelligence being made up of different aspects is a very important one. We
have selected five components which we consider very relevant for you. They are given
below.
a. Verbal component has to do with the understanding and use of words.
b. Numerical component - working with numbers.
c. Spatial component - seeing and manipulating figures in space.
d. Social component - reasoning with problems in human relationships
e. Mechanical component - working with objects.
At the end of the primary school, entrance examinations are given based on Verbal Aptitude
and English, Numerical Aptitude and Mathematics. The numerical aptitude paper includes
questions on spatial components. You may say that our entrance examinations contain
components of intelligence tests.
227
iii. Intelligence is assessed and inferred from performance. Psychologists usually

develop intelligence tests to measure various components of intelligence. Although
the abilities in the different components are related to and underlie school work,
performance in school work may not match intelligence accurately . Performance
may not accurately reflect the child's intelligence. In Nigeria, school children are not
teachers to judge ìntelligence' Many perceptive teachers are not satisfied with
equating achievement and underlying ability. That is why you may find comments
and scores making the distinction between ìntelligence' and performance in report
cards. For instance, after entering a grade or a score of 70% with class average of
61%, the teacher may add, `Good, but can do better'.
Intelligence, therefore, can be defined as a group of underlying abilities on which individuals
differ but which enable them to cope meaningfully with different types of situations.
Intelligence can be nourished to blossom into various types and levels of performance.
Let us however, point out one issue before we go further. This has to do with the division of
opinion among psychologists on the influence of heredity and environment on intelligence.
While some argue that intelligence is inherited, others maintain that it is acquired within the
environment. Even though we do not intend to go into the details of this argument, we wish
to state that there are research evidences to support both views. We therefore, wish to point
out to you that even if your pupils are born with some intellectual traits, you should provide
the necessary classroom environment to sustain and improve their ìntelligence'. This you can
do by making your lessons interesting and by making your pupils participate actively.
ACTIVITY I
1. Write True or False or Cannot Tell after each statement in the spaces provided.
i. Intelligence is the same as achievement scores in school subjects.
ii. Intelligence is fixed at birth and does not grow.
iii. Many different abilities make up what is known as intelligence.
iv. There are no intelligence tests given routinely to students in Nigeria.
v. Numerical aptitude test measures the same ability as mathematics test in the common
entrance examination.
vi. Nigerians are not as intelligent as Americans.
2. List the different components of intelligence mentioned in this unit.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
3. What is intelligence?
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INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS

Now that we have an idea of what intelligence is, we will study how it develops. The basic
idea is that the intellectual functioning of the baby improves with age and becomes more like
the functioning of adults, or how we expect mature intelligent people to function. If, for
instance, we expect adults in our society to be competent in understanding proverbs, we
would expect the verbal functioning of the child to be moving in that direction and would
move to such a level that he/she could use fine language to reason. Since the modern
Nigerian society expects an intelligent adult to be able to take decisions that involve looking
at many sides of a problem, we would expect the child to move in that direction. Let us now
look at the specific characteristics of intellectual development.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

i. Intellectual development is characterised by increasing ability to deal with
abstractions or abstract issues.The child, say, in primary class one cannot count
number meaningfully without touching the objects but later, say in primary class two
or three large numbers can be dealt with without those objects.
ii Another characteristic of intellectual development is the ability to store, and use much
information. An intelligent person can remember many things.
iii. Intellectual development is shown in the ability to see and handle more and more
sides of a problem.In other words an intelligent child can tackle a problem from
various angles and still arrive at the same solution.
iv. Intellectual development is characterised by greater reasoning. If I need to get to
school by 8 a.m. what time should I leave the house? Or if one needs to plant yams,
cocoyams and sweet potato on a plot of land then one has to decide what the
proportion would be.
v. Intellectual development manifests in greater ability to solve problems systematically
and creatively. We have locked ourselves out of our class, what can we do to enter
the class?
vi Another characteristic is the greater ability to relate ideas and things in a hierarchical
manner. This is why we sometimes teach from simple to complex issues.
We will return to these characteristics in the next unit when we discuss
how a teacher can help children's intellectual development.
ACTIVITY II
1. Fill in the missing words from the list given on the right hand column. Select the
words which best complete the statements.
i. when a child develops intellectually, Words
he is likely to think more and more European,
like an intelligent girl, boy,
------------------------------------- - adult.
ii. Higher level of intellectual functioning dress well, reason,
shows in a person's ability develop, solve
to --------- and -------- problems.
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2. Three characteristics of organisation,

intellectual development are: components,
completion of
i. ------------------------------------ assignment, ability to
ii ------------------------------------ remember, ability to see
relationships.
iii. -----------------------------------
PIAGET'S THEORY OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

General Background
There are many theories of intellectual development. We have selected Piaget's theory
because of its relevance for your work as a teacher. Piaget, a famous psychologist, spent most
of his working life studying how children acquire knowledge. Because of this focus on how
children construct knowledge, sometimes people talk of his theory of cognitive development.
Cognition comes from the Latin word `cognit' - Ì know'. For our purpose, cognitive
development can be used interchangeably with intellectual development. Essentially, Piaget's
theory seeks answers to the question `how do people come to know about and represent their
world?' He proposes that they do so by interacting very much with their environment. The
child's intellectual development depends on how much, how varied and how structured his
encounters with the environment are.
Piaget's Method:
Piaget learnt about how children construct knowledge by asking them questions like a doctor
asks a patient questions. This is called the clinical method. By talking to children and giving
them simple tasks to perform, he could see where they made mistakes or saw things
differently from the adult.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget concluded that intellectual development progressed in stages. He outlined four stages
which we will describe in a moment. These are the sensori motor stage, the pre- operational
stage, the concrete operations stage and the formal operations stage.
1 .He explained that intellectual development has its roots in action on the environment.
Initially, the baby's action is external and can be observed . but later, the actions
become internal. Objects and their relationships are manipulated in the mind. So as
the child progresses from the baby's miniature to more mature stages, his actions
become internalised.
2. The order of the stages is invariant, meaning that the order does not change. Each
child goes through the stages sequentially, or one after the other in the same order.
3. One stage builds on another. The first stage provides the foundation for the next stage.
Intellectual performance at the second stage is higher than that of the first but is built
on what happened in the first one. Intellectual functioning continues to progress in
this manner until the last stage.
4. Progress from one stage to another depends very much on the child's own action.
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DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGES

We will now describe the competencies and achievement of the child at each stage.
a. The Sensori - Motor Stage (0-2years). The child learns about the environment
through the use of senses (sensori) and movement (motor). The child touches and puts
everything in the mouth to learn about it . The major thing the baby learns is that
objects have permanence. If the child must know about the world, then the world
must exist whether the child sees the objects in it or not. Mama may go out to work or
market but she will come back. She is still alive even when the child cannot see her.
Another big achievement is the beginning of the ability to link and represent things.
For instance a word can substitute for an object or an action. An interesting
characteristic of this stage is that the child is capable of new ideas through his mental
images. He can develop means of discovering hidden objects.
b. The Pre - Operational Stage (2 - 7 years.) The child explores the world of objects
and people more extensively, the ability to represent blossoms in the use of language,
and imaginative play. Not only do the children label objects and actions, they can use
language competently, almost like adults. The children in this stage spend much time
in play. A leaf floating in the air can be a leaf one minute, a bird the next and a boat
the following moment. How many of us have not seen a child that becomes 'mother'
or 'father' going to work? Or act like a teacher barking out instructions? Another
important feature of this pre - operational stage is that the mental abilities of the child
are irreversible. A child might be capable of adding 2 to 4 to obtain 6. But he might
not understand that 6 - 4 would be 2 unless he has been taught that concept before.
Furthermore, children at this stage are egocentric, that is they rarely see other people's
point of view. This is why they are often reluctant to give out things like sweets to
others like their brothers.We should, therefore, not condemn them as being selfish
because it is part of this stage's behaviour.
But, the child has limitations. The child tends to relate things in an illogical manner.
He may say that the sun rises when he wakes up i.e that his waking up makes the sun
rise. The discussion in the next stage gives further evidence of the pre- operational
child's limitations.
c. The Concrete Operations Stage (7 -11years). Piaget says that the children at this stage
become logical. They can classify objects logically. They are no longer deceived by
external arrangements. They begin to have true knowledge of such concepts as
number, distance, quantity, volume, etc. The major achievement of this period is that
the child acquires conservation or the understanding that certain properties of objects
do not change even when the objects are rearranged. We will illustrate this with a
typical task of Piaget. A child is shown two sets of 9 seeds. The child counts them and
agrees that they are equal in number.
Step 1 o o o o o o o o o Set A
o o o o o o o o o Set B
When Set B is rearranged as in Step 2, will the child realise that the number has not
changed?
o o o o o o o o o Set A
Step 2 ooo
oooo Set B
oo
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The concrete operations child has no difficulty in understanding that the number of
the two sets still remains the same i.e. 9. The pre-operational child insists either that
the longer one has more seeds or that the bunched Set B has more seeds. The reason is
that he is confusing shape of arrangement with number. The major limitation of a
concrete operations child is that he only reasons about concrete objects.
d. The Formal Operations Stage (11 - 18 years.) . Children at this stage are supposed to
be able to think about the world abstractly. They can reason about things without
concrete objects and they are more logical in their approach to problem solution. They
are capable of formulating hypotheses or making scientific guesses from observations
of events. These are manifested both in academic and non - academic situations.
RESULT OF STUDIES OF AFRICAN CHILDREN

Many studies of children in Nigeria and other African countries using Piaget's theory and
tasks have been carried out. The majority of studies were of children in the concrete
operations stage. The results of the African studies show:
i. That children do pass through the first three stages.
ii. That very many of the children except the children of educated middle class parents
are slow in reaching the stages.
iii. That training can improve the pace of attaining the stages.
iv. That acquiring particular concepts in the concrete operations stage depends on the
background experiences of the children. Those in a hunting environment are faster in
spatial concepts, those in farming and pottery making communities are faster in
quantitative concepts.
ACTIVITY III
1. Select the missing words from the list of words given below. If there is no correct
word, supply your own word. You may use the same words more than once.
i. Piaget used the ------------------------------method in studying children.
ii. Piaget believes that the origin of intelligence is in the child's----------
iii. According to Piaget, the child -------------------------knowledge about the environment.
iv. One stage of intellectual development is a----------------------- for the next stage.
v. The stages occur in-------------------------------------- sequence or order.
vi. Another word which can be used in place of ìntellectual' is---------- development.
vii. The most important achievement of the sensori - motor stage of development is an
understanding of -----------------------------------
viii The understanding that certain properties of objects do not change even if the display
is rearranged is known as-----------------------------
ix. If you talk to a child trying to discover what he think and the source of his errors, you
are using a -----------------------------------------
x. Result of studies show that many African children tend to be in intellectual
development but that training can make them ----------
232
Words:
a. number e. clinical method i. learns
b. conservation f. understanding j. cognitive
c. slow g. action k. fixed
d. objectpermanence h. constructs l. foundation
2 List the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory. (Arrange
them in order and give their ages)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3. Describe the sensori - motor stage in terms of what the child can do.
IMPLICATIONS
Lessons from the Study of Intellectual Development.
We will draw a few lessons for the teacher at this stage of our study of intellectual
development. These points will be needed in the next unit so note them well.
i We have learnt that intelligence increases with greater stimulation. This means that
the teacher has the responsibility of training, teaching and stimulating the children to
higher levels of intellectual functioning.
ii. We have learnt that intelligence has many components. Children also study many
subjects in primary school. Therefore we can use these subjects to stimulate
intellectual development.
iii. We have learnt that our children are somewhat slow in their intellectual development.
Therefore teachers have to try to make all our children who are capable to move at
their best pace.
iv. We have learnt from Piaget that the children's progress depends on their own
activities. Our children should be allowed greater freedom for activities.
v. We now know the various attributes of higher intellectual functioning so we can
identify, assess and promote them.
vi. We have been told that one stage of cognitive development leads to another, so there
can be no skips in certain aspects of knowledge.
Vii .Piaget emphasizes play in his studies. The implication of this is that we should
employ the play way method particularly in the nursery and early primary classes.
The method will be more meaningful with the use of symbols or concrete objects. It is
even advisable to use the informal more than the formal approach for the young
primary school children to give them the much needed freedom for effective learning.
viii. Children often like to imitate others. The implication of this is that teachers should
lay good examples worth emulating.
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ACTIVITY IV
Write True or False in the spaces/boxes given.
1. A teacher can help children to develop intellectually.
2. Children should be passive if they want to improve intellectually.
3. All children can move at the same pace intellectually when the learning environment
is good.
SUMMARY
• Promoting intellectual development and assessing intelligent performance are important
aspects of the teacher's work. To do this the teacher has to know about intellectual
development.
• Intelligence has many sides and components and intelligent behaviour shows in
different situations involving the verbal, numerical, social, spatial and mechanical.
• Characteristics of intellectual development can be seen in movement towards:
a. more abstract thinking
b. greater ability to remember
c. better reasoning
d. greater complexity of thinking
e. greater ability to solve problems well
f. greater evidence of organisation.
• According to Piaget's theory, intellectual development progresses in the following stages.
a. sensori - motor stage
b. pre-operational stage
c. concrete operations stage
d. formal operations stage.
• Studies of African children show that Piaget's theory is relevant but that our children are
generally slow in intellectual development. A faster rate of progress depends on
stimulating experiences.
• Some of the lessons were listed. The major lesson is that with greater effort to improve
the learning environment of the child, intellectual development will be faster and better.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Take 18 small pebbles and arrange them for two primary one children as illustrated
earlier in the unit.
Set A o o o o o o o o o
ooooooooo
Ask the children to ascertain the numbers in the two rows.The two rows have equal
numbers of pebble or seeds? then spread out one row as in B
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Set B o o o o o o o o oo
ooo ooooooooo
Ask again `Do the two rows have the same number of pebbles or seeds'?
Set C ooooooooo
Rearrange again
ooo
oooo
oo
Ask for the last time `Do the two arrangements have the same number of pebbles or
seeds'?
Record the children's responses. What were they? What stage of development would
you say the child belongs to? (Check the descriptions).
2 .What does intelligence mean and how many components does it have?
3. List the stages of intellectual development and describe the child's achievements in
the third stage.
4.Explain four lessons you have learnt from this unit.
REFERENCES
Eke, E., and Esuman, J.K.,Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context Ibadan:
Heinemann (Nig). Educational Books. (In Press)
Oladele, J. O.,Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education, Lagos: Johns-Lad
Publishers, 1987.
235
UNIT 2 (EDU 112.2): STIMULATION OF INTELLECTUAL

DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY
SCHOOL YEARS
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit, we learnt, among other things, that intelligence has many components -
verbal, numerical, social, spatial and mechanical. We learnt also that our children start off
well but tend to become slow in intellectual development. But, fortunately, it is possible to
help them develop better and faster. To do this we have to provide them with stimulating
experiences.
Teaching and learning depends a lot on the child's intellectual ability. So in this unit, we will
discuss how to stimulate the intellectual development of our primary school children.
OBJECTIVES
1. list specific intellectual abilities that need to be improved.
2. list the different ways of stimulating intellectual development.
3. discuss at least 3 methods of stimulating intellectual development.
4. apply some of the strategies for stimulating intellectual development.

Instructions
1. Read through the summary of the preceding Unit, (Unit 1 of Module 4).
2. Read through this unit once. As you read, take note of important ideas and look up
any unfamiliar words in the dictionary.
Do not look up the sample answers provided before attempting the exercises.
4. If you observe all the rules, you will benefit greatly from this unit. Attempt the unit
assignment.
CHECK UP YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Strategy technique or method.
Flexible being able to change from one way of doing things to another with
ease.
Discriminate observing likeness and differences among objects.
Conservation the ability to understand that properties of objects remain the same
even when those objects have been rearranged.
236
Facilitate making things easy.

Mime to act or role play without speaking any words.
SPECIFIC INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES WE CAN HELP CHILDREN TO

DEVELOP
There are many skills and abilities which make up intelligence. We will try and mention
some of those which we think primary school children should have.
i. Ability to classify or group objects. Piaget says that this is a very important ability.
To be able to classify, the child must be able to determine the things that are alike in
some ways and those aspects that are different. What is more, the child should be
consistent in using any aspect he selects as the basis for grouping.
ii Conservation ability. We discussed this in the previous unit, Unit 4 of Module 1. The
child has to realise that certain properties of objects do not change when those objects
are rearranged.
iii. Ability to see relationships. It is impossible to think well unless we can relate one
object to another, one idea with another in a logical or sensible way. Some of the
ways we can do this is by arranging things in a series. e.g from the smallest to the
biggest. There are many other ways such as the relationship of a part to the whole
which is the basis for fractions and proportions. We can also have reversible
relationships where we can move from a starting position and return to that starting
position. An example is travelling from Lagos to Kaduna and returning by the same
route to Lagos.
iv. Ability to solve problems. Solving problems require that we focus on relevant aspects
of the problem and try out some possible methods which we think could work. These
possible methods have to be applied in a systematic or orderly manner to save time.
v. Ability to be flexible Problem solving or creative thinking requires that we should feel
free to relate different ideas. We should be able to try different options. We should be
able to do things in different ways. 'There are many roads to the stream' as our people
say.
vi. Ability to remember things No one can think unless he can remember facts, ideas,
words, etc.
vii. Ability to monitor one's own progress in thinking We usually estimate how much a
thing will cost or how much time it will take us to get from our homes to school. Such
actions guide us. Similarly a child should be able to estimate whether 10 + 2 will give
him a number bigger than or smaller than 10. He should be able to guide himself to
ensure that he is on the right tract. He should be able to plan. These are some of the
things involved in monitoring one's own thinking.
ACTIVITY I
1. List the intellectual abilities that we need to help children develop.
i.
ii.
iii.
237
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
2. Write True or False in the spaces provided after each statement.
i. Ability to classify depends on being able to discriminate.
ii Reversible relationship involves arranging things in order e.g from the
smallest to the biggest.
iii. Remembering is important for thinking
iv. Being flexible means doing things over and over again in the same way
v. Solving problems involves trying out different possible methods
vi Estimating helps us to guide our thinking
WAYS OF STIMULATING INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Facilitating Intellectual Performance
The teacher should make intellectual functioning easy for the children. This can be
done by setting up situations that provoke thinking. The way the teacher arranges
things could make the children point out what should not be included.
Also a good relaxed atmosphere free of tension enables children to think. To make the
atmosphere even better, the teacher can show interest in the children's ideas and invite
the ideas. If the teacher gives notes all the time, insist that children do things his way
i.e the teacher's way, then they will believe that he does not value their ideas. He
should allow them to ask questions.
The teacher should remember that intelligence have dimensions. Examples should not
only be academic. Opportunities should be given to children to use their social,
mechanical, verbal, and numerical gifts.
2 Providing Practice in Grouping and Organisation
There are very many opportunities daily for children to group and organise objects,
ideas, events and people. The teacher and the children could bring a collection of
objects for grouping - any objects at all. When they are grouped, the children tell the
basis for the grouping. The objects could be grouped on the basis of number if it is a
mathematics class or on the basis of shape - circular, triangular, etc. Words could be
grouped. Those that rhyme could be grouped separately. If the teacher writes the
words on separate sheets of paper, the children can sort them out. It depends on what
the lesson is about. At the upper primary level, it is still necessary to classify. If the
children are learning how to write composition, they can put forward their ideas and
then group them. If the topic is 'A Visit to the Market', the children can list as many
points as they like. Then the teacher helps to guide the children in grouping which
ideas go together. Such ideas can be organised and written into paragraphs.
238
3. Finding and Establishing Relationships

This is an extension of grouping and takes the practice in grouping to a higher level.
A game which we often play with children is to make systems in science. We start
with very simple ideas. Ì want to make a system in science. It has the sun and the
leaf. The sun shines on the leaf' - a primary four child made that system. The idea is
that we should look for relationships of all kinds.
Give them practice in arranging objects according to graduated size, number, colour.
Arrange events in time sequence.
Another important relationship is in the form of a hierarchy. Things get built up into
larger wholes. For instance ant, fly, bee can be put into a group as insects. Then
insects put into a larger group of animals. So the relationship is from specific to
general. A different type of relationship involves part and whole. Our children have
difficulty in what Piaget calls `class inclusion'-being able to see the relationship of
part and whole and compare a part and the whole. An example of this is comparing
girls and children in your class. The class is made up of girls and boys. The children
may compare the number of girls and boys. But there is also another level of
comparison which involves the number of girls and the number of children in the
whole class. Children find it difficult to separate the girls mentally and also have them
in the total group mentally. Try it. They need practice. In upper primary you can ask
them a simple quiz of this nature:
All children in this class are bright
The girls in this class are bright
Therefore all the boys in this class will be ---------,
Let them develop such types of riddles or quizzes. Give practice also in reversible
relationships.
4 Problem solving.
Children need lots of experience in solving problems. De Bono asked children to
write essays or draw how to keep a cat and a dog in the same place. The essays and
drawings were very interesting. They showed the same type of solutions that adults
normally give. Children can solve problems but they need practice with familiar
problems.
You can help in many ways. Let them know that there are many ways of solving
problems. Help them to spot problems in the class, the school and the environment.
Have you ever tried to open the door when both hands are carrying things? Is that a
problem? Let the children find some more everyday problems. How can they stand in
class without dragging the desk or the chair?
Then help children in focusing on and trying out possible solutions. In the example
about carrying things and opening the door, we could try (a) freeing one hand (b)
opening the door with our foot (c) asking someone to open the door for us, etc. Which
of the possible solutions really works? Let the children decide.
Although we have used an everyday example you can use your subject areas to locate
problems. In Agricultural Science or Health Science there are very many problems
that come readily to mind. You think of them.
239
5. Training to Hasten Conservation Ability

Do you know that just setting up situations and allowing children to play with objects
can help their ability to conserve? Of course, you can help in definite ways.
Remember the assignment you performed on conservation in the last unit (Unit 1 of
Module 4). Check it. Try it again and if the child does not conserve, confront him
with the fact that you did not add or take away any of the seeds. Let his classmates
who conserve also try it and argue along the same lines. Use other objects. (Your
course tutor will give you other tasks that you can use to train children to hasten
conservation ability in quantity, volume, e.t.c.)
6. Practice in being Flexible
Here, the attitude that things can be done in different ways is important. Try and
establish that attitude. Always ask and reward anyone who can use a different method
to obtain results.
Demonstrate by using more than one method yourself. You can say the same thing,
convey the same meaning in different ways. Problems can be solved by different
methods. Counting, addition, subtraction e.t.c. can all be done in different ways.
One of the very useful ways of training children and even adults in flexibility is by
asking them to use different modes of expression. For instance a story could be told in
words, by drawing, by moulding a model. These different modes of expression can be
used by everybody. One does not need to be an artist.
Let us consider an example of keeping the dog and cat in the same place. We can say
for example tie the dog and the cat to different trees. We can say the same thing by
sketching or drawing it. A third mode of expressing the same thing is by acting or
miming. Try it, your class will be very lively and the children will think. If some
children mime, others can guess what they have tried to communicate. In this way you
will teach the children to change thoughts into verbal and action modes.
7. Give Children Opportunity to Do Things Independently
Small group projects and individual work help children to plan and put many of the
things they have learnt into practice. Also, they learn how to look for information and
use their memory.
In order not to forget, children have to be taught to jot things down, to rehearse what
they have to do.
8. Monitoring Own Thinking
The kinds of errors that our children sometimes make is unbelieveable. Let me give
you an example from our work with teachers in primary school. Children in primary
school make addition mistakes of this nature 25 + 14 = 12.
Why? The teachers usually mark this wrong and stop there. What did the child do? He
added 2 + 5 + 1 + 4 = 12. So the child knew how to add. If the child had been able to
estimate that when he adds, the sum will be bigger than both 25 and 14, he would not
have made this mistake. Estimation is important in monitoring the way we think.
ACTIVITY II
1.Give any six methods of promoting intellectual development.
240
SUMMARY
• In this unit, we have listed the areas where teachers can help children to develop
intellectual skills. The specific intellectual abilities which should be developed are:-
i. ability to classify or group objects
ii. conservation ability
iii. ability to see relationships
iv. ability to solve problems
v. ability to be flexible
vi. ability to remember things
vii. ability to monitor one's own thinking.
• The unit also discussed the various ways that a teacher can use to promote intellectual
development.
i. The teacher has to provide the situations and atmosphere that facilitate
intellectual functioning.
ii. The children need help in classifying objects and ideas at all levels of the
primary school.
iii. We discussed how teachers could help children to find and establish
relationships. Relationships of different kinds should be practised. Organizing
and relating things in series, in a hierarchy, comparing part and whole, e.t.c.
iv. Practice in problem solving. Children should be guided to look for and locate
problems and try out possible solutions.
v. Training should be given to hasten conservation ability by providing
stimulating objects to play with and confronting the child.
vi Practice in flexibility should be given. Not only the right attitude but also
practice should be given in converting ideas into different modes of
expression.
vii. Individual and small group work help children to be independent, to think and
look for information.
viii. Children should be guided to monitor their own thinking principally by
estimating the outcome of their thinking.
ASSIGNMENT
1. List specific intellectual abilities that teachers should help to develop in primary
school.
2. List the different ways the teacher can help in promoting intellectual development.
3. Apply any three techniques in your class to improve your children's intellectual
functioning. Describe how you did this.
REFERENCE
Eke, E., and Esuman, J.K.Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Heinemann (In Press).
241
UNIT 3 (EDU 112.3): LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:

THEORIES, NATIONAL POLICY
ISSUES AND MULTILINGUALISM
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever stopped to consider how fast a child learns languages. At birth, the baby can
only cry as a means of communicating with us. By the time he starts primary school, he can
speak and understand his mother tongue (language spoken in his home) so well that you can
converse with him. If you tried to learn a language at your age with all your experience, could
you do it so well and so fast? The way a school child learns language is truly remarkable.
In this unit we will discuss language development along two lines. In the first place, we will
discuss how the child learns a language. Then we will examine the problem of teaching him
another language in school and using that new language for instruction.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you would be able to:
1. list the four components of language;
2. outline the basic course of language development;
3. discuss, at least, one theory of language development
4. give a summary of what the National Policy on Education says about the use of
language in primary school;
5. state the meaning of multilingualism;
6. list the major implications of bilingualism in the primary school.

Instructions
1. Read this unit through once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Look
up any unfamiliar words in your dictionary and the Word Study as you read.
2. Then go back and study the unit step by step as arranged for you. Attempt all the
activities given. Do not look at the sample answers before attempting the exercises.
3. To obtain maximum benefit from this unit, try and observe all the rules stated. Do not
forget to attempt the Assignment.
4. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT THE
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Bilingual ability to speak two languages
Multilingual ability to speak more than two languages.
Orphanage a home for orphans i.e children whose parents are dead.
242
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

If you were to travel around Nigeria, you would observe that different groups of Nigerians
speak different languages. In Nigeria, we speak many languages even though the three major
ones are Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. Each distinct group of people everywhere in the world has
evolved and used a language of its own. So, there are very many languages spoken
throughout the world. The interesting thing, however, is that all these languages have certain
things in common and we shall discuss these in a short while. When children learn a
language, too, they tend to proceed by and large in the same basic ways. Let us discuss the
nature of language so that we can understand better the task that face the child when he learns
language on his own or when we teach him.
i. Language is a collection of symbols which each distinct group of human beings has
put together for the primary purpose of communication among its members. Although
other animals can communicate, only human beings can use language for
communication.
ii. When we communicate with language we use two processes - listening and speaking
(forget for the moment about reading and writing). Listening involves understanding
or making sense of what is said and remembering it. Speaking ,on the other hand,
involves producing language or organizing ideas, choosing words and sentences and
the right sounds to express them. These two processes are related, are they not? But, it
is important to note that a child does not necessarily progress at the same rate on both
processes. He may and usually does understand language more than he can produce or
speak it.
iii. Language has two levels and whether we are listening or speaking we keep moving
from one level to another. We can best explain these levels by doing a little exercise
first. Take down the following sentences which you will translate into your language.
I want you to write your translation immediately under each sentence.
Sentence 1: `Tunde gave me a book'
Sentence 2: À book was given to me by Tunde'
What did you observe? When I did the exercise I discovered, among other things, that
I used fewer words (only three) to say the same thing in my language. Besides, I have
the same translation for the two sentences. In other words, there are three different
ways of expressing the same meaning. On the surface, the expressions differ but
underneath, the meaning is the same. Language therefore has two levels. There is a
surface structure or the way words and sounds are organised and used in speech. Then
an underlying or deep structure which is the organisation of the meaning.
Levels of Language
Why is it important for teachers to understand the levels? There are many reasons.
The primary ones are that we have to be sure in teaching and assessing the child's
language that he understands us and we understand him. This is particularly important
when the child is learning a second language in school. The underlying structure is
usually more complex than the simple language with which we equip him to express
the underlying meaning. Also, we should allow the child to express himself in his own
way because there are many ways of saying the same thing.
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iv .Each language has four components and the child develops at different rates on each
of them. The components are sound, grammar, meaning and function. The sound
system consists of sounds and combinations of sounds allowed in a particular
language. For instance, English has a 'th' sound as in thing and mother. Because we do
not have this sound in our languages, our children pronounce those words as `ting' and
`moder'. There is a `gb' sound in Yoruba, Igbo, etc. but it is absent in Efik/Ibibio
language. So, the Efik or Ibibio child pronounces `gbo gbo' as `Kpo Kpo'. Similarly
the English speaker modifies `Nwa' to `Niwa'.
Children have to learn the similarity and differences among sounds and how to
pronounce them at an acceptable level. The grammar component consists of the rules
that govern how words are ordered in a sentence and how they are modified to
express tenses, number, etc. The meaning component refers to what concepts and
relationships, word and sentences stand for. The function component represents the
purpose of the speaker, in using language. Is it to make a request, inform, etc? For
instance if I asked after seeing you use an eraser. 'Do you have an eraser?' I would not
be asking for information because I already know the answer. I would be actually
saying `please, let me borrow your eraser'.
ACTIVITY I
1. Write True or False in the spaces provided after each statement.
i. Only human beings use language for communication.
ii. All languages have certain things in common.
iii. Animals cannot communicate with one another.
iv. A child usually understands a language more than he can speak it.
v. An English child is likely to have some problems in pronouncing some sounds
in Nigerian languages.
vi. The deep structure of language usually deals with the organisation
of meaning.
vii Speaking a language involves the use of only surface structure.
2 List the four components of language
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3. Distinguish between surface and deep structure of language.
THE WAY LANGUAGE DEVELOPS

Since our emphasis is on the primary school child's language, we will not discuss language
development before age six years in great detail. We wish to emphasize, however that the
major task of learning the first language or mother tongue is virtually done at that age. There
are a few phases which we need to consider since all children, regardless of the language they
are learning, pass through them.
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i Pre-language Phase. (0 - 1 year). At birth and for about two months later, the only
means of oral communication between the baby and those around is crying and
grunting. Soon, however, the child begins to make other sounds. He makes only
vowel sounds at first ù-u-u-u-u-u-u'. Later, as his physical structures mature, he can
produce consonant and vowel sounds which he repeats 'gi-gi-gi'. We say that he is
babbling. When the baby is awake, he lies down and seems to enjoy producing these
sounds. Children whose parents and care givers talk to them a lot produce more of
these sounds. After some time, the babbling sounds which are usually common to all
children everywhere, begin to change. They begin to sound more like the sounds that
are heard in the language of the area.
During this phase too, the child also learns to use the sounds to communicate. He
cries in particular ways to make requests and give information. When he is fed and
contented, the sounds produced are different in tone and quality from those made
when he is in pain or needs something like food. No one tells a parent the cry or
speech sounds' of hunger, pain, or of falling asleep. So, we can say that the baby is
learning about the function of language.
ii First Words Phase.(2 - 4 years). The average child's first word is usually spoken in the
second year. Later, the child makes two - word and three - word sentences. The child
shows by action that he knows what is meant by food, water, goat, daddy etc. This
knowledge is gained through conditioning because the child hears the word repeatedly
in conjunction with the presence of the object in question. However the interesting
thing about these first sentences is that each one can mean different things. So if the
child says `jeje' or `dia' (meaning eat in Yoruba and Efik/Ibibio), the child may
actually mean Ì have eaten' or Ì want to eat 'or `You have eaten my food' etc. The
exact meaning can only be gotten from the context in which it was said. The
underlying meaning is complex and far ahead of the means of expression.
Sometimes, the child's speech in this phase is described as telegraphic. This is so
because he omits certain words as we do when we are sending telegrams. During this
phase, too, the child does not only learn to make longer sentences from one to two,
three and four words, he also begins to observe some rules of grammar. He begins to
use correct word order. He also learns to use different tenses and to indicate plurals,
etc.
The child's speech also sounds improved in quality. His pronunciation becomes more
distinct. He begins to use intonation to express himself. For instance, he raises his
voice at the end of the sentence to indicate that he is asking a question.
iii. Early Adult - like Speech: By about 5 or 6 years, the child communicates quite well
almost like an adult. However, there are a few problems. He may have some problems
in pronouncing certain sounds e.g. `gb', `kp' and `L' sound if these occur in your
language.
Although he speaks well there are also some areas of grammar where he still makes
mistakes. These are particularly noticeable when he brings messages and has to use
reported speech. There are others too; so look out for them if you teach in the junior
primary classes.
The children understand meaning quite well. But, here too, much depends on the type
of experiences they have had. Sometimes, the meaning they attach to words may be
too restricted or too vague. For instance, they may use the words àja' or `nkita' or
245
èwa' correctlyto mean dog (in yoruba, Ibo, Ibibio) but this refers only to the type of
small dog they see in the village. If they see the picture of or a real live police dog,
they may not identify and call it a dog. You have to be careful in teaching to ensure
that you help children to develop correct concepts or meanings.
These are just a few indications of the kinds of language deficiencies with which
children come to school. But, they make such remarkable progress on their own that
we cannot but wonder how they can learn language so quickly and so competently.
FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

From studies carried out by psychologists, the following factors are
generally believed to affect language development.
i. Sex: Girls are in most cases superior to boys in vocabulary, pronunciation as well as
the amount of speech produced up to about age 10.
ii. Family Size and Structure: If the family size is too large, parents and elders might
not have sufficient time to talk with the children. In such a case, the language
development of the children might be retarded.
iii. Social Class: Due to such things as feeding, facilities, and the general environment,
children from the lower class are likely to have poorer vocabularies, more difficulties
in reading, and poorer articulation than middle class children.
iv. Deprivation of Opportunity to Talk with Adults: It has been emphasized in this
course that the early years are very critical for the overall development of the child. A
child who is deprived of communicating with adults either due to being hospitalized
or put in an orphanage is likely to develop language skills relatively slower than his
counterparts that do not experience such handicap.
v. Bilingualism.: As you will see later in this unit, bilingualism can affect language
development. Children who are brought up in homes where two languages are spoken
at the same time stand the risk of getting one language interfering in the other. For
instance, if the mother tongue is dominant, ability to speak say English will be
adversely affected.
ACTIVITY II
1. List the different phases of language development.
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Insert True or False after the statements in the spaces provided below.
i. The child does not communicate during the pre-language phase.
ii. The foundations of speech are laid in the pre-language phase.
iii. Only sounds are practised in the pre-language phase.
iv. The child uses telegraphic language when he first begins to
speak in sentences.
246
v. At the time when the child first begins to speak in sentences, a two-word
sentence could have different meanings.
vi. The child makes rapid progress in the use of grammar, in meaning and sound
system between ages 2 and 4 years.
vii. The six-year old child no longer has problems with his mother tongue;he
speaks as well as an adult.
3. Name the five factors that affect language development.
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

There are many theories or models trying to explain how children learn language. But, really,
so far, no single theory has been able to explain satisfactorily this wonderful achievement of
the Pre-School child. That is one reason why we have to study some relevant theories that can
help us determine how we can help our children with language learning. We will deal with
each of the selected theories very briefly and simply. The word `model' and `theory' will
have the same meaning in this unit.
i. Imitation Model. Some psychologists think that children learn language by imitating
what adults say. In other words, children imitate the sound, grammar, meaning
implied and the type of language the adults around them speak.
There are many reasons why this model makes sense. If a child is in a Nigerian state
or home where Hausa is spoken, he will learn Hausa. The same holds true for Igbo,
Edo, Yoruba, Ijaw etc. Besides, when children are learning words or labels for
objects, they often ask the adult to supply the names. If an adult says òrange'or
òloma' or òsokoro' or whatever is the appropriate word in his language, that is
precisely the word and the pronunciation the child tries to say. But if the child learnt
language only through imitation it would take him a much longer time to learn
language not just a few years. Moreover, children often use language that adults do
not use. Think about the telegraphic language, which adults speak with such language
forms? And, you will observe that if you use a long sentence, the Pre-School child
who is asked to repeat it, will reduce the words to telegraphic form.
So, there must be some further explanation. However, we have learnt that children can
and do learn some aspects of language through modelling or listening to and imitating
others.
ii. Reinforcement Theory. A famous psychologist whom you will hear about again, B.F.
Skinner, proposed the reinforcement model. He says that children learn language
through reinforcement or because they are rewarded. This theory works in two ways.
First, the adults shape the sounds the child makes during the babbling stage into
words. Each time he makes a sound that is close to a word in the language spoken
around, parents and others respond by fussing, clapping or doing something positive.
The child learns to repeat that sound and make it more and more like the sounds he
hears. What is more, he associates that sound with the meaning it had evoked in the
adults' reaction. So, gradually, the sounds become words and the words become
sentences that are correct and understandable.
The second way is that because the child wishes to get responses from adults or to
communicate with them, he learns to speak better. Therefore, when we anticipate or
appear to read the mind of the child by doing what he wants before he even says so,
247
the child has no need to learn language. He becomes slow in learning and using
language.
However, there is more to language learning than this theory can explain. Again, if
children waited until busy adults remembered to reward them, they would spend over
20 years to learn language. In fact, research shows that although this theory does not
fully explain how children learn the first language, it is very useful for improving the
language of children who are slow in the use of language. We have learnt that we
could use reward to encourage children to speak. We have also learnt when we can
use the reward. We may wait and get a lazy child to speak before we respond. If, for
instance, a child says `ma, give me ----------- --', pointing to an orange, we can wait
for him to use the word before we give him the orange.
iii. The Cognitive Model. This is our own way of describing the theories that focus on
what the child does to learn language. Hitherto, we considered what other people do
to make him learn and the external language environment. Now we will consider what
is happening within the child, from his own standpoint. According to this model, the
child behaves like an organiser. He listens selectively to certain aspects of language.
He then discovers or develops a rule about what he hears according to his level of
thinking and understanding. He tries out the rule. Let us take some examples.
Suppose a mother asks an infant at the pre-language phase `do you want milk?'
(Translate into your own language). It is obvious that the child does not understand
the meaning of words but often responds in such situations. How does he know or
guess the meaning? He obviously uses a rule (or rules). He discovers rules on the
mother's movements and gestures, the context, the raised intonation at the end of the
sentence which indicates a question. These help him to guess the meaning and
respond. At an older stage, this technique of developing rules and applying them leads
him to generate sentences he has never heard before. When he discovers the rule for
indicating the past tense e.g. adding - ed to English verbs, he may say 'I corned.'
In this model, therefore, the child listens, develops a rule, tests the rule, receives
feedback and applies the rule again or in modified form.
We have learnt about language learning through the cognitive model but the model does not
explain all about language learning. One major problem with this model is that it assumes
that very young children have the intellectual ability to sift out rules and test them. We do not
know for certain that this is the case. But what we have learnt is that helping a child to
discover principles or rules of language makes language learning more organised and faster.
Also, if the child applies rules or principles in learning language, progress is faster.
As we can see, there is no one theory that has all the correct answers. There are even theories
that insist that children learn language because nature had designed that human children
should be able to learn language. As teachers, faced with the problem but English, we of
teaching children not just their mother tongue should take what is useful in each theory and
use it. We should combine the things we have learnt in our lessons. The next unit will discuss
how this can be done. But, for the present, let us continue by examining the language policy
and situation in our country.
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ACTIVITY III
1. List the theories of language development that we have discussed
i.
ii.
iii.
2. Match the items on the left column with those on the right.
A B
i. Skinner a. reward
ii. modeling b. cognitive model
iii. reinforcement c. imitation model
iv. application of rules d. reinforcement theory
3. Discuss the cognitive model of language learning.
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE IN THE

PRIMARY SCHOOL
In this section, we will discuss what the National Policy on Education says about the use of
language in primary schools.
THE NATIONAL POLICY

i. Which language should be used?
This document clearly states that in the primary school years every Nigerian child will
learn his mother tongue and English. It is possible that if his mother tongue, that is
the first language used in his home is not the language spoken in the area, he will also
learn the language spoken in the area. So, clearly every Nigerian child is expected to
be, at least, bilingual. He should speak more than one language. If he speaks and
understands two languages he is bilingual. If he speaks and understands many, he is
multilingual. (Bi - refers to two, multi - refers to many).
ii. At what level and in which classes should the different languages be taught?
The National Policy on Education states that every child should start his education in
primary one every subject should be taught in the child's mother tongue or in the
introduced as the language of instruction. In some states, the children learn in their
mother tongue or their local language until primary three or four and then they make
the change to English.
iii. Why does the National Policy allow two languages, English and the mother
tongue to be used?
The idea is that since English is the official language, every child who has gone to
school should be able to use it. When children speak English, they can communicate
with more of their country men and women especially those who do not speak the
child's mother tongue. As you know, when you speak someone's language a special
bond tends to be created between the two of you. Also the mother tongue is taught as
a way of preserving and promoting our culture.
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ISSUES FROM THE POLICY

Out of these policies, there are four issues which concern us and tend to affect the child's
language behaviour.
i. Attitude to the languages. We normally teach English in upper primary;
examinations such as the Primary School Leaving Certificate and Common Entrance
Examinations are taken in English. Therefore we tend to behave as if English is better
than the mother tongue. When we adopt this attitude, it affects the way we teach the
children in the mother tongue.
ii. Issue of when to change from mother tongue to English Do you know that some
children in the staff school of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, learnt all their
subjects in the primary school in Yoruba? They did just as well as those who learnt in
English and even showed better leadership qualities in secondary school.
We should aim at teaching the children very well in the mother tongue for three or
four years or even more years. If we teach them well in the mother tongue when they
switch over to English, they will do well.
iii. Starting the child in the mother tongue. Many of us teachers are not very willing to
teach the children in the mother tongue. We use both English and the mother tongue!
One of the reasons is that the books are not available. So, we write 'Addition' or
'Subtraction' and other English words on the board and start teaching in the mother
tongue! The point is that with a little more effort we can really teach well in the
mother tongue. We may even be able to develop some of our teaching materials.
iv. The issue of bilingualism or multilingualism. What does it really mean to expect a
child to learn and speak two or more than two languages. We will take up this
discussion a little later.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Complete the following sentences.
i. The National Policy on Education states that every Nigerian child in primary one
should start learning in his
------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii. At a later stage in the primary school, instruction will be in
------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii Learning and using two languages as our children do is called
------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Outline the issues raised by the language policy as they affect primary school
teaching.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
250
3. State briefly what the National Policy says about the use of language in primary
schools.
i.
ii.
iii
BILINGUALISM
Meaning and types
We have already learnt that bilingualism means learning and using two languages.
Multilingualism merely means learning and using more than two languages.
How the languages are learnt is important. There are two basic ways.
i. The child can learn the two languages at the same time. Sometimes the parents are
from different ethnic groups and the two languages are spoken to the child and used in
the home. The child then grows up learning the two languages at the same time.
Learning two languages at the same time has effects on the language performance of
the child. Usually, the child learns language more slowly. His progress is slower than
that of the child who learns only one language. But he catches up and does just as
well as the other in later years.
ii. The second way is slightly different. Majority of Nigerians learn the two languages
by this second method. They learn their mother tongue first and then the second
language. If they are school children, that second language is usually English.
There are two effects we should remember. This situation makes initial learning in
school more difficult for the child. Reading is particularly difficult. Unless special
care is taken many children fail to do as well as they should. The teaching has to be
very good. This is a very strong reason why children must start reading in a language
which they speak well! The second effect is on the thinking and language of the child.
Sometimes, as you must have noticed one language interferes in another. That is why
some people say Ì hear the smell' which is incorrect English but a direct translation of
the mother tongue. It affects pronunciation too. But even more serious it affects
thinking. In the beginning the child takes a longer time to think since he tends to
translate from the one language to another. Then it affects the meaning they give to
words. Opoku used the example of `money'. In the mother tongue `money' means
`cash' but in English it means cash and cheque. Teachers, therefore, have to teach
their children very very carefully.
ACTIVITY V
1. i. What is bilingualism?
ii What is multilingualism?
2. Explain two major effects of bilingualism among our primary school children.
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SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed various aspects of language development.
• First we described the nature of language. We learnt that language is a collection of
symbols used by a group of people to communicate with one another.
a. Language is distinctly a human affair.
b. People use language by producing or speaking it or comprehending or
listening to it and understanding it.
c. Anyone who uses language has to operate at 2 levels - the surface structure
level and the deep structure or underlying level.
d. To use language one has to learn and make progress on the four components
or parts -sound system, grammar, meaning and function components.
• Then we described how language develops.
a. We started from the pre-language phase when the child communicates mostly
by crying.
b. We discussed the phase when the first words are spoken. The child makes
much progress in all dimensions and uses mostly telegraphic sentences.
c. The third phase is when the child's speech is almost like the adult's. We also
discussed various models or theories of language development to try and
explain how children learn language. None of the models could satisfactorily
explain language development but each contributes to our knowledge. The
imitation model explains the use of modelling, while the reinforcement model
explains how rewards make the child produce more speech. The cognitive
model presents the child as an active discoverer of language rules. He applies
these rules to make fast progress in language learning.
• We then examined what the National Policy on Education says about the use of
language. The little child must start his education in his mother tongue before he
changes to English.
• These policy statements raise some important issues about attitude to English and the
mother tongue. Some people believe that English is superior! The child is bilingual or
multilingual.
• What does being bilingual mean for primary education? It affects the language
performance of the children as well as their thinking.
• In all these discussions, attempts were made to suggest how principles and problems of
language learning can be handled in teaching. The next unit will pick up these
suggestions and discuss them fully.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Outline the four components which a child must master when he learns a language.
2. Discuss the reinforcement model of language development.
3. Summarise what the National Policy on Education says about the use of language in
primary school.
252
4. What is the effect of bilingualism on children?

5. Select the option that best completes the statements below:
i. Language is used for communication by
a. all living things
b. animals
c. human beings
d. animals and human beings
ii. Language has
a. surface structure
b. deep structure
c. four structures
d. surface and deep structure
iii. Multilingualism means
a. the learning and use of many languages
b. the learning and use of two languages
c. learning one language first and then another
d. one language interfering in another.
iv. Modelling means
a. a theory
b. observing and imitating what another person does
c. building castles in the air
d. reward.
v. When we say that a child has learnt his mother tongue we mean that he has
learnt
a. the language spoken in his home.
b. a second language
c. two languages at the same time
d. the language of his immediate community.
REFERENCES
Eke, E., and Esuman, J.K. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context. Ibadan:
Heinemann (Nig) Educational Books. (In Press).
Blair, G.M, et al. Educational Psychology, London: The Macmillan Coy. Ltd., 1981 (4th
ed.)
Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Policy on Education Lagos: Federal Ministry of
Information, 1981.
253
UNIT4 (EDU112.4): NURTURING LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE
PRIMARY SCHOOL URRICULUM
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit (Module 4, Unit 3) we discussed language development. We learnt that
the child made tremendous progress in learning his mother tongue before the age of six years.
But, he still had problems with some aspects of grammar, meaning, etc. We also learnt (and
from our experience we know) that the child is required to learn English too. This situation
causes problems for the child. Some of the problems are due to interference of one language
in another and some relate to his ability to think.
However, we learnt some principles from the theories we considered too. We learnt about
reinforcement, modelling, discovery and testing of rules etc.
In this unit, we will be concerned with how we can help children to be better in the use of
language. We will apply some of the principles we had learnt.
OBJECTIVES
1. state the areas of language development where primary school children need help;
2. use the appraisal list to assess children's language needs.
3. list at least five ways of promoting the language development of children;
4. discuss techniques of improving language development;
5. apply, at least, two techniques to improve language performance.

Instructions
1. Read through the summary of the preceding unit(Module 4, Unit 3).
3. Then go back and study the unit step by step as analysed. Attempt all the activities
given. Do not look up the sample answers provided before attempting the exercise.
4. To obtain maximum benefit from this unit, try and observe all the rules. Attempt the
unit assignment.
CHECK UP YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS AT

WORD STUDY
Appraisal assessment
Individualized Instruction teaching that concentrates on a child's individual
needs.
Articulate say or pronounce distinctly
254
AREAS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL

We learnt that the primary purpose of language is communication. To be able to
communicate, the child makes remarkable progress in the four components of language
before the age of six. But we also saw that he still had some problems. In the primary school,
reading and writing are introduced; so the situation becomes a little more complex for the
child. The major emphasis in primary school language development therefore are to help the
child:
i. understand when listening and reading.
ii. communicate when speaking and writing.
We will analyse these major emphases of language development in the primary school
further. Let us look at what is required in the four components of language. Children need
help to learn and use language effectively whether in the mother tongue or English.
LISTENING AND READING SPEAKING AND WRITING

1. Sound: Ability to discriminate among 1. Ability to articulate or produce distinct
different sounds. Also to match sounds and sounds.
letters.
2. Grammar: Ability to obtain meaning 2. Ability to convey meaning by use of
from use of grammar appropriate grammar
3. Meaning: Ability to understand or obtain 3. Ability to produce meaningful language
meaning by breaking down concepts, by organising concepts, grammar, function.
grammar, function. Needs to use previous Needs to use previous experience and
experience and memory memory.
4. Function: Ability to identify the purpose 4. Ability to convey the purpose of
of communication. communication.
The chart has shown that children need help in all the components of language. They need
help in how to:
a. discriminate and articulate sounds; match sounds and letter as well as discriminate
letter with different sounds.
b. acquire aad use grammar appropriately
c. obtain and convey meaning. This appears to use all the other components here. Also
previous experience and memory help.
d. identify and convey purpose of communication.
To be able to help children, we have to provide opportunity for practice and rules to apply.
We also have to ensure that they have appropriate experiences that help to extend ideas and
meaning.
255
ACTIVITY I
1. State the areas of language development where primary school children need help.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
2. Insert True or False in the spaces provided after each statement.
i. Children need help in the four components of language.
ii Primary school children have problems in English not in the mother tongue.
They therefore do not require help with the mother tongue.
iii. The most important area of need is in obtaining and conveying meaning.
iv. Children are likely to have the same language needs in listening as in
speaking.
v. The primary purpose of using language in any form whether oral or written is
communication.
ASSESSMENT OF SPECIFIC LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
The first step in helping children or anybody for that matter is to determine their specific
needs. In the last section, we discussed general, broad areas of language development where
children may need help. But, the needs and abilities of children in these areas are likely to
vary from one child to another and from class to class. We believe that there has to be a
thorough check of how children understand and communicate with language. This is very
important since all school work depend on the use of language.
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING OUT HOW YOUR CHILDREN

UNDERSTAND AND COMMUNICATE WITH LANGUAGE
i. List specific language items you wish to assess in your class. We have drawn up a
sample appraisal list for you. You will find that the list covers all aspects of language
development - the comprehension and production aspects. Also allowance is made for
the four components of language as well as functioning at the surface and deep
structure levels.
ii. Rate each child on the various items at least once a term. You will observe children in
class, teach them, ask questions and take note of their language performance. It is
suggested that you focus on a specific number of children per week and rate them on
each item. You can use a 7- point rating scale (go back and check module 3, unit 4, if
you need to refresh your memory). Give a score ranging from 1 for low to 7 for high
on each item.
Low or Score 1 means that the child knows and uses few words and the meanings tend to be
vague. High or Score 7 means that the child knows and uses many words and the usage
indicates that the meanings are precise and accurate.
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The assessment has to be done from time to time and we have suggested at least once a term.
You may be interested in assessing children who appear to be slow or even those who have
problems. But it is absolutely necessary to assess children's language performance when they
start school in primary one. At least, you have to determine their readiness for language arts
instruction. Also, it is very important to assess language performance before children switch
from the use of the mother tongue for instruction to English.
SAMPLE APPRAISAL OR ASSESSMENT LIST

Specific Language Items Rating
A. Language Usage
i. Does the child speak clearly? Is he
articulate? Does he pronounce
words accurately?. Does the child rush over
his words or join them together? Does he
substitute one letter sound for another e.g
`r' for `l'?
ii. Does the child express ideas clearly
in simple correct sentences?
iii. Does he understand commands, instructions,
stories, other people's language?
iv. Does he have adequate vocabulary to express
himself and understand others?
B Organising Meaning and ideas
i. Does he show ability to observe and remember?
ii. Can he think in sequence, one thing following

another e.g in telling a story or describing
an experience?
iii. Can he reason with the use of concrete objects e.g
about size, relationship of things?
iv. Can he group things, ideas? Can he see likeness
and differences among events, ideas and things?
C. Background Experience
i. Has the child any experience with books,
libraries, story telling? Did the child attend
nursery school?
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ii. Has the child attended religious services?

iii. Has the child worked at home sweeping,
cooking, farming, buying and selling?
iv. Has the child experience in looking after
children, doing things with other children?
v. Does the child have any hobbies and interests e.g.
making kites, games?
vi. Has the child any experience of entertainment
e.g. attending parties, weddings, naming
ceremonies; or has he danced, wrestled, acted in
drama to entertain ?
vii. Has the child travelled and or visited places of
interest?
D. Additional Information Related to Reading and
Writing
i. Does the child know how to look for
information?
ii. Does he have a steady and even hand in writing?
iii. Is he fast or slow in (a) reading and (b) writing
iv. Can he tell the differences among similar

letters and words?
v. Can he spell correctly?
vi. Can he match sounds and letter, pronounce new
words?
E. Special Cases of Language Interference
i. Is the child's language expression odd?
ii. Is the child's pronunciation influenced by a second
language?
iii. Does the child have many grammatical errors in
the second language?
iv. Does the child take a long time to answer
questions even if he knows the answer?
v. Does the child have problems in understanding
concepts precisely?
vi. Does the child answer, ask questions in class?
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Let me emphasize that you can take one aspect at a time. The first three areas A,B,C are
general, and are likely to be used more often. D and E apply to only some children. Feel free
to modify to suit your needs.
When you have obtained the ratings, check for those that are low. If all the items in one area
receive low ratings, then work on that area first. If the whole class is low in an area, then
tackle that area at class level. If only a few children have low ratings then, help that group in
that area. There is no need to add the rating because you need to see the areas of strengths and
weaknesses.
ACTIVITY II
1. Describe how you would assess the language development needs of your children?
2. Using the Sample Appraisal List (Sections A,B,C,) assess the language needs of one
child in your class.
WAYS OF PROMOTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AMONG

There are very many ways in which a teacher can help children to speak, listen, use language,
write, read with understanding. We will discuss some and allow you to increase the list of
ways. Promoting language development should be an exciting venture.
1. Provide the Right Atmosphere
Being able to speak easily and fluently partly depends on how relaxed we are. The
teacher should not allow children to feel that he is impatient to listen to them. He
should have a positive attitude to the children's language developing, making them
feel that they can learn and improve in language performance.
One of the specific ways of providing a right atmosphere is to get children to talk
about or write about very familiar things that interest them. The teacher should listen
with rapt attention. If this happens in primary one, the teacher can actually write down
an experience of a child as the child says it. Then the child has reading material in his
mother tongue! Suppose at the start of the day, children tell about any interesting
experiences on the way to school. If they report nothing, do not give up. Set them
specific things to look out for - animals including insects; women carrying children on
their backs; people's expressions of emotion; the number, colour and types of vehicles
e.g. motorcycle, lorries, buses; things that frightened or pleased them. Try and give
each child a chance. Give each one ample opportunity to use language. At some stage,
they can write these too and you help them to correct the expressions. Then each
child's work is read out within a space of a week or so.
2. Be a Language Model
We know that children often listen to us and imitate what we say and how we say
them. In your pronunciation, your grammar etc, remember to put in your best.
Sometimes, we deliberately use model language hoping that the children will imitate
us. But, quite often they imitate even those aspects of our language that we did not
intend them to imitate.
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3. Use Reinforcement Strategies

Children who do not speak much can be encouraged to speak more if they are
rewarded. We can pay attention to them only when they speak either in response to
questions or when they volunteer information. Also we can praise their efforts. Then
gradually we reward them only after they have answered some more questions or
engaged in extensive speaking. For instance, if the child wants a book and asks for it,
we pay attention to him immediately. Then we ask him some more simple questions
about the book, 'which book do you want, the blue one?' (Purposely we give the
wrong colour.) The child will then be forced to give the correct colour.
We can use reinforcement too for small group activities in class. The group that
makes more sentences to describe an 'insect' or 'a picture' gets a star.
4. Use Individualized and Small Group Instruction
If we have taken the trouble to assess the language needs of the child, we should try to
help him on an individual basis. Or if few children have the same weaknesses, we can
group them and teach them specially. Suppose a small group of children needs to
learn how to pronounce 'th' and 'l'. We may produce a small mirror so that they can
look to see the position of the tongue in pronouncing 'th'. We demonstrate, they help
one another, check in the mirror, or be a 'mirror' for one another. This group too can
watch out for one another even after the lesson. We could even have a 'pass sentence
or theme sentence' (like a pass word) which contains several 'ths'. This would be our
secret for the teacher and that group only. Each time a member of the group wants
something, the 'pass sentence' is used. Example: Is this the way Thomas thinks?'
5. Use Direct Instruction
Most teachers use this approach. However, there is need to make the lessons more
lively and well planned. Let us use the example of developing vocabulary with precise
meanings. We can ask children to play a game with us and say as many different
words they know to describe `how people eat' or `how people talk.' Unfortunately I
have to use the example in English. First list the words on the board as the children
say them.
a. Eating b. Talking
i. nibble speak
ii. chew tell
iii. munch yell
iv. suck shout
v. gobble etc whisper etc.
This exercise can be done in the mother tongue or English as appropriate. After listing these
on the board, the children are asked to role play each one. In this way, the children get to
know the precise meaning of the different words.
Sometimes, too, the teacher can tell a story and get the children to dramatise or act it. They
are to say the parts in their own words.
Games, like `Guess what' or Ì spy' or any other can make children relax and speak freely.
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The essence of direct language instruction to promote language development is being

creative.
6. Work Towards Independence
Teachers should aim at making children independent in language performance. This
can be done when the child learns to work out things for himself. The pre-school child
already used the technique whereby he discovered rules and tested them. That is what
the teacher should assist him to do.
First the teacher should help to develop the 'let's find out' attitude. 'How should we
pronounce new words?' ------- -- Let's find out. Then the teacher may either give a
rule which the children test or give several examples and the children are guided to
discover the rule. The same thing also can be done with grammar. BUT TO BE
ABLE TO DISCOVER AND APPLY RULES, THE CHILDREN SHOULD SPEAK
AND HEAR A LOT OF LANGUAGE. So, this technique is usually used along with
some of the ones discussed earlier.
ACTIVITY III
1. List the ways a teacher can use to promote language development.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
2. Discuss how the teacher can provide the right atmosphere for language development.
3. Apply reinforcement technique to a child in your home or in school.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed how a teacher can help the language development of children.
• We learnt that the primary school child needs help to understand when listening and
reading and to communicate when speaking and writing. Specifically, the teacher is to
help him:
(a) discriminate and articulate sounds
(b) acquire and use grammar appropriately
(c) obtain and convey meaning. This is the most important area and children need
to use previous experience and memory to do so.
• We also discussed how to assess the specific language development needs of children
by listing specific language items and rating children on them. A sample Appraisal
Form was provided.
• In the remaining section we discussed the following ways of promoting language
development:
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i. The right atmosphere should be provided so that the children can relax and
feel free to speak, read or write.
ii. A teacher has to be a good language model since children often listen to and
imitate him.
iii. The teacher should use reinforcement or reward to encourage children to
produce more language .
iv. Individualized and small group instruction can help those with special needs.
v. Direct instruction should be creative and planned. This should help language
development too.
vi. The teacher should help the child to become independent by discovering and
applying rules.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the two main emphases in primary school language development?
2. Name the specific areas of language development where the primary school child
requires assistance.
3. State the procedure you will take in assessing the language development needs of
your pupils.
4. Draw an Appraisal List which you will use to assess the language development needs
of your pupils.
5. Briefly describe any six steps which you can take to promote the language
development of your pupils. Appropriate examples must be given.
REFERENCES
Eke, E, and Esuman, J.K. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context Ibadan:
Heinemann (Nig) Educational Publishers. (In Press).
Durojaiye, M.O.A.,A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans, 1976
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UNIT 5 (EDU 112.5): SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: BASIC

COMPONENTS, CONCEPTS AND
THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever stopped to think about the number of people that you talk to and relate with in
a single day? The list must include your family member, your wife or husband, brother, sister
or child, father, mother, uncle and aunt. Then the list also includes fellow teachers, school
children, friends of both sexes. Many more people some of whom you can hardly remember
will also be on that list. The point is that we meet with and interact with so many people
within a short space of time that we must have a shorthand way of coping with these many
relationships. Our study of child development in the next two units will focus on social
development. We must relate to people. The efficiency with which we relate to others
depends on how well we have learnt the norms of our societies. Some psychologists have
analysed and proposed explanations of how we relate to others and we will be considering
some of these.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. explain what is meant by social development
2. state the importance of social development
3. discuss the major components of social relationships of the primary school child
4. explain the meaning of at least two concepts of social development.
5. outline one theory of social development showing the major relevant lessons for
social development

Instructions
given. Do not look up the sample answers provided before attempting the exercises.
3. To obtain maximum benefit from this unit, try and observe all the rules. Attempt the
Assignment.
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Temperament - the tendency to behave in a certain way, disposition.
Component - part or aspect.
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THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

When we talk of social development, we refer mainly to how social relationships are
established and to the progressive changes which occur in social interaction over time. A
baby has to relate to caregivers, most often, his mother. Then the circle of relationships
widens to include friends, etc. The nature of the interaction also changes e.g from the child
being very dependent on the parents to independence from them. Some dimensions of
interactions are close and intimate, others are merely officious and brief according to what
society expects.
Importance
i. We live in a world of people and we cannot and do not live alone. Many of our
sayings underscore this point. For instance, we say that a tree does not stand alone in a
forest. We also say 'united we stand, divided we fall'. So, we have to interact with
people because our society expects us to do so.
ii. It is not just that society expects us to relate to other people, it is very rewarding to do
so. Think about how the family cares for children. Think about how we can unburden
ourselves to our close friends. Social development is important for mental health.
iii. Social development is important because it enables us to achieve a lot. We get help in
what we wish to do. Others give us a helping hand. We share ideas and material
things.
iv. Social development helps other aspects of development e.g. language development
since we need to communicate with others; intellectual development since we learn
from others and with others etc.
v. Social development helps us to fulfill certain basic needs. Not only social needs e.g.
affection, esteem, and others but also physiological needs. The human species would
not continue if there was no social relationship.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

The primary school child has to relate to different groups of people in the community. There
are four major groups - the family, peers, teachers and other people in school, other adults
and children with whom there is no special relationship. We will now discuss these one by
one.
i. The family:-
Right from birth, the child is surrounded by members of the family. So the child
starts to learn how to relate to others from the family. It is not an accident, therefore,
that the relationship with the family normally lasts until death. Because the family
provides the first source of interaction, there is a special attachment to the mother and
the other members of the family. But if the child is to be able to live his own life in
future, the initial dependence on the family must provide enough security for him to
be able to develop into a mature independent adult. Some of the problems which we
currently experience in Nigeria today are based on the change from dependence on
the family to independence. First, there is the fact that the extended family and the kin
group are weakened. Then, there is the additional aspect of the children trying to
obtain their independence from the immediate or nuclear family. And so, in our
country today, parent - adolescent relationship is becoming a major problem.
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However inspite of this, the family relationships are still very long lasting. The family
welcomes the child at birth and gives the last farewell. In Nigeria, wherever one may
live and die, the body returns to the family.
THE CHILD
Major Components of Children's Social Relationships

Most psychologists seem to agree that the family from which a child comes has much
influence on his social development. A child from a democratic home is very likely to be
fearless, aggressive and associate with others with relative ease. On the other hand, a child
from an authoritarian home will likely be quiet, socially unaggressive and withdrawn.
ii. Peer Relationship:
Next to the family and of great importance to the individual are peers. Peers are mates
of about the same age with whom one interacts to achieve certain purposes.
Sometimes the basis of interaction are similar interest, friendship, doing things
together, etc.
The child begins to enjoy other children's company from early childhood. The little
children of about two years may be together but they do different things as in parallel
play. They play on their own separately. From about 3 years on they engage in
cooperative play i.e playing with one another.
Peer influence begins to play an important role in the social development of the child
from the primary school period. The child learns many things from peers. Whereas
parents train the child to do things the way they have always been done, the peers
enable the child to compare the different ways that things are usually done in different
families. `We always eat after our papa has eaten'. No, says another child, 'we eat
with daddy.' Òh, so you call your father daddy?' And so, the children begin to see the
common areas and also the differences in behaviour. Also, children begin to learn
that they cannot always have their way as they did within the family. They discover
that instead of being pampered by adults, they are among children who also demand
that their desires, positions, rules and rights be respected. In this way, they receive a
proper education in group behaviour. They make friends among the peers. Friendship
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is important. In a culture where social relationships are emphasized, lack of friends is

very significant. Primary school children with virtually no friends have an increased
risk of emotional disturbance. At the adolescent level, peer relationship becomes even
stronger. Sometimes the children who were not properly prepared by the family to
stand on their own feet, are completely controlled by friends. Boy friends and girl
friends are also made at this time. Parents and teachers should regard having boy
friends and girl friends as another change in peer relationship and deal with the
change accordingly. Peer group may change in composition but relationship with
peers tends to last for life too.
iii. Interaction within the school.
The school is another very strong segment of social relationship. Firstly, the school
provides formal and informal lessons on social relationship through rules and the
curricular activities. Secondly, it provides many levels of social relationships for
children. These include child - teacher, child - child, child - authority (school
administration, etc) and other relationships. The school provides organised peer
group activities, like clubs, class projects as well as responsibilities such as being a
monitor, games captain and so on.
Since there are so many activities, there are usually many avenues for children to have
reasonable social relationships. But, unfortunately, many teachers do not use these
opportunities to help children relate to others and prove themselves capable and
mature. The emphasis in our school is very much on academic work so that social
relationships are neglected. Many jobs require ability to get along with people too, so
children have to have practice in social relationships.
Children Authority
1. Older children 1. Headmaster
2. Unfriendly 2. Other Teachers
Groups 3. Class Teacher
3. Peers
4. Friends Child 4. Prefect/Monitor
5. Younger Children 5. Non Tutorial Staff
Visitors to School
Different Levels of Social Relationships in School
Children Authority
1. Older Children 1. Headmaster
2. Unfriendly 2. Other Teacher
Groups 3. Class Teacher
THE CHILD
3. Peers 4. Prefect/Monitor
4. Friends 5. Non Tutorial Staff
5. Young Children
Visitor to
School
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iv. Interaction with the wider community

The child also interacts with people in the churches, mosques etc, and in other settings
but these will not concern us here.
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain the meaning of social development.
2. State three reasons why social development is important.
i.
ii.
iii.
3. List the major components of social development among primary school children
4. Write True, False or Can't Tell after each statement below:
i. Family relationships last throughout life
ii. The most important social interaction of children in school is with the class
teacher
iii. Families tend to train but peers tend to educate children
iv. Social interactions in school come before any relationships with peers.
v. All Nigerian children benefit from social interactions in school
vi. The major advantages of school social interactions are that they are extensive
in coverage and are both formal and informal.
vii .In this matter of social relationships, the school always builds on what the
home had started.
CONCEPTS IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The key concepts which we have selected for our study of social development are
(i) socialization (ii) roles (iii) sex identity (iv) social co-operation and
competition. Let us now consider them.
i. Socialization
When a baby is born, the baby does not know what is expected of him. In time,
however, he becomes aware of these expectations and becomes a full member of his
society. The process of this biological infant being made to adopt the way of life of
his people is socialization.
Socialization is a process which lasts for the greater part of one's life because even as
adults we can still learn about our traditions and customs. Many different agencies
help in the socialization of children. Some of these are the family, the school, the peer
group and age grades, traditional rulers and other keepers of our customs, the media
and religious institutions. Socialization makes us alike as citizens of one country but
also different as members from different ethnic groups and families. But as we had
seen, if the school does its work well, we should be socialized to have a Nigerian
outlook on life even if we are Ibibio, Egbas, Fulanis, Edos and so on.
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When socialization is weak, individuals do not feel committed to the group. When
children feel that their basic need of belonging (to the family or country etc.) is
threatened, we have problems. Children fail to be adequately socialized when
different agencies of socialization make conflicting demands on and expect different
things from the child.
ii. Roles
Every one of us plays many parts as is demanded by the situation. As a teacher in
charge of classes, we attend staff meetings, we teach and so on. As parents, we take
care of children and the home. As sons and daughters, we respect and look after our
parents especially if they are old. As members of associations, we pay dues, attend
meetings, contribute ideas, etc. These are different roles. Roles are patterns of
behaviour which we learn to perform because of our status or the fact that we belong
to specific groups. Within the family we have to play the roles of a child, possibly a
father or mother, husband or wife, aunt or uncle, brother or sister, etc. As you well
know, the demands for each are different.
iii. Sex Identity
We learn sex differences in social interaction. We want to emphasize these
differences for in our country, there is:
a. so much prejudice surrounding being male or female
b. currently much talk and activity on educating women for development
c. imbalance in school enrolment on the basis of sex. In some areas, males do not
want to go to school, they want to make money. In others, girls are not
allowed to go to school.
Sex role refers to behaviour which we perform in accordance with being a male or female.
When children learn that they are males or females and learn the behaviour which is expected
of their sex we say that they have acquired sex identity. Children learn as early as the pre-
school stage that boys and girls are different. They learn what behaviours are appropriate for
their sex within the family. 'Don't cry, boys don't cry,' people often say to a little boy. 'Sit
properly, you are a girl,' they say to a little girl. In some homes in this country girls are
expected to perform the house work while their brothers only play football and other games
and study. Gradually, certain stereotypes (simple and biased expectations) of how boys and
girls should behave become learnt. For instance, girls are expected to be obedient and boys
rebellious. Boys are expected to be more brilliant than girls especially in mathematics. But
many changes are occurring and teachers should observe their effect carefully so that children
do not get confused.
iv. Social co-operation and competition
In human relationships people sometimes work together. They do things with others.
They share and use the strong points of others to achieve results. We refer to such
behaviours of working together as cooperation. Cooperation strengthens social
relationships. Cooperation does not mean that one must always do what others do.
Rather, it enables the person to satisfy his own needs and the needs of others in the
group. Competition is striving to win in a situation. There is healthy competition
when no one gets destroyed or hurt. This is the type of competition that makes people
want to do their best. A child could compete with himself, to improve on his past
performance. One group of children can compete with another as in the case where
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there is a debate. Once the competition is healthy the teacher should encourage it.
Sometimes too a child competes with authority. The child tries to outsmart the school
authorities. This may lead to breaking of rules. Teachers should encourage but
regulate cooperation and competition among children.
ACTIVITY II
1. Explain the meaning of socialization
2. List the concepts of social development which you have learnt
3. Insert True or False after each statement.
i. Cooperation means doing what others say or what others do.
ii. Competition is not good for children
iii. Things have changed and now girls behave like boys.
iv. Each person performs many different roles.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Psychologists have tried to explain the beginnings of social interaction and how they change
with time. We will discuss two of these groups of theories, namely, social learning theory and
biologically based theories. We have selected these two sets of theories because they are
relevant to your work and they can be very simply and briefly explained.
Social Learning Theories

Basically, these theories state that we relate to people because we have been `reinforced' or
rewarded to do so. In other words, we find out that those we relate to and the way we relate to
them are rewarding. Bandura, who strongly proposes this theory bases his theory on three
principles of learning.
i. Children learn new behaviours mainly by observing and imitating what others do, i.e,
by modelling.
ii. Behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement. So a child who relates to the father in a
particular way and is rewarded either by a gift, a comment such as `thank you' or
`well done,' or freedom from punishment is likely to continue behaving in the same
way.
iii. When behaviour is reinforced on an irregualr basis, it tends to persist. The point is
that for several reasons we fail to reward good or punish bad behaviour all the time.
Often, when children help us to carry the books, we forget to say `thank you'. But, the
day they forget to offer to carry our books, we make a big fuss.
So, briefly, social learning theories tell us that children relate to others by observing and
imitating what people normally do. When the behaviour pleases adults and the adults reward
them, they learn to repeat such behaviours in many situations. In that way, for example, they
learn to respect elders because the parents and elders are pleased. But, because we do not
always take the trouble to correct, reward or punish, some of the newly acquired way of
relating to others may be ineffective.
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We learn from the social learning theories that:

a. we should reinforce behaviour which we want to strengthen.
b. children learn from us and others since they look on us as models.
c. we should be alert in encouraging those behaviours which we want repeated.
We can definitely model and promote certain desirable aspects of social interaction.
Biological (Temperament) Theories:

Some psychologists believe that children are born with certain types of temperaments. These
temperaments affect the way they relate to people and the way people react to them. Thomas
and Chess, for instance, say that children are born with easy, difficult and slow - to - warm up
temperaments. The child with easy temperament approaches new experiences positively. He
adjusts easily to change. So, parents are happy that he is no bother and relationship with him
is easy. The filter of this easy relationship is used for further interactions with people.
Similarly, the difficult child who cries more and is irritated by changes, tends to start with
parent - child relationship that is not too easy. So his experience of this initial problematic
relationship colours how he relates to people later in life. The slow - to - warm up child is in
between. Although Thomas and Chess started by studying infants, they have followed the
children for several years. They have discovered that those babies who started life with easy
relationships tend to have easier and more successful social relationships with people in their
primary school years.
Later social relationships, therefore, are built on previous experience regarding how other
people reacted to them. Adjustment to school is also affected. Children born with difficult
temperaments are likely to be the ones who have problems in school. The basic points of note
for those who help to guide children's social development are:-
i. That we ought to organise our help around the children's temperament. We should be
more patient with those who appear to be difficult.
ii. That the children are not just helpless people dependent on us to lead them. They
bring to the social situation their own individual differences.
ACTIVITY III
1. List two theories of social development.
i.
ii.
2. State the lessons we have learnt from the two theories
3. Match the following items in lists A and B
List A List B
i. Social Learning Theory Thomas and Chess
ii Modelling Temperament
iii. Biological (Temperament) Theory Bandura
iv. Easy, slow - to - warm up Observation
and difficult child imitation.
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SUMMARY
• In this unit we have defined social development as the formation of social relationships
and the progressive changes which occur in nature and pattern of social interaction. We
also learnt that social development is important because:
i. we have to learn to get along with other people who inhabit our environment.
ii. it helps us satisfy our basic needs both biological and social
iii. it promotes mental health
iv. it helps other aspects of development.
v. we can obtain help easily.
• We learnt that some of the basic components of social relationships are:
a. Parent child relationships (family relationship)
b. Peer relationships
c. School relationships
d. Relationship with other arms of society.
• The order of importance is from family to peer, then to school and lastly to society or
nation.
• Some concepts were discussed. These included socialization, roles, sex identity and
social cooperation and competition. Whereas socialization is the process of becoming a
member of the social group, roles, sex identity and social co-operation and competition
are products of socialization. They are specified behaviours and competences.
• The unit drew attention to signals of future problems such as:
i. being without friends in the primary school
ii. faulty or improper socialization.
• The last section of the unit considered two explanatory theories of social relationships:
social learning theories and biological (temperament) theories. The first proposes that
children learn by observing and imitating what adults do especially when they are
reinforced. The second complements the first by saying that social relationships depend
on what children are born with and bring to the interactive situation. These
characteristics of temperament may predispose the child to be easy, difficult, or slow to
relate with. But the teacher is urged to combine the lessons from these two theories in
guiding children's social development.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What do you understand by social development?
2. Give three reasons why social development is important.
3. Briefly discuss the child's relationship with peers.
4. Outline the social learning theory. State why it is important for the work of the
teacher.
5. Insert True or False after the following statements:
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i. Socialization refers to the process of making an individual adopt the way of

life of his community.
ii. Rules refer to the way girls behave.
iii. All competition is bad.
iv. The influence of the school on the child's social development is great
v. A child with a difficult temperament may have problems adjusting in school.
vi. Thomas and Chess proposed the temperament theory.
vii. A child who is brought up in a family tends to have a special attachment to
that family
viii. The primary school child who has no friends tends to have emotional
problems.
ix. The influence of the school tends to last longer than the influence of the
family.
x. Families train but peers educate.
REFERENCES
Blair, G.M. et al., Educational Psychology, London: Macmillan Coy. Ltd., 1981.
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans, 1976
Eke, E., and Esuman, J.K.Child development in a Changing Cultural Context
Ibadan:Heinemann (Nig) Educational Publishers (In Press).
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UNIT 6 (EDU 112.6): THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL

SKILLS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, (Module 4, Unit 5) we discussed the various aspects of social development.
In that unit, we defined social skills as qualities or competencies which are necessary for
effective social interaction. Consider a situation where you sent for a parent to discuss the
progress of one of your pupils. When the parent arrived you actually did not know where to
start the discussion. We would say that you are lacking in social skill of initiating social
interaction of that nature. At parties and in other gatherings there is sometimes an
embarrassing silence at the start, until people get to know one another and relax. If, however
there is someone who manages to start off a conversation that we can join in, everyone feels
relieved.
In this unit, we want to look at some of these little skills that smoothen out social interactions
but which many of our primary school children lack. We will discuss how teachers can help
primary school children to diagnose, develop and use them.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. explain the meaning of social skills;
2. explain the importance of social skills;
3. identify at least two areas in which primary school children require to develop their
social skills;
4. list ways in which a teacher can help children develop social skills.
5. describe at least two techniques that can be used to develop children's social skills
6. apply one of the techniques practically to develop a needed social skill.

Instructions
1. Read through the summary of unit 5 first and then the introduction and summary of
this unit.
2. Go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Make sure that you note the
important ideas and look up any unfamiliar words. Attempt all the activities given.
you obey all the instructions, you will benefit from this unit.
END OF THIS BOOK.
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MEANING OF SOCIAL SKILLS

In order to live normally, we must interact with other human beings. As we learnt in Unit 5,
social interaction starts in the family with the mother or principal caregiver and extends to
other family members. Then the social relationships become wider in scope. Peers, the
school and other adults come into the widening circle of interactions. To make these
relationships smooth, the child requires social skills. Social skills are competencies which
make interaction with others effective. Because our goal is effective social interaction, we
can describe a child as having good social skills or poor social skills or lacking in social
skills.
Social skills are usually learnt. Many of them are learnt informally but some are specifically
taught at home and in school. This unit emphasizes the need to teach social skills.
TYPES OF SOCIAL SKILLS

We may classify social skills in any suitable way. Here, we group them into four, namely,
verbal, physical, sharing, and restraint skills. The last three are mostly non - verbal in nature.
i. Verbal Skills: How to talk to different people on various occasions, how to ask
questions and thank people for favours that have been done are not very easy and
have to be learnt. Sometimes there is need to give unsolicited information or
information in response to a question. Greeting people of different ages or ranks on
different occasions and at specific times of the day can be tricky in our country. Even
though the home gives children a start, the school needs to help further.
ii. Physical Skills: Our cultures in this country emphasize physical gestures and
movements in interactive situations. Touching, holding and shaking hands,
embracing, putting an arm around the shoulder, etc. are extensively used to enhance
interaction and the child needs to know how to use them appropriately. Is there
anyone who does not know the very informative eye contact or look between parent
and child or friends in this country? Have you never seen or used body movements in
recognition of age, status and to show appreciation? We are thinking of bowing,
bending, kneeling, lying down, a clasp of the hands, two hands behind the back and so
on to demonstrate these.
iii. Sharing Skills: Giving and receiving tactfully and graciously have to be learnt.
Helping and taking turns definitely assist in smoothening social interactions. So
defective were our sharing social skills, that the Federal Government had to wage a
war to promote some of them in the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) programme.
People were taught to take turns in public places or to queue.
iv. Restraint Skills: This set of skills enables us to tolerate other people's viewpoints
and differences. As Durojaiye says, children need to learn social skills which help
them to avoid quarrels and self centredness and to control their resentments.
Although we have separated these skills into various groups, they are usually combined to
make relationships easy. But there is no doubt that appropriate use of social skills make life
easier for all concerned. Let us, therefore, turn our attention to the importance of social
skills.
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IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SKILLS

Social skills are extremely important in our country where there are diverse peoples, and the
aim is for all to live together in harmony. So social skills help the individual, the group and
the nation to function well. Specifically social skills are important in the following ways:
i. They enable a child to satisfy his needs. Not only can he ask for what he wants, he can
make himself a useful member of the group.
Ii They lead to a child's acceptance by his peers. If he knows how to relate to others, he
is likely to have friends and be popular with his age mates.
iii. Relationship with others becomes easy when we have appropriate social skills.
Functioning in a group or in person-to-person situation is easier. In our country, good
social skills can help to break down inter ethnic barriers.
iv. The individual's self concept is enhanced. When we feel that we can relate to others
effectively, we tend to have a favourable and positive self concept. When we are
confident, we tend to show initiative and independence in doing things in the hope of
success. And, even when we fail, we can always explain what went wrong to others,
or ask for advice since we have the know - how or skill to do so.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define the term social skill
2. List the four types of social skills discussed in this unit.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3. Give three reasons why social skills are important.
i.
ii.
iii.
SPECIAL AREAS WHERE CHILDREN NEED HELP
1. No Friends
We had learnt in Unit 5 that if primary school children do not have friends they are
likely to develop emotional problems. No teacher would want that to happen,
therefore something has to be done to determine whether there are any children
without friends in our classes. Then they have to be helped.
Step I:- First the teacher can use observation, rating scales, interviews or sociometric
techniques which you learnt in Module 3, Unit 4 to locate children without
friends or isolates. Just by being attentive and alert, the teacher can pick out
the child whom other children do not converse or play with. Such a child is
likely to stay alone in class or under a tree alone at break time. The teacher
may wish to ask children `who would you like to play with' and see whether
any children will not be selected.
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Step II: The teacher then helps such children either individually or in groups to acquire
social skills for initiating friendship, maintaining friendship and resolving
conflict or mending friendship over a period of time. I am inclined to think
that most children will benefit from group help as many of our children tend to
be deficient in at least one of these skills. The next section gives details of how
to help.
2. Indiscipline
The school knows that there are two areas where children have conflicts with authority -
breaking school rules and lack of self control or 'taking the law into his own hands.' In our
primary school, the inability of children to cope with school rules is due to ignorance, a
greater need for independence (i.e. when they compete with authority) or application of rules
that are at variance with what obtains at home. Durojaiye warns that children who
successfully compete with and outwit authority may become delinquent and compete with the
law.
Lack of self control usually takes the form of bullying, aggression, open fights, injury to other
pupils in school. Again here the child may be expressing a need to be accepted, to be
recognised or may just have learnt that aggression as a way of interacting is successful. In all
of these cases of indiscipline acceptable social skills are lacking. What does the teacher do?
Step I Locate the children involved through observation, interview of the peers and
the children themselves. Observe specifically what the children do and when.
Step II. Render help in the development of appropriate social skills.There are other
things which the teacher can do to promote self control and discipline such as
improving the environment, helping to satisfy the needs of the child and
developing specific social skills.
3. Conflicts with the Family
The final area which we wish to consider is conflict with the family. Quite often
parents report that children refused to do their chores at home, are disobedient, etc.
Very often, the school sends messages home and children do not deliver them -
notices of PTA meeting, report cards, etc.
The teacher may feel that what happens in such instances is the responsibility of the
family. But, if as we learnt in Unit 3, the child develops as a unified whole, problems
at home will affect the child's behaviour in school.
Unsatisfactory social relationships between child and family are easily manifested in
school. The signs show when the child fails to carry messages home, does not 'hurry'
home after school, looks inadequately cared for (there is a difference between poverty
and lack of care) and when parents report to the school or confide in the teacher.
Step I. Investigate more about the nature of the relationship. Ask the child, ask the
parents, ask others who know the child discreetly. Observe the child's
behaviour in school and where possible his behaviour with the parents.
Step II. Develop appropriate social skills specifically of making contact with parents,
maintaining relationships, and of mending relationship with parents. Enlighten
the parents also.
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ACTIVITY II
1. State the areas of social interaction where primary school children need special help.
i.
ii.
iii.
2. What are the steps that a teacher can take to help a child that has no friend?
i.
ii.
THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN DEVELOPING SOCIAL SKILLS

AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
There are very specific things which a teacher can do to develop any social skills in which
her pupils are deficient.
1. Arranging the Social and Physical Environment.
Social interaction can only take place when there is an opportunity to relate to people.
That there is a classroom full of children is not enough. The teacher has to arrange
things in such a way that interaction is easy.
i. Class atmosphere can enhance interaction:- When the teacher is authoritarian,
very strict, wants children to sit properly without movement, only the very
daring ones will feel free to interact. Democratic ,relaxed atmosphere, warmth,
laughter, interest in the children, movement within limits, knowledge of what
is permissible, all help to make children interact with the teacher and with one
another.
ii. Creating small groups within the class with specific activities and interests
helps to promote social interaction. The teacher can assign projects that
require more than one child and that require different talents. The teacher may
ask a group of children to role play or dramatise a story or scene, etc.
iii. The teacher can pair popular children and those low in acceptance on a
continuing basis for specific activities. If the pairing is for one assignment
only, the less accepted child may be abandoned after the assignment.
iv Specific instructions on how to interact can be given regarding an assignment
that is given. E.g. if they are to read some novels from the school library,
specific instructions on sharing can be given. Similarly, the children can be
told precisely how to interact as the class explores the nature of the
environment in a primary science class.
2. The teacher could adopt direct training methods. Whenever a child, especially the
child who is deficient in skills, uses a social skill, the teacher reinforces the child.
Reinforcing or rewarding the child is particularly useful after the environment has
been set up. The reinforcement encourages the child to try. Let us assume that the
teacher has created a group and the deficient child has to move and join the others.
When the child does what the teacher had instructed e.g. in asking what is to be done,
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or offering to share his book, the teacher reinforces and encourages him warmly. In
this way the child may develop the skill for initiating contact.
3. Modelling can be used effectively too. Modelling emphasizes observing what others
do, inferring what makes their action succeed and doing the same or imitating their
action. Here the teacher may model the behaviour himself. Or, the teacher may ask
the child concerned to sit near a child who has appropriate and relevant social skills
and imitate what that child does. The teacher may have live models role play a
particular situation and ask the deficient children to repeat the actions.
Let us take the example of the child who has quarrelled with his friend. The
competent child could role play how to make up the quarrel thereby demonstrating
when and how to apologise.
4. The teacher can coach the child. Coaching is different from modelling because it
relies not on action but on telling, narrating and instructing. Here the teacher can
discuss with the class how to handle specific situations. Stories can be used.
Commentaries on actions can be used. Newspaper cartoons, photographs, sketches
can be used as a basis for such instruction. Usually, there are many incidents in the
school and in the community, in reading books that can be used as the basis for
coaching.
It is not just enough to instruct. The teacher can set up hypothetical or imaginary
incidents and ask the children to say what they would do. For example, 'if you were
caught by the headmaster climbing out of the window of the library, what would you
do? Or if you had to go into the staff room to collect a set of exercise books from the
Assistant Head master, what would you say?.' The children would discuss some of the
approaches. As part of the coaching, the teacher could allow the more socially
competent pupils to discuss what they do in specific instances involving initiating,
maintaining and mending relationships. The teacher should also allow the children to
raise social interactions which they have difficulty with for discussion. Discussion of
qualities that make children popular e.g. friendliness, being outgoing, etc. The
children can say what they like about others.
5. It is important for the home to reinforce, support and complement the work of the
school. Public enlightenment at PTA meetings and with specific parents can help.
6. Finally the pupils deserve to know the progress they are making. There should be
evaluation and feedback. The children can help to monitor their progress as a class, as
a small special group set up by the teacher and as individuals. There is nothing more
encouraging than for a child to report how another child helped out.
ACTIVITY III
1. List five ways in which a teacher can help children develop social skills
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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2. Describe how you would use modelling to promote social skills among children
3. Insert True or False.
An effective way of developing children's social skills is to
i. pair any two children together
ii. show them examples of good social skills
iii. tell them to do what you say but not what you do
iv. restrict all movement and talking in class.
v. make classroom atmosphere relaxing
SUMMARY
• In this unit, we have defined, and discussed the importance of social skills, and how to
develop them in the primary school. We defined social skills as competencies or 'know -
how' which make social interaction effective. Social skills can be in any of these forms:
verbal or non - verbal. The non-verbal ones are physical, sharing and restricting skills
• Social skills are important because they help in:
i. need satisfaction
ii. enhancing one's self concept
iii. making relationship with others easy. Thus, they can help in promoting
national unity.
iv lead to acceptance in the group and enable children to make friends.
• Although we need to teach several social skills, we have selected some for emphasis.
These include skills in making friends; skills in relating with authority in such a way as
to enhance discipline in social situations as well as satisfy the child's needs for
independence and self esteem; and, skills for relating with parents.
• The rest of the unit discussed techniques for developing social skills.
These are:
i. Setting the stage by arranging the environment in a way that permits social
interaction to occur.
ii. Training by use of reinforcements.
iii. Modelling - use of the teacher as a model and peers in live - situations
iv. Coaching through direct instructions, stories, class discussions.
v. Ensuring that the home and the school work together by enlightening and
soliciting the support of parents.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define social skills and give four reasons why they are important.
2. In what areas do we need to develop children's social skills?
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3. List nine ways in which a teacher can help children develop social skills
4. Describe the coaching and direct training techniques of social skills development.
5. Apply modelling technique to develop any skill needed to make friends.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, Ibadan: Evans brothers
Ltd., 1976.
Eke, E., and Esuman, J.K.Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context. Ibadan:
Heinemann Nig Educational Books. (In Press).
280
UNIT 7 (EDU 112.7): EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

THEORIES AND THE IMPORTANT
EMOTIONS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL
YEARS
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6 we discussed the development of social skills in the primary school. We may also
remember that some of our social relationships lead us sometimes to feelings of jubilation or
depression. Also directly or indirectly our relationships with people, things or situations result
to feeling of love, fear, anger or laughter. We call these end-products of our social encounters
"emotions". We shall therefore attempt in this unit to explain the meaning of emotion. We
would also try to examine the theories of emotion and the important emotions of primary
school years.
OBJECTIVES
1. give a clear definition of emotion in your own words;
2. explain at least two theories of emotions;
3. list and explain at least three emotional patterns commonly associated with primary
school pupils;
4. enumerate any 4 steps that the teacher can take to ensure the emotional stability of his
pupils

Instructions
1. Read through this unit once. As you read along try to note the main and important
ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try and look up its meaning in your
dictionary.
exercise.
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AGAINST THE SAMPLE ANSWERS PROVIDED
WORD STUDY
Visceral: The organs within the cavities of the trunk of the body such as intestines,
liver, stomach It is a large internal organ of the human body.
Sensitivity: The sensations arising from stimulation.
281
Autonomic: That portion which regulates the smooth muscles and glands;
Nervous: some authorities say that all nerves not included in the cerebro-
System: spinal nervous system belong to autonomic nervous system.
Cerebrum: Refers to the whole brain in man
Cerebral: Pertaining to the cerebrum.
MEANING AND CAUSES OF EMOTION

MEANING:
The word emotion was derived from the Latin word emovere `to move out'. Some
psychologists have held that emotions are disruptive states of organisms resulting from a loss
of cortical dominance. Others assert that emotions are organising states that make the
individual ready for action in emergency situations. Emotional states can also be seen as
activating or energizing process.
We may also see emotion as the stirred up condition of the organism involving internal and
external changes in the body. In fact, we use the word emotion to describe such feelings as
love, anger, joy or laughter, sorrow, fear, hope, curiosity, pity and so on. It is an outward
expression of an individual's inner feeling which are aroused by events in the environment or
by the behaviour of others. These feelings or emotions tend to control our behaviour, and
they play vital roles in our lives. Apart from making us to be happy or sad, they affect our
health, our memories as well as the ways we reason or see situations or other people. In fact,
they influence most of our decisions and actions. From what we have said so far, you can see
the importance of emotions in our lives. This implies that the way we handle our pupils will
affect their emotions which will in turn affect their attitude to the school's programmes.
CAUSES OF EMOTION
We might ask ourselves, what causes emotions? The following factors are responsible for
the development of emotions.
1. Adjustment in home, school and society: As soon as the child enters the primary
school, his social roles and responsibility change. He no longer relies heavily on the
parents. These changes to new pattern of habits create emotional tensions in many
pupils.
2. Social expectations: When the child reaches school age, society and parents expect
him to think and act like an adolescent, a stage which he has not reached. His failures
to meet social expectations result in emotional disturbance.
3. Unfavourable relations at home: Every child needs some basic requirements like
pocket money, writing materials, clothes and so on to make him comfortable in
school. When a child lacks all these and sees his mates have all their requirements, he
is bound to develop emotional problems.
4. Lack of love by parents and mates: If a child is the result of an unwanted
pregnancy, he is likely to miss the necessary parental care and love. You must have
heard cases of unfortunate babies picked up in dustbins or gutters who are eventually
taken to foster homes. Research findings have shown that children who miss the early
mother attachment grow up to develop emotional problems. Similarly a child born to
maladjusted parents or who are inconsistent in their discipline like using harsh
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corporal punishment or argue hotly with each other is very likely to develop
emotional problems by becoming aggressive or violent.
5. Physical defects: Some physical disabilities like blindness, speech defects, lameness
can cause a child to be irritating. This is particularly possible when the society shows
little or no sympathy for such unfortunate children.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is meant by the term èmotion'?
2. State any three factors which are responsible for the development of emotions
THEORIES OF EMOTION
Different psychologists have different concepts about emotions or emotional development.
These views have been articulated by these psychologists as theories. The following are
some of these theories.
WUNDT'S TRI-DIMENSIONAL THEORY

Psychologist Wundt argues that feeling cannot be described solely in terms of their
pleasantness and unpleasantness but require three dimensions for a valid description.
1. Pleasantness - Unpleasantness
2. Tension - Relaxation
3. Excitement - Depression
Each feeling moves first between the poles (pleasantness - unpleasantness, tension -
relaxation, excitement - depression) and then within the poles. For example the feeling
associated with laughter would move rapidly along the dimension of pleasantness, while at
the same time excitement and tension would be added. The tendency is for the individual to
be relaxed though in the process he may feel a little bit depressed.
Wundt's theory gained many supporters but some believe that this theory is not infallible.
The opponents do not agree that the dimension of tension - relaxation and excitement -
depression are merely elemental mental processes as Wundt would believe. These dimensions
are muscular attitudes. It is also argued that tension and relaxation are not true opposites.
Relaxation is the zero point of tension not its opposite. Similarly, excitement and depression
are not true opposites. Calm is more logical for excitement than depression.
CARR'S FUNCTIONALISM THEORY

Carr defines emotions as organic readjustments that occur automatically in the face of
appropriate behavioural situations. Thus the emotion of anger arises when the person is faced
with a serious obstacle to freedom of movement. In this instance, the person readjusts by
making efforts to overcome such obstacle. The quickened pulse, the withdrawal of blood
from the viscera, the more rapid respiration and other bodily changes enable the organism to
react more energetically and vigorously. Carr states that various emotions can be readily
identified when we observe the situations under which the behaviour occurs . He believes that
the reaction in emotional states is highly similar to that found when we are involved in any
vigorous exercise or activity. Once the individual begins to react to the situation, the
emotional response dies down. In support of this view, we may remind ourselves to the well -
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known fact that the emotions tend to disappear with action. Our anger soon cools and wanes
when we begin to fight, and terror no longer holds us in its grip when we indulge in strenuous
flight. The disappearance of the emotions with overt action is due to a change in the
character of the organic reaction.
JAMES - LANGE THEORY

Lange was a Danish physiologist who postulated a theory of emotion similar to James theory.
They hold that common - sense says when we lose our fortune, we are sorry and weep; when
we meet a lion, we are frightened and run; when we are insulted by a rival, we are angry and
strike. However others argue that this order of sequence is incorrect. The one mental state is
not immediately induced by the other. The more rational statement is that we feel sorry
because we cry; angry because we strike; afraid because we fear. It is not that we cry because
we are sorry, strike because we are angry, or tremble because we are fearful. The fact is that
without the bodily states following perception, the latter would be purely cognitive activities,
pale, colourless and therefore lack emotional warmth.
ACTIVITY II
1. Explain briefly what you understand by the tri-dimensional theory of emotion.
2. Briefly describe Carr's functional theory of emotion.
IMPORTANT EMOTIONS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

The following are some of the emotions that are found in our children.
1. Fear: Emotional states are very important elements in the life of an organism. Many
features of behaviour seem to be directly opposite to fear. Some of our marked
aggressiveness and tendencies to show superiority over others, often originate from
fear and uneasiness. Fear may be regarded as the first line of defence for an organism.
On the human level, during the early years, it is manifested in such an exaggerated
way that it may appear as a threat to integrity and emotional well - being. It is not
enough to see fear as an emotional condition appearing when danger threatens an
organism. Fear may be aroused by stimuli that only hint at the possibility of danger.
We may differentiate between fear and anxiety by saying that when fear is present,
there usually exists a clear idea of what the threat is, while an anxious person is often
quite unable to explain to himself and others just what it is that makes him uneasy.
Children are often subject to such emotional conditions, which are not easily
understood. Studies have shown how causes of fear change with age. Fear of snakes,
for example, is hardly present before a child is in its second year. Fear however,
increases in frequency to become practically general after four to five years of age.
Some objects which may cause fear include the following:
i. Fear of material objects - snakes, dogs, strange noise, lions, elephants,
aeroplanes etc.
ii. Social relationships - meeting with strange people or strange animals or
things, alone in a big or dark room, finding someone in a large crowd. Fears
generally decrease with the advancing age of the child in number and
intensity.
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2. Anger: Anger is a learned response to environmental stimuli. It is social in nature.

The fundamental source of anger is the disruption of co-ordinated cerebral activity.
Fight and aggression are two different modes of reaction to anger. They tend to
maintain a balance.
The following may arouse the emotion of anger.
i. Teasing by teachers, parents, elders and peers; insulting remarks.
ii. Being unfairly treated.
iii .Frustration of one's plan.
3. Love And Affection: The emotion of love is a very important emotion to all human
beings. It is the result of consequences of physiological disturbances. The emotion of
love and affection develop from the very infancy in the life of the organism. In
infancy, love and affection develop for concrete objects of the environment, whether
animate or inanimate. In adolescence emotion of love and affection is associated with
people. Childhood loves are not sexual in nature but in adolescence love becomes a
source of pleasure.
4. Happiness: Primary school children are basically happy. One can see this at break
time when they are playing, laughing and jumping for joy. A little present, praise or
recognition can make children very happy.
5. Sympathy: Many children like to be helpful to others. When children hear stories of
suffering, when they see someone in pain or if a school mate is ill, or involved in an
accident, children are usually moved to tears.
6. Jealousy: Children experience jealousy. When a new baby is born, the older ones
tend to be a little jealous even though they love the baby, brothers and sisters.
Jealousy then is their reaction to lack of recognition. This same type of feeling occurs
in the primary school.
7. Sadness or Unhappiness: Sometimes when children fail to achieve or are abused,
they become unhappy. Lack or loss of parental affection makes children very
unhappy. The teacher can easily tell when a child is unhappy and can find ways of
lessening this negative emotion.
ACTIVITY III
1. List any four types of emotions commonly associated with primary school pupils.
2. List some objects which may cause fear to a primary school child.
EMOTIONAL MATURITY
Ability to govern and control one's emotions increases with age. Hence emotions can be used
for various purposes to make life worth living. Emotional maturity, at any stage of growth,
reflects the results of development of all parts of a child's personality that can affect each
other. The concept of emotional development must therefore be considered in relation to the
pupils' age level and perhaps cognitive ability. The following are some of the characteristics
of emotional maturity.
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i. A change from the state of being helpless to a greatly increased capacity for self help.
ii. A shift from absolute dependence on others to increasingly balanced independence.
This enables the individual to be able to stay on his own both psychologically and
physically.
iii. When the individual does not only appreciate present situation but is now capable of
relating the present to the past and future; that is, he is not erratic but tries to think
about the consequences of his actions.
iv. Increasing intellectual capacity, including increased capacity for dealing with aspects
of life in various situations. Increased ability to plan, increased ability to pay attention
as well as increased ability not to be easily frustrated.
v. Development of capacity to identify oneself with a larger social group, and the ability
to participate emotionally within the larger group.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List any three characteristics of emotional maturity.
IMPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE TEACHER

We have seen that the experiences at home are transferred to the school and these tend to
affect the emotional development of children. Due to the various demands on the child either
by the parents, teachers or mates, the school becomes a potentially emotion generating centre.
It is, therefore, the duty of the teacher to make his pupils emotionally disposed to learning.
To promote effective learning, a certain amount of tension and emotional involvement is
necessary but this must be moderate since an excess will do more harm than good. In other
words, we are saying that with proper handling, emotion can make learning to take place if
the teacher follows these principles.
i. Children should be highly motivated. This can be done by giving them new tasks to
perform but they must be related to the pupil's level of maturity.
ii. The children must be emotionally involved in the classroom activities by making
them to appreciate the need for learning new tasks.
iii. The use of appropriate incentives like verbal praises - 'Fine' Good' and sometimes
rewards like sweets are capable of arousing the pupil's self esteem and prestige.
iv. Any new learning task must be related to the cultural background of the pupils.
v. The teacher's treatment of a particular child might spread to other members of the
class. For instance, if a teacher scolds or gives corporal punishment to a child, others
might be afraid not to say something out of fear that they might equally be punished.
This will definitely affect the other children's desire to learn.
ACTIVITY V
1. Name any four implications of emotional development for the teacher.
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SUMMARY
• We started this unit by trying to define emotion. We stated that emotion is an outward
expression of an individual's inner feeling which are aroused by events in the
environment or by the behaviour of others. The major emotions of the primary school
years are fear,love and affection, anger, happiness, sympathy, jealousy, etc.
• The following factors affect the development of emotions:
i. The new adjustment in home, school or society.
ii. The child's failure to meet social expectations
iii. Failure to meet the demands of parents, elders or mates
iv. Lack of parental love as well as influence of maladjusted or harsh parents
v. Influence of physical disabilities.
• THEORIES OF EMOTION
1. Wundt's Tri-dimensional Theory. Wundt argued that emotion cannot be described
solely in terms of their pleasantness and unpleasantness but require three dimensions
for a valid description.
These dimensions are:
Pleasantness - Unpleasantness
Tension - Relaxation
Excitement - Depression
2. Carr's Functionalism Theory. For Carr, emotion of anger for example arises when
the organism is confronted with a serious obstacle. The quickened pulse, the
withdrawal of blood from the viscera, the more rapid respiration and other bodily
changes enable the organism to react more energetically and vigorously, thereby
forming the appropriate emotion.
3. James - Lange Theory. This theory is a joint production of James and Lange. The
two authors argued that in emotions, one mental state is not immediately induced by
the other. The bodily manifestations must first be interfered with. And so for the
formation of emotion for example, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we
strike and afraid because we tremble. It is not the other way round.
• Common emotions of primary school children include.
i. Fear v. Jealousy
ii. Anger vi. Sympathy
iii. Happiness vii. Unhappiness
iv. Love and affection
• We also discussed the emotional maturity of children which is achieved as the child
grows older. This emotional maturity often result from the maturity or development of
other parts of the body. The characteristics of emotional maturity were also highlighted.
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• We concluded this unit by highlighting what teachers can do to help pupils to be

emotionally stable so that they can learn effectively. These include:
i. motivating them
ii. making them to be emotionally involved in classroom activities
iii. making use of appropriate incentives
iv. relating new learning tasks to the cultural background of the pupils.
v. avoiding punishing pupils without meaningful purpose.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Briefly describe the meaning of emotion. List any four causes of emotion.
2. Describe the following emotions that are associated with school children:
(i) Worry
(ii) Love
(iii) Anger.
3. Describe four characteristics of emotional maturity.
4. Briefly explain four things a teacher can do to make his pupils to be emotionally
stable.
REFERENCES
Chauhan, S.S.,Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House,
1981.
Sandstrom, C.I., The Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence London: Penguin
books,1972.
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UNIT 8 (EDU 112.8): PERSONALITY EVELOPMENT:

ERIKSON
INTRODUCTION
Psychologists who are concerned with the development of the individual indicate that the
individual goes through changes from birth through childhood and adolescence to adulthood
and death. These changes are in several forms: psychomotor (activity), social, moral,
emotional, intellectual and so on. The changes are found to be more pronounced in
childhood, and adolescence than in adulthood. When the changes involve not only changes in
size but also changes in form and or function, we talk of development. The fears of children,
for example, have been found to change with age. This change is in form e.g. fear. Again, the
brain of the child has been found to increase in size and take on more functions (duties) as the
child grows in age. These examples show change not merely in growth but in development
(emotional, physical and intellectual).
The type of development children undergo is partly influenced by adults (parents and
teachers). For this reason it is important that adults learn about the trends of such changes
and what steps they can take to help the child move on the positive path of development. In
the school the teacher's knowledge of how the child develops from stage to stage is a gold
mine in helping him to guide and instruct the child properly.
Various theories of personality development have been developed by psychologists but in this
unit we shall concentrate on the theory on personality development of a child developed by, a
renowned psychologist called Erikson. By studying Erikson's theory we shall get to know
how the child's personality develops and what adults can do to promote appropriate
personality development of the child. Before we look at the theory, however, let us look at
what objectives you are supposed to achieve after reading the unit and how you are to study
the unit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
1. explain what is meant by personality development
2. state any four factors that influence personality development
3. list the major features of Erikson's theory on personality development
4. explain how the child behaves in each of the stages of personality development of
Erikson's theory
5. enumerate any four steps the teacher can take to help promote the personality
development of children.
6. observe and describe the personality characteristics of a child in a nursery or
elementary school using the attributes outlined by Erikson.
289

Instructions
1. Read through this unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also
look up any unfamiliar words in your dictionary as you read. The key words in the
unit have been defined for you below; study them.
2. Now go back and study the unit step by step. Do all the activities given. Do not look
at the answers given before doing the exercises.
3. To benefit from the unit observe all the rules stated. Attempt the unit assignment. Do
not leave it undone
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Development: Increases (or changes) in size, form and functions brought
about by maturation and learning.
Personality: Traits or attributes which have been found to be stable or
consistent with an individual and which make him different
from any other person.
Role : Confused in what role one is to play now and in future.
Confusion Self Identity: When an individual knows whom he is completely and what he
would like to be in future, he has self identity.
Autonomy: Independence.
Generativity: The status of establishing and guiding the next generation.
THE MEANING OF PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY EVELOPMENT

Every individual is different from other individuals in many ways. The uniqueness of an
individual may be described in several ways; for example how he walks whether slow or fast;
his readiness to solve his problems, readily or hesitatingly; how he reacts to frustrating
situations, calmly or on a turmoil; the extent of his readiness to cooperate with other people
or help other individuals solve their problems. All these attributes and many others put
together, make each individual a unique person and describe his personality. Personality can
be said to be those traits or attributes which have been found or observed to be stable or
consistent with an individual and which make him unique or different from any other person.
These include his thoughts, behaviours, feelings, emotions, attitude, physique, intellect,
habits and so on.
The personality of an individual develops from birth to adulthood until death. The major
developments however are found between infancy and early adulthood. It is well established
by psychologists that the development of a child's personality depends on two major
constructs or premises: the environment and heredity (what he inherits from his parents). The
two combine to influence the total behaviour of an individual as a social being. While the
effects of heredity cannot be influenced much, that of the environment can, hence, the
importance of how adults like parents and teachers socialize the child and how the peers of
the child influence his general behaviour should be noted.
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ACTIVITY I
1. Write in your own words what you understand by `personality'
2. In four sentences describe the personality of a friend you have.
3. Explain the term `development'
4. Give an example from every day life of the psychomotor (observed activity)
development of a child.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Even though we are going to discuss only one theory on personality development it is
necessary for us to examine those forces that influence personality development on a general
basis.
1. The Home : The child inherits some behavioural traits from his parents. Apart from
this, the parents are the first teachers of the child and he learns a lot from them. The
care and affection either materially or psychologically which the child enjoys helps
him to have a sense of security, trust, respect for authority and so on. A child who
enjoys no love from his parents is bound to develop hatred for others in his later life.
2. The School: The influence of the school in the personality development of the child
is tremendous. The teacher's behaviour, attitude and reaction to his colleagues and
pupils go a long way to influence the children's personality. Teachers should note that
whatever they say or do are in most cases emulated by the pupils. If the teacher is
friendly, warm, considerate, cooperative and well adjusted, his pupils will grow up to
produce similar personality characteristics.
3. Personal Experiences: Every child has his unique past experiences which might be
pleasurable or unpleasurable. If a child does not experience crises in the family like
loss of beloved ones, failures, frustrations, serious illness, he will grow up to be happy
and this will enhance a wealthy personality development. But for others who are less
fortunate, their personality development will be the negative side.
4. Cultural Influence: The moral and social values of a society also have strong
influence on the personality development of the child. A child who grows in a society
which lays emphasis on personal achievement tends to work hard without necessarily
relying on others.
5. The Peer Group: The influence of the peer group becomes more dominant on the
child during the adolescent period. At that stage, parents' influence becomes very
insignificant. Each peer group has its own code of conduct which every member must
respect. This is why many parents become alarmed at the sudden changes in the
behaviour of their children during the adolescent stage. What is responsible in most
cases is the influence of the peer group.
6. The Child's needs and motives: Every child has his own unique needs and motives
and efforts are usually made to meet such needs. A child who takes interest in the
game of football might later become a professional footballer. Our needs and motives
which often direct our behaviour also influence our personality either in the positive
or negative way. It is, therefore, the duty of teachers to assist his children develop
positive goals and work vigorously towards their achievement. Through an
understanding of the physical, social, and psychological needs of their children,
teachers are in a position to assist in promoting healthy personality development of
their pupils.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Name any six factors that affect personality development.
THE NATURE OF ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Erikson’s theory of personality is based mostly on the effects of the social environment on
the personality development of the child. He outlines some basic traits (e.g trust, autonomy,
initiative) which are common to every human child or individual at specific stages of his life.
He then shows how the influence of the social environment and the history of the personality
development of the child or individual may promote or retard the development of these
attributes. Thus, every positive attribute has its negative aspect. According to Erikson, a
child at every stage of his development is faced with two possibilities between two extreme
aspects of behaviour patterns. The child may develop trust or mistrust, autonomy or doubt,
e.t.c. It is important to note that Erikson does not emphasize the uniqueness of the individual
due to heredity, rather he emphasizes those traits common to children or individuals at
particular developmental stages. His theory is therefore developmental and psychosocial.
There are eight stages of personality development advanced by Erikson. These are:
i. Trust versus Mistrust in early infancy
ii. Autonomy versus Doubt in late infancy
iii. Initiative versus Guilt in early childhood
iv. Industry versus Inferiority in late childhood
v. Identity versus Role Confusion in adolescence
vi. Intimacy versus Isolation in early adulthood
vii. Generativity versus Self Absorption in middle adulthood
viii. Integrity versus Despair in old age.
In this unit, however, we shall group them according to four developmental phases, namely:
the personality development during infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood and
middle and late adulthood. Emphasis will be on the first five stages which roughly
correspond with the primary school period.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

During infancy (0-4 years), the child passes through two stages of development. First the
child either develops trust or mistrust for his parents and his world. According to Erikson, if
parents take good care of the child by supplying his basic material (e.g food, sleep), and
psychological (e.g attention, attachment) needs, the child develops to trust his parents and
others in the society. If these are lacking, he develops to mistrust his parents and others in the
society.
From the second year to the fourth year, the child is able to move about and do things on his
own. For example, he can play with objects, climb on chairs and tables and so on. If parents
guide the child to do things he likes doing and can do, he develops autonomy (independence).
However if parents constantly discourage the child from doing things he can do for fear of
injuring himself and instead do those things for him or confronts the child's autonomous
activities (because autonomy is viewed as stubbornness) the child grows to doubt his ability
to do things on his own. He develops self doubt and shame. Parents and nursery school
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teachers need to guide and encourage the child to do things he can do and likes doing but
need to take into consideration limits the child can go without hurting himself and others and
damaging valuable objects in the house.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

Childhood period is from six to eleven years. Within this period the child moves through two
stages of development and is supposed to acquire the tasks within the stages.
The first stage is initiative versus guilt. The child at this stage has a good command of
language. He is also bursting with several physical activities. In his play, he plans, initiates
and executes many tasks on his own. Sometimes he may offer to do a task for mother or
father. When parents and teachers are patient enough to allow the child to initiate and execute
his plans and when his numerous questions are answered he learns to initiate things and ideas.
If on the other hand he is restricted unnecessarily, disallowed to execute his plans and his
questions are viewed as being nuisance, he tends to feel guilty in initiating activities.
From six years to eleven the child learns to be industrious if parents, guardians and teachers
encourage him to do things, complete tasks and assignment and praise him for his attempts.
Tasks may be household chores or school academic work. On the other hand the child may
develop inferiority complex if he is not given the opportunity to help in house work or given
time and helped to do his school assignments. In addition, shaming and deriding the child for
failing to do a task properly can contribute to his feeling of inferiority. The school has a lot
to do to make the child industrious at this stage by giving him opportunities to perform
various tasks whether physical or intellectual.
ACTIVITY III
1. Which of the following are found in Erikson's theory? common traits, heredity,
physical environment, social environment.
2. Name four basic development traits in Erickson's theory of personality development
in infancy and childhood.
3. Why do we say Erickson's theory is (i) developmental (ii) psycho-social?
4. Write down three things you can do to help an infant develop trust.
5. Write down three things you as a parent can do to promote your child's autonomy.
6. Describe the activities of a child who is initiative.
7. Write down two things adults do to the child which may make him feel guilty.
8. Write down three things you can do to make a child more industrious
i. as a parent
ii. as a teacher.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE AND EARLY

ADULTHOOD
The adolescent period begins after eleven years. But since many Nigerian children are still in
the primary school at the adolescent period, we shall treat this phase extensively. You must
note that there is some kind of overlap between the periods. However, within the period of
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eleven to eighteen years, the child undergoes rapid physical development. In addition, he
undergoes intellectual, social, emotional and moral changes. His personality changes.
According to Erikson, the major personality development during this period is the
development of self identity without which the youth drops into role confusion Self identity
may be defined as the totality of all the concepts the individual holds about himself.
During adolescence, the child is more concerned about looking at who he is presently and
what he would like to be in future. There are several tasks which the adolescent has to
overcome if he is to establish identity. He needs to plan and establish himself in a career, he
needs to develop his sex roles as a future father and husband, he needs to build a sound
philosophy of life, moral values and social relations with others.
When significant adults in the life of the adolescent help him to achieve these, he comes to
differentiate himself as a unique individual from his peers. When he is unable to do this, he
becomes confused and may end up identifying with peers or heroes and lose his own identity.
He becomes confused in his roles as a unique individual.
With identity established, the youth is now ready to seek intimacy with others. He may seek
intimate friendship with a mate of the same sex or the opposite sex. The venture of seeking
intimacy involves sacrifices, compromises and commitment. In addition, it involves taking
risks, since one could lose one's identity in the process or be confronted by hostile
competitive encounters. The youth who is capable of meeting the conditions involved and
facing competitions and confrontations which may be encountered succeeds in developing
friendship or intimacy. Those who are incapable lose the opportunity to make friends and
become isolated.
For the youth to develop identity and intimacy, teachers and parents need to help him in
planning his vocation. Guidance and counselling in schools become relevant in the
adolescent's career planning and development, value clarification, decision making and skill
development. Teachers can encourage youths to seek guidance in these areas. Schools and
parents need to expose the youths to opportunities of socializing with peers of both sexes and
opportunities of widening their scope in experience and knowledge academically, in religion
and sports and in current affairs.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE & LATE ADULTHOOD

This is the last stage of personality development, though it is beyond the scope of the primary
school period and so will not be treated extensively. Two major attributes associated with this
stage are:
i. Generativity versus self - absorption
ii. Integrity versus despair
Adults tend to raise and take care of their families so as to maintain the continued existence
of their generations. Such adults feel happy and develop ego integrity at old age. On the
other hand, those who have neglected their families later regret, become despaired and fear
death.
ACTIVITY IV
1. When does an adolescent have self identity?
2. List three things teachers can do to help adolescents achieve identity.
294
3. In what two ways can schools encourage intimacy among the youth?
4. Write three sentences to show what you will do to help a youth who is isolated.
5. Write down three ways parents and teachers can encourage children to develop
generativity.
6. Why do some adults despair in old age?
SUMMARY
• We began this unit by examining what personality is. We stated that personality implies
the sum total of the consistent traits of an individual which makes him unique.
Development has to do with changes in size, form or function due to maturation and
learning. This personality development is a life long process that starts from infancy to
adulthood.
• We also highlighted the major factors which influence the personality development of
individuals. They are:
i. The home
ii. The school
iii. Personal experiences
iv. The peer group
v. The needs and motives of the individual.
• Erikson's theory of personality development emphasizes the effects of social
environment on the psychological traits which emerge at specific stages of the child's
development. These traits are common to all children of the same stage.
• During infancy two important traits which emerge are trust and autonomy. If the home
environment is conducive, these two traits are encouraged and the child learns to trust
himself and others as well as have autonomy in doing things for himself. In a home with
negative environment the infant develops mistrust and doubt.
• In childhood, the psychological traits which emerge are initiative and industry. When
parents allow the child freedom to execute his plans and activities, he develops initiative.
Where parents and teachers frown at the child's initiative and discourages it, the child
grows to feel guilty in initiating activities. The child who is given the opportunities to do
things, complete tasks and is praised for his efforts learn to be industrious. The child who
is denied such opportunities or shamed for failing to complete tasks successfully tend to
develop inferiority.
• In the adolescent period the child either develops self identity or role confusion
depending on how successful he is in performing tasks in career planning, learning to
make useful decisions, developing a good philosophy of life and acceptable values. The
youth or young adult has the task of developing intimacy with the same sex or opposite
sex mates. Those incapable of taking the risks involved in making friends become
isolated.
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• Finally adulthood is a period of responsibility. Individuals in middle adulthood are

generative if they shoulder their responsibility towards their children or the next
generation. They sacrifice a lot of themselves to care for their children's welfare. Adults
who refused to be generative become absorbed in themselves due to their self -interest.
They do not contribute to the welfare of the next generation. In old age, the generative
adult develops ego integrity. He is satisfied with his contribution to his children, the next
generation and mankind in general. The adult who contributed nothing towards the
welfare of others despairs for failing to contribute.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Briefly describe the meaning of
a. Personality
b. Development
2. List any five factors that influence personality development
3. Briefly explain Erikson's theory on personality development
4. Mention the traits associated with Erikson's
a. Infancy phase
b. Childhood phase
c. Adolescence phase
5. Describe three things a mother can do to satisfy both the material and psychological
needs of the infant
6 Observe the personality development of a child in your class. Note his chronological
age and find out from your observation the extent of his personality development in
terms of the following
a. level of trust
b. level of initiative
c. level of autonomy
d. level of industry
7. Describe four steps the primary school teacher can take touse Erikson's theory to
promote the personality development of his pupils.
REFERENCES
Denga, D. I. Educational and Social Psychology for Schools and other Social Organizations,
Calabar: Rapid Educational Publishers Ltd., 1988.
Eke, Elizabeth, and Esuman, J.K. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context,
Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Publishers, (In Press)
Fontana, David, Psychology For Teachers, London: The British Psychological Society and
the Macmillan Press. (1981).
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UNIT 9 (EDU 112.9): SIMPLE NON STANDARDIZED

PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSING
PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
The personality and emotions of an individual are unlike a table whose length and breath can
be seen, touched and measured or like gari which is concrete and can be measured with a cup.
They cannot be touched even though some aspects of it can be observed. They are intangible.
Despite this fact about personality and emotion, there is need to measure them so as to enable
teachers, counsellors and psychologists know about the personality and emotional behaviour
of their pupils or clients.
Psychologists have devised a number of ways of assessing the personality and emotional
behaviour of an individual. In this unit, we shall study about six methods which can be used
in the classroom to measure the personality of our pupils. These methods are observation,
anecdotal records, interview, rating scales, sociometric techniques and situational tests.
Before we do that however, let us look at the objectives of this unit and how to study the unit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. mention and describe six methods for measuring the personality and emotional
behaviour of pupils in the classroom
2. use at least two of these methods to study the personality and emotional behaviour of
pupils.
3. observe and keep records of the behaviour of pupils,
4. use a simple rating scale to study pupil's behaviour.
5. use a sociogram to study the classroom interaction patterns of pupils.
6. use situational tests to study the behaviour of pupils.

Instructions
1. Read the summaries of Unit 4 of Module 3, Units 7 and 8 of Module 4 and the
Introduction of this unit. Go through the points you had made when you studied those
units.
2. Study this unit step by step as arranged. Look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
Do all the activities given. Do not look up the sample answers provided before
3. Try and observe all the rules stated. If you obey all instructions you will benefit
greatly from this unit. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment.
END OF THIS BOOK.
297
WORD STUDY
Observation: This is the act of looking at (and/or listening to) a sample of behaviour
with attention and concentration so as to be able to report the
behaviour in a very accurate way.
Interview: An interview is a method of collecting information from an individual
through oral interaction
Anecdotes: Anecdotes are brief informal reports on some critical incidents usually
observed in a classroom situation. Anecdotes are often written by
teachers.
Sociograms: Sociograms are diagrams which show the extent to which members in
a group are accepted, rejected or neglected by other members in the
group.
Rating scales: Rating scales are devices for measuring personality which quantify the
data collected.
MODES OF MEASURING PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
There are two modes of measuring the personality and the emotional behaviour of a pupil.
One mode is observing the behaviour of the pupil critically and reporting the behaviour
observed. These behaviours would lead the teacher or counsellor to infer the type of
personality the pupil has. Methods which use this mode are observation, anecdotal records
and rating scales.
Another method is by obtaining the information from the pupils themselves. The interview
method and the sociometric method use this mode. In this mode it is the pupil who tells the
teacher or counsellor about the nature of their (pupil's) behaviours. For example in an
interview a pupil may disclose that he is afraid of his teacher or from a sociogram most pupils
may have indicated not wanting to associate with him. Such pieces of information help to
infer his personality.
The emotional behaviour of the child can also be obtained from interviews. Sociometric
techniques are not suitable.
ACTIVITY I
1. Name the two modes of measuring personality and emotional behaviour.
2. Write down one advantage and disadvantage of each mode.
OBSERVATION
In psychology, observation is the act of looking at and or listening to a sample of behaviour
with attention and concentration. This action enables one to report about the behaviour in a
very accurate way. We can observe a behaviour by using our other senses, namely the sense
of touch, smelling and tasting. A teacher may `feel' (touch) the pulse of a child to determine
whether the child is scared (afraid) of an object or not. This is the use of the sense of
touching. A parent may percieve or taste a liquid drunk by her child to decide whether it is
poisonous. It is, however pertinent to note that in the study of behaviour, the human senses
used most of the time to observe behaviour are the looking and listening senses.
298
In addition to the use of our senses to observe behaviour, we can use electronic gadgets like
audio and video tape recorders to observe behaviour. These instruments record the behaviour
which can be played back anytime. One thing about video and audio tape recorders is that
they are not biased. They record exactly what is done or said by the person being observed.
However, in Nigeria because many schools cannot afford the use of video or even audio tapes
because we cannot carry them along everywhere we go, we rely more on our senses of
looking and listening to observe behaviour. The human observer however has feelings and
can be biased.
Hence for us to have good observation we should note the following:
i. It is important to observe a pupil several times and in different situations so as to
obtain a good representation of the behaviour observed. We cannot make any valid
conclusions from one or two observations.
ii. To avoid biases in our observation, it is important to describe exactly what we see and
hear. We should not exaggerate. We should report our observations.
iii. To improve our observation we need to practise observing people constantly. We can
adopt the habit of observing and reporting the behaviour of our pupils frequently.
iv. It is always helpful to plan ahead before doing an observation. Observe one person at
a time to obtain accurate information. Do not observe for too long at a time. Better to
have three brief observations than one long observation.
v. Always record the behaviour observed in good time so that it is not forgotten.
ACTIVITY II
1. Mention three things you will do to ensure that your observation is accurate.
2. Select a pupil in your class who has some behavioural problem. Observe him for one
week and record the frequency at which he exhibits the behaviour in a day.
3. Why is the observation with an audio or video tape recorder so reliable?
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
This is a method of collecting
information on a pupil's personality Pupil’s Name ------------------- Class -----------------------------
and emotional behaviour by observing -------------------------------------
and recording the pupil's behaviour Sex:------------------------------- Age:------------------------------
exhibited usually in class. The
behaviour is often from acritical Date Place Incident Comment
incident in class and it is recorded as
objectively and precisely as possible
This figure shows one type of
anecdotal record form. The pupil's
name, class and age can be filled at the
top left and right hand corners of the
form.
The date the incident occurred, the place and a brief description of the incident (or behaviour)
are each recorded in the columns provided. It is important to note that the incident is
described in factual objective form. In the column labelled 'comment' the observer can
299
express his subjective opinion about the incident. Below is an example of an anecdote
illustrating the incident and comment.
Incident: Yusuf left his desk, went to Oke's desk and started talking and laughing loud
with Oke. Teacher asked both to go out of the class.
Comment: Yusuf and Oke have constantly been disrupting lessons.
For anecdotes on a pupil to be useful for guidance purposes, there must be an accumulated
number of them to give an accurate picture of the pupil's behaviour. Anecdotes can be used
by the teacher to study the behaviour of pupils who have speech problems and need guidance.
Anecdotes can help the teacher to monitor a pupil's undesirable behaviour before and after
treating the pupil's problem. This makes it possible for conlusions to be drawn as to whether
the child's behaviour has improved. Incidents on anecdotal records need not be always
negative. They can be positive also.
SITUATIONAL TEST
This can also be used to assess personality and emotional behaviour. The teacher arranges a
situation into which he introduces the child. The situation is set up in such a way that the
aspect of behaviour which is required is elicited. The teacher then observes and takes note of
the child's reaction.
Let us assume that the teacher intends to observe fear reaction. She may bring into the class
an object likely to elicit fear such as an ugly beetle.
She lets it go and observes how the child reacts. If she wanted to observe leadership quality
she could deliberately set up a situation where other children are noisy and there is confusion.
She sends the child in to see what he could do. If he decides to organise the others to be quiet,
tries to restore order, then we can assess his leadership quality.
ACTIVITY III
1. How is an anecdote different from an observation?
2. In what ways are they alike?
3. Make anecdotal record forms using the model above.
4. Use an anecdotal record method or a situational test to monitor the behaviour of a
disruptive child in your class for about two weeks. What do the records say about
him?
INTERVIEW
An interview is a method of collecting information from an individual through oral
interaction. We can group interview into two forms, namely: the normal fact finding
interview used in research or by media personnel and the counselling interview used by
counsellors, teachers and psychologists.
There are major differences between these two forms of interviews. In the fact finding
interview, the interviewer directs and controls the interviewing process much more than in
the counselling interview. The interviewer prepares his questions before the interview and
uses them as much as possible. In the counselling interview, the interviewer does not bring in
prepared questions to ask. The process is open ended. The questions or responses of the
interviewer are largely determined by the responses of the interviewee (client).
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Another difference between the fact finding interview and counselling interview is that while
the information obtained in the fact finding interview is used for research purposes or used in
the news media, information obtained from counselling interviews are meant to be used to
help improve the personality of the interviewee (the client). Thus we find that in the former
the information is often on any subject outside the person of the interviewee. In the latter,
however, the interview focusses on the person of the client (interviewee). Furthermore
counselling interviews are supposed to be completely confidential. This is not the case in fact
finding interviews.Apart from these differences, the two forms of interviews are similar along
these lines.
In both forms, the interviewer has to be able to establish good relationship with the
interviewee so as to ensure cooperation, openness and hence the giving of valid information
by the interviewee; the interviewer has to be careful enough to know how to begin the
interview, conduct it through and end it successfully.
Let us now concentrate on the counselling interview since this is the form teachers would use
to collect personality data from their pupils. In this type of interview the teacher or counsellor
needs to be able to listen properly. When the pupil is speaking, the teacher listens attentively
so as to get every bit of the information being put across. The teacher or counsellor needs to
accept the pupil as a person (a person is of worth) despite his (pupil's) short - comings. In
addition, the teacher needs to show empathy towards the pupil. This means that the teacher is
able to sense and understand exactly the feelings of the pupil, understand the meanings of
what he says and does and be able to let the pupil know about these. The teacher has to be
genuine, specific and clear in his communication with the pupil. These conditions are
important to enable the teacher establish good rapport with the pupil and also make the pupil
feel relaxed.
Apart from these relationship building skills, there are interviewing skills the teacher needs to
have to be able to conduct a good counselling interview. Some of the major skills are
described below.
a. Observing the pupil: While listening to the pupil the teacher observes what the pupil
does and says, his feelings, his health condition, whether he is bustling with energy or
down in depression.
b. Clarifying what the pupil says or how he feels: In this skill, the teacher states what
the pupil says or how he feels in a clearer way for the pupil to understand properly
what he (pupil) said.
c. Probing: The teacher asks in-depth questions to help the pupil examine in detail what
he says or how he feels.
d. Giving Feedback: The teacher lets the pupil know about some behaviours he has
observed about him (pupil). This is to make the pupil aware of them.
e. Seeking clarification: The teacher asks the pupil to repeat what he said in a clearer
voice for him (teacher) to understand .
f. Summarizing: The teacher summarizes what the pupil says, does or feels. These are
some of the ways or skills required for a counselling interview.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Interview the pupil described in Question 2 of Activity II above to obtain information
on factors responsible for his behaviour.
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2. State three interviewing skills needed by a teacher to conduct good interview.

3. Write out two ways in which fact-finding interview is different from counselling
interview.
RATING SCALES
A rating scale is a device for assessing personality and emotional behaviour which quantifies
the information collected. The scale quantifies the observation by assigning weights to the
degree to which a certain attribute or trait is exhibited by an individual. In the figure below
there are three rating scales with attributes of leadership, happiness and neatness.
Leadership
5 4 3 2 1
Happiness
5 4 3 2 1
Neatness
5 4 3 2 1
Such scale is divided into five degrees at which the trait is exhibited. The highest degree of
exhibition is weighted 5 and the least is weighted 1. Thus, for cooperation, a pupil exhibiting
the trait at the highest degree is expected to willingly cooperate without being asked to do so.
A pupil exhibiting the trait at the lowest degree will strongly refuse to cooperate. In the first
case the pupil will be rated in the space with 5 with a tick () and in the second case the pupil
will be rated in the space with 1 also with a tick ().
One advantage of the rating scale is that several individuals (teachers, counsellors etc.) can
rate one pupil on a trait. Their ratings can be compared to find out the extent they agree on
the pupil's behaviour. When more people rate a pupil on an attribute, their combined score is
more accurate than that of one person provided they all know the pupil very well. Rating
scales have some limitations. One such limitation is that raters tend to tick the middle of the
scale. This happens more when the rater does not know the pupil he is rating very well.
ACTIVITY V
1. What makes a rating scale different from an anecdote?
2. Construct a rating scale on the following trait: honesty, punctuality.
3. How would you describe each of the five degrees of a trait beginning from the highest
to the least?
4. State two limitations of a rating scale.
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SOCIOMETRIC TECHNIQUE
A sociometric technique is used to measure the degree to which a pupil is accepted, rejected
or neglected in the class; in other words, the extent a pupil belongs to the class. To be able to
do this a teacher or counsellor can use questions like:
i. to whom will you tell your secret or
ii. whom will you like to play with or
iii. whom will you like to explain a Mathematics problem to you?
To collect answers from the pupils, each pupil will be expected to write down the name of a
friend he will like to approach. When the names are assembled they are classified and
organized to construct a sociogram.
A sociogram is a diagram which shows the extent to which a pupil is accepted, rejected or
neglected by his mates. The figure below is an example of a sociogram. From the sociogram
the teacher can know who is the most popular pupil in the class.
Such a pupil is called the `star'. He is the one most pupil like to associate with. The sociogram
also shows the isolate. The isolate is the pupil whom no one chooses to associate with. He
has no friends. The teacher can also discover cliques. A clique comprises pupils who choose
themselves without choosing other persons.
To be able to read the diagram or sociogram correctly you should know the following:
A stands for a girl, O stands for a boy, XA ΔY means the girl called X chooses to associate
with the girl called Y. However Y does not choose X.
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M O~ N O means that the boy called M chooses to associate with the boy called N, N also
chooses to associate with M.
The information obtained from the sociogram is very useful. It enables the teacher to know
those who do not have friends in the class so that he/she can help them learn how to make
friends. The sociogram also makes the teacher to know who is most popular in the class.
This pupil may be highly cooperative or notorious. Knowing him enables the teacher to either
make him a leader or help him to stop his notorious behaviour. The same applies to cliques.
Some cliques are notorious. They like pulling the legs of their teacher. Again knowing them
helps the teacher to find ways of checking their notoriety. Some may be of positive
behaviour. These the teacher can seek their cooperation in classroom duties. A sociogram is
therefore useful to the teacher for managing his/her class.
ACTIVITY VI
1. What is a sociogram?
2. What in a sociogram shows that a pupil is popular in his class?
3. In the sociogram above: (a) who is the popular pupil? (b) who is an isolate?, (c) who
and who form a clique.?
SUMMARY
• In this unit we looked at some methods which can be used to measure the personality of
pupils. Methods discussed are observation, anecdotal records, interviews, rating scales
and sociometric technique.
• Earlier, it was pointed out that there are two ways of collecting data on personality and
emotional behaviour. One way is when the data is collected by an observer, the second
way is where the pupil or client gives information himself.
• Observation was described as looking at or listening attentively to a sample of behaviour
and recording it down as accurately as possible. For data collected using observation to
be accurate, several observations must be made and the observer should be unbiased in
describing the behaviour observed.
• An anecdote is like observation. The only difference between the two is that special
forms are used for recording incidents in an anecdote. Furthermore, an anecdote is an
observation and a recording of a brief incident. An observation may not be so.
• Situational tests. Situations can be set up to elicit the behaviour which the teacher wants
to observe. When the child is introduced, then the teacher rates or observes the behaviour
of the child.
• Interviews are in two forms: Fact finding and counselling interviews. In the school,
teachers use the counselling type to collect personality information of pupils. To have a
good interview, the teacher should be able to establish a good rapport with the pupil and
should also have some basic interviewing skills like ability to question, probe, clarify,
summarize, seek clarification, listen and observe the reactions of the pupil.
• Another method discussed in the unit is the rating scale. A rating scale is a device for
measuring personality and emotional behaviour which provides a means of quantifying
the information. A trait may be categorized into three, four, five levels or degrees of
exhibition. These are quantified (weighted) and a rater who knows the ratee (pupil) very
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well can choose one of the levels as a measure of the ratee's behaviours. Thus a pupil
may be rated as being highly cooperative at the highest level of cooperation or very
uncooperative at the lowest level.
• The last method discussed in the unit is the sociometric technique. This technique is
used to measure the extent a group accepts, rejects or neglects a member. It is a useful
tool for the teacher because it helps him to know the popular pupil in the class, the
isolate and the cliques in the class. Such knowledge helps him to adopt ways of
managing the class properly.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Use observation or anecdotes to monitor the habit of coming late to school of two
pupils in your class for two weeks. Note the frequency of lateness in each case.
2. Interview each of the pupils above on the reasons why they are frequently late for
school. Help them to find ways of stopping the lateness after knowing their reasons.
3. What two advantages can you assign to a rating scale?
4. Use the sociometric technique to find the popular pupils and the isolates in your class.
5. What will you do to help the isolates?
REFERENCE
Eke,Elizabeth, and Esuman J.K.,Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Heinemann, (In Press).
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UNIT 10 (EDU112.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 TO 9

INTRODUCTION
In this module from units 1 to 9, we have discussed various aspects of the child's
development. We have examined the way the child develops intellectually and tried to
discuss what the teacher could do to help him function very well intellectually. We did this
in units 1 and 2. Remember that in unit 3 and 4 we learnt about language development and
the way the teacher can help children to use and understand language in the primary school.
In units 5 and 6, we focussed on social development and how the school can help our children
to develop much needed skills. Units 7, 8 and 9 discussed development in the affective areas -
emotional development and the development of personality. The final unit, unit 9 showed you
how you could assess emotional behaviour of the child and certain aspects of his personality
with simple procedures.
In this unit we will try to review the major points that you learnt in the module.
OBJECTIVES
1. list the major components of intelligence and outline the stages of development of
intelligence.
2. state the major ways that the teacher can help primary school children to develop
their intellectual abilities.
3. outline one theory of language development.
4. state what the National Policy says on language usage in the primary school and the
implications.
5 list the areas of language development needs and ways to help stimulate language
development.
6. list the basic components and concepts of social development
7. state the ways in which the teacher can help to develop social skills.
8. list the important emotions of the primary school years.9.list the stages of personality
development proposed by Erikson (only the stages relevant to the primary school)
10. state simple procedures for assessing personality and emotional behaviour.

Instructions
Since this is mainly a revision unit, you should:
1. Read through all the summaries of units 1 to 9.
2. Read through the introductory part of this unit carefully before reading the rest of the
unit. Now read the points you took down as you read units 1-9 of module
Remember to look up the meanings of difficult words.
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3. Attempt all the given activities and assignment. Do not look at the sample answers
provided until you have answered written your last question.
4. Try to observe all the rules stated so that you can benefit from this revision.
END OF THIS BOOK.
WORD STUDY
Modelling observing what others do and imitating them
Component parts
Egocentric basing judgement on the standpoint of the self; looking at the world
from his own position only
Bilingualism the use of two languages in communication
Multilingualism the use of more than two languages for communication.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND HOW TO STIMULATE IT IN

Remember that in unit 1, you learnt that intelligence has many components. These are
verbal, numerical, social, spatial and mechanical components. Therefore, the school must
help to develop talents in all these areas. The verbal component has to do with the use of
word, the numerical component with numbers. The spatial component is related to seeing and
manipulating objects in space while the social component has to do with reasoning with
problems in human relationships. The mechanical component has to do with working with
objects. Remember that we learnt that we cannot see intelligence, we infer it from
performance.
Recollect also that we learnt about Piaget's theory of cognitive development. According to
Piaget, intellectual development proceeds in stages. The four stages which we learnt about
are
i. Sensori - Motor Stage: The child learns about his environment by use of his senses
and through movements. The most important achievement is that he learns that
objects have permanence.
ii. Pre - Operational Stage: Here the child uses language, but his thinking is illogical
and egocentric.
iii. Concrete Operations Stage: The child develops conservation and reversibility
abilities. In other words they know that certain properties of objects remain the same
even when the objects are rearranged. lso that one can perform an operation and
cancel e.g. 4 + 2 = 6 or remove 2 from the 6 and return to the starting position.
Thinking becomes logical but only when the child is dealing with concrete objects.
iv. Formal Operations Stage: Thinking becomes abstract at this stage. We learnt that
unfortunately, African children do not develop very well and fast intellectually hence
as teachers we need to put in more effort to help them. Some of the lessons were
applied in the next unit.
In Unit 2, remember that we discussed several ways of stimulating intellectual development.
Among the ways, are that we should:-
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i. Provide the right and stimulating atmosphere. When children relax they can learn
better.
ii. Help them learn how to classify objects and ideas.
iii. Help them to establish relationships and explain how things are related.
iv. Provide lots of practice in problem solving. They should not only solve problems
from books but look around to see the common problems and learn how to apply
possible solutions.
v. Help them learn to be flexible in thinking, grouping etc. This involves believing that
there are many ways of doing things and using different modes of expression.
vi. Train them to enable them acquire conservation ability earlier than they now do.
vii. Give them practice in planning and carrying out individual and small group projects.
viii. Guide them to monitor their own thinking. Principally by estimating the outcome of
their thinking.
ACTIVITY I
1. List the major components and stages of intellectual development.
2. State six ways that the teacher can help primary school children to develop their
intellectual abilities.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND HOW TO DEVELOP THE LANGUAGE

OF BILINGUAL PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
Remember that in unit 3, we learnt about the nature of language. We learnt that language has
four components - sound system, grammar, meaning and function and that the primary
function of language is communication. Only human beings use language for communication.
We also learnt how language develops from the pre-language phase through the phase of
telegraphic speech to the time when the child can speak almost like an adult. In fact, the child
learns language so fast and so efficiently that psychologists have been trying to explain how
this happens.
Three of the theories which we learnt about are:
i. imitation model
ii. reinforcement theory
iii. cognitive model.
The imitation model explains that children listen to the way others speak and imitate them.
This is modelling. The reinforcement theory explains that children learn to speak when they
are rewarded to do so. Cognitive model presents the child as an active discoverer of language
rules. He applies these rules to make fast progress in language learning. None of these
theories can fully explain how the child learns language in a satisfactory manner. So the
teacher must use principles from all of them to promote the child's language development.
Do you remember that we summarised what the National Policy on Education says about the
use of language in primary school? Basically, we learnt that all Nigerian children should start
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learning in their mother tongues or the language spoken in the environment. At some stage
they are to change to the use of English for instruction. What these mean is that:
i. Materials must be provided for teaching in the mother tongue
ii. All our children are at least bilingual. Some could be multilingual.
iii. If we are not careful we might develop the attitude that English is superior to our
Nigerian languages.
iv. Helping children to look towards being independent in language performance is very
vital.
ACTIVITY II
1. List the four components of language.
2. Outline the cognitive theory of language development
3. List ways to help stimulate language development in the primary school child.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL

SKILLS
If you remember, unit 5 and 6 discussed social development and social skills development.
Not only did we define social development as the formation of social relationships and the
progressive change in their pattern and nature, we also listed the major components. The
child interacts with the family, peers, people within the school and then others in the
community. These are the major components. Children without friends may develop
problems.
We also learnt about the major concepts of social development. These include:
i. Socialization or the process of making a biological individual become a member of
his social group.
ii. Roles or the patterns of behaviour which is expected of us in line with our status in
the community.
iii. Sex Identity, i.e., learning that they are boys or girls and the behaviour that is
expected of their sex. They then behave in accordance with this knowledge.
iv. Social Competition and Cooperation. These refer to sharing and working together
with other people and sometimes trying to out do them. Competition, trying to out do
others can be healthy. When children compete with authority, we have to ensure that
they do not learn to compete with the law in later life.
We discussed some theories of social development such as social learning theory and
emphasized the use of reinforcement and modelling. Temperament theory explained that
children are born with certain temperaments - easy, difficult and slow - to - warm up. These
affect the way children relate to others.
In Unit 6, we learnt what the teacher could do to develop social skills. Social skills are
competencies that make social interactions more effective. After determining the deficient
social skills, we help the children. These skills can be developed in many ways.
These include:
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i. Setting the stage by arranging the environment in a way that permits social
interaction to occur
ii. Training by use of reinforcement. Wherever the child especially one who lacks social
skills uses a social skill, the teacher reinforces the child.
iii. Modelling. The teacher deliberately behaves in ways the child can imitate. What is
more the teacher can encourage the child to imitate peers who are competent.
iv. Coaching. The teacher can tell the child what to do in certain situations. Also group
discussions of what to do in certain difficult situations will help.
v. Providing feedback. The children should be encouraged to know what progress they
are making. The teacher and other peers can help to observe how children's social
skills have improved.
ACTIVITY III
1. List the basic components and concepts of social development.
2. State five ways in which the teacher can help children to develop social skills.
EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND HOW THE

TEACHER CAN ASSESS THEM
In unit 7 we learnt that emotions are outward expressions of inner feelings which are aroused
by events in the environment or by the behaviour of others.
We learnt that the major emotions of the primary school years include
i. fear
ii. love and affection
iii. anger
iv. happiness
v. sympathy
vi. jealousy
vii sadness.
Some of the factors which are responsible for the development of emotions include:
i. New situations to which children have to adjust.
ii. lack of parental love
iii. limitations imposed by physical disabilities which may prevent children from doing
what they would like to do.
iv. the child's failure to meet social expectations.
We also considered some theories of emotion.
a. Wundt's Theory describes emotions along three dimensions
pleasantness - unpleasantness
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tension - relaxation
excitement - depression
b. Carr's Functionalism Theory. For Carr, emotion of anger for example arises when
the organism is confronted with a serious obstacle. The quickened pulse, the
withdrawal of blood from the viscera, the more rapid bodily changes enable the
organism to react more energetically and vigorously thereby forming appropriate
emotion.
c. James-Lange Theory. States that emotions come after action. For example, we feel
sorry because we cry, angry because we strike and afraid because we tremble. It is
not the other way round.
We also learnt what the teacher can do to help children to be emotionally stable. Some of
these are:
i. to motivate them
ii. to avoid punishing pupils without meaningful purposes.
In Unit 8, we learnt about personality development according to Erikson's theory. We learnt
that personality refers to the sum total of the consistent traits of an individual which makes
him unique. Personality development is a life long process.
We also learnt that the major factors that affect personality are:
i. The home
ii. The school
iii. Personal experience of the child
iv. The way the peer group relates with the child.
v. The needs and motives of the child.
Erikson's theory emphasizes the effects of the social environment on the psychological traits
which emerge at specific stages of the child's development. The traits are common to all
children.
i. In infancy two important traits which emerge are trust and autonomy. If the
environment is negative, the child develops mistrust and doubt.
ii. In childhood the positive psychological traits which emerge are initiative and
industry. Where the environment does not support the child's efforts, guilt and
inferiority feelings emerge.
iii. In the adolescent period the child either develops self identity or role confusion
depending on how successful he is in performing the tasks of the period.
iv. In adulthood and old age, certain personality traits also emerge but those do not
concern us in the primary school. These are: generativity versus self absorption and
integrity versus despair.
In Unit 9, remember that we learnt about simple procedures for assessing emotional
behaviour and personality. There are two major modes. One mode is observing the child's
behaviour and the other is obtaining information from the pupils themselves.
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Observation can be used to assess personality and emotional behaviour. Although the senses
of looking and hearing are the most often used, other senses can also be used.
Anecdotal records can be taken down to show personality and emotional behaviour. The
behaviour is usually taken from a critical incident. There must be an accumulation of records
to give a true picture of personality and emotional behaviour.
Situational tests or arranged events to depict specific aspects of personality and emotional
behaviour can also be used.
Interviews are in two forms - fact finding and counselling interviews. A teacher should be
able to establish a good rapport and be competent in the skills for interview. The rating scale
is a device for assessing personality and emotional behaviour.
Sociometric technique can also be used to obtain information on personality. The teacher
can identify the popular child and the isolate.
ACTIVITY IV
1. List the important emotions of the primary school years.
2. List the stages of personality development developed by Erikson.
3. What are the simple procedures for assessing personality and emotional behaviour?
SUMMARY
• The child develops in many ways - intellectual, language, social, emotional and
personality. The teacher can help to guide and promote development in all these areas.
• Intelligence has many components and proceeds in stages. The stages are sensori -
motor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations, according to Piaget.
There is a lot the teacher can do to stimulate intellectual development. These include
providing the right atmosphere, helping children to learn how to classify objects and see
relationship among things. The child also needs practice in problem solving, flexibility in
thinking, conservation ability as well as monitoring his own thinking.
• Language has four components - grammar, sound system, meaning and function and the
child needs to develop in all these areas. In the preschool years his language progresses
from crying to the phase of telegraphic speech and to adult - like speech. How he learns
language so fast has been explained by a number of theorists. We learnt the imitation,
reinforcement and cognitive models.
• The teacher can help children's language development by establishing a relaxed
atmosphere, use of reinforcement, being a model, direct instruction, individual and small
group work as well as encouraging them to be independent in language performance.
We must remember that official policy makes us bilinguals so teachers have to provide
needed help.
• Social relationship starts with the family but the child has to relate to peers, people in
school and others in social development. So also are roles, sex identity, competition and
cooperation. Social development has been explained among others.
• Teachers must promote social skills development. They can do this in many ways.
Some of these are establishing a relaxed atmosphere, modelling, coaching, training with
the use of reinforcement and feedback.
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• The child's emotional development depends on personal experiences, reaction to parental

care, adjustment to stressful situations. Some theorists have explained emotion's e.g.
Wundt, James - Lange and Carr.
• The emotion of the primary school years include fear, love and affection, happiness,
anger, jealousy, sympathy and unhappiness.
• Personality development according to Erikson develops in stages and depends very much
on the psychosocial environment. The stages and emerging traits are:
Infancy - trust vs mistrust

autonomy vs doubt
Childhood - initiative vs guilt
industry vs inferiority
Adolescence - identity vs role confusion.
Adulthood - generativity vs self absorption integrity vs despair.
• Personality and emotional behaviour can be assessed through observation, anecdotal
records, situational test, interviews, rating scales and sociometric techniques.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. a. List the major components of intelligence.
b. Outline the stages of intellectual development according to Piaget.
2. Outline how the teacher can help children to develop their intellectual abilities.
3. What are the major components of language?
4. Outline the reinforcement theory of language development.
5. State four ways that you can help children to improve in language development
6. What are the basic components and concepts of social development
7. List the ways that a teacher can use to develop social skills.
8. What are the important emotions of the primary school years?
9. Outline Erikson's stages of personality development.
10. List the procedures that a teacher can use to assess personality and emotional
behaviour.
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MODULE 4 Answers EDUCATION EDU 112
UNIT 1 (EDU 112.1): INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT:

THEORIES AND STAGES
ACTIVITY I
1. i. False
ii. False
iii. True
iv. False
v. False
vi. Cannot Tell
2. i. Verbal component
ii . Numerical
iii. Spatial
iv. Social
v. Mechanical.
3. Intelligence is a group of abilities which helps individuals to function meaningfully in
different situations e.g. school. It has different components.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. adult
ii. reason and solve problems
iii. organisation, ability to remember, ability to see relationships.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. clinical method
ii. action
iii. constructs
iv. foundation
v. fixed
vi. cognitive
vii. object permanence
viii. conservation
ix. clinical method
x. slow, move faster.
2. i. sensori - motor stage (0 - 2 years)
ii. pre - operational stage (2 - 7 years)
iii. concrete operations stage (7 - 11 years)
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iv. formal operations stage (11 - 18 years)

3. The sensori - motor stage is the first stage (0 - 2 years). The child uses his senses and
movement to learn about the environment. Towards the end of the first year, the child
learns that objects have permanence and towards the end of the 2nd year, the child
learns to represent things e.g. in language.
ACTIVITY IV
1. True
2. False
3. False
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Answers for a, b and c are to be supplied by the student and taken to the course tutor at
the study centre.
2. Intelligence means attributes or abilities which individuals possess which enable them to
cope meaningfully in different environments. The amount which individuals possess
varies. Intelligence assists school learning and shows in performance.
Intelligence has 5 components: namely:
i. numerical
ii. verbal
iii. spatial
iv. social, and
v. mechanical.
3. a. i. sensori - motor stage
ii. pre-operational stage
iii. concrete operations stage
iv. normal operations stage.
b. The third stage is the concrete operations stage. The child can conserve i.e.
understand that certain properties of objects remain unchanged even when the
display is rearranged. The child can reason with the aid of concrete objects.
The child can understand many concepts such as number, space, distance,
quantity. e.t.c
4. Any four of the following:-
i. Intelligence increases with greater stimulation, therefore the teacher has the
responsibility of teaching and stimulating the children to function at higher
levels.
ii. Because intelligence has components, we can use corresponding subjects to
promote higher intellectual functioning.
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iii. Our children tend to be slow, therefore we need to redouble our efforts to get
all our children to do their best.
iv. Piaget says that children's intellectual development depends on their actions,
therefore we should provide them with activities and freedom to explore and
interact with the environment.
v. We can use the attributes of higher intellectual functioning e.g. greater
abstraction, ability to solve problems to assess children's level of intellectual
functioning.
vi. One stage leads to another, therefore, we should ensure that the child
progresses step-by-step.
UNIT 2 (EDU 112.2): INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN

THE PRIMARY SCHOOL YEARS
ACTIVITY I
1. i ability to classify or group objects
ii. conservation ability
iii. ability to see relationships
iv. ability to solve problems
v. ability to be flexible
vi. ability to remember things
vii. ability to monitor one's own thinking.
2. i. True
ii. False
iii. True
iv. False
v. True
vi. Tue
ACTIVITY II
Any six of the following will do:
1. i. The teacher has to provide the situations and atmosphere that facilitate
intellectual
functioning.
ii. The children need help in classifying objects, and ideas at all levels of the
primary school.
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iii. Teachers should help children to find and establish relationships. Relationship
of different kinds should be practised. Organising and relating things in series,
in a
hierarchy, comparing part and whole, e.t.c.
iv. Practice in problem solving. Children should be guided to look for and locate
problems and try out possible solution.
stimulating
objects to play with and confronting the child.
vi. Practice in flexibility should be given. Not only the right attitude but also
practice should be given in converting ideas into different modes of
expression.
vi. Individual and small group work help children to be independent, to think and
look for information.
vii. Children should be guided to monitor their own thinking, principally by
estimating the outcome of their thinking.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. ability to classify or group objects
ii. ability to see relationships
iii. ability to solve problems
iv. ability to be flexible
v. ability to remember things
vi. ability to conserve
vii. ability to monitor one's thinking.
2. i. Providing the right atmosphere and stimulating situations
ii. giving practice in problem solving
iii. helping children to classify objects and ideas
iv. helping children to establish and see relationships
v. providing training to hasten conservation
vi. providing practice in flexibility
vii. giving guided independent work
viii guiding children to monitor their thinking.
3. Practical work (students to supply answers to their course tutors at the study centre).
452
UNIT 3 (EDU 112.3): LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:

THEORIES, NATIONAL POLICY
ISSUES AND MULTILINGUALISM
ACTIVITY I
1. i. True
ii. True
iii. False
iv. True
v. True
vi. True
vii. False
2. i. sound system
ii. meaning component
iii. grammar
iv. function
3. Surface structure has to do with the different ways in which meaning can be
expressed. Deep structure, on the other hand, refers to how meaning is organized.
ACTIVITY II
1. Pre-language phase
First words phase
Early adult-like speech phase
2. i. False
ii. True
iii. False
iv. True
v. True
vi. True
vii. False
3. i. sex
ii . size and structure of the family.
iii. social class
iv. deprivation of opportunity to communicate with adults
v. bilingualism.
453
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Imitation model
ii. Reinforcement theory
iii. Cognitive model
2. i. Skinner _________________ reinforcement theory
ii. modelling _______________ imitation model
iii. reinforcement ___________ reward
iv. application of rules ________ cognitive model.
3. Cognitive model of language learning emphasizes what the child does and what goes
on within the child. It proposes that the child develops or discovers rules about
language. He then tries out these rules. This technique of learning language makes the
child learn language fast. It also explains why children are creative in language
learning. They can produce sentences that they have never heard before.
We learnt from the cognitive model that discovery and application of rules makes language
learning progress fast. We can therefore apply the technique in our teaching.
(The answer may include the following chain of the model:
Child listens - develops rule - tests rule - receives feedback - applies rule again or in a
modified form)
ACTIVITY IV
1. i. mother tongue
ii. English
iii. bilingualism.
2. i. Issue of attitude towards English and mother tongue. English is considered
superior by many.
ii Issue of when to change from mother tongue to English - after one year , two,
three or four years? We should spend three or four or even more years to
teach them very well before they switch to English.
iii. Issue of starting each child in the mother tongue. How can we really do this
without books and materials? We must not write on the chalkboard in English
and teach in the mother tongue. It is the responsibility of teachers to teach well
even to the extent of developing materials.
iv. Issue of bilingualism.This creates problems for the children, so teachers must
teach very carefully.
3. The National Policy states:
i. That all children must start their education in their mother tongue or the
language
spoken in the immediate community.
454
ii. That at a later stage English will be used for instruction instead of continuing
with the mother tongue.
iii. That both the mother tongue and English should be used to help Nigerians
communicate with many more people. Also the use of the mother tongue will
help to preserve our culture.
ACTIVITY V
1. i. Bilingualism is learning and using two languages.
iii. Uultilingualism refers to a situation where an individual learns and uses many
languages.
2. i. Bilingualism affects the child's language performance. There is interference
of one language in another. An example is Ì hear the smell' which is incorrect
English but a direct translation of the mother tongue into English.
ii. Bilingulalism also affects the child's thinking. He takes longer to think since
he translates idea from one language to another. Also, bilingualism affects his
concepts or meaning.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. i. The sound system of a language or the sounds and combination of sounds that
are allowed in that language. The child must learn it.
ii. The grammar consists of the rules that govern how words are ordered in a
sentence and how they are modified to express tenses, numbers, etc.
iii. The child must learn the meaning component. This refers to what concepts and
relationships, words and sentences stand for.
iv. The function component represents the purpose of the speaker in using
language. The child must learn all of these.
2. The reinforcement model of language development proposes that children learn
language when they are reinforced. Each time children sound or use words which
make sense, adults reward them. In this way, they shape the language of children..
Also because the child wishes to communicate with others, he is forced by this desire
to speak better. So reinforcement by adults and the desire to communicate make
children learn language better.
3. i. The National Policy States : that all children must start their education in their
mother tongue or the language spoken in the immediate community.
ii. It also says that at a later stage English will be used for instruction in place of
the mother tongue.
iii. It says that both English and the mother tongue should be used to help
Nigerians communicate with many more of their countrymen and women to
promote national unity and culture.
4. The effect of bilingualism on children are
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i. that the language performance is affected. There is interference of one

language in
another.
ii. that thinking too would likely be affected because the child may translate
from one language to another. Concepts may be imprecise.
5. i. c
ii. d
iii. a
iv. b
v. a
UNIT 4 (EDU 112.4): NURTURING LANGUAGE

DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE
PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY I
1. To understand when listening and reading and to communicate when speaking and
writing. Specifically:-
a. to discriminate and articulate sounds
b. to acquire and use grammar appropriately
c. to obtain and convey meaning. This is the most important area and
children need to use previous experience and memory to do so
d. to identify and convey purpose of communication.
2. i. True
ii. False
iii. True
iv. True
v. True
ACTIVITY II
1. I would make a list of language items appropriate to the level of my class children. I
would use the Sample Appraisal List given to do so. Then I would rate children on
each item using a seven point scale (Use of a 5 - point scale is allowed). I would then
check to see the pattern of the ratings. The child requires help where the ratings are
low.
2. Practical work. Student activity with course tutor at study centre.
456
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Providing the right atmosphere for children to use language freely.
ii. Be a good model
iii. Use reinforcements or rewards for encouragement
iv. Use individualized and group instruction
v. Use direct instruction
vi. Assist each child to be independent by discovering and applying rules.
2. The teacher should provide the right atmosphere to enable children feel free and
relaxed to use language. He can do this by making children talk and write about very
familiar things. He should have and show a positive attitude to the children's language
performance making them believe that they can improve. He should not allow the
children to feel that he is impatient. He should encourage each child to join in class
activities. He should give them plenty of opportunities to speak and write. When they
have done so, he should praise their efforts. He should put up or read out children's
work to encourage them.
3. Practical work.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. help children understand when listening and reading.
ii. To help children communicate when speaking and writing.
2. The primary school child requires assistance in the following areas:
i. To discriminate and articulate sounds.
ii. To acquire and use grammar appropriately.
iii. To obtain and convey meaning.
iv. To identify and convey purpose of communication.
3. The procedure is as follows:
i. I will list the specific language items I wish to assess in the class.
ii. Each child will be rated on the various items
iii. The assessment should be periodically carried out preferably once a term.
4. The Appraisal List will contain questions under the following major headings:
i. Language usage
ii. Organizing meaning and ideas
iii. Background experience
iv. Additional information related to reading and writing.
iv. Special cases of language interference. N.B. The chart should contain the
rating column.
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5. The following points must be adequately discussed

i. Providing the right atmosphere for children to use language freely.
ii. Teacher to be a good model of language usage
iii. Reinforcements or rewards should be used to encourage the children.
iv. Individualized as well as group instruction should be used when appropriate.
v. Use of direct instruction.
v. Assist each child to be independent.
UNIT 5 (EDU 112.5): SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: BASIC

COMPONENTS, CONCEPTS AND
THEORIES
ACTIVITY I
1. Social development refers to the formation of social relationships and the progressive
changes which occur in the nature and pattern of such relationships.
2. Any 3
i. Because we have to learn to relate to others. Society expects us to do so if we
are normal.
ii. Because social development promotes mental health.
iii. Because it helps us to achieve a lot of things
iv. Because it helps other aspects of development
v. Because it helps us to fulfill our basic needs.
3. i. relationship with the family
ii. relationship with peers
iii. relationship with people in school
iv. interaction with the wider community.
4. i. True
ii. False
iii. True
iv. False
v. Can't Tell
vi. True
vi. False
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ACTIVITY II
1. Socialization is the process of making an individual adopt the way of life of his
community.
2. i. socialization.
ii. roles
iii. sex identity
iv. social competition and cooperation.
3. i. False
ii. False
iii. False
iv. True.
ACTIVITY III
1. Social Learning Theory
ii. Temperament theory which is biologically based.
2. From Social Learning Theory we learn that:
i. We should reinforce social behaviour which we want to strengthen
ii. Children learn from us since they regard us as models.
iii. We should be alert in encouraging those behaviours which we want repeated.
From Temperament Theory (Biological) we learnt that:
i. We ought to organise our help around the children's temperament.
We should be patient with those children who appear to be difficult.
ii. The children are not just helpless people dependent on us to lead them. They bring to
the social situation their own individual differences.
3. A B
i. Social Learning Theory - Bandura
ii. Modelling - Observation and Imitation
iii. Temperament Theory - Thomas and Chess
iv. Easy, slow to warm up
and difficult child - temperament
ASSIGNMENT
1. Social development refers to the formation of social relationships and the progressive
changes which occur in the nature and pattern of social interaction.
2. Any three of the following:
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i. We have to learn to relate to people we live with. Society expects us to do so

if we are normal.
ii. Social development promotes mental health.
iii. Through social relationships, we achieve a lot of things, more than we could
achieve as individuals.
iv. It helps other aspects of development - intellectual, emotional and language
development.
v. It helps us to fulfil our basic needs.
3. Peers are very important in the life of children. They play with them either in parallel
play at about 2 years or in cooperative play. They educate the child by helping him to
compare what he learnt at home and what happens everywhere. It is among his peers
that he makes friends. Peers can influence children for good and for bad. It is when
the family did not socialize children well that friends can lead them astray. At
adolescence children relate with members of the opposite sex. This should be
regarded as just an aspect of social relationships and so teachers and parents should
guide children properly.
4. Social learning theory states that children learn to relate with others by observing and
imitating what others do. This is normally referred to as modelling. When they
imitate, the adults reinforce or reward them. Such a reward encourages the children to
repeat the behaviours. But, because adults do not always notice and reward the
children, they keep trying out other forms of behaviour or repeating previous ones in
the hope of rewards. Social learning theory is important for the work of the teacher
because it teaches him how to help children's social development. He should reinforce
social behaviour which he wants repeated. He should be a good model for the children
since they will imitate him. He should be alert to encourage those behaviours which
he wants to strengthen.
1. i. True
ii. False
iii. False
iv. True
v. True
vi. True
vii. True
viii. True
ix. False
x. True.
460
UNIT 6 (EDU 112.6): THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL

SKILLS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
ACTIVITY I
1. Social skills mean the competencies which make interaction effective.
2. The four types of social skills are:
i. Verbal
ii. Physical
iii. Sharing
iv. Restraint.
3. Any 3 reasons:
i. To promote peaceful co - existence
ii. To assist a child to satisfy his needs
iii. To enable the child to be accepted by others
iv. To establish relationships with others.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. Lack of friends
ii. Instances of indiscipline
iii. Conflict with the family.
2. Where a child has no friend, the teacher can take the following steps:
i. Use observation, rating scales, interviews and sociometric technique to
identify such children.
ii. Apply individualized or group method to help him make friends.
ACTIVITY III
1. The steps will include the following:
i. Arrange the social and physical environment
ii. Try to be democratic in the classroom.
iii. Introduce projects or group assignments
iv. Use reinforcements appropriately
v. Modelling.
Any other acceptable point.
2. The teacher can use himself as a model to be imitated. He could also use a child with
the acceptable social skill to serve as a model. Role play could be incorporated into
the modelling process. This would be repeated by the child with the deficient social
skill.
3. i. False
ii. True
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iii. False
iv. False
v. True.
ASSIGNMENT
1. a. Social skills are competencies which make interaction effective.
b. Importance of Social Skills
i. They promote peaceful co - existence
ii. They help a child to satisfy his needs.
iii. They enable the child to be accepted by others in the society.
iv. They help to establish relationships with others.
v. They help to enhance self concepts.
2. i. Verbal
ii. Physical
iii. Sharing
iv. Restraint
3. i. Arrange the social and physical environment.
ii. Use democratic approach in the classroom.
iii. Introduce projects or group assignments.
iv. Pair children of high social skills with those low in it.
v. Give specific instructions on what to do.
vi. Reinforce appropriately
vii. Use modelling technique
viii. Use coaching technique.
ix. Social skills that have been acquired must be evaluated.
4. i. Coaching: The teachers can make use of stories, commentaries, newspaper
cartoons, photographs and sketches for instruction; children could be asked to
state what they would do in certain specific situations e.g. if caught tearing a
mate's exercise book. The teacher could also allow free discussion on issues
that might be raised by the pupils.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to guide the discussion towards the right
direction, that is, the development of social skills.
ii. Direct Training Technique.
The essence of this technique is for the teacher to make a child with deficient
social skills join others so that he could acquire the acceptable social skills.
When this is successfully acquired, the teacher should reinforce such correct
responses.
462
5. Modelling Technique
The teacher could use himself or another child with the right social skills as a model
to be imitated by the child with deficient social skills. Role play could be
incorporated into the modelling technique.
UNIT 7 (EDU 112.7): THEORIES AND THE IMPORTANT

EMOTIONS OF PRIMARY
SCHOOLYEARS
ACTIVITY I
1. By emotion is meant the stirred up condition of the organism involving internal and
external changes in the body. Simply put, emotion is an outward expression of our
inner feelings which are aroused by our behaviour and that of others. Emotion can be
expressed in love, fear, anger, laughter and tears e.t.c and these emotions, to some
extent, control human behaviour
2. The following factors can be identified as responsible for emotional development.
i. Adjustment in home, school and society. As soon as the child enters the
primary school stage , his social roles and responsibility change. This change
to new pattern of habits creates emotional tension.
ii. Unfavourable relations in home. The child who lacks the basic amenities for
good
living is likely to develop emotional problems.
iii. Love or affection or lack of it by parents, mates etc. affects the child's
emotions.
ACTIVITY II
1. The Tri-dimensional theory of emotion was propounded by the psychologist Wundt.
He argues that feelings or emotions cannot be described solely in terms of their
pleasantness and unpleasantness. They require three dimensions for a valid
description. These dimensions may take the form of Pleasantness - Unpleasantness,
Tension - Relaxation Excitement - Depression . Each feeling or emotion moves first
between the three poles and then later within the poles.
2. The functional theory of emotion was formulated by Carr. He defines emotions as
organic readjustments that occur automatically in the face of appropriate behavioural
situation. For example the emotion of anger arises when the organism is confronted
with an obstacle to freedom of movement. When this happens, the organic
readjustment mobilises energy to aid the individual in his efforts to overcome the
obstacle. The quickened pulse, the withdrawal of blood from the viscera, the more
rapid respiration and other bodily changes enables the organism to react more
energetically. It is Carr's belief that various emotions can readily be identified in
relation to the situation in which the behaviour occurs. Once the organism begins to
react to the situation, the emotional response dies down.
463
ACTIVITY III
1. The following four emotions are commonly associated with primary school pupils:
i. Fear
ii. Anger
iii. Happiness
iv. Sympathy
v. Jealousy
vi. Sadness or Unhappiness
vii. Love and affection.
2. i. Fear of objects such as snakes, dogs, strange animals, etc.
ii. Fear of certain social relationships such as meeting with strangers, standing in
large audience, staying alone in a dark but very large room, e.t.c.
ACTIVITY IV
i. Emotional maturity can be identified in a child when we notice a change
from the state of helplessness to that of confidence.
ii. Change from dependence to independence.
iii. Ability to consider the consequences of one's actions.
v. Increased ability to handle frustration.
v. Ability to participate effectively in a larger group.
ACTIVITY V
i. Need to motivate pupils
ii. Pupils should be made to be emotionally involved in lessons.
iii. Making use of appropriate incentives
iv. elating learning tasks to the cultural background of pupils.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Emotion is the stirred up condition of the organism involving internal and external
changes in the body. An emotion could be seen as a disturbed state of an organism.
Emotion may be expressed in love, fear, anger, laughter, or tears. It may also involve
jubiliation or depression. The following four reasons may cause emotion to develop:
i. Adjustment in the home or school may evoke new patterns of habits and
behaviours. This may create tensions and emotions.
ii. The social demands on the child.
iii. Unfavourable relations at home e.g. lack of love or affection, influences of
maladjusted or harsh parents.
464
iv. Effects of physical disabilities.

2. Below are three emotions closely associated with school children.
i. Worry: The emotion of worry can be best defined as an imaginary fear.
Among school children fear is caused by a repeated reoccurence in the child's
mind of the situation that is feared. Some of the things feared by school
children include examinations, weekly tests, and sometimes the partial
treatment of the class teacher.
ii. Love: The emotion of love is closely associated with school children. It is a
very important emotion for all human beings. It develops from the infancy
and continues throughout the life of the organism.
iii. Anger: This is a learned response to environmental stimuli. School children
are usually prone to anger. The following may arouse the emotion of anger
among school children. Teasing by parents, elders, teachers or other peers may
evoke the emotion of anger. When a child feels that he is unfairly treated or
his plans of self assertion have been thwarted the emotion of anger is aroused.
3. Below are four characteristics of emotional maturity:
i. Emotional maturity can be identified in the capacity to identify oneself with a
larger social group. This leads to the ability to participate emotionally in the
fortunes of the large group.
ii. Another characteristic of emotional maturity is a shift from the capacity to
appreciate and react to only the immediate present to increasing capacity to
think of the past and to anticipate the future. This future is anticipated to be
either good or ill.
iii. A move from absolute dependence on others to increasingly balanced
independence.
iv. A change from helplessness to a greatly increased capacity for self help.
4. i. Pupils should be properly motivated.
ii. Pupils should be emotionally involved in classroom activities i.e The teacher
should make them have a sense of belonging.
iii. Appropriate incentives should be given when necessary. Such incentives
might include verbal praises, facial approval of correct responses, or rewards
e.t.c
iv. Learning tasks should be made meaningful and related to the cultural
background of the pupils.
UNIT 8 (EDU 112.8): PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:

ERIKSON
ACTIVITY I
1. Stable or consistent traits of an individual which makes him unique.
465
2. Students to supply the answer

3. Development has to do with changes (or increases) in size, form or function due to
maturation and learning.
4. Some examples are: the child is able to grasp an object; the child is capable of
walking; the child is capable of pronouncing words properly, the child is able to swim
and ride a bicycle.
Any other acceptable points.
ACTIVITY II
1. The factors that affect personality development include:
i. The home
ii. The school
iii. Personal experiences
iv. Cultural influences.
v. The peer group
vii. The child's needs and motives.
ACTIVITY III
1. Common traits; social environment
2. Trust versus Mistrust
Autonomy versus Doubt
Initiative versus Guilt
Industry versus Inferiority.
3. a. It is developmental because it is in stages.
b. It is psychosocial because it looks at the effects of the social envi - ronment on
the psychological (personality) development of the child.
4. - feed him when he needs food, give him water to drink when he is thirsty.
- change his nappies when he is wet.
- carry him at the back when he asks for it.
5. - leave him to do his own things. Do not do them for him, correct him when he
is wrong.
- stimulate him to do things on his own.
- encourage him to play with objects
- listen to him and answer his questions.
6. A child who is initative
- does things in new ways
- asks strange questions
466
- shows parents what he has done.

- (Any others)
7. - Nagging or adding the child
- Punishing or blaming him for damaging an object unintentionally.
- constantly telling him he is inadequate.
- (Any others)
8. as a parent
- give him work to do in the house
- supervise his work
- teach him to do the right thing.
- praise his efforts.
As a teacher:
- give him assignments
- find out his difficulties and help him to understand the lesson
(Any others)
ACTIVITY IV
1. An adolescent has self identify when he knows who he is and that he wants to be in
future and works successfully towards it.
2. Teachers can
a. help them to achieve success in their subjects
b. help them to find out areas they have interest and abilities
c. encourage them to work hard and plan their career
3. a. By encouraging social functions like debates, sports, parties.
b. By teaching the youth how to make friends or how to converse and
communicate.
4. Helping the isolated ones
a. first, attempt to befriend him
b. interview him to find out why he is an isolate
c. teach him ways he can use to mix up with his mates (eg listening attentively,
how to begin a conversation)
5. Parent
a. teach them to share their things with other children
b. demonstrate concern and sacrifice to them
c. ask them to help siblings in need of help or neighbours in need of help.
467
Teachers: the same as above except that the environment is in the school or
classroom
6. because they did not contribute to the welfare of others and because they find they
have no more opportunity to do so.
ASSIGNMENT
1. a. Personality means stable or consistent traits of an individual which makes him
unique
b. Development refers to changes in size, form or function due to maturation and
learning.
2. i. the home
ii. the school
iii. the peer group
iv. personal experience
v. individual needs and motives
3. Erikson's theory lays emphasis on socialization or social factors. He states that for
every stage of the child's personality development, the child is faced with the
possibilities between two extreme aspects of behaviour e.g. trust versus mistrust,
autonomy versus doubt.
4. i. infancy - trust versus mistrust
ii. childhood - autonomy versus doubt
iii. adolescence - identity versus confusion
5. Material
- feed the child promptly
- bath the child when he is dirty or bedwets
- cuddle the child to sleep.
Psychological
- play with the child
- carry the child especially when he demands for it.
- talk to the child.
6. Students to supply the answer to their course tutor at the study centre.
7. i. Provide situations to make children trust themselves and others
ii. Encourage the children to do things on their own
iii. Encourage the children to develop their initiative
iv. Encourage the children to socialize
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UNIT 9 (EDU 112.9): SIMPLE NON-STANDARDIZED

PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSING
PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
ACTIVITY I
1. The two modes of measuring personality and emotional behaviour are by: critical
observation of the pupils' behaviour and direct obtaining of information from the
pupils themselves.
2. Advantages - the observation by a second person has the advantage of being more
objective since it removes the possibility of faking by the pupil or client.
The self - report method can give information which cannot be observed by a second
person.
Disadvantage - the observation by a second person has the disadvantage of possible
misinterpretation of the observer. It requires several observation for accuracy.
The self report method can easily be faked.
ACTIVITY II
a. repeat the observation several times and in different situations
b. describe the behaviour factually.
c. plan the observation before implementing it etc.
d. constant practice
e. immediate recording
2. Practical Work
3. Because it is not biased in recording and reporting.
ACTIVITY III
1. An anecdote is different from an observation
i. It describes a brief incidental behaviour
ii. It is written on a special form.
2. They are alike because they all use observation and recording.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Practical Work
2. i. Needs to be a good listener
ii. Needs to have empathy
ii Should be able to question and probe
469
iv. He should be genuine, specific and clear in his communication

(Any three of the above will do)
3. i. Fact finding interview is not as confidential as counselling interview.
ii. It is not centred on the personality of the interviewee.
ACTIVITY V
1. A rating scale has its data quantified, but an anecdote does not have this.
2. Honesty.
Highly Honest Somewhat Not
Honest Honest Honest
Punctuality.
Always Often Sometimes Not Always
Punctual Punctual Punctual Punctual Punctual
3. Always, Very Often, Often, Sometimes, Not at all

4. A rating scale is often stated in the middle. It requires that the rater knows the rate
very well.
ACTIVITY VI
1. A sociogram is a diagram which shows the extent to which members in a group are
accepted, rejected or neglected.
2. A popular pupil has the greatest number of choice by other pupils
3. Popular - pupil E
Isolate - pupil F
Clique - pupils C,D,H.
ASSIGNMENT
1&2 Practical Work (Take your answers to the course tutor at the study centre).
3. A rating scale has the advantage that its data is quantified. Scores are assigned
to the behaviour.
More than one person can rate a pupil. Their rating can be compared to check
accuracy.
4. Practical Work
3. The isolates can be helped by teaching them how to make friends and guiding
them to make one or two friends.
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UNIT 10 (EDU112.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 TO 9

ACTIVITY I
1. a. i. Verbal
ii. Numerical
iii. Mechanical
iv. Spatial
v. Social
b. i. Sensori-Motor Stage
ii. Pre-Operational Stage
iii. Concrete Operations Stage
iv. Formal Operations Stage
c. i. The teacher has to provide the situations and atmosphere that facilitate
intellectual functioning.
ii. The children need help in classifying objects and ideas at all levels of
the primary school.
iii. Teachers should help children to find and establish relationships.
Relationships of different kinds should be practised. Organising and
relating things in series, in a hierarchy, comparing part and whole e.t.c
iv. Practice in problem solving. Children should be guided to look for and
locate problems and try out possible solutions.
stimulating objects to play with and confronting the child.
vi. Practice in flexibility should be given.
vii The teacher should help them to carry out individual and small group
projects.
viii. The teacher should help them to monitor their own thinking.
ACTIVITY II
1. The four components of language are
i. sound system
ii. grammar
iii. meaning
iv. function.
2. The cognitive model of language development sees the child as an active organiser.
He discovers language rules which he tests out. In this manner his language is
creative, and he uses language which he has never heard before.3.
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Children should be helped to:

i. discriminate and articulate sounds
ii. acquire and use grammar appropriately
iii. obtain and convey meaning.
ACTIVITY III
1. The 4 major components of social development:
i. Interaction with the family
ii. Interaction with peers
iii. Interaction with people in the school
iv. Interaction with others in the community.
Concepts of social development are:
i. Socialization
ii. Roles
iii. Sex identity
iv. Social competition and co-operation.
2. i. make the classroom arrangement in such a way that it permits social
interaction to occur.
ii. Training by use of reinforcements
iii. Modelling
iv. Coaching
v. Providing feedback
ACTIVITY IV
1. i. Fear
ii. Love and affection
iii. Anger
iv. Happiness
v. Sympathy
vi. Jealousy
vii. Sadness.
2. Erikson's stages of personality development:
i. Infancy
ii. Childhood
iii. Adolescence
iv. Adulthood and old age.
3. i. Observing the child's behaviour
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ii. Obtaining information from the pupil himself

ASSIGNMENTS
1. a. The major components of intelligence are
i. The verbal,
ii. The numerical,
iii. The spatial,
iv. The social and
v. The mechanical components
(b) Piaget's stages of cognitive development:
i. Sensori - motor stage
ii. Pre - operational stage
iii. Concrete operation stage
iv. Formal operations stage
2. i. Provide the right and stimulating environment
ii. Help children to learn how to classify objects and
ideas.
iii. Help children to establish relationships and explain how things are
related
iv. Provide a variety of practice in problem solving
v. Help children to learn how to be flexible in thinking, grouping, e.t.c.
vi. Train them to acquire conservation ability
vii. Give them practice in planning and carrying out both individual
and group projects.
viii. Train them to assess themselves.
3. The major components of language are:
i. Sound system
ii. Grammar
iii. Meaning
iv. Function.
4. The reinforcement theory of language development implies that children learn to
speak when they are rewarded to do so hence, correct responses must be rewarded
appropriately. Such reinforcement can be in form of positive comments, or praises,
gifts, e.t.c.
5. i. Provide the right classroom atmosphere that will make the children to be
relaxed and free to talk.
ii. Be a good language model.
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iii. Use reinforcement to encourage the children

iv. Use individualized and group instruction when appropriate.
v. Give direct instruction.
vi. Assist children to be independent.
6. Basic components of social development:
i. Interaction with the family
ii. Interaction with peers
iii. Interaction with others in the school.
iv. Interaction with others in the community.
Concepts of social development are:
i. Socialization
ii. Roles
iii. Sex identity
iv. Social competition and co-operation
7. How a teacher can help to develop social skills:
i. Make the classroom conducive for the promotion of social interaction
ii. Training by use of reinforcements
iii. Be a good model for children to imitate.
iv. Coaching
v. Providing feedback.
8. Emotions of the primary school child include:
i. Fear
ii. Anger
iii. Love and affection
iv. Happiness
v. Jealousy
vi. Sadness
9. Erikson's stages of personality development:
i. Infancy - trust vs mistrust autonomy vs doubt
ii. Childhood - initiative vs guilt
iii. Adolescence - Identity vs role confusion
iv. Adulthood - generativists vs self absorption integrity vs despair
10. i. Observing the child's behaviour
ii. Obtaining information from the pupils themselves.
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MODULE 5 Unit: 01 Educational Psychology EDU113
UNIT 1(EDU 113.1): ADOLESCENCE: MEANING AND

CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTION
When we studied Module 3, Unit 3, we came across the `stages of human development.' One
of the interesting stages we talked about was the adolescent stage, which we said coincided
with the secondary school years. In this unit, we want to take a closer look at adolescence.
This will enable us understand better what adolescence means and the characteristics which
adolescents possess.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain correctly the concept or meaning of the term adolescence;
2. identify the major physical characteristics of adolescence and highlight their
educational implications;
3. list at least three intellectual characteristics of adolescence and state their educational
implications;
4. state the major social characteristics of adolescence and identify at least four types of
social relationships of adolescents;
5. define emotion and discuss at least four characteristic of adolescent emotions and
how they affect classroom learning and teaching.
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read through this unit once. Note down the important ideas as you read, while you
look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
2. Go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt
all the activities given. Do not look at the answers before attempting
the exercises.
3. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If you observe all these rules you will
benefit from this interesting unit.
4. CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS AT
WORD STUDY
Adolescence : The stage of development during which boys and girls
move from childhood to adulthood. It covers about 12-
18 years.
Choronological Age : : This is the actual age of the child when calculated from
his date of birth.
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Sexual Characteristics : Parts of the body which help to determine a person's

sex. For example, breast, genital organ, vagina.
Menstruation : The monthly flow of blood which sexually mature girls
experience. In most females, the menstrual cycle
normally varies from 24 -34 days with an average of 29
days.
Heterosexual : Having to do with both sexes i.e boys and girls or male
and female.
Self Concept : A sum total opinion of one's rating of oneself. This may
be high or low.
Growth Spurt : A sudden jump in growth.
Peer Group : A collection of individuals of about the same age
usually for friendship purposes.
Cliques : Small exclusive groups made up of few friends.
ADOLESCENCE: MEANING
Adolescence may be defined in several ways. If we look at the bodily or physical changes,
adolescence begins at the time an individual shows the first signs of transition to sexual
maturity. Adolescence is likely to come to an end around age 18 - 20 when physical growth
normally ceases.
Some psychologists see adolescence as the transitional period of life. This is because the
adolescent experiences a number of changes, sometimes very significant to him or her. We
shall see later some of these changes. The Psychologist Arthur Jersild defined adolescence as
that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood. This
movement has mental, emotional, social and physical implications on the adolescent.
From all we have said, we can now see adolescence as the period when an individual is
capable of begetting offspring because of his or her sexual maturity. Chronologically
therefore, adolescence comes roughly between ages twelve and eighteen years. This period is
not static and may vary from culture to culture because of feeding or hereditary factors.
It might also be necessary to dismiss from the beginning of this unit some wrong notions or
misconceptions people have about adolescence.
Adolescents are seen as awkward in their physical appearance. This is false. Perhaps this
arose from the fact that some adolescents appear to be as large and tall as adults. This is not
awkwardness, with time the adolescent matures fully and behaves like an adult.
Adolescents are seen as rebellious. This is not true. If adolescent energies are properly
channelled as we shall suggest later in this unit, they will not become rebellious.
ACTIVITY I
1. Please circle the correct response.
Chronologically, the adolescent period falls between ages
(a) 9 and 11 years
(b) 18 and 29 years
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(c) 12 and 18 years

(d) All of the above.
2. Define clearly what is meant by the term Adolescence.

ADOLESCENCE: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
It is generally agreed that the adolescent period is one of rapid physical changes. The growth
spurt is the first signal that heralds adolescence. As a result of this rapid growth associated
with the adolescent period, the following physical characteristics begin to emerge which were
not noticeable in the childhood stages.
1. There is change in the height and body proportion of adolescents as a result of the
growth spurt. The pelvic bones of girls become broadened. Boys begin to develop
broad shoulders.
2. There is a tendency for the voice of boys to become deep. Girls develop a mellow
voice during the adolescent period.
3. During adolescence the sex and associated organs develop. The genital organs of the
boys increase in size while the sex organs of the girls mature. The breasts grow to
size for the girls and their figure changes.
4. The growth of hair is associated with adolescence. Hairs appear on the upper limbs,
and in the armpits. There is also the pubic hair. In addition ,for boys they begin to
grow beard.
5. For girls, menstruation begins between ages 11 and 14. Some psychologists hold the
view that this age differs from culture to culture.
This stage of development normally occurs in the secondary school years but may occur to
some of our primary school children. The teacher should be aware of this stage and prepare
to handle likely problems the changes might create.
1. Because of the rapid physical changes which the adolescent is experiencing,
he or she might develop a negative self concept. It is the teacher's
responsibility to reassure the adolescent that all these bodily changes are
normal. All normal adults went through them.
2. Sex and moral education should be given appropriately in primary and post-
primary institutions. This will prepare the adolescents to cope with the
heterosexual attractions and the problems associated with physical changes.
3. Related subjects to back up sex and moral education should also be
functionally taught to the adolescents in post-primary institutions. Such
subjects could include Human Biology, Health Science or Health Education.
4. Teachers and Counsellors, where they are also available counsel these
adolescents. They are the best people to deal with most of the adolescent
problems.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Below are two statements about adolescents. Tick the correct one .
(a) The growth spurt heralds adolescence.
(b) Growth spurt comes at the end of adolescence
2. Tick the correct characteristics associated with adolescence
(a) Growth of pubic hair
(b) Emergence of thick lips
(c) Beginning of menstruation
3. Describe the physical characteristics of an adolescent girl.
ADOLESCENCE: INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Piaget's theory of cognitive development states that the period of formal operations fall
between ages 11 and 16. This is the adolescent period. Piaget says that at this stage the
adolescent is capable of formal thinking which he was not capable of as a child. The
following represent the intellectual characteristics of adolescence:
1. Ability to Generalise Facts: Children usually generalise when faced with concrete
objects. But in adolescence the ability to generalise on conceptual level develops. For
example: "if the old man is sick and his only son who has money is not around, then
he is likely to die". The adolescent can also manage abstract concepts. Adolescents
can understand and communicate with concepts like justice, rule of law, democracy,
capitalism, etc.
2. Increased ability in Understanding: Unlike the childhood stage, the adolescent can
reason better and deeper. With his increased ability in understanding, the adolescent
can attempt the solution of difficult problems. They engage in critical discussion of
national and international problems. Sometimes , the adolescent thinks he has the
answer to all problems. This may explain why university undergraduates very often
clash with authorities.
3. Ability to make Decisions: The adolescent, with time, becomes capable of making
decisions based on logical and systematic considerations. He is able to survey several
alternatives. The adolescent after explaining and weighing these alternatives makes a
decision and abides by it. For example "Would I prefer going to a university to taking
a good job offered to me in a commercial bank?" Children who are not adolescents
may not be capable of taking independent decisions.
The mental characteristics of adolescence have some educational implications for the
classroom teacher.
1. Teachers, as much as possible, should expose adolescents to rich experiences. This
enables them to see challenging situations. For example adolescents would like to
watch a court proceeding instead of a lecture on the concept of justice.
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2. Teach adolescents through the problem solving approach. You might ask, for
example, ìf you become a Commissioner for Finance in your state, suggest ways of
generating new revenue for your State'. They will enjoy such assignments.
3. Guided discovery method should be used for teaching the adolescent classes. For
example the teacher could guide an adolescent class through a project aimed at
solving community water problem. Most of the thinking could be done by the
adolescents.
4. Finally, provide for adolescents libraries and other opportunities for free discussion
and independent work.
ACTIVITY III
1. Insert Yes or No below:
Piaget says that adolescents are capable of formal thinking.
2. Tick the correct statement:
(a) Adolescents possess the ability to generalise facts.
(b) Adolescents do not need freedom in their lessons for fear of mistakes.
3. State any three intellectual characteristics of adolescents.
ADOLESCENCE: SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

The social adjustment of the child starts from infancy and the foundation of social
development is laid in the family. The success in future relationship of the adolescent
depends on this early socialization. Very often society places upon the adolescent a set of
new social demands he was not used to. For example, the society would want the adolescent
to join other adults in such activities as public works or village square meetings. When the
adolescent fails to conform problems are likely to emerge. This is why we shall spend some
time to look at the social characteristics of adolescence.
1. The major social task of the adolescent is the development of personal identity.
During childhood, the parent assumed a dominant role in the child's personality but
the adolescent requires more independence. Questions like `Who am I? How will I fit
into this plan?' begin to come from the adolescent.
2. Another characteristic of the adolescent's social development is the increased
influence of peer groups. Adolescents, as we know, remain most of the time with
their peer groups. The peer group to a great extent determines the adolescent's social
relationships. His interests, attitudes and values are all influenced by his peers. He
does anything for the sake of pleasing his peers.
3. Social relationship in adolescence is heterosexual in nature. In late childhood, boys
play with boys while girls tend to play with girls. But in adolescence, boys and girls
become friends based on their common interests.
4. The structure of social relationship takes different forms.
(a) Chums or Friends - Friendship with opposite sex could be fairly permanent.
(b) Cliques - small exclusive groups made up of few friends.
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(c) Crowds - made up of several cliques with identical interest.

(d) Organised Groups - Boys Scout, Girls Guide, Christian Fellowship. Open to all who
wish to join.
(e) Gang - made up of delinquent adolescents with similar sinister objectives.
The social relationships of adolescents have educational implications.
1. The teacher should provide opportunities for effective use of the social groups for
classroom work. A group could be asked to supervise for the teacher the class manual
labour.
2. Peer teaching and group assignments should be exploited to the full.
3. As teachers, we should provide enough lectures on moral and sex education. This
should be functionally taught to guide the adolescents in their heterosexual relations.
4. The schools should have guidance and counselling experts to guide these adolescents.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Describe two characteristics of theadolescent's social development.
2. Describe (a) Cliques (b) Crowds (c) Gangs as patterns of social relationships in
adolescence.
3. Write one educational implication of studying adolescents' social characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT EMOTIONS

Emotion may be defined as the stirred up condition of the organism involving internal and
external changes in the body. It involves feelings e.g of jubilation or depression and impulse
to action. Fundamentally, human beings are creatures of feelings or emotion and adolescents
are no exceptions. This is why many a time we see adolescents engaging in quarrels and
showing other signs of tension. These are signs of emotion. Some of the characteristics of
adolescents' emotions and their expression include the following:
Complexity: Some psychologists define adolescence as a period of storm and stress. This is
because of the emotional upheavals which adolescents encounter. For example, the
adolescent feel that they are no longer children because of their size yet society refuses to
accept them as adults. This complex situation may lead to emotional disturbance.
Generalization: In childhood, emotional expression is directed to specific objects and events.
Adolescents now can express their emotional feelings in a general way and in a wider
context. An adolescent may develop strong love for school work.
Shared Emotional Experiences: Adolescents possess the ability to share emotional
experiences with others. As adolescents grow, their friendship circle widen to their class
mates and other peers from other towns or even states.
Control: Adolescents develop competencies to bear the tension they meet. One way through
which they do this is by developing self control. Children generally do not develop self
control.
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Some Adolescent Emotions include:

(a) Love and Affection - Adolescents need this to satisfy their sexual impulse.
(b) Joy, pleasure and delight
(c) Superiority - Inferiority Feeling: Adolescents may manifest this in passing
examinations in Division one or in failing to accomplish a task.
(d) Worry - When there is an imaginary fear, adolescents become anxious. This may be
as a result of impending examination or lack of teacher's love.
1. As teachers we may use the classroom teaching to expel or dismiss some adolescent
fears of inadequacies. Give adolescents projects which they can perform to reassure
them.
2. The teacher in the class should be able to engage the adolescents in a critical
examination of causes of failures and frustrations. By so doing the adolescents
develop resistance to frustration.
3. Teachers should help to change any negative attitudes parents have about their
adolescents. Also a proper environment should be provided to adolescents for the
expression of their pent up feelings.
4. Adolescence is a period when an individual is overcome by a number of startling
developments. Proper guidance and counselling is needed for these adolescents. Part
of this counselling would include information about the rapid physical or anatomical
changes going on in the adolescents bodies.
ACTIVITY V
1. List four adolescent emotions.
2. Describe the abstract nature of the adolescent's emotions.
3. Name the educational implication of adolescent emotions.
SUMMARY
• Adolescence is that period when an individual is capable of begetting offspring because
of his or her sexual maturity. Chronologically, the adolescent period falls between
twelve and eighteen years subject to cultural or environmental situations.
• Adolescence is marked by the growth spurt followed by changes in height and body
proportions. Other observable physical changes include voice change, growth of hair in
certain parts of the body, and for girls the appearance of menstruation.
• At Adolescence, the ability to embark on formal or abstract operations become
noticeable. The adolescent can now generalise, develop increased understanding, and
make independent decisions.
• Socially, the adolescent forms wider social relationships with people outside the nuclear
family. This is the period of self identity, strong attachment and obedience to peer groups
and heterosexual relationships.
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• Since all human beings are emotional, adolescents are no exception. Some even refer to
the adolescent period as the period of storm and stress characterised by frequent quarrels,
and tensions. Adolescent emotional outbursts are usually complex, abstract and shared
with other people or areas.
• As a result of the different characteristics exhibited by adolescents, classroom teachers
should be prepared to guide them appropriately in the class. As teachers, we must try to
see all these developments in adolescence as normal. Subjects such as sex and moral
education, human biology, health and physical education should be functionally taught to
our young adolescents.
• Finally, guidance and counselling services should be provided to help adolescents pass
through this relatively difficult but really interesting stage of human development.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What is meant by the term adolescence?
2. List any two physical characteristics of adolescence. State any two educational
implications of the characteristics
3. List five social companionship adolescents form?
4. Describe any two emotional characteristics of adolescence. Highlight any two
educational implications of these emotional characteristics.
REFERENCES
Eke, E., & Esuman, J. K. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Heinemann. (In Press).
Medinnus, G.R. & Johnson, R. C. Child and Adolescent Psychology, New York: John Wiley
& Sons 1976.
Blair, G.M., Jones, R.S.& Simpson, R.H. Educational Psychology, New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co., 1975., 4th Edition,
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UNIT 2 (EDU 113.2): DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF

EACH STAGE OF CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
When a baby is born, after a short time (about 6 months) the mother starts to make the baby
practise sitting. She continues to do this until the baby is able to sit alone without help. No
sooner has the baby learnt to sit than she starts to creep around the floor. From creeping the
baby, with time, starts to hold things around and practise standing with the help of the
objects. By the end of the twelfth month the baby can stand and walk round in the room. But
what happens if the baby fails to perform these tasks as and when due? Not only the mother
but the members of the family get worried. If intensive practice fails to achieve the desired
result, the child is taken to the hospital to find out what has gone wrong. Infact, in the
traditional societies seers and fortune tellers were consulted to find out what had gone wrong
and the appropriate sacrifice to offer. But today this is not the case. We shall study in this
unit, what tasks babies and other human beings can perform at each stage of development.
By the time we understand what these tasks are, we would have seen our folly in going to
local medicine men and infact to hospitals for help in matters connected with expected tasks
of children or any human organisms for that matter.
OBJECTIVES
1. define developmental tasks.
2. state three factors that influence developmental tasks.
3. state clearly three developmental tasks of infancy and early childhood.
4. list and explain at least six developmental tasks for late and middle childhood.
5. explain at least five developmental tasks of adolescence.

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read through this unit once. Also as you read look up unfamiliar words in your
dictionary.
2. Then go back and study this unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities
you do all the above, then you are likely to benefit from this unit.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS
ATTHE END OF THIS BOOK.
322
WORD STUDY
Task: : A piece of work that is to be done.
Seer : People who claim that they can see the future. Sometimes referred to
as fortune tellers.
Adjustment : To change slightly in order to fit into the pattern.
Intellectual : This can refer to mental skills of ability. To multiply any numbers
Skills: with 5 can be a mental or intellectual skill.
Ethical: Has to do with morals. Ethics is the science which deals with human
morality.
Physique: This has to do with the form or shape of a human body.
THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

We have seen in the Introduction that there are certain tasks which babies and even adults
learn or are expected to learn at every stage of their development. It is, therefore, a
recognised fact that in every culture, it is possible to learn certain skills and behaviours at
some stages of development. These skills and behaviours make the adjustment of the
individual possible in the society. Every culture in the world sets a number of tasks for the
successful adjustment of the individual in the society.
On the other hand, we find out that an individual has certain objectives that are special to
him. These objectives are important requirements imposed by such individual or his society.
They mean that he must possess or acquire an acceptable level of competency in those skills
and behaviours as expected of his age, sex and peculiar circumstances. Failure to achieve
competency in those skills and behaviours will be difficult to make up for at a later stage. A
developmental task, therefore, is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life
ofthe individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with
later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society and
difficulty with later tasks.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PERFORMANCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL

TASKS
1. Physical Maturation: Some developmental tasks are the result of maturation. A good
example is walking. No child can walk if the limbs for walking are not mature.
2. Societal Expectation: As stated earlier on, the society at a certain stage of a person's
development expects certain behaviours from the individual. Under this cultural
pressure the individual learns the appropriate tasks. Such tasks may be vocational like
cooking for females, hunting for males or how to play football for students.
3. Personal Values: A person's value system, aspirations and/or psychological
competence may determine the learning of certain tasks such as developing a
conscience.
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ACTIVITY I
1. Define the term developmental task.
2. Give three factors that may affect an individual's developmental task.
SELECTED DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS IN INFANCY AND EARLY

CHILDHOOD (0 - 5 YEARS)
Now, we have known what a developmental task means. Let us find out the developmental
tasks that are appropriate for infants and children in early childhood. These children would
fall under 0-5 years age range which falls within the preschool period. The following
developmental tasks culled from Havighurst's and Dinkemeyer's presentation would suit such
children.
a. Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality: These concepts include
things like mother, father, school, teacher etc. The simplest way to help children
acquire such concepts is to expose them to as many objects and experiences and be
patient in answering their questions.
b. Learning to relate to parents, siblings and other people: Children learn this task by
imitating others, by being told what to do and sometimes by trial and error. Since they
are born into a family of people, they must learn how to get along with caregivers and
others.
c. Learning gender differences: It is in early childhood that children learn about the
differences between boys and girls. They also get to learn sex appropriate behaviour.
d. Learning to be mobile: Right from infancy, the child struggles to crawl, toddle. In
the preschool years the child does not only walk but runs, hops and jumps.
e. Learning to use language and to communicate: One of the greatest achievements of
the period is acquisition of language. Any child who does not speak a language within
the period is greatly handicapped. Teachers and other adults should help children to
acquire and use language fluently during this critical period of language development.
f. Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and developing a conscience:
This can be done during religious and moral instructions. The teacher should highlight
stories where decisions based on conscience are not worthy.
ACTIVITY II
1. Name any five developmental tasks in infancy and early childhood?
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS IN MIDDLE & LATE CHILDHOOD (6-11

YEARS)
Let us continue and find out the developmental tasks for children in the middle and late
childhood stages. These children fall within the 6-11 years age range and this is the primary
school stage. Some of the developmental tasks would include:
a. Learning motor skills necessary for ordinary games: Most of these skills are
acquired as children interact with their peers. Children who seem to be having trouble
in developing co-ordination and skills might receive encouragement and instruction.
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b. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism: Drill the

children on the values of cleanliness, regular health habits such as brushing their
teeth, taking their bath etc.
c. Learning to get along with age-mates: Find subtle means to help children control or
eliminate disagreeable behaviour. Help shy ones make friends.
d. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine roles: Call attention to the male and
female roles that can be played by the appropriate sexes. Such roles as mother care,
cooking, breadwinning and defence are good examples.
e. Developing and using fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculation in
appropriate school subjects: Children should be exposed to frequent practices at this
stage. They should be made to taste success in school learning.
f. Learning to work independently. Many of our primary school children must walk to
school alone. Some came from illiterate homes where parents cannot help with school
work. They must work alone. Help children to make many decisions on matters
affecting their classroom, topics to be studied and the order of study. Encourage
independent learning.
g. Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions: Encourage children to
respect the rights of others. Let them see the necessity and desirability of rules.
ACTIVITY III
1. List six developmental tasks appropriate for children between 6 and 11 years of
age.
2. How would you develop the right attitude towards social groups and
institutions?
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS FOR ADOLESCENTS (12-18 Years)

Developmental tasks are not limited to children. There are tasks for adolescents and even for
adults. Adolescents fall into the age range 12-18 years and this is also the secondary school
age. The following are some of the developmental tasks appropriate for adolescents.
a. Achieving new and mature relations with age-mates of both sexes: Children are
allowed to interact in class, use democratic procedures in the classroom. Students who
find it difficult to get along with others should receive help.
b. Achieving more masculine or feminine role: Students dress like adult male or
female depending on the sex.
c. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively: Help the student to be at
home with his Physique.
d. Achieving assurance of economic independence and selecting and preparing for
an occupation: Vocational counselling helps in the development of the appropriate
task. Sufficient information should be given before the choice of occupation.
e. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence: Help
the adolescent to take active part in school, local and national affairs. Encourage
adolescents who have attained the age of votting to register. They should function as
well- informed voters. Reading materials such as novels should be provided for them.
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f. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour: Adolescents have to

develop conscience and consideration for others, their needs and problems. Thinking
about the less fortunate individuals with a view to helping them is one of the tasks of
this stage. Possessing a behaviour that reveals a sense of personal responsibility
should be cultivated by adolescents.
g. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system: Adolescents should develop a set
of values which guides their behaviours. They should be able to set good examples for
other students to imitate.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Give any five developmental tasks appropriate to adolescents.
2. List any five specific skills which society expects of male adolescents in your area.
Example: ability to wrestle.
SUMMARY
• A developmental task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of
the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success
with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by
the society and difficulty with later tasks.
• Developmental tasks may be determined by the rate of physical maturation, societal
expectation and the personal values of an individual.
• Developmental Tasks for Infancy and Early Childhood. These include:
a. Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality.
b. Learning language and how to communicate.
c. Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other people.
d. Learning gender differences.
e. Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and developing a conscience.
f. Learning how to move about on their own.
• Developmental Tasks Of Middle & Late Childhood :
a. Learning motor skills necessary for ordinary games.
b. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism.
c. Learning to get along with age mates.
d. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine role.
e. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculation.
f. Learning to work independently.
g. Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions.
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• Developmental Tasks Of Adolescence:

a. Achieving new and mature relations with age mates of both sexes
b. Achieving more masculine or feminine role.
c. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively
d. Achieving assurance of economic independence and selecting and preparing
for an occupation.
e. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
f. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
g. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the consequences for an individual that is unable to accomplish the
developmental tasks of his age?
2. List six developmental tasks in infancy and early childhood.
3. Give any six developmental tasks for middle and late childhood.
4. Give any six developmental tasks of adolescents.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O. A. A New Introduction to Educational Psychology London: Evans, 1976.
Eke, E .& Esuman,J.K., Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Heinemann. (In Press).
Oladele, J.O., Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education, Lagos: Johns -Lad
Publishers, 1987.
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UNIT 3 (EDU113.3): BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
Close your eyes and think of a number of things which you will like to do if you had the time,
money and freedom. Now think again of at least four things which you must do everyday no
matter the circumstances. If you compare in your mind the first set of things you thought
about and the second set, one thing stands out clearly. The first set of things may or may not
be done. They are not necessary for your continued survival as a human being. They can be
called, if you like luxuries or wishes. But the second set is not so. These things are necessities
and must be done for your continued normal survival. Perhaps not even lack of money would
prevent you from doing or having them. Such ones are needs and must be met. And so every
human being has some needs which must be satisfied for his continued survival. Today we
shall attempt to examine in this unit some of the basic needs of childhood.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the importance of needs.
2. state at least three reasons why a teacher must study the needs of children in his class.
3. list and explain three biological needs of a child.
4. list and explain four social needs of children.

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Please read through this unit once. You should try to note the important ideas as you
read. When you find an unfamiliar word try and look up its meaning in your
dictionary.
2. Then study this unit step by step just as the entire unit has been arranged for you. You
must do all the exercises that you are expected to do at the end of the unit. Do not try
to look at the sample answers before answering or attempting the exercises.
3. To get the best result out of studying this unit, you should obey all the instructions.
WORD STUDY
Need: This is a necessity for an individual and must be satisfied for
the continued normal survival of such individual.
Body Waste Products: These can be sweat, urine or excreta.
Constipation: A state where the food taken by an individual is not digestible
and consequently he cannot pass stool freely.
Social needs: These are needs which are society-oriented.
Competence: Achievement, ability.
Gratification: Satisfaction of an organism's needs.
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MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF BASIC NEEDS

In our Introduction, we emphasized the fact that all human beings, whether children or adults
have some needs. These needs are not luxuries or mere wishes. They are necessities which
must be satisfied for the normal and continued survival of the organism. Needs are of
different types. It can be something which the tissues of the body require for normal
functioning e.g. oxygen. It can be something which a child requires if he is to stay in the
home and lead a normal life e.g. love.
We must emphasize that needs become motives for action. Because needs must be satisfied,
individuals will do whatever they can to ensure that their basic needs are met. A child who
has not eaten for days will "steal" food wherever he finds it to satisfy that need without
considering other consequences. There, the link is obvious, hunger is a need and food is used
for its satisfaction. Sometimes the connection is not so obvious. Suppose a child "stole"
groundnuts to share among his friends. There the child is trying to satisfy another need, that
of acceptance because probably his friends had been giving him groundnuts and sweets and
he had never given them anything. To remain and be accepted in the group, therefore, he
stole groundnuts to give them.
Needs are therefore, important because they constitute a very potent basis for our actions.
Behaviour largely depends on an individual's attempts to satisfy his needs. Sometimes the
links are direct, sometimes they are indirect but there is a connection between needs, the
attempt to satisfy needs and our behaviour.
REASONS WHY TEACHERS MUST STUDY CHILDREN'S BASIC

NEEDS.
i. Teachers should study children's basic needs because the behaviour of children is
based on these needs. The needs act as a potent force motivating children to action.
The teacher would then be able to understand why children do certain things.
ii. None satisfaction of needs may lead to maladjustment and problem behaviour. If, for
example, a child's biological needs are lacking, such a child may not benefit from the
school activities which are not directly connected with his school work and thus
create problems for the teachers.
iii. The teacher may devote some time in helping children satisfy their needs. Such
devotion to need satisfaction of children will definitely help teacher- student
relationship.
iv. Treatment of problem behaviour usually involves helping the individual to satisfy his
needs in socially acceptable ways. A study of basic needs of children will help the
teacher to handle problem behaviour.
ACTIVITY I
1. Why are needs important?
2. State three reasons why a teacher must embark on the study of the needs of the pupils
in his class.
3. Explain what causes the state of tension or dis-equilibrium in the body.
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THE BIOLOGICAL NEEDS OF CHILDHOOD

Earlier on we mentioned that every human being no matter the stage of his development has
some needs. These needs must be satisfied or gratified for such an individual's continued
normal existence and meaningful activites. Although most needs are so basic that they run
through all stages of human development yet there are a few that tend to be restricted to a
particular stage. In other words, while one particular stage of development regards a
phenomenon as a need,at another stage that need will not be required at all. Because of this
reason we shall in this unit restrict our study to only the basic needs of childhood. By
childhood, we mean the period of birth to age 11 years when a child is becoming an
adolescent. Let us examine the basic biological needs of childhood.
1. The Need For Food, Air and Liquid
A child needs these three things in order to live and function effectively in his
environment. Food must be taken everyday by children and same with liquid. Liquid
here refers to water. As for air, no child can survive for five minutes without taking in
some oxygen. This may now explain why a hungry or malnourished child is
frequently restless and inattentive. There is nothing one is saying that would appeal to
him until he satisfies any of the above mentioned needs. In some schools lunches have
been introduced as a way of ensuring that the teacher is not teaching some children
who are hungry and have the need for food. Usually signs of nervousness and
restlessness seen in schools may be as a result of children who need food or are even
thirsty.
2. The Need for Activity and Rest
Activity and rest are also basic physical needs of the child. If a young child is forced
to remain inactive for a long time, such a child becomes bored and unhappy. If he is
not released he may be forced to start exhibiting unruly behaviours. This may be the
rationale behind the punishment the old generation of teachers gave to some so-called
noisy children. It consisted of bringing the child's seat out from where his peers were
sitting and asking the child to sit out separately. On the other hand, excessive activity
can be detrimental to children's physical and emotional development. This is because
as a child, there is a level of activity which he is capable of absorbing. Anything
beyond this level results in strain and fatigue. As a rule, for children's proper
biological development, the need for activity must be interspaced with rest.
3. The Need for Proper Temperature
No child and perhaps no human being can function in a classroom that is either too
hot or too cold. Such a condition would interfere seriously with the well being of the
child and make effective study impossible. As a rule of nature the body always strives
to maintain a body temperature of 32.4oC The body uses other means such as proper
clothing or exposure to the sun when threatened with change of temperature. A child
may become ill oreven die when his blood temperature is subjected to a certain degree
above or below 32.4oC.
4. The Need For Elimination of Body Waste
Regular and adequate elimination of the waste products of the body is a biological
need. These body wastes include urine and excreta. Children who have problems with
the elimination of waste products suffer constipation. When in class they are
physically ill and do not concentrate on the school work. Some teachers do not permit
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pupils to leave the class to take care of the body elimination. There is an Ibo proverb
which states that you do not converse with someone itching to go to toilet. This
proverb goes to show that this biological need is so strong that no body should restrict
any child who is pressed from the elimination of any of the body wastes from going
out to achieve gratification. If the child is not allowed, he may at a point defecate in
the classroom. Where he does so, the teacher has created personality problems for this
child before his peer group.
5. The Sex Need
Small children are curious about sex differences and should be given accurate
information from their teachers and parents when they ask. Older children who are at
more advanced stages of physical development should be given the appropriate
instruction on some of the changes emerging in their bodies. Information on the sex
organs is a basic need for children. For a normal child it is only when he or she
becomes an adolescent that the need for sexual expression manifests. Therefore, any
attempt to frustrate the children's need for these basic information and understanding
might lead to misinformation and problems. This is because the child will turn to his
peers for information and is likely to get a wrong and perhaps dangerous information.
ACTIVITY II
1. List five biological needs of children.
2. Try and close your nose with your right hand and your mouth with your left hand.
Find how many minutes you can afford to stay under that condition even as an adult.
What need is not being satisfied?
3. Why must we not overstretch pupils' need for activity?
4. Explain the need for elimination of body waste?
THE SOCIAL NEEDS OF CHILDHOOD

In addition to the biological needs (which we have just discussed) every child in the society
has social or learned needs. Social needs are needs that are society-oriented. When these
needs are denied, a child may not develop properly or function efficiently in the school.
Social needs are normally satisfied in interpersonal situations or in the course of relating with
other people. Social needs and their satisfaction have implications for the child's personality
development. The following are the social needs of children.
1. Need For Status
As children grow they develop individually the concept of self-identity. With the
development of this concept every child wants recognition and attention. In the class
he wants his teacher to show that he recognises his presence. At home the child needs
the recognition of his parents. Even in the playground individual children need the
recognition of their peers. Any child who is denied this need of recognition and status
begins to seek other ways for its gratification. Generally, the child has no alternative
than to resort to anti-social activities like bullying or even stubbornness to the teacher.
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This is why comments like the following;

"Peter you were fantastic at yesterday's football match"
"Rose is a mathematician"
gratify the children so much. They spur them onto further achievements.
2. Need For Security
Children desire regularity and stability in their lives. A child who is not sure as to how
he stands in his group, or who is anxious as to his performance in a course finds that
the security need is threatened. Where these fears and anxieties are allowed to stay
with the child for a long time, his systems will be broken down and may create health
problems. As children are not adults they need assurance of their safety in terms of
means for survival, peer acceptance before they can function effectively in the
classroom.
3. Need For Affection
It has been observed that even as early as the first five years, a child is eager and
desirous of social relationships. This is because every one needs love and affection.
The good teacher is one who genuinely likes his pupils. Growing children need
attention and affection. When the child's need for affection is gratified he
concentrates on his studies in the school. A child who discovers that his or her teacher
does not like him becomes uneasy and restless in the class. In extreme cases where a
child's need for affection is continuously denied the child may feel free to engage in
anti-social and perhaps criminal behaviours even at the tender ages of 11 and 12
years.
4. Need For Independence
To be able to take some decisions both at home and in school is one of the social
needs of children. Children want to take responsibility and to make choices that are
commensurate with their abilities. A wise teacher will give children opportunities to
satisfy the need for independence in the many classroom activities that he will arrange
for them. For example in a school situation the teacher could gratify this need by
assigning specific functions to children individually. Such responsibilities could be
making one the school regulator, another the class prefect, another to be incharge of
appointing the sweepers for the day, another to be responsible for collecting the
names of the late comers, while yet another will be responsible for collecting the
names of noise makers and loiters. For the children to fully gratify this need,
appropriate authority should accompany each responsibility but within reasonable
bounds.
5. Need For Competence
The child appears to struggle for a sense of effectiveness and efficiency. The child
also actively seeks stimulation from his environment and seems happiest when he can
gain some control over it. If a child's need for competence is gratified by praise for his
efforts to cope with the demands of life, he will begin to gain the confidence and
security he needs for optimum development. A growing and developing child praised
and recognised for some achievement, will be more motivated to innovate and try out
his hand in many other avenues of his social and physical environment. Where this
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need is denied the child's innovative talents suffer and the child starts to withdraw. He
thinks that he cannot achieve anything which of course is not true.
In conclusion, we can see that it may be deplorable if schools do not allow children
the opportunity to satisfy their personal and social needs. This has to be done through
the provision of appropriate classroom and school activities as discussed above.
Teachers should bear in mind that where rewards are limited to a few children, there
is little chance that all children will experience the achievement necessary to satisfy
basic needs. In the next unit we shall examine in detail what roles teachers should
play in order to satisfy children's basic needs.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the meaning of social needs.
2. List three important social needs of childhood.
3. Describe how affection is a social need.
SUMMARY
• Needs are necessities which must be satisfied for the continued survival of the
organism. They are important motives for action and none satisfaction of needs may
lead to problems. This makes it imperative that as teachers we should always try to
find out the needs of the children we teach. If these needs are identified, the teacher
can proceed to gratify them in order to prevent later problems and possible
maladjustment.
• The following are the basic biological needs of the child
1. The need for food, water and air. Where these are not supplied within a range
of specified time the organism may die.
2. The need for activity and rest. Children like to be active but this has to be
interspaced with rest. Improper balance of activity and rest might create
strain or boredom.
3. Need for proper temperature. Nature demands that the body temperature
should gravitate around 32.4. Where a child's body temperature is too much
below or too much above the normal temperature the child may become sick
or die.
4. The need for elimination of body wastes. This need cannot be compromised
for obvious embarrassment the child needing gratification may face.
5. The sex need. At the childhood stage the need is only limited to curiosity
about sex differences and the sex organs. As much as possible accurate
information should be given to the child immediately.
• The other set of needs are called social needs. They are society-oriented needs and
have personality implications.
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1. Need for status. Every child wants recognition and attention. Where this is denied
anti-social activities will erupt.
2. Need for security. Children need assurance of a secure future. If this need is not
there, personality problems with serious consequences to class work might emerge.
3. Need for affection. All human beings need love, so children are no exception. If a
child is denied the class teacher's genuine love, such a child becomes restless.
4. Need for independence. The sociogenic need is gratified in children when appointed
to some responsible positions in the class or school.
5. Need for competence. Children battle through life for the control of their
environment. The competence need is gratified as soon as the child is made to realise
that he has made some significant achievements.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning and importance of needs
2. Justify with four reasons why a teacher must study the needs of his children.
3. List five biological needs of childhood. Describe the need for adequate temperature.
4. Write down five social needs of children. Explain how the deprivation of status
affects the child.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A.,A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans, 1976
Eke , E. & Esuman, J.K.,Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:

Stones, E., An Introduction to Educational Psychology New York: Spectrum Books, 1966.
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UNIT 4 (EDU 113.4): THE TEACHER’S ROLE IN

SATISFYING THE BASIC NEEDS OF
CHILDREN
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we studied, we examined the basic needs of children. We found out that
children had some biological needs. Can you please write down on a piece of paper three
biological needs of children we mentioned in our last unit? We also found out that children in
addition to biological needs have social needs. Try and write on the same piece of paper four
social needs you remember which we mentioned in our last unit.
Today, we shall try to find out what role teachers can play to make sure that these basic needs
of children are satisfied in the classroom. This is important because failure to satisfy
children's needs usually leads to maladjustment and cause personality problems for the
children.
OBJECTIVES
1.state clearly how the teacher can satisfy the basic needs of children in his class.
2.demonstrate practically how to satisfy the needs of the children.

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Before you read through this unit, you should revise or go through the Summary of
Module 5 Unit 3.
2. Read through this unit once, you should as you read try to note the main and
important ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try and look up the meaning of
3. You should study this unit step-by-step just as the entire unit has been arranged for
exercises.
SATISFYING THE BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDREN

A child has to satisfy some fundamental needs which will enable him grow up confidently
without being a maladjusted individual in the society. Some of these needs include biological
needs which we mentioned in our last unit. Some biological needs include, the need for fresh
air, the need for food, the need for rest, etc. The social needs include the need for affection,
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status, the need for self-esteem, the need for independence, etc. The teacher has to realise that
for any meaningful learning to go on in the classroom these needs must be satisfied. The
following are the roles a teacher can play to ensure that children's basic needs are satisfied.
SATISFYING THE BIOLOGICAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN

To satisfy these needs in the classroom you should take the following steps:
(a) Take note of the physical condition of your pupils and the classroom. Be aware that
your pupils may occasionally be hungry and thirsty. You should therefore permit
snacks appropriately. Always check the room temperature and ask students if the
room is too warm or too cold.
(b) Furthermore, you should make the classroom physically and psychologically safe.
The need for safety is likely to be satisfied by the general classroom climate you
establish. Sometimes you need to check and see that physical structures are safe
particularly when you have young pupils in your class. If as a classroom teacher you
observe that a pupil fears something, such as being bullied by another pupil, explain
that you will offer him proper and adequate protection. Follow this assurance up by
establishing a classroom atmosphere in which students know what to expect and can
relax about routines.
(c) Pupils' needs can be met if you show your pupils that you are interested in them and
make them feel at home in your classroom. Learn also to use pupils names as fast as
you can. Whenever possible you should interact with all your pupils' on a one-to-one
basis. Where a pupil is absent because of illness, try to visit or ask about him.
(d) Try and ensure that you alternate vigorous activities with restful activities. There is
need for exercise and primary school children will exercise themselves even without
the teacher's encouragement. Break periods, therefore, are mostly used for vigorous
exercises. In the moments after break, there should be interesting but restful studies
and discussion.
(e) Sometimes primary school children are shy to go up to the teacher to ask for
permission to go out and use the lavatory. Spend a little time explaining how this can
be done and in ensuring that the lavatory facilities are easy to use and clean. The need
for this seemingly unnecessary detail in the junior primary classes cannot be over-
emphasized.
(f) If it becomes necessary to talk to parents and the head of your school about the
physiological needs of some of your class children, do speak up. Emphasize the need
for the children to feed, to be clothed appropriately for the weather, etc.
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain how the teacher can satisfy some of the basic physiological needs of his
children.
SATISFYING THE SOCIAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN

We have discussed how the teacher can help satisfy the physiological or biological needs of
children. In this section, we will discuss the satisfaction of their social needs. You will recall
that social needs can be satisfied in the context of relationship with others. We will discuss
how the teacher can help satisfy the needs which relate to the child personally such as the
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need for competence, need to achieve need for independence, etc first. Then we will discuss
the needs which relate to his being a member of a group e.g belonging, love or affection,
acceptance etc.
SATISFACTION OF THE NEED FOR COMPETENCE, ACHIEVEMENT

AND INDEPENDENCE
1. Encourage in students the development of independence and competence.
The child needs to be encouraged by adults and his peer group. Therefore, the teacher
should arrange learning experiences to produce a realistic level of aspiration and a
feeling of success. Try to encourage pupils to emulate the qualities of high achievers.
High achievers usually take personal responsibility for their work and are eager to
have detailed knowledge of results. Apart from verbal encouragement you can also
use modelling by demonstrating that you also tackle problems often. As pupils
perform the tasks, the teacher should encourage them by smiling and nodding
affirmatively. Feedback is also reinforcing. If the child is aware of the level of his
success then he will be able to set further goals. Goal setting also helps the child to
select the next assignment of an appropriate difficulty.
2. Take advantage of natural interests, try to create new ones and encourage
learning for its own sake.
A school of thought holds the view that if children follow their natural interests, they
will learn all they need to know. Open education even stresses freedom of choice,
cooperative planning and teacher guidance . In this approach the student is given
considerable freedom to select activities because of their intrinsic interest. These
interests constitute the pupils' needs. The kinds of activities so selected from free-
choice situations can be used by the class teacher as guidelines for arranging learning
experiences likely to appeal to pupils. However, to arouse the child's interest the
teacher may do one of these things.
(a) Ask pupils to put down their interests and hobbies. Use the information to plan
individual and group learning activities.
(b) Use discovery approach techniques to provide opportunities for areas for further
investigations.
(c) Use intensity, size contrast and movement to attract attention.
(d) Make use of colour, humour and exaggeration to introduce a topic or make a point. If
possible use audio-visual devices of all kinds - films, tapes and models.
3. When feasible, permit and encourage pupils to direct their own learning.
When pupils are permitted to direct their own learning, teachers do not have
problems with motivation. If a pupil or a group selects a topic of great intrinsic
interest to them, they should be left to work on it. If they eventually succeed in
making the pieces in the puzzle fall together nicely, a great deal of enthusiasm and
satisfaction is often generated. With this accomplishment the pupil's or groups' need
has been satisfied.
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4. Direct learning experiences towards feelings of success

To be able to satisfy the pupils' basic needs they should be encouraged to set a
realistic level of aspiration, develop an orientation towards achievement and a positive
self-concept. This is important because pupils who experience early failure in any
learning experience will either lose interest or actively avoid further learning which
could bring more failure.
5. Provide encouragement and incentives for learning that is essential but not
intrinsically appealing.
It is a good policy to appeal to the interest of the pupils as much as possible.
However, sometimes it is necessary to use incentives in order to help students master
knowledge or skills that are rarely thought of as fascinating but necessary if pupils are
to function in a complex society. As an example few pupils are enthusiastic about
learning to spell or to multiply and divide yet these are essential. For the class teacher
to satisfy the pupil's need to write intelligibly, he will have to tell the pupils the need
for that. He may inform them that he is aware of the drudgery in learning spellings but
it has to be done if we are to write meaningfully as others do. The implication of this
role the teacher is playing is that sometimes out of circumstance, he must stimulate,
persuade, inspire and cajole his students to learn some materials. These materials are
very essential for everyday living or for subsequent learning. In this type of
circumstance the teacher may resort to the use of progress charts, gold stars, sweets
and other kinds of incentives to promote learning and satisfaction of the need. Pupils
are free to choose their own incentives.
6. Enhance the satisfaction of esteem needs
These needs are in the realms of self-actualization, knowing and understanding, and
aesthetics. A teacher should bear in mind that if learning is made exciting and
worthwhile, even the less secure pupils may like to join. To help pupils satisfy the
needs in his class, you should as much as possible avoid "do or die" situations. A
good example of such situations was the one shot or single end of year examinations
which dominated the Nigerian educational scene before the introduction of the 6-3-3-
4 system with its in-built continuous assessment technique. In your teaching, make
ample allowances for individual differences.
ACTIVITY II
1. List three ways by which a classroom teacher can satisfy the needs which relate to his
pupils personally.
2. How can a teacher satisfy his pupil's need for achievement?
SATISFACTION OF NEED FOR AFFECTION, BELONGING AND

ESTEEM
Some of the other social needs which we discussed in the last unit, i.e Module 5, Unit 3 were
affection, belonging and esteem needs. How can the teacher help in the satisfaction of these
needs?
1. Showing affection to and accepting his pupils.
All children, indeed, all human beings need affection. Unfortunately some children
for a variety of reasons do not get the required affection at home. But the teacher can
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make up by showing affection towards all the pupils in the class. Affection also goes
with acceptance. Sometimes children have genuine limitations and in any case there
will be individual differences. You have to accept them the way they are. You will
help them to learn, improve etc but the only way that you will achieve those ends is
by accepting them at their own level first.
2. Promoting affection and acceptance within the class.
The first step towards teaching children in the affective domain is by modelling. You
teach by example. Having accepted them and convinced them of your affection of
them, you can encourage them to follow your example. Group discussions of what is
required and the consequences of rejection can help. Specific instruction about how to
show affection and role play too can help.
3. Deliberate grouping of children.
As a result of children's own selection of friends some children may become isolates.
A teacher can observe, or use sociometric techniques ( you can refresh your memory
by looking at Module 3, Unit 4 ) to find out about rejected children and isolates.
Thereafter, the teacher may try to integrate the child by appointing a "big brother" or
"big sister" or "special friend". If properly handled the two children feel satisfied and
share a sense of responsibility. Sometimes too the teacher may give mini projects
where the isolate has to offer specific skills which he possesses. This type of
introduction helps to integrate the child.
ACTIVITY III
1. List three things the teacher can do to help children satisfy their need for acceptance
and affection.
SUMMARY
• The following are the roles a teacher can play to ensure that the basic needs of
children in his class are satisfied. The teacher should do everything possible to satisfy
the physiological needs of his children. To achieve this he must take note of the
physical condition of his pupils and their classroom. He should make sure that the
classroom is physically and psychologically safe. The teacher should also take interest
in the pupils by demonstrating that they belong in his classroom. The teacher should
make provision for alternating vigorous and restful activities. Look after the
satisfaction of their hunger and thirst needs even to the extent of discussing with
parents and headmaster.
• The class teacher should direct the learning experiences of his pupils towards feelings
of success. To be able to do this, pupils would be encouraged to set realistic levels of
aspiration.
• To enable pupils satisfy their basic needs the teacher should be aware of the damaging
effect of excessive competition. He should realise that if competition becomes
excessive in a school situation, pupils may think of learning solely as a means to an
end i.e to compete and beat others. Encourage pupils to set their own records and beat
them.
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• Another means of helping pupils to satisfy some of their basic needs is to encourage
pupils to develop the desire to achieve. To do this, teachers should arrange learning
experiences that would produce realistic levels of aspiration. At the same time the
teacher should encourage pupils to emulate the qualities of high achievers by taking
personal responsibility for attempting a task.
• To satisfy the basic needs for your pupils, take advantage of their natural interests, try
to create new ones and encourage learning for its own sake. This is based on the belief
that if children are allowed to follow their natural interests, they will learn all they
need to know. For this reason children should be given considerable freedom to select
activities because of their intrinsic interests which constitute their needs.
• When feasible, permit and encourage pupils to direct their own learning in order to
satisfy their own needs. This is because when pupils solve the puzzle in a self
imposed task, a great deal of enthusiasm, satisfaction and a feeling of accomplishment
are generated.
• To satisfy the pupils' needs the teacher has to provide encouragement and incentives
for learning that is essential but may not be intrinsically appealing. Sometimes, it is
necessary to use incentives in order to help students master some knowledge or skills
that are rarely thought of as fascinating but necessary if pupils are to function in a
complex society.
• The teacher should show affection to his pupils and accept them in order to help them
better.
• The teacher should help the children in class to love and accept one another. This
can be done in several ways e.g by modelling the behaviour, by group discussion and
coaching.
• The teacher can help to group children so that those who were not loved and accepted
can be integrated into groups in the class.
ASSIGNMENT
1. List any three ways you can adopt to satisfy your children's basic physiological needs.
2. How would you satisfy a basic need which has a boring and interesting learning
experience?
3. Discuss how a teacher can help his pupils to satisfy their need for acceptance and
affection.
4. Organise a group discussion in your class on how to help rejected children and those
without friends. Note the point the children make.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London : Evans, 1976
Eke , E. & Esuman, J.K., Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
340
UNIT 5 (EDU113.5): CATERING FOR INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
Think of two brothers or sisters that look alike. List on a piece of paper the characteristics
that help you identify each one, their similarity notwithstanding.
Think now of identical twins. They could be males ,females. They could be of any age
between 0 and 15 years. List on a piece of paper the characteristics which help you to identify
each one, their close similarity notwithstanding. All these characteristics which help you to
distinguish two very similar brothers, sisters or even twins show that no two persons are so
exactly the same. There must be individual characteristics or differences which mark out one
person or individual from another. In this unit we shall study some of the individual
differences we find in our class pupils. We shall also attempt to see how as teachers we
should cater for children with these differences.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain clearly the meaning of individual differences, using specific examples.

2. list and explain with specific examples, at least six ways through which children
differ.
3. show six ways, using classroom situations as examples, through which a class teacher
can cater for or help children with individual differences in his class.

INSTRUCTIONS
important ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try and look up its meaning in
your dictionary.
exercises.
4. CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT
THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

We have realized from the introduction to this unit that no two persons are exactly the same.
Because no two persons are alike, there is what is called individual differences. This is an
important concept which we should know as educators. Basically this concept means that no
two persons are exactly the same, even identical twins. Children and adults differ in age,
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even though they might be regarded as a homogenous group. Children also may differ in their
height, complexion or even intellectual ability. The teacher should have a thorough
knowledge of these individual differences and bear them in mind any time he is dealing with
his pupils. We discovered earlier on that identical twins differ in many ways. Imagine then
the number of differences which are bound to occur among non twins. Because of this
concept that no two persons are the same, modern education is becoming skeptical over the
class method of teaching which apparently ignores this concept.
The class method has to accept that each child is a unique human being, different in rate of
growth and development. Each, therefore , differs in achievement. The concept of individual
differences seems to permeate all aspects of life but many class teachers tend to ignore it.
Each individual comes into the world with a unique inherited capacity. For example, a close
examination of children reveals that children differ in a large variety of ways. Their talent in
creative, writing, musical and dramatic abilities differ. Children's adjustment patterns are
different. There are differences in speech, hearing, vision and physical skills. One may see
how easy it is also to notice among children differences in height, weight, general health and
dentition or teeth formation. All these are individual differences.
ACTIVITY I
1.What does the term individual differences mean?
2.List three broad areas in which children in your class can differ.
AREAS IN WHICH CHILDREN DIFFER AND HOW TO CATER FOR

THEM
1. Differences in Physique and Sex
There are many differences which are observable in children in terms of their physical
appearance and sex. At the early stages of development, the classroom teacher should
take note of differences in physique and sex. Some children are boys others are girls.
At the adolescent stage physical differences among children are greater. Some
children are tall others short. Some are fat others are slim. Girls may not be able to
perform certain physical exercises which boys perform. They may not be as strong as
boys. Boys and girls may perform differently in certain subjects. For example,
performance of boys and girls may differ in sewing and cookery, woodwork and
blacksmithing. Girls may perform better in the first two and boys in the last two
subjects. It is also argued that boys excel in mathematics and the sciences while girls
excel in arts and languages. On the average, girls perform better than boys in reading,
comprehension, vocabulary and language skills. To cater for these differences you
must pay special attention when teaching girls mathematics and other science
subjects. Also you should make arrangements so that the smaller children sit where
they can see the board. During Physical Education lessons, you should bear in mind
the size, strength and sex of the children when grouping them for exercises.
2. Differences in Intelligence
The teacher should bear in mind that intelligence is a factor of heredity and
environment differs among children. Some children are lucky to possess a high level
of intelligence. While some children are of normal or average intelligence, some are
bright or have above average intelligence. The very bright ones are able to learn
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rapidly and easily. They can see relationships and are aware of many things children
at their age are not aware of. Above all, very bright children have the capacity for
creativity and originality. Awareness of these differences in the intellectual-ability of
your class children should influence your teaching methods. Exercise a lot of
patience for slow learners in the class. You should also use a variety of methods for
teaching which will involve activities, demonstrations and the use of different senses
of the body. Also, try and make use of different kinds of aids while teaching and as
much as possible teach children individually. Above all, regulate the teaching to suit
the slow learners and also move fast on the basis of individual progress with the
bright ones.
3. Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity
The classroom has children with great differences and there is no way of removing
individual differences. Therefore, even though a number of children may be grouped
together in the same class, there may be differences in their ages. This implies that all
children in a class cannot perform equally all tasks given to them. Some children may
not be mature enough to perform certain physical or mental exercises while some will
be capable of doing both. Educators who emphasize the concept of maturation
believe that all development occurs in definite, internally controlled sequences.
These sequences apply not only to the growth of tissues and organs but also to their
functions and behaviours. Because of this, the rate at which children mature differs.
This difference in the rate of maturation obeys the law or concept of readiness. This
law of readiness simply states that for the learner to learn successfully, he must be
ready to learn. Readiness is a function of maturation and stimulation. Children should
be taught a task or skill only when they are ready notwithstanding the fact that they
are all in the same class.
To cater for differences in the maturity level of children, you should only introduce
concepts, and skills to the children who are mature enough to learn such. The most
effective way to determine readiness to learn is to give the child the opportunity to
learn and then observe his behaviour. If the child is ready he would respond
pleasurably to the learning experiences before him. If the child is not ready, it
becomes a waste of effort and may result in frustrating the child, to force him to learn.
You must not set or expect the same performance standards for all children in class
even if they are of the same age. Above all make use of teachable moments. This is
the optimum time when you can introduce and stress any skills or attitudes you want
to teach your children.
4. Differences in Health
There is a common saying that "A healthy mind is found in a healthy body". Some
children inherit weak health potentials from their parents, while others are lucky to
inherit very good health potentials. Some are partially deaf or dumb, others have
either bad sight, deformed hands or legs. They sit in the class side by side with
children who speak well, hear well and have no physical deformity. Some children are
sickly while others are sicklers. Others by virtue of luck are very beautiful or
handsome with strong health and this makes people anxious to help them. The
concept of individual differences makes it mandatory for teachers to bear these
differences in mind while teaching the pupils.
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To cater for these differences a teacher must make sure that tasks assigned to
handicapped pupils are tasks that are feasible given their limitations. It does appear to
be a great injustice to expect that the handicapped children should grasp lessons at the
same rate as their more fortunate counterparts. As the teacher you should display a lot
of understanding, tact and resourcefulness.
Vary the methods of teaching and make a lot of aids for the teaching of the weak
pupils. Sick pupils should move at their pace while extra effort to appeal to their
senses should be exploited. Medical attention should be sought for the sick ones and
periodic check-up for the healthy ones.
5. Differences in Children's Background
Apart from differences in children as a result of heredity, there exist differences which
result from different types of environment in which children find themselves. A child
who grows in the hands of well-to-do parents is likely to enjoy a good environment.
He will probably have access to some modern gadgets found in the homes such as
electricity, good water supply, radio sets, television sets. This child is exposed
intellectually by the possession of different types of magazines and children's books.
He enjoys good medical attention.
This child so described will differ significantly from a child who lives in an out-post
of the town such as the village farm. This second child lives in a thatched house with
no modern facilities. Such a child, no matter his intelligence may be handicapped by
his environment. Most of the modern gadgets found in the homes of well- to-do
parents are inaccessible to children in a poor environment. The role of the classroom
teacher is to recognize the fact that children come from different homes, environments
and socio-economic backgrounds. This has to be taken into consideration while
teaching and learning activities go on. The teacher should not take some of the topics
slated for teaching for granted. For example , topics like the Railway Station, the
Motorpark, Supermarket and even a Court Scene may be unfamiliar to a child in a
poor environment. Give as many examples as possible while teaching. Visual aids and
visits to such places of interest may help to minimise environmental differences.
Before asking your class pupils to contribute money or real things for class projects
like dramatization, make sure each child can afford to execute his own assignment.
6. Differences in Character
Some children differ in disposition. This difference is both genetic and environmental.
A child may be a confident child and would grow up as a confident adult. Some
children are emotionally stable and are never withdrawn or dull in appearance. Such
children are exposed to and are surrounded by healthy influences. The result is that
the children appear bright, confident and see the teacher as a friend. They are not
afraid of their class teacher and ask questions and seek help from him. But some
children are not stable. They may come from emotionally unstable homes where
parents fight very regularly. They are never confident of themselves. Because of the
unhealthy influences which surround such children they are generally timid or fearful.
Timid children may resort to withdrawing from social interactions which go on in the
class.
As a teacher, it is your duty to remember the differences in disposition and character
among your children when you teach them. A good teacher should check and pilot the
curiosity or inquisitiveness of his emotional stable children. Answer their questions
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and give them more challenging tasks. Expose them more to wholesome influences
and problem solving situations. For the children who are not emotionally very mature
try to be patient with them. They need plenty of love, assurance and confidence.
Stimulate them with simple tasks which they can perform and encourage them as they
attempt the tasks. Timid ones should be shown areas where they excel more than their
counterparts to instill confidence.
ACTIVITY II
1. Name the ways through which individual differences may occur in children.
2. Explain how children in your class can differ in their maturational level. How would
you cater for such children if you found them in your class?
3. Explain how as a teacher, you would cater for the individual differences due to health,
if you find that in your class.
SUMMARY
• Basically, the term individual differences means that no two persons are alike exactly,
not even identical twins. When children stay in a class as a homogenous group, there
are many differences within them. These differences among children can be in one of
the following ways:
• Some Children differ in Physique and Sex: This means that in a class you may see
boys and girls. Some are tall while others are short. The teacher should realise that
some children may not be able to perform certain activities in the class and he should
not force them. Certain subjects such as sewing, cookery could be taught to girls only
while wood work and blacksmithing could be taught to boys only.
• Differences in Intelligence: As a result of heredity or environment, individual
differences occur in children's intellectual power. To cater for this difference the class
teacher should show a lot of patience to those children who are not intellectually
good. Different methods of teaching such as dramatization and project/assignment
should be used to help the weak children. Give challenging tasks to the bright
children to keep them always busy.
• Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity: Some children are more mature
physically and mentally than their counterparts of the same age. This explains why
some children of the same age may not perform certain exercises which their
counterparts perform. The law of readiness determines when a child is capable of
performing any task. Teachers should find out when a child is mature or ready before
introducing any skill or task. Never expect children of the same age to perform
equally.
• Differences in Health: Individual differences occur in children's health. While some
children are sicklers others are robust in health. Because of the differences in health,
children are bound to perform differently. A sick child may be incapable of strenuous
activities. Class teachers should avoid exposing the sick ones to demanding exercises.
Medical attention should be provided always for them.
• Differences in Background: There exists differences in children which arise as a
result of the different types of environment in which children find themselves. The
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child who finds himself in a healthy environment may perform better than a child
from a harsh environment. Teachers should bear in mind that children in their class
come from different backgrounds. They should therefore vary their methods of
teaching and give as many examples as possible.
• Differences in Character: A child may be born and brought up as a sound and
confident child with good character. Another child may be born into an unstable
home. This may affect the child and he may become timid. The child may also resort
to bullying. For the teacher to cater for these differences he should show plenty of
love, understanding and assurance to the emotionally weak ones. The confident ones
should be allowed to get along with suitable influences around.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. With specific examples explain the concept of individual differences.
2. Children differ in (i) physique and sex as well as (ii) intellectual ability . Explain and
show how a teacher can cater for such differences.
3. Describe what is meant by environmental differences among children. Suggest ways
of handling these differences.
4. State any six ways that a teacher can use to cater for individual differences.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London : Evans, 1976.
Eke , E. & Esuman,J.K., Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:

346
UNIT 6 (EDU113.6): CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL

CHILDREN AND CLASSROOM
PROVISIONS FOR THEM
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we dealt with the individual differences which a classroom teacher is likely to
observe among his pupils. We observed that there are physical differences among our pupils.
Please list some of these differences we observed in the physical features of our pupils. We
also found out that pupils exhibit intellectual differences. List some of these differences. As
you examine your lists you will find out that some of these differences in children are so
pronounced that they become handicaps. For example some children may not only be short
but abnormally short, perhaps dwarfs. A child may not be short by heredity, but as a result of
accident, his legs may be cut off. Some children can not see the contents of the blackboard or
are blind completely. We shall therefore study in this unit the different categories of pupils
who have some pronounced problems which affect their learning activities. We shall also
examine some classroom provisions made for these effective learning activity.
OBJECTIVES
1. describe the concept of exceptional children.
2. classify clearly the different categories of exceptional children.
3. state the classroom provisions for the two broad categories of exceptional children.

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read through this unit once. You should as you read, try to note the main and major
ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try and look up the meaning of such an
unfamiliar word in your dictionary.
exercises.
WORD STUDY
Categories: This means different groups or classes
Typologies: Different types.
Acceleration: This is defined as progress through an educational programme at a
rate faster than the conventional time
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Ability Grouping: When you group children of the same intellectual capacity in a
group or class, it is called ability grouping.
Horizontal Enrichment: This consists in giving a gifted child who is ahead of the class
more material at the same level of difficulty.
Vertical Enrichment: This involves giving the gifted child more work than
the work given to other class members.
THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD

The exceptional child may be difficult to define because the term exceptional carries with it
different meanings. For example, some psychologists refer to exceptional as extraordinary
talents while others use the term for dull or backward children who lag behind in academic
achievement.
An exceptional child could mean a child who deviates physically, intellectual, emotionally
and socially, in a marked way from the normal or average child. Such a child may not benefit
from regular classroom programme and may need special treatment in school. Although
various attempts have been made to define an exceptional child yet no single definition has
been generally agreed upon. However in their book Exceptional Children, Daniel Hallahan
and James Kaufman define exceptional children as those children who require special
education and related services if they are to realise their full human potential. So the
important point in this definition is that the child cannot benefit from the normal school
without some extraordinary help. But S.A. Kirk in his book Educating Exceptional
Children defined an exceptional child as one who deviates from the normal or average child
in mental, physical and social characteristics to such an extent that he requires a modification
of school practices, special education or supplementary instruction in order to develop to his
maximum. Kirk emphasizes the point that the exceptional child differs significantly from a
typical normal child. In other words the term exceptional represents children on both
extremes of achievement. Such children could either be very intelligent that they are by far
very superior to their class mates or very dull that they would be regarded as dollards by their
peer group.
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain what is meant by the term Exceptional Children.
CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

There are many ways of categorising exceptionalities in children. Usually, psychologists
classify exceptional children into four broad typologies.
1. Intellectually Exceptional Children
There are intellectually exceptional children. They are either very much above
average or very much below average intellectually. Under this category we have the
gifted child, the slow learner and the severely mentally retarded. According to their
level of intelligence:
i. The gifted child is very high in intelligence.
ii. The backward child is very low in intelligence.
iii. The severely mentally retarded is very very low in intelligence.
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Psychologists have a way of classifying them precisely through the results of

intelligence tests.
2. Physically Exceptional Children
Some children are physically exceptional. A look at them makes the exceptionality
very obvious. The physical exceptionalities can be sub-divided into the following
groups:
1 Children with impaired vision. Under this sub-category we have children who
are partially sighted. From the partially sighted range, we have other degrees
of visual impairment until we get the completely blind children. The blind also
go to school.
2. Children with impaired hearing. Under this sub- category we have children
who are hard of hearing. There is a range from the hard of hearing to the
completely deaf children. The deaf also go to school.
3. The crippled. This has to do with muscle and skeletal problems. Most
crippled children go to school with the aid of wheelchairs and other forms of
crutches.
4. The fourth group is the brain or head injury group. Most of the children
associated with this type of exceptionality are accident victims.
All physically exceptional children are handicapped by their exceptionality and this
indirectly affects their academic performance.
3. Emotionally Exceptional Children
Some children are emotionally depressed and this affects their academic performance.
An emotionally exceptional child may be referred to as a delinquent. The following
are their characteristics.
1. Inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or health
factors.
2. Inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with
peers and teachers.
3. Inappropriate behaviour or feelings under normal conditions.
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
4. Multi-handicapped Exceptionalities
Some children may have more than one of the above exceptionalities. For example a
partially sighted child may be an emotionally disturbed child. This makes him a multi-
handicapped exceptional child.
ACTIVITY II
1. 1List four broad areas in which children might have some exceptionalities.
2. List three sub-categories of intellectual exceptionality.
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THE GIFTED CHILD AND THE BACKWARD CHILD

Another way of looking at exceptionalities in children is by classifying them into two broad
areas - The Gifted Child and the Backward Child. The backward child might be backward as
a result of physical handicap, emotional handicap or intellectual handicap. We shall now
examine in a greater detail the gifted child and the backward child. We shall also try to find
out the appropriate classroom provisions for such categories of children.
THE GIFTED CHILD
Gifted children possess the following characteristics:
1. The gifted children show superiority in reading, language, arithmetic and reasoning.
2. The interest of gifted children are many sided. They learn to read more easily and
better.
3. The gifted children tend to be more dependable and independent.
4. They are less inclined to boasting.
5. They are more creative and original.
Educational Provisions For The Gifted Child

Because of these characteristics, the following provisions should be made for gifted children.
1. They need acceleration. Acceleration is defined as progress through an educational
programme at a rate faster than the conventional age. A gifted child may enter the
school before the normal age of 6 years. He may accelerate at the junior or senior
primary school, he may secure an early admission i.e to university before the age of
17 and may graduate earlier than the normal time.
2. Ability grouping could be done for the gifted children. This is based on the
assumption that learning will be effective and efficient when bright pupils are grouped
together.
3. Horizontal and vertical enrichment help gifted children. Horizontal enrichment
consists in giving a gifted child who has finished an assignment ahead of everyone
else more material at the same level of difficulty. Vertical enrichment involves giving
a more advanced work of the same general type.
4. Consult with gifted learners and assign study projects in form of learning contracts. If
the class for example is studying Nigerian history, you may ask the gifted child to
write a special report. This special report would cover the life of one ethnic group in
Nigeria, other than the child's ethnic group. The child should feel free to choose
which ethnic group to write on.
5. Encourage supplementary reading and writing. Capable students should spend the
extra time they gain in reading and writing on other useful and relevant topics.
6. Foster in gifted children the development of creative hobbies. A gifted child should
be free to use his spare class time to the intensive development of a hobby like fine art
and poetry. This could lead to future specialization.
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ACTIVITY III
1. List three characteristics which would help you to identify gifted children.
2. What would be your recommendations to a class teacher who has gifted children in
his class?
THE BACKWARD CHILD

Slow learners constitute a large group of backward children. The chief deficiency of a slow
learner is in the area of intelligence. He may have other exceptionalities but the fact is that,
whatever his exceptionality may be, has effect on his academic achievement. A backward
child may have less capacity for abstract thinking and correlation of past experiences. The
social development of a backward child lags behind that of a normal child of his age. His
intelligence level is very low. He may lack confidence and has a low self-concept. A
backward child has short memory and short attention spans.
Educational Provisions For Backward Children

1. Regular Class:
If backward children are placed in a regular classroom with other normal children,
special attention should be given them. This has been found not to be usually very
easy. In regular class it has been observed that the backward children soon fall
behind. The tradition in most schools is to hold them back until they are intellectually
able to pass their examination. This of course leads to frustration.
2. Special Class:
To remove some of the defects of regular classroom teaching of backward children,
the special class arrangement is developed. Such children are placed in a separate
class under special teachers. They are taught at their own pace.
3. Special School
Special schools are opened for children with severe handicap. Such as the profoundly
mentally retarded, cripple, the blind or the completely deaf and dumb children. In
these special schools, special arrangement for equipment and specialist teachers are
made to cater for this category of children. In which ever category an exceptional
child finds himself, the teacher must try to observe the following guidelines to help
minimise the effect of such a child's handicap.
4. As much as possible the teacher should avoid placing backward children in situations
that are likely to cause frustration. Encourage children to engage in relaxing changes
such as combining intellectual activity with physical activity.
5. Do everything to encourage children's self-esteem. Backward children are prone to
devalue themselves because they are aware that they are less capable than their
classmates.
6. Present learning tasks that are simple. Backward children tend to over simplify
concepts.
7. Give backward children series of brief lessons that can be completed in short periods
of time. They have short periods of attention span.
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8. Build overlearning into lessons for backward children. Keep going back to materials
previously studied.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Explain what is meant by the term "Backward Children".
2. List three educational provisions you can make for backward children.
SUMMARY
• The Concept of An Exceptional Child
An exceptional child is one who deviates from the normal child in mental, physical
and social characteristics to such an extent that he requires a modification of school
practices, special education or supplementary instruction in order to develop to his
maximum. An exceptional child may represent a child on either extremes of
achievement.
• Categories of Exceptional Children

There are four major categories of exceptional children.
1. Intellectually exceptional children. Under this category we have the gifted
child and also the slow learner. The third sub-category is referred to as the
severely mentally retarded.
2. Physically exceptional children. Sub categories of physically exceptional
children would include children with impaired vision, children with impaired
hearing, the crippled, and children with brain or head injury.
3. Emotionally exceptional children. They are sometimes referred to as
delinquents.
4. The multi handicapped exceptionalities. These are children with more than
one handicap.
• The gifted child is the high achiever and excels in different walks of life. He
demonstrates superiority in academic work but never given to boasting. The
education of gifted children may need acceleration, ability grouping or horizontal and
vertical enrichment programmes.
• On the other hand, the backward child is sometimes referred to as the slow learner.
His chief deficency is low intelligence. A backward child may have short memory,
and short attention span. There are three major alternative provisions for backward
children. They may stay in regular classroom with special attention, or in a special
class with a specialist teacher or in a special school. Where the exceptionality is
profound the child is sent to a special school where available equipments and highly
skilled teachers service these unfortunate children.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. What do you understand by the term Exceptional Children?
2. Attempt a classification of the exceptionalities found in our schools today.
3. List the provisions you would recommend for a group of gifted children identified in
your community.
4. Take a trip to one of the special schools in your state. List some of the
exceptionalities you find. Find out from the class teachers the type of aids they use in
teaching them.
REFERENCES
Eke , E. & Esuman, J.K. Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Stones, E., An Introduction to Educational Psychology, New York: Spectrum Books, 1966.
353
UNIT 7 (EDU113.7): DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN

THE CLASSROOM AND HOW TO
COPE WITH THEM
INTRODUCTION
For any meaningful activity to go on in the classroom the teacher must try to control
disruptive behaviours in his classroom. A teacher needs to establish classroom discipline,
control and management. Without some kind of order in the classroom, nothing much of
educational value can be done. If as a teacher, you have had the misfortune to be in a badly
managed classroom or one completely out of control, you would then appreciate the
importance of the problem. When pupils misbehave, disrupt activities, the teacher may be
said to have failed in creating the environment required for classroom learning and teaching.
This is why we shall examine in this unit some disruptive behaviours found in the classroom
and how the teacher can cope with them.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the meaning of disruptive behaviours
2. identify the major social and school factors which are the causes of disruptive
behaviours found in our classrooms.
3. List some of the minor and serious disruptive behaviours found in our classrooms.
4. state ways a teacher can use in dealing or coping with both kinds of disruptive
behaviours.

INSTRUCTIONS
important ideas. When you find an unfamiliar word, try and look up the meaning of
2. You should study this unit step-by-step just as the entire unit has been arranged for
exercises.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTSAT
354
DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS: MEANING AND CONTRIBUTORY

FACTORS
Meaning of Disruptive Behaviours
There are many types of problems which occur in the classroom and with which the teacher
has to cope. Some are minor and some are serious. When we talk of disruptive behaviours we
mean those behaviours of children which are against school or class routines, practice and
minor rules. The behaviours disturb lessons and cause discipline problems in the class. The
behaviours are normally of limited duration, and do not necessarily mean that the children
have serious psychological problems. Examples of such behaviours are restlessness in class,
whispering when quiet work is being done, shouting at others, failure to do assignments in
class, noise making, littering the class, etc.
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN THE

CLASSROOM
1. Child Related Factors:
i. Immaturity: Children who are too young for the class or who are too immature
for their age may not be able to keep to the routines in class.
ii. Intellectual Ability: The general level of intelligence can also influence how
the child conducts himself in class.
iii. Ignorance: The child may not be aware of certain practices in class. If he is a
new pupil in the class or if he was never told about certain standard
behaviours, he could out of ignorance disrupt class lessons. If the rule in class
is that you do not push your chair noisily and the child did not know, his
behaviour may be disruptive.
iv. Physical Condition: The child may be sick, malnourished, easily bored or tired
or he may be a very active and restless child. These physical states may
predispose him to disrupt normal class functioning. He may stand up too
slowly, push his chair, jump around and if the teacher is over strict, these may
constitute disruptive behaviours.
2. School Factors:
The school itself shares in the causes of disruptive behaviour. Within the school, but
still outside the control of the classroom teacher, the following can cause disruptive
behaviours.
i. The organization of the school may force students into a curriculum for which they
are unsuited by past experience, present interest and future prospects. Such a
curriculum breeds failure and threatens self- esteem.
ii. Placing pupils perhaps wrongly in low, middle and high ability groups may lead to
disruptive behaviour.
iii. Large school size may lead to lack of attention of the individual child and the
crowding of pupils into small spaces. This may cause disruptive behaviour.
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iv. Lack of teacher authority in the class may cause disruptive behaviour.
v. Large classes that prevent teachers from helping individual students who need special
attention cause disruptive behaviour.
vi. Disruptive behaviour may result from poor communication between the school and
the home.
3. Societal Factors:
Disruptive behaviour in the classroom can be traced outside the classroom. The
causes may reside in the same society that produce crime outside the school. Some of
the societal factors which cause or result in disruptive behaviours include:
i. Inappropriate parental handling of children
ii. Socio economic status of parents.
iii. Exposure to poor models in society and in the media e.g televisions.
iv. Frustration on the part of students due to inadequate scholastic achievement.
v. Peer influences may lead to disruptive behaviours among pupils.
ACTIVITY I
1. List five societal factors that can lead to disruptive behaviours in the classroom.
2. Name anyfive factors connected with the school which are responsible for disruptive
behaviours.
3. Give any four factors related to the child which could be responsible for disruptive
behaviours.
CATEGORIES OF DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS

Disruptive behaviours can be classified into two broad categories, namely: minor disruptive
behaviour and major disruptive behaviours.
Let us first examine the minor disruptive behaviours which are commonly found in the
classroom.
1. MINOR DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS
(a) A student may not pay attention. This is a disruptive behaviour which can take any of
the following forms:
being inattentive
being preoccupied with nothing serious
staring into space
being lost in thought
(b) A student may not show interest in his class work. This is likely to lead to disruptive
behaviour when the student:
fills idle time drawing
does not complete work
hands in sloppy work
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plays whenever he can

fails to ask for help
finishes late or is slow in work.
(c) Minor disruptive behaviour may occur if a student fails to adhere to rules about
attendance and promptness.
This happens also if the student comes to class late.
(d) A student who fails to display sufficient independent behaviour is showing a little
disruptive behaviour.
This can also happen if the student:
seeks praise and encouragement for every little thing he does.
seeks unauthorised help
seeks attention, and
curries favour in class.
2. THE MAJOR DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS
We may examine the big disruptive behaviours under the following:
a. One of the disruptive behaviours in the classroom is physical aggression. This
disruptive behaviour may include:
Pushing others
Pulling at them
Bossing
Bullying
Dominating others
Arguing and Interrupting.
b. Another major disruptive set of behaviours is peer related.
These behaviours may take the form of
Making exaggerated gestures to peers
Moving or wandering around the class to peers without permission.
c. Challenging of authority is a major disruptive behaviour.
This may also take the form of
Talking aloud in the class
Disobeying the teacher or other delegated authority.
d. Noise making is a major disruptive behaviour. It may be in the form of:
Criticisms and complaints that are unjust or not constructive
Laughing with a purpose to disturb others
Making noises like whistling and shouting in the class
Making unnecessary noise with objects like pen, ruler or school boxes.
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ACTIVITY II
1. List any four minor disruptive behaviours which a class teacher may confront in his
class.
2. Name any four two major disruptive behaviours a teacher is likely to encounter in
his class.
HOW TO COPE WITH DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS:

From all we have said above it does seem that no classroom teacher can claim the complete
absence of major and minor disruptive behaviours generally noticed in classrooms. If this is
correct, it becomes necessary to examine some ways teachers can effectively contain the
disruptive behaviours. In dealing with all types of disruptive behaviours, two major ways
stand out. The teacher may wish to deprive the disruptive behaviour any form of
reinforcement so that the behaviour can fade out. Alternatively ,the teacher may choose to
elicit an incompatible desirable behaviour any time the disruptive behaviour is shown. The
above two major ways of combating disruptive behaviours can be practicalised by the
classroom teacher through the following ways.
1. Withholding Attention: A classroom teacher can cope with the disruptive behaviour
of a pupil by depriving such behaviour of reinforcement. This is done through
withholding attention from such culprit. It is true that many a time this strategy seems
contrary to the teacher's natural tendency of noticing the offending pupil. But,
whenever it is feasible,the teacher should ignore a pupil who engages in any
disruptive behaviour. This can be done by turning to the pupil paying attention or by
walking away from the misbehaving pupils. In very serious cases, fellow students
could be asked to help. They could do this by ignoring their classmates' misbehaviour.
The teacher could also keep the pupils busy with interesting tasks to enable them
ignore the offending pupil. By ignoring and withholding attention for sometime, the
disruptive behaviour will become extinct.
2. Eliciting Desirable Behaviour: This may be very simple for the teacher to do. He
can stop disruptive behaviour in a pupil through reinforcing desirable behaviour that
is incompatible with the undesirable behaviour. For example, if a pupil is fond of
speaking or answering a question without permission, call on him to speak before he
speaks without permission.
3. Removing Controlling Stimulus: To stop a disruptive behaviour the teacher can
remove the controlling stimulus. A teacher can remove the controlling stimulus in one
of these ways. If fighting occurs during certain games, eliminate such games. If it
occurs whenever two students sit or play together, keep them apart.
4. Punishment: There are instances where none of the above strategies succeed in
stopping a disruptive behaviour. In some cases the disruptive behaviour gets to the
level that does not permit effective teaching to go on. When this level is reached the
teacher has no alternative than to resort to punishment. Such punishment may take the
form of:
(a) Soft reprimands
(b) Reprimands coupled with praise
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(c) Social isolation

(d) Negative attention such as gestures indicating that the student was
misbehaving.
5. Clearly inform students of the rules in class. If they can read, list the rules, discuss
them and put them up.
6. Be an example to the students. Do not tell them one thing and do another. It has been
found that a noisy teacher tends to have a noisy classroom because pupils imitate their
teachers.
7. Relax some of the class rules to make allowances for the developmental level of the
children.
8. Make the children participate and be fully involved in classroom activities.
9. Show the children in your class love and acceptance so that your relationship with
them will be very warm and cordial. Pay attention to individual pupils and they will
not disrupt your classes deliberately.
10. Make your classes interesting and teach with enthusiasm so that children will not be
bored.
ACTIVITY III
1. List six methods a teacher may use in combating disruptive behaviour in the class.
2. Explain how you would use the removal of a controlling stimulus as a strategy for
coping with a disruptive behaviour.
SUMMARY
• We have discussed disruptive behaviours in terms of those behaviours that disturb the
normal routine in the class. The behaviours tend to last for short periods and are more
or less normal for the children.
• Disruptive behaviours in the classroom can be as a result of either societal factors or
school factors or factors related to the child.
• Child Related Factors include
i. immaturity
ii. intellectual ability
iii. ignorance
iv. the physical state of the children.
• The school itself shares in the causes of disruptive behaviour through the following
ways:
i. The organization of the school may force students into a curriculum for which
they are unsuited for.
ii. Placing pupils wrongly in ability groups.
iii. Large school size and accompanying depersonalisation.
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iv. Lack of teacher authority.

v. Large classes.
vi. Poor communication.
• Some of the societal factors include:
i. Inappropriate parental handling of children.
ii. Socio-economic status of parents.
iii. Exposure to poor models in society and media.
iv. Frustration on the part of pupils.
v. Peer and gang influences lead to disruptive behaviours.
• Minor Disruptive Behaviours include:
i. Not paying attention.
ii. Not showing interest in class work
iii. Not interacting with others.
iv. Not adhering to the rules of attendance and punctuality.
v. Not showing adequate independent behaviour.
• Major Disruptive Behaviours
i. Physical aggression.
ii. Peer related set of behaviours.
iii. Attention seeking
iv. Challenging of authority
v. Noise making
• The following strategies can be used to combat the disruptive behaviours of pupils:
i. Withholding Attention.
ii. Eliciting Desirable Behaviour.
iii. Removing control stimulus.
iv. Punishment in the form of reprimands, reprimands with praise, social isolation
and negative attention.
v. Clearly stated rules of behaviour
vi. Good teacher example
vii. Being flexible in implementing the rules
viii. Ensuring effective participation of the pupils in class activities
ix. Giving love and acceptance to the pupils and catering for their individual
differences
x. Making the classes interesting and teaching with lots of enthusiasm
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain how (i) parental rejection (ii) negative mass media influence can cause
disruptive behaviours in the classroom.
2. List any four major disruptive behaviours and any four minor disruptive behaviours
found in the classroom.
3. As a classroom teacher, list any eight ways you would use to combat disruptive
behaviours in your pupils.
REFERENCES
Eke , B. & Esuman, J. K Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context, Ibadan:

Stones, E., An Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Spectrum Books, 1966.
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UNIT 8 (EDU113.8): SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF

CHILDREN: JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY, STAMMERING,
NAIL BITING, ENURESIS, AND
PROBLEMS THAT NEED
REFERRALS
INTRODUCTION
Many teachers have had at one time or the other to bring classroom discussion to a stop so
that they could handle problem behaviour of pupils. However, not all forms of problem
behaviour may so disrupt the classroom procedure (for example nail - biting does not
necessarily disturb other pupils). Be that as it may, the teacher should look into all forms of
problem behaviour among his pupils.
Some teachers feel that they should not concern themselves with the delinquent or anti-social
behaviours of their pupils. Do you feel so? A great deal of school problems can be prevented
by the school and by suitable attitude and behaviour on the part of the teachers. The teacher
who is interested in promoting classroom learning, as you are, cannot afford to ignore the
psychological problems of his pupils. Thus he must have some understanding of the various
symptoms or signs of anti-social or delinquent behaviour.
In this unit you will be dealing with different kinds of behaviour that are likely to interfere
with learning processes. The teacher might deal with some of them himself. However, there
are also problems which should be referred to sources of help (or referrals ) outside the
classroom.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the meaning of problem behaviour and give specific examples.
2. list problem behaviours which occur among primary school children in your area.
3. define juvenile delinquency.
4. name at least five factors which cause delinquency.
5. give five ways the teacher can help to prevent and handle delinquency of primary
school children.
6. list the techniques which a teacher can use to help the stammerer in primary school.
7. list ways of coping with nail biting, enuresis, and truancy.
8. identify children's problems that need referrals.
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read through this unit noting the important points and ideas as you read. Look up any
unfamiliar words in the dictionary.
362
2. Study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities. Do not look up the
sample or model answers until you have completed the activities.
3. Try and do the assignments at the end of this unit. If you find any area of the
assignment difficult, go back and study the part of the unit concerned.
4. To obtain maximum benefit, you should obey all the instructions and observe all the
rules.
WORD STUDY
Juvenile: A young person before the age of 18 years.
Delinquency: Any anti-social behaviour which violates the norms and values of a
particular culture or society.
Reinforcer: Any event that increases the probability of the behaviour it follows
occurring again.
Reinforcement: Means strengthening of a response.
Positive Reinforcer: An event which when presented to the individual increases the
behaviour in question.
Negative Reinforcer: An event which when removed strengthens the behaviour. The purpose
of negative reinforcement is to increase the frequency of certain
desired behaviour.
MEANING AND TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS

Problem behaviours, as the name implies, are persistent behaviour patterns which cause
concern to the child and the adults. They are maladjusted behaviours and can be emotional
disorders. They vary in intensity from minor to serious criminal and psychological problems.
Some of the problem behaviours that occur among primary school children are:
(i) Juvenile Delinquency
(ii) Stammering
(iii). Nail biting and thumb sucking
(iv) Enuresis
(v) Truancy
These behaviour problems are important to us teachers because we need to help the children
who have them. We may guide them out of the problems or refer them to people who can
help. If the children are allowed to live with the problems they affect the children's
classroom work and can also grow into very serious problems in future.
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DELINQUENT BEHAVIOURS FOUND AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL

PUPILS
In primary schools children manifest problem behaviours some of which are anti-social.
Among such behaviours are:
Stealing
Aggression
Cheating
Alcoholism and drug abuse and in very rare cases promiscuity are also delinquent behaviours.
Some of these are criminal acts and they are regarded as delinquency.
Stealing:
This is the most common form of delinquency. It may take the form of stealing pencils, biros,
erasers, books and money from other classmates. Sometimes, children steal their parents
money and bring to school. The teacher should take note of a child who comes to school with
a lot of money and report to appropriate authority.
Aggression:
Young pupils especially boys, tend to be aggressive. Aggression may take the form of
fighting, bullying of juniors by seniors, damaging of school property, and mockery. In a few
cases, death has resulted due to fighting. Aggression is a typical reaction to frustration.
Cheating:
A common act of delinquency is cheating. Some children cheat at examinations, bring in
written materials, copy from other pupils. Especially during examinations and tests, teachers
should be vigilant to detect cheats. The teacher should take time to explain to such pupils the
implications of cheating. The parents should also be notified.
Alcoholism and Drug Abuse:
This is found among boys in the upper primary classes some of whom are of secondary
school age. Illicit gin and drugs are sometimes brought to school in small containers. The
teachers should watch out for such cases and provide the necessary remedy. Alcoholism and
drug abuse if not checked may lead to addiction in later life.
Promiscuity :
In the upper primary classes some mature girls may be promiscuous. They may have boy
friends among the mature boys and even teachers. Due to ignorance of family planning,
some of the girls may become pregnant. Pregnancy may lead to abortion which may result
in dangerous consequencies such as death. The teacher should watch out for signs of
pregnancy for early detection and referral to medical sources.
ACTIVITY I
1. Explain the meaning of problem behaviour.
2. List the different kinds of problem behaviour which occur in primary school.
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THE MEANING OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Before we attempt a definition of juvenile delinquency, let us first of all try to understand the
ideas contained in the two key words i.e 'juvenile' pertaining to a young person or a child and
delinquency relating to anti-social behaviours. It can be criminal in nature which might lead
to arrest by law enforcement agencies or conviction in courts of law.
It is a behaviour which is not accepted by members of the community or group. We can then
define juvenile delinquency as the anti-social behaviour of a criminal nature exhibited by a
young person under the age of 18 years.
GENERAL CAUSES OF DELINQUENCY

Certain home and societal factors are responsible for juvenile delinquences.
Home Factors:
The home environment is important in shaping the behaviour of children. Among the home
factors to be discussed are:-
(i) Broken homes:
In homes where the mother and father are separated or divorced there is lack of
emotional stability.
(ii) Employed parents:
Where both parents are working, the child is more often than not left in the care of
nannies or househelps. The mother might be too busy running after contract jobs, the
father might be on tour most of the time. What time and attention can such parents
give to their children?
(iii) Marital Adjustment:
If there is frequent quarrel between couples, and there is no cooperation among them,
the mental health of the child will be affected.
(iv) Disability of Parents:
If one or both parents are mentally or physically retarded, they will be unable to
exercise control over their children.
(v) Defective Discipline:
If the parents have no criteria or consistency of good discipline (sometimes they are
too strict or too lenient) mental conflicts can be created in the minds of the children.
Parents are confused between traditional and foreign methods of effecting discipline
in the home.
(vi) Lack of Affection:
This happens when children are rejected, neglected and little or no attention is paid to
them. In such a situation the children will not feel secure and may misbehave at one
time or the other. Some parents with hold gifts from the children, threaten, nag,
punish and humiliate them in front of others. Having surveyed the home factors, let
us take a look at the school factors of delinquency.
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School Factors:
The school is another important agent of socialization. The school and the home must work
together to avoid delinquent behaviour among pupils.
The school factors include:
i. Location: If the school is situated in an industrial area of the town, or is far off, not
within easy walking distance from home or it is near markets, then children may
engage in delinquent acts.
ii. Lack of facilities: such as library and recreational facilities: Children have a lot of
energy. They are aggressive too. A lot of recreational facilities in form of games
should be provided in schools to enable the children release tension. A good library
will also help to occupy children's spare time in exploratory reading.
iii. Lack of a Guidance Counsellor: Parents, teachers, government function - aries have
realized the need for the introduction of guidance and conselling in primary schools.
There are problems beyond the scope of the ordinary classroom teacher. Such
problems should be dealt with by a trained guidance marker. Educational and social
guidance is necessary at this stage of a child's development.
PREVENTION OF DELINQUENCY
The objective of prevention is to develop skills and attitudes in the individual so that anti-
social behaviour may be controlled or checked in future. The task of prevention requires
cooperation of the home, school and the society. Parents and other members of the family
can help the child to build good habits, attitudes and desirable values because the child
remains with the parents in early childhood when permanent impressions can be created in
the mind of the child.
Schools can help to prevent delinquency by providing the following
i. Atmosphere free from emotional tensions.
ii. Facilities for co-curricular activities.
iii. Teacher's behaviour e.g by showing good examples.
iv. Developing good reading habits in children.
v. Creating avenues for all children to experience success.
vi. Engaging in public enlightenment.
ACTIVITY II
1. Define the term Juvenile Delinquency
2. Outline five factors in the home and two in the school which cause delinquency
among pupils.
OTHER SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN

In this section we shall examine other special problems of children such as Stammering, nail-
biting, enuresis and others that need referrals. We have already learnt about general causes,
treatment and prevention of juvenile delinquencies. Try to apply some of the ideas discussed
to other problems such as those we are about to discuss now.
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1. STAMMERING
Stammering, which is an aspect of defective speech or an example of speech disorder,
deserves special consideration because of its adverse effect on other school learnings.
Furthermore, stammering is frequently accompanied by emotional difficulties.
For some individual children, stammering is normal, while for others it is abnormal. A
normal stammer shows in many ways. The tendency is for the child to repeat whole
word and phrases e.g "My-My pencil is broken" and "I will-I will beat you".
Sometimes the repetition are mere revisions of the way the child had spoken before
e.g "I gave - I bought groundnuts for the teacher in 1A".
A real stammerer is different. Here are some of the risk signs to look out for:
i. When the child repeats more parts of words than whole words and when he
repeats more than twice e.g p-p- pencil" and "b-ba-ball".
ii. When the child holds the sound longer than about 1 or 2 seconds e.g.b -b -
ball We will discuss how to help the stammerer in our next unit.
Major Causes
There are different causes of stammering.
i. Home factor. Refer to the discussion of these factors under delinquency, and
pick out those ones which are relevant to stammering.
ii. Psychological factors. Stammering which is probably the most dramatic and
common of the classroom disorders is believed to be almost entirely as a result
of psychological factors. Children who stammer are in many cases made to do
so by parents, early teachers or other persons having a formative influence on
the child. Parental anxiety about speech and the focusing of undue attention on
the normal non fluency of children are common causes. Sometimes parents
label their children as stammerers when these children are having no more
than the expected amount of speech difficulty. Speech may in such cases,
become a focal point for children's anxieties and feelings of inadequacy.
iii. Emotional factor.
Stammering is closely linked with emotional life. This becomes more serious
if there are events in the home and school which increase emotional tension.
Emotional strain will magnify the disorder especially in social or group
situations.
2. NAIL BITING
As a class teacher, you must have noticed that many of the children in your class bite
their nails to some extent. Have you ever wondered why this habit is common among
school pupils?
Many children do not know when they bite their nails, they do so at no special time.
Some do so when reading an interesting or exciting story. Others do so when they are
concentrating at school especially when doing Mathematics (difficult sums). For the
rest, they bite their nails when bored.
367
There are some fundamental causes of nail biting. These include:

i. Worry and anxiety: When children are troubled or are anxious over a
problem, nail biting occurs.
ii. It is an expression of repressed aggression, emotional adjustment or anxiety
Hadfield 1950 states that "the child who cannot let off its aggression against
others, lets off its aggression by biting its own nails".
iii. It is also a sign of poor emotional adjustment and restlessness.
3. TRUANCY
Pupils may run away from school or may leave home on the pretext of going to school
while roaming the street only to return home at the close of school. The truant is an
individual who just does not want to go to school and makes plans to do something
else. He may go visiting.
Causes: Among the causes of truancy are:
i. Home factors (which have already been discussed).
ii. Problem of school adjustment. If the activities at school are challenging and
interesting, the child will not be a truant.
iii. Failure or lack of success in school. A child who is successful in school,
whose needs are met, will be sad to miss school.
How Teachers can help Prevent Truancy

i. Activities in the school should be challenging and interesting as those outside. Games
should be provided and other forms of recreational facilities. Football and athletic
coaches, for example, experience no truancy among their players and athletes. Infact,
they often have great difficulty keeping them out of the field when practices are not
scheduled.
ii. Teachers should be more friendly, more warm and more democratic in handling of
pupils. Efforts should be appropriately rewarded.
iii. When desirable changes are made in the school programme, truancy will be on the
decrease.
iv. The atmosphere in the home should be conducive to prevent children from escaping
from home to neighbouring houses.
4. ENURESIS
Teachers seem not to be concerned (as parents do) with neurotic habits of children
such as enuresis. Enuresis is an anti-social behaviour whereby the child wets or soils
himself in class during day time and not only at night in the home. Enuresis can occur
when the child feels disgraced or is tense and nervous. A few children have been
known to collapse in school after wetting themselves in public and cannot face the
reality of shame. Not many teachers can handle such a situation. Such cases should
be referred to a medical doctor.
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Major Causes
Among the general causes are:
i. Anxiety due to pressure from home.
ii. Fear, especially of darkness, in the night.
iii. Lack of confidence in the child and a feeling of inferiority complex.
Treatment
The teacher should find out the causes or source of the problem and treat accordingly. In
case of structural enuresis, a referral is recommended.
ACTIVITY III
1. List any four special problems that are commonly found among primary school
pupils.
2. How would you identify a stammerer?
3. What is meant by enuresis?
4. What are the main causes of enuresis?
SUMMARY
• In this unit we have discussed problem behaviour of children. We learnt that problem
behaviour refers to patterns of behaviour which cause concern to children and adults
alike. They are maladjusted behaviours and behaviour disorders.
• The kinds of problem behaviour which occur in our primary schools include:
i. juvenile delinquency
ii. stammering
iii. nail biting and thumb sucking
iv. enuresis
v. stealing, promiscuity, aggression etc.
vi. truancy.
• Delinquency generally is common among adolescents but can still be found among
primary school pupils. Juvenile delinquency refers to anti-social behaviours of a
criminal nature. Included in these types of anti- social behaviour are: stealing,
cheating, serious destruction of property, etc.
• Home factors such as broken homes, unemployed parents, marital maladjustment,
disability of parents, defective discipline, lack of affection, etc also encourage or
cause delinquencies among pupils. School factors such as location, lack of or
inadequate facilities and lack of guidance and counselling are responsible for
delinquencies among school children.
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• Similarly, schools can prevent delinquency by providing facilities for co-curricular

activities, development of good reading habits, relaxed atmosphere and good example
from teachers.
• There are other special problems of concern to the teacher. These are stammering,
nail-biting, enuresis, truancy, lying, etc.
• The teacher has to identify the causes of these problems and provide necessary help.
Where teachers are unable to handle some severe problems of children, those children
should be referred to specialists for treatment.
• Problem behaviour is often produced or increased by emotional conflicts. Problem
behaviour is more common among boys than girls. Boys' problems are often
increased by the inconsistent ways in which they are often treated by parents and
other adults. The primary school teacher is expected to know more about the
psychological aspects of problem behaviour. Although some specialists are available
to help the teacher with special problems, there is also the recognition that the
classroom teacher must play a key role in whatever programmes are formulated and
carried out.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Name any eight problem behaviours among school children.
2. What methods would you use to reduce stammering among your pupils?
3. What are the major causes of: (a) Juvenile delinquency (b) Enuresis and (c) Truancy?
4. How can teachers prevent truancy?
REFERENCES
Williams P. (ed) Behaviour Problems in School: A Source Book of Readings, London:

Hodder and Stoughton, 1974.
Lindgren H, Educational Psychology In the Classroom, New York :John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
1976.
370
UNIT 9 (EDU113.9): COPING WITH CHILDREN'S

CLASSROOM PROBLEM
BEHAVIOURS
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, Unit 8 of Module 5, we discussed some of the problem behaviours which
occur in the primary school. We had learnt that there were different types such as juvenile
delinquency which is criminal behaviour, problems associated with emotional maladjustment
such as truancy, enuresis and problems which could be structural in nature. We will discuss
what the teacher should do in this unit. There are two approaches: prevention and remedial.
Most of the other units involved with child development have discussed how to guide
development to avoid problems. This unit will discuss the remedial approach.
You have been a teacher and you will agree that the problem behaviour puts both the child
and the class under stress. It is important, therefore, to try and handle problem behaviour as
promptly and as thoroughly as you can.
OBJECTIVES
1. Outline the general measures that can be taken to cope with problem behaviours.
2. State how to handle juvenile delinquency in the class.
3. State the general measures for coping with emotional maladjustment problems.
4. State specific ways of helping children who suffer from enuresis and stammering.
5. List steps for referral cases.

INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read the summary of Unit 8 of Module 5 and the summary of this unit.
2. o back and study this unit step by step as arranged for you. You should attempt all the
exercises. Do not look up the sample answers before attempting the exercises.
Remember to look up any unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
3. To get the best results from this unit, obey all the instructions and observe all the
rules.
WORD STUDY
Remedial: - having to do with cure.
Remedial measures: - the things which the teacher should do to help the
children who already have a problem.
Investigation: - find out the facts about the problem.
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GENERAL METHODS OF COPING WITH PROBLEM BEHAVIOUR

Problem behaviours occur in our classrooms and it is the job of the teacher to try and cope
whenever they occur. There are many things which a teacher can do. We will discuss the
general methods of coping as well as specific methods to some problems.
Some general methods of coping with problem behaviour include:
i. Fact Finding: The very first thing to do when you have observed a problem
behaviour is to find out more about the child, when the problem occurs i.e conditions
that elicit it, the home background of the child, etc. The intention is to establish
whether the problem behaviour was an accident or whether it has become a consistent
pattern of behaviour.
ii. Develop a Positive Attitude: It is important to understand that children with problem
behaviours are under stress. It is important to react towards many kinds of problem
behaviour the same way we react to an academic problem, in a matter of fact way.
When we behave as if the child is totally bad and cannot be redeemed, such a negative
attitude helps to increase the stress of the child.
iii. Establish a Relaxed Atmosphere: A relaxed atmosphere helps to reduce tension,
stress and anxiety. Children can behave more naturally in a relaxed atmosphere.
Besides, when there is good rapport, the students feel freer to take their teachers into
confidence about their problems.
Also, when there is problem behaviour even from one child, the rest of the class is
affected. The teacher should try to handle the problem behaviours especially those of
an anti-social nature in a way that will not create more stress for the rest of the class.
For instance, if an anti-social child competes with the authority of the teacher, some
of the children in the class may become frightened.
A relaxed atmosphere facilitates whatever remedial measures are used. A friendly and
democratic approach which tries to establish the sense of worth of the affected child
helps the child to rediscover himself and makes it easier for him to acquire a stable
personality.
iv. Solicit the Help of the Family: Usually, as we saw in the previous unit, problem
behaviours have many causes. But, quite often, unsatisfactory relationships and
conditions in the home are very important causes.
Because of this, it is usual to invite the parents to a conference and discuss the
problem. Remedial help depends on cooperation between the school and the home.
The home can furnish the teacher with more information. The child's family can also
join in the supportive work of the class teacher. In this way there will be consistency
and the child can develop a sense of security.
ACTIVITY I
1. Outline some of the general ways of handling problem behaviours.
2. Discuss the importance of establishing a relaxed atmosphere and working with the
home.
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COPING WITH JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Apart from the general approach, there are specific things which a teacher could do:
i. Re-education: The aim of re-education is not to give the child academic Knowledge,
but to make clear the pupils' ideas of different problems that the child might face.
ii. Guidance and Counselling: The teacher can give advice or suggest to pupils ways
of strengthening their confidence. Except in severe cases, such as emotional problems,
the child should be referred to a specialist like a professional Guidance Counsellor.
Teachers should not pretend that they can solve all problems. Doing so might cause
more harm than good to the child.
iii. Behaviour Modification: Delinquent behaviours can be modified by teachers and
other psychologists. Constructive and acceptable behaviour can be learnt where the
behaviour consequences are reinforced or punished according to the principles of
programmed learning as propounded by Prof. B.F. Skinner. This involves the use of
positive reinforcers such as rewards to strengthen the occurrence of the desired
behaviour.
iv. Participation in Socially Acceptable Ways: Try to direct the child's drives into
socially acceptable channels. He should be encouraged to participate in games and
sports, voluntary organisations like Boy's Scout, Girls' Guide and so on. These will
help him sweat out the excess energy and think productively.
v. Talk Frankly with a Delinquent: Most children become delinquent due to the
influence of undesirable companions. You should have a frank discussion with such a
child, pointing out to him the implications of his association with such "bad" boys or
girls.
vi. Avoid Tempting the Child: Anything that can tempt the child to become delinquent
must be avoided. For instance, do not put tempting amount of money or objects
carelessly in the classroom.
COPING WITH MALADJUSTMENT OR EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS

Maladjustment problems can manifest in aggressiveness and destruction, enuresis (that is not
structural), thumb sucking and sometimes nail biting. Sometimes, stammering is a result of
emotional problem of anxiety too.
In addition to the general coping measures which we have discussed, there are some specific
things which can be done in order to re-establish a sense of worth.
(a) Group discussion: Let the class discuss methods of managing emotional problems.
You will be amazed at what suggestions children can come up with. Such a
discussion, without mentioning names, will make the other children in class more
sympathetic and supportive. You should guide the discussion in such a way that the
children do not become negative. If there are children who had suffered at the hands
of aggressive children, there might be a tendency to be aggressive.
When you get a summary of their decisions, try to implement them as much as
possible. Suppose one of them was showing specific signs of acceptance, ensure that
the children practise it.
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(b) Routines: Try and establish routines so that the children know what is expected.
Discuss the routines so that the children can contribute to the measures that are taken
in the class. Knowledge of routines helps to reduce anxiety of not knowing what is
expected or of doing something wrong.
(c) Removal of obvious causes of irritation: Try to make any dull or backward child
have a sense of belonging by showing sympathy to his handicaps.
(d) Develop interest in your pupils: Children should be encouraged to be engaged in

both academic and social activities like games, debates, quizzes and so on. They
should also be encouraged to mix freely with others.
STAMMERING
In addition to all of these measures, the teacher can help the stammerer in other specific
ways.
i. Speaking style: You should control the rate of speech and the pace of conversation
when talking to the stammerer. When the child tries to match the speech rate of those
around, he feels a sense of pressure and tends to stammer more.
ii. Simplify the language that is used: The grammar and the vocabulary should be
simple. Use short sentences.
iii. Reduce use of direct questions: Let your conversation with the child not place a
strain. So, you can describe or comment to give the child time to relax and then the
child can join in to make the necessary contribution. The essence is to make the
speech relaxing.
iv. Be patient with the child: Give the child time to complete what he has to say. Do not
show signs of impatience.
ENURESIS
i. Unless there is structural problem, there is no reason why the primary school child
should wet himself in class. The most important thing is to reduce the emotional
pressure and strain on the child. You will observe that he wets himself when he is
under pressure. As you well know, part of our training for bladder control is the use of
teasing. Stop the class children from teasing. You could find means of introducing
this topic in the group discussion.
ii. Arrange with the child to go often to ease himself without his having to go through
the big show of asking. You can plan with your children who wish to go to pick up a
card to indicate that they have to use the toilet. At an appropriate signal from you or
from him, the child could go.
REFERRALS
Problems that require outside assistance are also included in our list. We do not expect you to
be able to solve all the problems. There are some problems which have a structural basis.
You will then ask for help from others.
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Steps
i. Early Observation: When you notice a problem that you feel you cannot handle or you
suspect may be due to sickness, or poor body structure then you must find help. Your
job is to apply "first aid" or the simple procedures at the beginning. So be alert and
take note of any problems.
ii. Collect and note down as much information as possible. Suppose in the case of
enuresis that the child wets himself when there is no pressure, he needs to see a
medical doctor.
iii. Discuss with the head of your school, with parents and with a counsellor.
iv. Send the child for outside help.
v. You should join hands with the specialist to undertake a follow-up exercise. This is to
ensure that the problem has been satisfactorily solved.
ACTIVITY II
1. Name any five ways of coping with juvenile delinquency in your class.
2. Outline the general measures that can be used to cope with emotional maladjustment
in class.
3. What specific steps can the teacher take to help the stammerer?
4. What additional measures can the teacher use to help the child with a problem of
enuresis?
5. List the steps that you should take to refer cases which you cannot handle.
SUMMARY
• In this unit we have discussed how to handle problem cases. We discussed general
measures such as:
i. Investigating the problem to obtain more information.
ii. Developing a positive attitude toward the children and the problem. It is
important for the child to know that they are not rejected.
iii. Establishing a relaxed classroom atmosphere.
iv. Asking for help from the family so that the school and the home can work
together.
• We also discussed specific things that can be done about juvenile delinquency.
• Among these were:
i. Re-education: Trying to teach the child to face different problems that he
might be having.
ii. Guidance and Counselling: Guiding pupils and making suggestions to
strengthen the child's confidence.
iii. Behaviour modification. Applying the principles of reinforcement in a
systematic way:
• You also learnt about how to handle emotional maladjustment problems through
group discussion and establishment of routines.
• Specifically, the teacher can use measures which reduce tension to assist the child
with the problem of enuresis. Also the practice of frequent emptying of his bladder
can be arranged.
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• The stammerer too can be helped with specific styles of speech which will allow him
to complete his speech and reduce the rate of conversation.
• The teacher must observe early those problems that require outside help and ensure
that he seeks such help. The cases must be referred through the Headmaster.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Outline the general methods you can use to cope with behaviour problems.
2. State how you would handle the problem of juvenile delinquency in the class.
3. What specific things would you do to help the stammerer?
4. How would you help the child with enuresis?
5. What steps would you take to refer problems to specialists?
REFERENCE
William, P.(ed) Behaviour Problems in Schools: A Source Book of Readings, London,
Hodder and Stoughton, 1974.
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UNIT 10 (EDU113.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 TO 9\

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION
In Module 5, Units 1-9, we tried to study about the adolescent and his developmental
characteristics, needs and behaviour patterns. Unit 1 tried to discuss the meaning and
characteristics of adolescence while unit 2 looked at the major tasks of childhood. Unit 3
complemented unit two by highlighting the basic needs of children from infancy to
adulthood. The teacher's role in the satisfaction of these needs were highlighted while unit 5
reminded us of the concept of individual differences notwithstanding our generalizations.
Unit 6 introduced exceptional children and their classroom provisions. In unit 7 the question
of disruptive behaviours were discussed and suggestions on how to cope with such
behaviours noted. Units 8 and 9 listed some of the juvenile delinquencies and possible
solution to these delinquencies.
In this unit, we shall once again raise and highlight the major points we raised in each unit.
This will enable us to know the adolescent, his development problems and behaviour
patterns. More importantly classroom teachers shall then be in a position to understand and
accept the adolescents in the classroom.
OBJECTIVES
After you must have read this unit thoroughly, you should be able to:
1. state clearly the meaning of adolescence, its characteristics and the developmental
tasks from childhood to adolescence.
2. list the basic needs of childhood stage and the major roles of the teacher in satisfying
these needs.
3. mention five ways through which individual differences occur in children and how to
cater for these differences.
4. state clearly the meaning of exceptional children and state at least three different types
of exceptionality.
5. distinguish between minor disruptive and major disruptive behaviours.
6 list and explain at least three possible ways of containing disruptive behaviours and
problem behaviours.

INSTRUCTIONS
This is a revisional unit. You are therefore advised to:
1. Read through all the summaries contained in Units 1-9 of this module
2. Read very carefully the introductory part of this unit carefully, before reading through
the rest of the unit.
377
3. Study this unit step by step as it has been arranged for you. Remember to look up in
your dictionary the meaning of unfamiliar words.
4. Attempt all the given activities and assignments. Do not look at the sample answers
provided until you have answered the last question.
5. To obtain maximum advantage from this important unit try and observe all the rules
stated.
ADOLESCENCE: MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS

Adolescence is that period when an individual is capable of begetting offsprings because of
his or her sexual maturity. Chronologically, the adolescent period falls between 12 and 18
years subject to cultural or environmental situations. Physically, adolescence is marked by the
growth spurt followed by changes in height and proportions. Other observable physical
changes include voice change, growth of hair in certain parts of the body and for girls the
appearance of the menses.
Intellectually, the adolescent exhibits ability to embark on formal or abstract operations. He
can now generalise, develop increased understanding and make independent decisions.
Socially, the adolescent extends social relationships to different groups of people.
It is the period of self identify, strong attachment and obedience to peer group relationships.
Some refer to adolescence as a period of storm and stress because of the high emotional
outbursts. This is seen in the nature of adolescents' emotional expression in terms of
complexity generalization and widening of emotional relation to other people and areas. As a
result of these characteristics, classroom teachers should prepare to cope with these situations
and regard them as normal.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF CHILDHOOD

Unit 2 discussed developmental tasks of childhood. A developmental task is a task which
arises at or about certain period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which
leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by the society and difficulty with later tasks.
(a) Developmental Tasks in Infancy and Early Childhood (2-5 years):
The following tasks are appropriate for such children. They are expected to:
i. form simple concepts of social and physical reality e.g father, ball.
ii. learn to relate emotionally to parents, siblings and other people.
iii. begin to distinguish between right and wrong.
iv. learn to be mobile.
v. learn to communicate with others.
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(b) Developmental Tasks in Later Childhood (6-11 years): Children under this age
bracket can:
i. learn physical skills necessary for simple games.
ii. build wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism.
iii. learn to get along with others.
iv. learn appropriate masculine or feminine roles.
v. develop reading, writing and calculation skills.
(c) Developmental Tasks in Adolescence (12-18 years): The following tasks are
appropriate for adolescents.
Adolescents should be able to:
i. achieve mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
ii. accept their physique and use their body effectively.
iii. select and prepare for an occupation.
iv. develop intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence e.g
voting in an election, joining social clubs.
v. acquire a set of values and an ethical system.
BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDHOOD

Needs are necessities which must be satisfied for the continued survival of the organism. The
following are the basic biological needs of the child.
i. The need for food, water and air.
ii. The need for activity and rest.
iii. Need for proper temperature.
iv. Need for elimination of body wastes.
v. The need for information about sex.
The other set of needs are called social needs. They are society-oriented needs and have
personality implications. The following are the basic social needs of the child.
i. The need for status
ii. Need for security.
iii. Need for affection.
iv. Need for independence.
v. Need for competence.
ACTIVITY I
1. Describe the physical, social and intellectual characteristics of adolescence.
2. List the developmental tasks that are appropriate for adolescents?
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THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN SATISFYING THE BASIC NEEDS OF

CHILDREN
The teacher should play the following roles in order to ensure that the basic needs of his
children are satisfied.
1. The teacher should make sure that before he teaches the pupils their physiological
needs have been met. This means making sure that the children are not thirsty, hungry
or need to eliminate body waste. Where a state of disequilibrium exists, then no
meaningful learning can go on.
2. It is the teacher's role to enhance the satisfaction of the social needs of children; both
those that relate to him personally and those that relate to his group membership.
3. To satisfy the basic needs of the children, the class teacher should take advantage of
his pupils' natural interests. When children are allowed to develop along their
interests, learning is maximised.
4. To satisfy the pupil's need, the teacher has to make a maximum use of rewards and
incentives. This is most essential when pupils are confronted with activities that are
not intrinsically appealing.
CATERING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Unit 5 focussed on individual differences. Basically, this concept centres on the fact that no
two persons are the same or exactly alike. When children are placed in a class under one
teacher for instruction, it is very necessary for the teacher to bear in mind that individual
differences abound within the class. These differences can be in one of the following ways:
1. Some children are boys while others are girls. Some are tall, others short, some are
weak and others are strong. This explains that children can differ in physique and sex.
The class teacher should realise that some children may not be able to perform certain
activities and should not force them.
2. As a result of heredity or/and environment, individual differences occur in intellectual
power. To cater for this difference, different methods of teaching should be used to
help the intellectually weak ones. Remember to give challenging tasks to the bright
children to keep them busy.
3. Individual differences occur among children in their age and rate of maturity. This
basically explains why some children of the same age may not be able to perform
certain exercises which their mates perform. The teacher has to obey the law of
readiness and can only teach a child when the child becomes ready, maturation-wise.
4. Individual differences may occur as a result of the pupils' state of health. Sicklers
may not compete favourably with others who are robust in health. The class teacher
should avoid exposing children who are often sick to demanding activities. Medical
check ups should be done periodically for the sick ones.
5. There exists differences in children which arise as a result of their different
environments. Children from healthy environments generally perform better than
children from poor environment. The class teacher is therefore expected to bear in
mind, the pupils' backgrounds while teaching them and vary his methods of teaching
accordingly.
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6. Children also differ temperamentally. Some are stable and confident. Others may be
timid, afraid and may resort to anti-social behaviours in the class. To cater for these
differences the teacher has to show plenty of love, understanding and assurance to the
withdrawn pupils. Confident ones should be allowed to get along with more healthy
influences.
CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Exceptional children were discussed in Unit 6. Exceptional children are those who require
special education and related services if they are to realise their full human potential. It is
important to note that an exceptional child cannot benefit from the normal school without
some extra ordinary help. Some psychologists classify exceptional children into four broad
groups.
a. Intellectually Exceptional Children
Children under this category may possess intelligence very much above average
intelligence in which case they are referred to as gifted children. Another category
under this may be children with intelligence in which case they are referred to as
backward children or slow learners. Many a time we have the severely mentally
retarded with intelligence level which is extremely low. They usually need specialised
attention to be able to learn anything.
b. Physically Handicapped Children
Children who suffer physical handicaps come under one of the following:
i. Some children have impaired vision. The usual impairment runs in a
continuum ranging from partially impaired vision to complete blindness.
ii. Some other children have imparied hearing. From the hard-of-hearing is a
range ending with the deaf.
iii. Other children in this category may have muscular and skeletal problems
such as the cripple.
iv. There is also the brain or head injury group who are in most cases accident
victims.
c. Emotionally Disturbed Children
The emotionally disturbed, sometimes referred to as delinquents, usually have
academic problems. Their inability to learn may not have an intellectual base. They
cannot maintain steady interpersonal relationship with others.
d. Multi-handicapped children
Where a child has more than one of the above handicapped, he is referred to as a
multi-handicapped child. For example, a partially sighted child may be an emotionally
disturbed child.
All exceptionalities could be looked at from a broad perspective - the gifted child and
the backward child. The gifted child who is a high achiever demonstrates superiority
in academic work. The education of the gifted children may need acceleration, ability
grouping or horizontal and vertical enrichment programmes.
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The backward child, sometimes referred to as the slow learner, has as his chief
deficiency, low intelligence. He has short memory spans and short attention spans.
The backward child may be placed in one of these programmes depending on the
degree of backwardness.
i. He may be placed in a special class with a special attention.
ii. He may be placed in a special class with a specialist teacher.
iii. In severe exceptionalities he is placed in a special school where equipments
and highly skilled teachers are available.
ACTIVITY II
1. Write short notes on the following areas of individual differences:
(a) Physique and sex (b) Intelligence (c) Age and maturity, and (d) Environment.
2. How would you identify the physically handicapped children in your class? State
what help the teacher can render to children who are physically handicapped.
DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN THE CLASSROOM AND HOW TO COPE

WITH THEM
Disruptive behaviours refer to those behaviours of children which are against school or class
routines, practice and minor rules. Examples are restlessness in class, whispering when quiet
work is being done, shouting at others, failure to do assignments in class and copy notes,
noise making, littering the class, etc. Disruptive behaviours can arise from various causes.
The child related factors are his level of maturity, his level of intellectual ability, awareness,
and his physical condition such as health, nutrition, etc. The society can also contribute.
Inappropriate parental handling of children, the socio-economic status of parents, exposure to
poor models in society and in media, peer influences, etc are some of the causes.
Inappropriate curriculum, poor placement of pupils, large school size, large class size and
poor communication are some of the causes within the school.
The teacher can cope with disruptive behaviour by withholding attention, reinforcing
desirable behaviour, removing the controlling stimulus and using punishment. Clearly
identified rules in class, showing good example, making the children participate fully in
classroom activities, showing the children love and making the lessons interesting can also
help to check disruptive behaviours.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN

Problem behaviours are persistent behaviour patterns which cause concern to the child and
the adults. They are maladjusted behaviours and can be emotional disorders. They vary in
intensity from minor to serious criminal and psychological problems. Some of the special
problem behaviours that occur among primary school children are stammering, nail biting
and thumb sucking, enuresis and truancy. Delinquent behaviour manifested by primary
school children are stealing, aggression, cheating, alchoholism and drug abuse and very rare
cases of promiscuity.
Several factors are responsible for delinquent behaviour among children. Broken homes, lack
of parental attention for the child, frequent marital quarrels, inconsistent discipline, lack of
affection, etc. are some of the home factors. Poor location of the school, poor facilities in the
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school, absence of a guidance counsellor, etc can also contribute to problem behaviours in
school children.
Stammering can be caused by excessive anxiety over speech difficulty among children.
Stammering is closely linked with events in the home and school which increase emotional
tension. Nail biting can also be traced to psychological factors. Worry and anxiety are
strongly identified causes. Truancy can be traced to home factors which have been discussed
above. They also have to do with the problem of school adjustment and failure or lack of
success in school. Psychological factors are also among the strongest causes of enuresis.
COPING WITH CHILDREN'S PROBLEM BEHAVIOURS

There are two main approaches to handling behaviour problems. Prevention and remedial.
Most of the other units involved with child development have discussed how to guide
development to avoid problems. Here, we are concerned mostly with the remedial approach.
The general methods of coping with problem behaviours include:
i. Fact finding about the child and nature of his problem.
ii. Developing a positive attitude towards the child.
iii. Establishing a relaxed atmosphere in order to reduce tension, stress and anxiety and
make the child take the teacher into confidence.
iv. Soliciting the help of the family. Each of the problem behaviours discussed above has
some specific remedial methods. These have been discussed in details in Unit 9 of this
module. You may refresh your memory.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are disruptive behaviours? Give any five examples of disruptive behaviours.
2. State any six ways in which a teacher can cope with disruptive behaviours in the
classroom.
3. Name any seven maladjusted behaviour of children.
SUMMARY
• Adolescence: Meaning And Characteristics
Adolescence is that period when an individual is capable of begetting offsprings
because of his or her sexual maturity. Adolescents fall under the age brackets of 12
and 18. Physical characteristics of adolescence include, the growth spurt, voice
change, and the growth of hair in certain parts of the body. Intellectually, the
adolescent exhibits ability to embark on formal or abstract operations. Socially the
adolescent extends his social relationships.
• Developmental Tasks:
A developmental task is a task which arises at a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful achievement of which leads to the child's happiness and success
with later tasks. Failure with such tasks leads to unhappiness in the individual,
disapproval by the society and difficulty with later tasks.
383
The developmental tasks in adolescence would include the following:

i. Ability to achieve mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
ii. Ability to accept one's physique and use the body effectively.
iii. Ability to select and prepare for an occupation.
iv. Ability to acquire a set of values and an ethical system.
• The Basic Needs Of Childhood:

Needs are necessities which must be satisfied for the continued survival of the
organism. Biological needs of the child include:
i. Need for food, water and air
ii. Need for activity and rest
iii. Need for proper temperature
iv. Need for elimination of body waste
v. Need for sex
• Social Needs Of The Child Would Include:
i. Need for status
ii Need for security
iii. Need for affection
iv. Need for independence
v. Need for competence
• The Teacher's Role In Satisfying Needs Of Children:
To ensure that the basic needs of children are met the teacher should pay attention to
the following hints.
1. Pupils' physiological needs must be met before children embark on academic
work.
2. Needs in the areas of self-adjustment or competence and independence should
be encouraged.
3. Pupils' natural interest should guide the teacher in satisfying their needs.
4. The teacher should make maximum use of rewards and punishments in
satisfying pupils' basic needs.
• Catering For Individual Differences:
This concept of individual differences holds that no two persons are the same.
Individual differences manifest in one of the following ways:
1. Some children differ in physique and sex.
2. Some children as a result of heredity and environment differ intellectually.
384
3. Children differ in their age and rate of maturation.

4. Individual differences may occur as a result of pupils' health.
5. Environmental differences can be noticed in children.
6. Children may also differ temperamentally. Teachers should cater for these
differences by varying his methods of teaching, showing plenty of love and
understanding to all the members of their class.
• Categories Of Exceptional Children:
Exceptional children require special education and related services in order to realise
their full human potential. The following categorises can go for different
exceptionalities.
(a) Intellectual Exceptionality - Gifted Children, Backward or Slow Leaners.
(b) Physical Handicaps - Children with impaired vision, hearing and skeletal
problems such as the crippled.
(c) The Emotionally Disturbed - Juvenile delinquents.
(d) Multi-handicapped: Combination of more than one handicap e.g the partially
sighted and emotionally disturbed child.
• Disruptive Behaviours In The Classroom

Disruptive behaviours are those behaviours of children which are against school or
class routines , practice and minor rules. Examples include restlessness in class,
shouting, noise making, littering in class, etc. Disruptive behaviours can arise from
the child, the school and the society. The teacher can cope with disruptive behaviour
by withholding attention, reinforcing desirable behaviour, etc.
• Coping With Childrens' Classroom Problems
The following strategies should be adopted to deal with children's classroom
problems.
i. Explain the importance of rules.
ii. Be friendly, consistent and firm.
iii. Always plan ahead of the class.
iv. Avoid the use of threats and any form of slow down.
v. Always be prompt, consistent and reasonable.
vi. Ease up a little only after you have secured control of the class.
• Juvenile Delinquency
This would refer to an adolescent whose misbehaviour is inappropriate to his level of
development. The low level of development may not be as a result of low intelligence
and the misbehaviour is generally alien to the culture in which he was brought up.
Some juvenile delinquencies include stealing, forgery, aggression, homosexuality,
prostitution and truancy.
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Juvenile delinquency can be treated in one of these ways:

i. Re-education helps to clarify the juveniile's ideas on the different problems he
faces.
ii. Counselling helps juveniles to strengthen their will power.
iii. Change the delinquent's environment since most delinquencies are

environmentally determined.
iv. If anti -social behaviour is learned, they could be unlearned through behaviour
modification.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain what is meant by the term developmental task. State any four
developmental tasks that are appropriate to later childhood.
2. Discuss any four ways through which a teacher can satisfy the basic needs of his
children.
3. Explain fully what is meant by juvenile delinquency.
REFERENCES
Eke, E.& Esuman, J.K., Child Development in a Changing Cultural Context,
Ibadan:Heinemann (In Press).
Durojaiye, M.O.A., A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans. 1976.
Oladele, J.O., Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education, Lagos: Johns-Lad
Publisher, 1987.
Stones, E., An Introduction to Educational Psychology, New York: Spectrum Books, 1966.
Williams, P. (ed), Behaviour Problems in School: A Source Book of Readings, London:
Hodder & Stoughton, 1974
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MODULE 5 ANSWERS Education EDU 113
UNIT 1 (EDU113.1): ADOLESCENCE: MEANING AND

CHARACTERISTICS
ACTIVITY I
1. 12 - 18 years.
2. Adolescence is the stage of development during which boys and girls move from
childhood to adulthood.
It covers the period between 12 and 18 years.
ACTIVITY II
1. The growth spurt heralds adolescence.
2. (a) √
(b) √
(c) X
3. An adolescent girl experiences a sudden jump in growth as the first sign of
adolescence. The pelvic bone of the girl becomes broadened. Mellowing of the voice
is observed. The sex organs of the girl mature, the breast grows big and to size. She
grows the pubic hair and also hair in her armpits. Finally she begins to experience the
monthly menstruation which begins between age 12 and 14.
ACTIVITY III
1. Yes
2. (a) √
(b) X
3. (a) Adolescents have the intellectual ability to generalise facts.
(b) Adolescents have increased ability to understand.
(c) They are capable of taking independent decisions.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) A major characteristic of the adolescent's social development is the
development of personal identity
During childhood, the parents assumed a dominant role in the child's
personality. But with the on-set of adolescence, he or she requires a more
independent relationship. Questions like "Who am I? What will I do?" begin
to come from the adolescent. He or she is aware of his or her own personality
as an individual.
(b) Another characteristic of the adolescent's social development is the influence
of peer groups. The peer group determines the adolescent's social
relationships. His interests, attitudes and values are all influenced by his peers.
An adolescent is prepared to do almost anything for the sake of pleasing his
peers.
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2. (a) Cliques - This is a type of social relationship in adolescence which consists of

a small exclusive group made up of few friends.
(b) Crowds - A crowd is made up of several adolescent cliques. Usually a crowd
has one identical interest and this is what keeps them together.
(d) Gang - A gang is made up of several individual adolescents. They also have
similar sinister objective. This objective keeps them together.
3. One educational implication of the adolescent's social characteristic is that teachers
should make sure that lectures on moral and sex education are given to them. If the
adolescents move towards heterosexual relationships, teachers should provide enough
information on the consequences of heterosexual relationships to the adolescents well
in advance.
ACTIVITY V
1. (a) Love and Affection
(b) Joy, Pleasure and Delight.
(c) Feeling of Superiority.
(d) Worry or Anxiety.
2. The emotions of adolescents are abstract in nature. Childhood emotions centered
around specific concrete objects and events. At adolescence emotions can be abstract.
An adolescent may develop a strong passion for academics.
3. Adolescence is a period when an individual is overcome by a number of startling
emotional developments. Proper guidance and counselling is needed for these
adolescents. The counselling acts as a guide to the type of emotions adolescents
develop.
1. The term adolescence has many definitions. One simple definition of adolescence is
that it marks that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to
adulthood. This span of years usually begins around age 12 and ends around age 18.
2. Adolescence can also be defined as a period when one begins to show signs of sexual
maturity. The adolescent begins to observe a number of changes in the body
sometimes embarrassing to the adolescent. There is the growth spurt, enlarged breasts
and pelvis for girls and big genital organs for boys. Hair appears at certain parts of the
body of the adolescent. The boy's voice becomes deep while girls also develop a
mellower voice. The signs indicate that such individual has attained the adolescent
state.
3. Two physical characteristics of the adolescent include the following: Generally there
are changes in the height and body proportion of adolescents as a result of the growth
spurt. For girls the pelvic bone becomes broadened. Boys begin to develop broad
shoulders. During adolescence the secondary sex characteristics develop. The genital
organs of boys increase in size while the sex organs of girls mature. Their breasts
grow to size and their gait change. Educational Implications
476
i. Teachers should reassure adolescents to avoid forming a low concept of

themselves.
ii Introduce moral and sex education.
iii. Give guidance and counselling.
3. Adolescents form the following social companionships:
i. Chums or friends. Basically friendship with opposite sex. It may be of the same
sex but intimate.
ii. Cliques - Small exclusive groups made up of several friends
iii. Crowds - These are several cliques with identical interest.
iv. Organised Groups - These include boy scouts, girl guides, Christian unions.
They are open to all, particularly those who find it difficult to join any of the
above groups.
v. Gangs - made up of delinquent adolescents usually with antisocial objectives
4. Adolescents emotions can be abstract in nature. Adolescents can now express their
emotional feelings in abstract concepts such as love for the poor. Adolescents possess
the ability to share emotional experiences with others.
5. As adolescents grow, their friendship circle widens to his classmates and peers from
other towns.
One educational implication of the adolescent's emotional development is that as
teachers, we should use the classroom experiences to allay adolescent fears.
Reassuring individual or group projects should be provided for adolescents. This
helps in allaying the fear of inadequacies. The second implication is that being aware
of these adolescent emotional fears, as teachers, we should seek the services of
guidance counsellors. Part of their counselling would include the supply of sufficient
information about the rapid anatomical changes going on in the adolescent's body.
UNIT 2 (EDU 113.2): DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF EACH

STAGE OF CHILDHOOD
ACTIVITY I
1. A developmental task, according to Havighurst, is a task which arises at a certain
period in the life of the individual. The successful accomplishment of such a task
leads to the individual's happiness and success with later tasks. Failure, however,
leads to unhappiness, societal disapproval and difficulty with later tasks
2. Two factors that affect an individual's developmental task include the following:
An individual's value system may determine the type of developmental task he may
have. For example, this can be seen in the area of developing a conscience for justice.
3. A developmental task could come as a result of physical maturation. An example is
the task of walking, which can come only when the appropriate limbs mature.
Societal demands and expectations also affect developmental tasks.
477
ACTIVITY II
1. The developmental tasks in infancy and early childhood include the following:-
1. Ability to form simple concepts such as woman, girl, teacher.
2. Ability to relate emotionally to parents, siblings and other peers.
3. Learning gender differences (the differences between boys and girls).
4. Learning to use language to communicate with others.
5. Learning to walk, run, jump, skip and hop so as to move around
independently.
6. Learning to distinguish between what the society regards as wrong and what is
right.
(Any five of the above will do).
ACTIVITY III
1. Appropriate developmental task for children of age 6 to 11
i. Learning motor skills necessary for ordinary games such as football, table
tennis.
ii. Learning personal independence in school work, etc.
iii. Learning to get along with age mates.
iv. Developing appropriate attitudes towards social groups and institutions.
v. Learning appropriate masculine or feminine roles.
vi. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself.
vii. Learning to work independently.
2. To develop the right attitude towards social groups and institutions, the child should
be encouraged to respect the rights of others. Rules are made for the good of the
society. If rules are not kept disorder and anarchy will be the order of the day.
ACTIVITY IV
The two developmental tasks appropriate to adolescents include:
i. The adolescent should be able to accept his physique and use his body
effectively.
ii. Adolescents should achieve assurance of economic independence and be in the
process of selecting an occupation.
iii. Achieving new and mature relations with age mates of both sexes
iv. Achieving more feminine and masculine role
v. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
vi. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
vii. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system.
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2. Answer will vary from one area to another. Take your answers to your course tutor at
the study centre.
In every culture there are certain skills and behaviours to be learnt at every stage of human
development. If these tasks and behaviours are successfully learnt at that particular stage, the
result will be happiness and suitable adjustment of the individual. If, however, there is failure
in the learning of the tasks, it becomes very difficult to learn at a later stage and leads to the
individuals unhappiness and societal disapproval.
2. Developmental tasks for infants include:
i. Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality.
ii. Learning language and how to communicate
iii. Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other people.
iv. Learning gender differences.
v. Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience
vi. Learning how to move about on their own.
3. Developmental tasks for middle and late childhood:
i. Learning motor skills necessary for ordinary games.
ii. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism.
iii. Learning to get along with age mates.
iv. Learning appropriate masculine or faminine role.
v. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculation.
vi. Learning to work independently.
vii. Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions.
4. Adolescents' developmental tasks:
i. Achieving new and mature relations with agemates of both sexes.
ii. Achieving more masculine or faminine role.
iii. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively.
iv. Achieving assurance of economic independence and selecting and preparing
for an occupation.
v. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
vi. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
vii. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system.
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UNIT 3 (EDU 113.3): BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
Student to supply but the following are examples. A number of things which I would like to
do if I had money, time and the freedom would include:
(a) I will buy a Mercedes Benz Car.
(b) I will marry two more wives.
(c) I will go to Switzerland for a holiday.
(d) I will like to be the Head of State of the Federation of Nigeria.
Four things which I must do everyday no matter the circumstances include:
(a) I must take fresh air and water daily.
(b) I must eat daily.
(c) must urinate and pass out stool everyday.
(d) must feed my little baby everyday.
ACTIVITY I
1. Needs are important because they constitute motives for our actions. When they are
satisfied, the individual feels normal but their deprivation may lead to problems and
maladjustment.
2. The teacher must study the children's needs because:-
i. The behaviour of children is based on these needs.
ii. The her needs to help the children satisfy their needs. Such an active interest
on the part of the teacher leads to better teacher- pupils relationship.
iii. Non satisfaction of needs may lead to problems and maladjustment.
iv. Handling behavioral problems involves helping the children to satisfy needs
in socially acceptable ways.
(Any three of the above)
3. At every given stage, a human body possesses a wide variety of needs seeking
gratification. When the body is found in this state of need it is said to be in the state of
disequilibrium or state of tension. A human body that is in a state of disequilibrium is
restless. As soon as the body is gratified of that need, may be water, the body is
satisfied and it is said to have returned to a state of equilibrium.
ACTIVITY II
1. The biological needs of children are
1. The need for food, air and liquids.
2. The need for activity and rest.
3. The need for proper temperature.
480
4. The need for elimination of waste products from the body.

5. The sex need.
2. (a) Student‘s activity
(b) The need for air, to breathe and take in oxygen.
3. We must not overstretch pupils' eed for activity because there is a level of activity
which a child is capable of absorbing. If we go beyond this level, the result may be
strain and fatigue.
4. Regular and adequate elimination of the body wastes is a biological need. When this
need is satisfied in children it leads to their comfort and happiness. A child who is not
allowed to gratify his need of elimination of the body waste will not be attentive in
class. If allowed to continue, this child may defecate in the classroom with serious
psychological consequences for the child.
ACTIVITY III
1. Social needs are needs that are society-oriented. This means that these needs have
something to do with the society. They are the needs which when denied the child, he
finds it difficult to function well in the society. Social needs have an effect on
personality. Social needs are usually satisfied in the course of interacting with other
people.
2. Three important social needs are:
1. Need for status
2. Need for security.
3. Need for affection.
6. Psychologists have discovered that as early as five years of age, a child has developed
eagerness for social relationships. This is predicated upon the fact that every one
needs affection. The child requires affection from his teacher, parents and peer. If
this need is gratified by them he functions well or effectively in his class assignments.
But a child denied the affection need is likely to engage in anti- social behaviours.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Needs are things we cannot do without. They are necessities which must be satisfied
for the normal and continued survival of the organism. They may be biological or
sociogenic.
Needs are important because they are at the basis of all behaviour. They act as
motives. If needs are not satisfied problem behaviour and maladjustment may result.
2. Teachers must study the needs of their children so that:
i. they may know how to help children satisfy needs. Non-satisfaction of needs
may lead to death, etc.
ii. they can help prevent problem behaviour and maladjustment arising from non-
satisfaction of needs.
iii. they can help handle maladjusted children.
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iv. If needs are not met, there is a state of disequilibrium. Child in the state of
tension cannot learn nor concentrate on any other thing until the need in
question is gratified. The teacher has to embark on the study of pupils' needs
to find out when they are in tension. If he has knowledge of this, he can
always gratify such needs before continuing his lesson.
3. a. The biological needs of childhood include the following:-
i. All children have the need for food, air and liquid
ii. All children need activity and rest.
iii. All children have the need for proper temperature.
iv. All children need to eliminate waste products from the body
v. Children need information to satisfy their curiosity about sex identity.
b. Need for body temperature:
No child can function effectively in a school room that is either too hot or too
cold. As a rule, nature maintains the body temperature at 32.4. A child may
become ill or even die when his blood temperature is subjected to a certain
degree too above or too below 32.4.
4. a. The social needs of childhood include the following:
i. All children have the need for status
ii. All children have the need for competence.
iii All children need affection and love.
iv All children need security.
v. All children need independence.
b. Deprivation of status:
Every child wants to be given recognition and attention. This recognition the
child wants has to come from his parents, teachers and peers. When a child is
denied this need he begins to seek for other ways of gratifying it. Usually the
child has no alternative than to resort to anti-social activities such as bullying
and stubborness to the teacher. But if the need for status is gratified the child is
spurred even to further achievements.
UNIT 4 (EDU 113.4): THE TEACHER’S ROLE IN

SATISFYING THE BASIC NEEDS
OF CHILDREN
INTRODUCTION
The biological needs of children include
i. Need for fresh air, food and liquids
ii. Need for activity and rest
482
iii. Need for proper temperature

iv. Need for elimination of waste products from the body.
v. Need for information to satisfy their curiosity about sex.
The social needs include.
i. Need to belong
ii. Need to love
iii. Need to achieve
iv. Need to know.
v. Need for status
vi. Need for security
ACTIVITY I
1. The teacher should endeavour to satisfy the needs of his children through the
following ways:
i. The teacher should be aware of the physical condition of his pupils. If they are
hungry, thirsty or sick, they should be attended to.
ii. The teacher should make the classroom physically and psychologically safe.
Pupils' needs can be met if the teacher shows his pupils that he takes an
interest in them by demonstrating that they belong in his classroom
iii. Arrange the learning experiences in such a way that all pupils can gain some
degree of self- esteem.
ACTIVITY II
1. Three ways by which a classroom teacher can satisfy the personal social needs of his
pupils.
i. The teacher should encourage in his pupils the development of a desire to achieve.
ii. The teacher should, when feasible, permit and encourage pupils to direct their own
learning.
iii. As a teacher, provide encouragement and incentives for learning that is essential
but not intrinsically appealing.
2. One of the ways to help pupils satisfy their basic needs is to encourage them to
achieve. To be able to do this, the teacher should arrange learning experiences to
produce a realistic level of aspiration and a feeling of success. The teacher should at
the same time encourage pupils to emulate the qualities of high achievers by taking
personal responsibility for attempting work and being eager to receive detailed
knowledge of result. As pupils do this the teacher should use modelling,
reinforcements and feedback as necessary strategies to help pupils reach their targeted
needs.
483
ACTIVITY III
i. By y giving examples of loving and accepting the children.
ii. By encouraging the children to accept and show affection for one another.
iii. By deliberately grouping children to integrate isolates and rejected children.
ASSIGNMENTS
i. The teacher should make sure that the class is physically and psychologically
safe.
ii. Take note of the children's state of thirst and hunger and permit snacks
appropriately.
iii. Make sure that there is provision for alternating vigorous and restful
activities.
iv. each children how to excuse themselves to use toilet facilities and ensure that
the facilities are functioning.
v. Talk to parents and the headmaster about meeting the institutional and other
physiological needs of specific children.
(Any three of the above will do)
2. A basic need of a child which has a boring or uninteresting learning experience can be
handled as follows. It is the teacher's responsibility to provide encouragement and
incentives for learning that is essential but intrinsically not appealing. For example
there are knowledge and skills which are necessary, if pupils are to function in a
complex society of ours. Such skills and knowledge would include spelling,
multiplication and division of numbers. The class teacher to satisfy these basic needs
will have to tell the pupils the need for them. The implication of this role the teacher
is playing is that sometimes out of circumstances, he must stimulate, persuade, inspire
and perhaps cajole his pupils to learn some materials. This is because these materials
though boring and uninteresting are very essential for his every day living and for
subsequent learning
3. The teacher can model the behaviour by accepting and showing affection to all the
children in his class. Since children learn by example, the modelling or example of the
teacher can incidentally be copied by children. The teacher should however make
other deliberate attempts to discuss, explain and encourage role playing of the need
for acceptance and affection. Also, the teacher can encourage specific acts of
acceptance. One such act could be performed in the context where isolated and
rejected children are deliber ately put into groups.The groups could be organised to
perform mini projects where the skills of the isolate are required. Or the teacher can
appoint capable children to be special friends of the isolates.
Student to supply the answer.
484
UNIT 5 (EDU 113.5): CATERING FOR INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
A. i. Colour of the skin
ii. Height
iii. Hair colour
iv. Shape of the head, etc.
B. i. Colour of the lips
ii. Colour of the eyes
iii. Any natural spot on the skin
iv. Speech or Language style
v. Walking style
vi. Height and body weight.
ACTIVITY I
1. Basically this concept means that no two persons are exactly the same, not even
identical twins. Children and even adults differ in age, height, complexion and
intellectual ability. Children's talent in creative writing, musical and dramatic abilities
differ. Children's adjustment patterns are different. There are differences in speech,
hearing, vision and physical skills. One may notice among children differences in
height, weight, general health and dentition. All these are individual differences.
1. Three broad areas children differ are
i. Physical characteristics,
ii. Intelligence,
iii. Motor skills,
iv. Character,
v. Rate of Development, etc.
(Any three of the above)
ACTIVITY II
1. The ways through which children can differ include:
(a) Differences in Physique and sex
(b) Differences in Intelligence
(c) Differences in Age and Rate of Maturation
(d) Differences in health
(e) Differences in children's background
(f) Differences in character.
485
3. Even when a group of children of the same size are grouped in a class, there may be
differences in their ages. This may imply that all cannot perform equally all tasks
assigned to them. Some may not be mature enough to perform such tasks. Others may
be mature and capable of performing such tasks . This shows that the concept of
maturation is a factor in which children in the same class may differ. Differences in
performance are bound to be seen because there are differences in the readiness for
each child. To cater for differences in the maturity level of children, the teacher
should introduce concepts and skills to his pupils only when they are mature for such
concepts. Teachers must not set or expect the same performance standards for all
children in their class even if they are of the same age. Their maturational levels vary.
3. To cater for the individual differences due to health, the teacher should make sure that
tasks assigned to handicapped children are within their level of competence. In
teaching handicapped children the teacher should vary his methods of teaching. He
should use plenty of aids while teaching. For the ordinarily sick children and the
sicklers, the school doctor should be invited to see these children and prescribe drugs
for them. The so-called healthy children should go for periodic check ups. Children
who are not normal on health grounds require a lot of tact, sympathy and love from
the teacher. For serious hadicaps, such children may be referred to special schools
established for them
ASSIGNMENT
1. It is accepted that no two persons are exactly the same. There are what psychologists
call individual differences. Children and perhaps adults differ in age, even when
grouped together in a class. Children also differ in height, complexion and intellectual
ability. If we realise that not even identical twins can be the same exactly, we can
realise the amount of differences which exist among other individuals. Modern
education is so much aware of the concept of individual difference that they are
becoming skeptical about the class method of teaching which apparently ignores this
concept. The concept of individual differences recognises the fact that each child is a
unique human being, different in rate of growth and development.
2. a. There are differences in children's physique and sex. Some children are boys
and some are girls. Some children are tall, some are short. Girls may not be
able to perform some physical exercises which boys an perform. It is argued
that boys excel in mathematics and sciences while girls excel in arts and
languages. To cater for these differences, the teacher must pay special
attention when teaching girls Mathematics and the Sciences. He should try to
illustrate his lessons with examples. For boys, when they study arts and
languages the teacher should emphasize constant practice and repetition.
b. Our children also differ in intellectual ability. By heredity or as a result of
environmental factors some children possess high intelligence. Other children
may not be so lucky to be bright. They may have average or even low
intelligence. They are referred to as slow learners. They need a lot of time
before they can understand simple concepts. To cater for this important
variable, a teacher should never see his class as a homogenous group. He
should give enough assignments to the bright ones to keep them busy. The
slow learners need fewer and easier problems with more time, patience and
encouragement. Individualized instruction is highly recommended for children
486
who are not high achievers. Visual aids and class activities will appeal to other
senses and thereby help the slow learners in comprehension.
3. There exists differences in children which arise as a result of the different types of
environment in which children find themselves. Teachers will find that some children
are brought up in the hands of well-to-do parents. They have access to some modern
gadgets such as electricity supply, television and radio sets. These children are
exposed intellectually by reading maga zines and other childrens' books. Such
children can be said to be enjoying a good environment. There would be another set
of children who may live in the farms. There might be no schools for them. Where
they have schools, the schools are poorly equipped. The children are not exposed to
modern amenities. They are said to be in a poor environment. These two
environments affect childrens' performance in the school. The role of the classroom
teacher is to recognize the fact that children come from different home environments.
Topics for discussions should not be taken for granted. While the children in
favourable environments may have seen a supermarket/shop, children in poor
environments may not have seen them. As you teach the children in poor
environments, give plenty of examples to serve as illustrations. Use visual aids while
teaching them. It may be highly rewarding if visits are paid to urban towns to show
children from poor environments some of these concepts
4. i. A teacher can group children according to their ability or level of maturity.
ii. A teacher may decide to teach children individually.
iii. A teacher may make special seating arrangements in class so that the small
ones can see the board.
iv. A teacher may use different types of teaching methods and different in aids in
teaching different groups of children.
v. A teacher may take children from a poor background on excursions
to see and learn about places which are studied in class which are unfamiliar to
them.
vi. A teacher may try to challenge curious and inquisitive children,
draw out the timid ones and generally show understanding in his relationship
with children.
UNIT 6 (EDU113.6): CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL

CHILDREN AND CLASSROOM
PROVISIONS FOR THEM
ACTIVITY II
1. An exceptional child could mean a child who deviates physically, intellec -tually,
emotionally and socially from normal growth and development. Such a child cannot
benefit from regular classroom programme and needs special treatment in school. In
summary an exceptional child is one who deviates from the normal or average child in
mental, physical and social characteristics to such an extent that he requires special
education or supplementary instruction.
487
ACTIVITY III
1. The four broad areas in which children might have exceptionalities fall under the
following:
i. Intellectual Exceptionality
ii. Physical Exceptionality
iii. Emotional Exceptionality
iv. Multi-handicapped Exceptionality
2. The three sub-categories of intellectual exceptionality would include the following:
i. The Gifted child with very high level of intelligence.
ii. The backward child or the slow learner with very low level of intelligence.
iii. The severely mentally retarded with a very very low level of intelligence.
ACTIVITY III
1. Three characteristics for identifying gifted children.
i. Gifted children show superiority in reading, language and reasoning.
ii. The interest of gifted children are many sided or multi-dimensional.
iii. Gifted children are less inclined to boasting.
2. Three major recommendations to a class teacher who is faced with gifted children in
his class:
i. He should approve the acceleration to higher classes for the very gifted ones.
ii. He might organize ability grouping whereby all the gifted ones constitute
themselves into a sub group of the class. More difficult tasks should be
assigned to them.
iii. The class teacher might consult individually with the gifted children and
assign study projects in form of learning contracts.
ACTIVITY IV
1. The backward child is sometimes referred to as the slow learner. His chief deficiency
is in the area of intelligence. Sometimes his backwardness may be as a result of other
exceptionalities. He may be blind, or a deaf and dumb. The backward child always
performs poorly on intelligence tests. A backward child has a low self-concept. He
is seldom confident and may feel that his classmates are better academically.
2. Three educational provisions that can be provided for backward children could be one
of the following:
i. They may be placed in a regular classroom but with special attention.
ii. They may be placed in a special class in a regular school under the care of a
specialist teacher.
iii. They may be placed in a special school where specialist equipments
for their learning activity are available. Teachers in this type of school are
special education teachers.
488
ASSIGNMENT
1. It has not been possible for all psychologists to have one definition of exceptional
children. Some psychologists refer to exceptional as extraordinary talents while others
use the term to denote backwardness or those who lag behind in academic
achievement. An exceptional child therefore, means a child who deviates physically,
emotionally and socially from a child who is normal in growth and development.
Such a child cannot benefit from regular classroom programme and needs special
treatment in school.
2. There are different classifications of exceptional children. Most psychologists classify
exceptionalities in the following ways.
Intellectually exceptional children. Children under this category can be further
subdivided into two. One is the gifted group. Children in this group are very high in
their intellectual functioning. They are the high achievers who need more challenging
tasks than the normal children. The second group under this is the backward or slow
learner. The children in this category have very low intellectual power. They function
below the average child's ability.
Physically exceptional children. There are also sub categories of exceptionality under
the physically exceptional children. One group is referred to as children with impaired
vision. Another group is children with impaired hearing. The crippled is another
category. Finally, we have the brain or head injury group. These handicaps affect the
child's academic performance.
Emotionally exceptional children. Children who are emotionally disturbed may not be
able to explain this inability as a result of intellectual, sensory or health factors.
Multi-handicapped exceptionalities. Some children are so unfortunate to have more
than one exceptionality. One can see a deaf and dumb child, a blind and emotionally
disturbed child. Such double or tripple exceptionalities are referred to as multi-
handicapped exceptionalities.
3. The following provisions can be made for children who have been identified as gifted
children.
i. Acceleration. Gifted children need acceleration. This is defined as progress
through an educational programme at a rate faster than the conventional age.
A gifted child may enter the school before the normal age of 6. He may run an
educational programme in which he may graduate a year less than the normal
time.
ii. Ability grouping. This is done for gifted children. Children who are above
average are normally grouped together for purposes of instruction. The
assumption is that learning will be more effective and efficient when bright
pupils are put together.
iii. Horizontal and Vertical Enrichment. In horizontal enrichment a gifted child
who has finished an assignment ahead of everyone else is given more material
at the same level of maturity. Vertical enrichment involves giving a more
advanced work of the same type to a gifted child who has finished the class
work.
iv. Project Work.
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UNIT 7 (EDU113.7): DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN THE

CLASSROOM AND HOW TO COPE
WITH THEM
ACTIVITY I
1. The societal factors that lead to disruptive behaviours in the classroom include:
i. Inappropriate handling by parents.
ii. Peer and gang influences.
iii. Frustration on the part of students.
iv. Exposure to poor models.
v. Economic status of parents.
2. The school can create disruptive behaviour in any of the following ways:
i. The organization of the school may force students into a curriculum
for which the students are not suited.
ii. Wrong placement of pupils.
iii. Large school size.
iv Large classes that prevent teachers from helping individual students
. who need special attention cause disruptive behaviour.
v. Lack of teacher authority.
vi. Poor communication between the school and the home.
3. i. immaturity
ii. intellectual ability
iii. ignorance
iv. physical state of the child.
ACTIVITY II
1. Minor disruptive
i. Not paying attention. This is a disruptive behaviour which may take the form
of inattention in the class or day-dreaming.
ii. Not showing interest in class work. This is likely to lead to disruptive
behaviour when the student fills idle time with drawing, does not complete his
work or fails to ask for help.
iii. Not keeping rules about attendance and punctuality.
iv. Not showing enough independent behaviour.
490
2. The major disruptive behaviours a teacher is likely to encounter in his class

may include the following:
i. Peer related actions. This misbehaviour may take the form of making
exaggerated gestures to peers, moving to peers without permission and
wandering around in the class.
ii. Challenging of authority. This disruptive behaviour may take the form of
talking aloud in the class, disobeying the teacher or other delegated authority.
iii. Physical aggression
iv. Noise making
ACTIVITY III
1. The following strategies can be used in combating disruptive behaviour in the class.
i. Withholding attention
ii. Eliciting desirable incompatible behaviour
iii. Removing controlling stimulus
iv. Punishments
v. Modelling correct behaviour
vi. Publicising rules and making them relevant
vii. Showing love and acceptance and interest in the children.
viii. Making the teaching interesting and absorbing and involving the children in
the class work.
Any six of the above will do.
2. Removing controlling stimulus is a strategy a classroom teacher can use for
combating disruptive behaviour of students. A teacher can remove the controlling
stimulus in one of these ways. If fighting occurs during certain games, eliminate such
games. If fighting occurs whenever two students sit or play together, keep them apart.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Two major societal factors which cause disruptive behaviours can be identified as
follows:
i. Parental rejection of children. Children whose parents reject in the form of
lack of love and affection feel frustrated. Such frustration lead to disruptive
behaviours in the classroom.
ii. Viewing of violence by students in televisions lead to disruptive behaviours.
Students watch some American wrestling films, and cowboy murder films and
tend to think that, they depict the average standard of behaviour in the so-
called civilized nations. Consciously or otherwise the students begin to behave
like the characters they have watched.
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2 a. our major disruptive behaviours common in the classroom include:

i Physical aggression
ii. peer related set of behaviours
iii. attention seeking behaviours
iv. challenging of authority
v. noise making
b. Four minor disruptive behaviours found in the classroom include:
i. inattention
ii. lack of interest in class work
iii. not interacting with others.
iv. not adhering to the rules of attendance and punctuality
v. over-dependent behaviour.
3. Disruptive behaviours in the classroom can be checked by the teacher in the following
ways:
i. Withholding attention
ii. Eliciting desirable behaviour
iii. Removing controlling stimulus
iv. Punishments
v. Clearly stated rules of behaviour
vi Good teacher example
vii. Not being too rigid in implementing the rules considering the developmental
level of the children.
viii. Effective participation of the children in class activities.
ix. Showing love and acceptance to the pupils and giving individual attention to
them.
x. Make the classes interesting and teach with lots of enthusiasm
UNIT 8 (EDU 113.8): SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF

CHILDREN: JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY, STAMMERING, ETC
ACTIVITY I
1. Problem behaviours, as the name implies are persistent behaviour patterns which
cause concern to the child and the adults. They are maladjusted behaviour and can be
emotional disorders. They vary in intensity from minor to serious criminal and
psychological problems.
492
2. Some of the problem behaviours that occur among primary school children are:
i. juvenile delinquency,
ii. stammering,
iii. nail biting and thumb sucking,
iv. enuresis,
v. truancy,
vi. stealing,
vii. aggression,
viii. cheating,
ix. alcoholism and drug abuse,
x. promiscuity.
ACTIVITY II
1. Juvenile delinquency refers to any anti-social behaviour exhibited by a child below 18
years which has criminal element in it.
2. The factors are
Home Factors1 (any five)
i. Broken homes
ii. Employed parents
iii. Marital adjustment
iv. Disability of parents
v. Defective discipline
vi. Lack of affection and neglect
School Factors (any two)
i. Location
ii. Lack of facilities
iii. Lack of proper guidance and counselling.
ACTIVITY III
1 Four special problems are:
i. Nail biting
ii. Truancy
iii. Stammering
iv. Enuresis
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2. Stammering is an aspect of defective speech or an example of speech disorder. The

child repeats more parts of words than whole words and repeats more than twice. He
may also hold the sound longer than about 1 or 2 seconds.
3. Enuresis is an anti-social behaviour whereby the child wets or soils himself in class
during day time and not only at night in the home.
4. The major causes are:
i. Anxiety due to pressure from home.
ii. Fear, especially of darkness, in the night
iii. Lack of confidence in the child and a feeling of inferiority complex.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Problem behaviours include:
(a) juvenile dehinquency
(b) stammering
(c) nail biting and thumb sucking
(d) enuresis
(e) truancy
(f) stealing
(g) aggression
(h) cheating
(i) alcoholism and drug abuse
(j) promiscuity
2. The following methods will be used.
i. The teacher can reduce this handicap by croching the pupil on how
to hold his breath for sometime before speaking or how to tap his feet while
counting or speaking.
ii. The classroom teacher should never label any child as a stammerer.
The problem could be that of normal speech fluency.
iii. Speaking by the child should be encouraged, not forced.
iv. Conditions affecting speech adversely will be reduced. The classroom
atmosphere will be improved and made conducive through the establishment
of good rapport with the child, and through informal activities. A socially
permissive atmosphere allows the child to relax and become less anxious.
494
3. Major Causes of:

(a) Juvenile delinquency:
i. broken homes
ii. employed parents
iii. marital adjustment
iv. disability of parents
v. defective discipline
vi. lack of affection and neglect
vii. poor school location
viii. lack of school facilities
ix. lack of proper guidance and conuselling
(b) Enuresis
i. Anxiety due to pressure from home
ii. Fear, especially of darkness, in the night
iii. Inferiority complex.
(c) Truancy
i. Home factors
ii. Inability to adjust to school life
iii. Lack of success in school
4. Measures for preventing truancy include:
i. School activities should be challenging and interesting.
ii. Teachers should be more friendly, warm and democratic.
iii Appropriate behaviours should be rewarded.
iv. The home should be supportive of efforts of the school.
UNIT 9 (EDU 113.9): COPING WITH CHILDREN’S

CLASSROOM PROBLEMS
ACTIVITY I
1. The general ways of handling problem behaviours are:
i. Investigating the problem to obtain more information.
ii. Developing a positive attitude towards the children and the problem.
iv. Asking for help from the family so that the school and the home can work
together.
495
2. A relaxed atmosphere facilitates whatever remedial measures that are used. A

friendly and democratic approach which tries to establish the affected child's sense of
worth helps the child to re-discover himself. It makes it easier for him to acquire a
stable personality.
Remedial help depends on cooperation between the school and the home. The home
can furnish the teacher with more information. The child's family can also join in the
supportive work of the class teacher. This makes for consistency and helps the child
to develop a sense of security.
ACTIVITY II
1. The specific things a teacher can do to cope with juvenile delinquency include:
i. Re-educating the child on the problems that he will face in future.
ii. Providing some kind of guidance and counselling services.
iii. Modifying the child's behaviour by using reinforcements.
iv. Making the child to participate in socially acceptable activities.
v. Talking frankly with the child
vi. Ensuring that tempting situations are not placed before the child.
2. The general measures that can be used to cope with emotional maladjustment in the
class are through:
i. Group discussions.
ii. Routines.
iii. Removing obvious causes of irritation.
iv. Developing interest in the pupils.
3. The teacher can take the following steps to help the stammerer:
i. Controlling the rate of speech and the pace of conversation when talking to the
stammerer.
ii. Using simple language.
iii. Reducing the use of direct questions.
iv. Giving the child time to complete what he has to say.
4. The measures that the teacher can use to help the child with a problem of enuresis are:
i. By reducing the emotional pressure and strain on the child.
ii. Arranging with the child to go often to ease himself without having to go
through the big show of asking.
5. The steps to take in referring cases which the teacher cannot handle include:
i. Early observation and application of "first aid".
ii. Collecting and noting down as much information as possible.
496
iii. Conferring with the head of school, the parents and a guidance counsellor.
iv. Sending the child for outside help.
v. follow up exercise.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. The general methods of coping with behaviour problems include:
i. Investigating the problem to obtain all relevant information.
ii. Developing a positive attitude towards the children and the problems.
iv. Requesting for the assistance of the home.
2. How to cope with juvenile delinquency in the classroom.
i. Re-educating the child on the problems he is likely to face in future.
ii. Provision of some kind of guidance and counselling services.
iii. Modifying the pupils' behaviour through the use of reinforcement.
iv. irecting the child's drives towards socially acceptable ways.
iv. Talking frankly with a child who is mixing with undesirable companions
either inside or outside the school.
vi. void putting temptations in the way of the child.
3. How to assist a stammerer.
i. Controlling the rate of speech and the pace of conversation when talking to the
stammerer.
ii. Reducing the use of direct questions.
iii. Giving the child reasonable time to complete what he intends to say.
4. How to assist a child suffering from enuresis.
i. Reduce the emotional pressure and strain on the child.
ii. Do not ridicule the child.
iii. Make arrangement to allow the child to go out to empty his bowel when
appropriate.
5. Steps for referral cases.
i. Early observation and application of "first aid".
ii. Collecting and noting down as much information as possible.
iii. Conferring with head teacher, the parents and a guidance counsellor.
iv. Sending the child for outside assistance.
v. Follow up exercise.
497
UNIT 10 (EDU113.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9/

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES1
ACTIVITY I1
1. Adolescents have physical, social and intellectual characteristics.
Adolescence is a period of rapid growth associated with other noticeable physical
changes. The pelvic bone of girls become broadened. The boys' voice deepens and
both sexes begin to grow hair in certain parts of the body.
Adolescence is a period of formal operations intellectually speaking. The adolescent
can now generalise facts without concrete objects. He gains confidence in his own
opinions and can now consider alternatives.
Adolescence social characteristics include the development of personal identity. In
addition to this is the adolescent's control by the increased influence of peer groups.
The social relationship of adolescents become heterosexual in nature.
2. There are developmental tasks expected of adolescents. Some of these tasks are:
i. Ability to achieve mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
ii. Ability to achieve more masculine or feminine roles.
iii. Ability to accept one's physique and the use of body effectively.
iv. Ability to achieve economic independence by selecting an occupation.
ACTIVITY II1
1. The concept of individual differences hold the view that no two persons are alike.
Children can differ in the following ways:
i. Differences in physique and sex. Some children are boys some are girls. Some
children are tall, others are short; while some are fat and strong, others are
slim and weak. These differences have implications on what type of activities
the teacher should subject the children.
ii. Differences in intelligence. Some children are lucky to inherit a high
intelligence while others inherit an intelligence quotient which is below
average. While the bright ones learn rapidly, the low intelligence group
become slow learners.
iii. Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity. Children in one class may differ in
their chronological ages. Where they happen to be of the same age (which is
not likely) the rate of maturation differs. This makes the concept of readiness
for different tasks different for the individual children in the class.
iv. Environmental Differences. This difference manifests itself in the
type of parents, schools, home, and peer group children enjoy. Since
differences abound in these relationships, children are likely to differ
depending on the experiences they derive from them.
498
2. Some children suffer from physical handicaps. Physical handicaps can be classified as
follows:
i. Children with impaired vision - This ranges from partial impairment to
complete blindness.
ii. Children with impaired hearing. This ranges from partial or hard-of-hearing to
the completely deaf.
iii. Muscular and skeletal impairment such as the cripple.
iv. Brain or head injury often associated with accident victims.
The teacher should show plenty of love and understanding to his physically
handicapped children. For the partially sighted and hard-of-hearing, he might
give such children advantageous sitting positions.
He should make use of other senses of the body to increase their
understanding. Aids like wheel chairs may be provided for the crippled.
However, all serious physical handicaps should be sent to the appropriate
special school or clinic for medical advice.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Disruptive behaviours are those behaviours of children which are against
school or class routines, practice or minor rules. Example of disruptive behaviours
include:
i. Restlessness in class
ii. Whispering when classwork is being done
iii. Shouting at others
iv. Failure to do assignments in class
v. Noise making
vi. Littering the class.
2. The teacher can solve some of his classroom problems in the following ways:
i. Withholding attention.
ii. Reinforcing desirable behaviour.
iii. Removing the controlling stimulus.
iv. Making clearly identified rules.
v. Showing good examples.
vi Making the children participate fully in classroom activities.
vii. Showing the children love and care.
viii. Making the lessons interesting.
499
3. These are:
a. Stammering
b. Nailbiting and thumb sucking
c. Enuresis
d. Truancy
e. Stealing
f. Aggression
g. Cheating
h. Drug abuse and alcoholism
i. Promiscuity
ASSIGNMENT
1. Every individual has certain objectives that are special to him. They appear to be
important requirements imposed on himself by such an individual. Sometimes society
also imposes some objectives on individuals and expects them to achieve these
objectives at specific periods of their lives. A developmental task is a task which
arises at a certain period in the life of an individual. A successful achievement of the
task leads to his happiness and success with later tasks, while failure leads to
unhappiness, disapproval and difficulty with later tasks.
The following are some of the developmental tasks of later childhood which is
between 6 and 11 years.
i. At this age, children are expected to learn physical skills necessary for
ordinary games.
ii. They should be able to build wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing
organism.
iii. They should learn to get along with age mates.
iv. Children in the later childhood stage should start learning appropriate
masculine and feminine roles.
2. Although most needs are so basic that they run through all the stages of human
development yet there are a few that tend to be restricted to a particular stage. The
following four basic needs are mainly for pupils in the childhood stage i.e 0-11 years.
These needs can also be met by a classroom teacher using the following strategies.
i. The need for food, air and liquid.1 A child needs these three
necessities to live and function effectively in his environment. A child who
cannot satisfy any of these three basic needs cannot listen to a teacher's
lecture in the class. The teacher therefore should make arrangement to see that
schools provide lunch and good water in schools. All children should qualify
to have this lunch once every day to ensure that pupils in class are not hungry
and have need for food.
500
ii. The need for elimination of body waste.1 Some teachers do not permit pupils
to leave the class to take care of the body elimination. There is a need for
regular and adequate elimination of the waste products of the body. These
body wastes include urine and excreta. Children who have problems with the
elimination of waste products may not concentrate in their school work.
iii. Need for security. Children desire regularity and stability in their lives. A child
who is not sure as to how he stands in his group, or who lacks confidence in
his performance in class activities lacks the security need. As children are not
adults, they need assurance of their safety in terms of means for survival, peer
acceptance before they can function effectively in the classroom. This the
class teacher must supply to his children.
iv Need for competence. The child appears to struggle for a sense of
effectiveness and efficiency. The child also actively seeks stimulation from his
environment and seems happiest when he can gain some control over it. If a
child's need for competence is gratified by praise in his efforts to cope with the
demands of life, he will begin to gain the confidence and security he needs for
optimum development. If a class teacher praises his growing and developing
child, pointing to him that he has recognised his achievement, such a child will
be more motivated to innovate and try out his hand in many other avenues.
3. We all agree that society prescribes a set of norms which it expects that all its
members should faithfully follow. Those who violate the social norms and behave in
anti-social manner are called delinquents. Juvenile delinquency would refer to an
adolescent whose behaviour is inappropriate to his level of development, is not as a
result of low intellect and the misbehaviour is allien to the culture in which he has
been reared. Detection of juvenile delinquencies are subject to punishment of the
juveniles committing them by agents of the society. Some delinquencies include
stealing, forgery, aggression and prostitution.
501
MODULE 6 Units 01: General Principles of Methodology of Teaching I EDU 123
UNIT 1 (EDU 123.1): THE CONCEPT AND NATURE OF

METHODOLOGY: TEACHING AND
LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
How should we educate our children? What methods should we use? These are questions
which have been dealt with by several scholars, since Plato. Man has through the ages
educated his young ones through various methods. The assumption then, was that, once the
learner had listened to the teacher he had learned. From ancient times, methodology,
(methods of teaching and learning) had been taken as component which make up the process
of education. Many educationists and psychologists had conducted series of researches in the
fields of methodology, teaching and learning. The three aspects had always been proved to
be interrelated.
OBJECTIVES
1. define methodology, teaching and learning;
2. explain methodology and its principles;
3. explain teaching, its functions and principles;
4. explain learning, its process and the effective ways of learning.

1. Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also
as you read, look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
3. Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If
you carry out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this unit.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND
ASSIGNMENTS AT THE END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Aviation - Art and science of flying in aircraft.
Canvasser - One who goes from person to person selling ideas.
Conventional - Traditional.
Dictum - Saying.
Disseminate - Spread widely.
Indoctrination - Fill the mind with particular ideas or belief.
Input - What is put in
Latent - Present but not visible.
Perspectives - Apparent relation between different aspects of a problem.
Propaganda - Information, doctrines.
Rapport - Sympathetic relationship.
Solicit - Ask earnestly
Synonymous - Same meaning.
1
THE MEANING OF METHODOLOGY, TEACHING AND LEARNING

(a) Methodology: The term methodology is the study of methods, and in this case, the
methods of teaching. Many of the methods of teaching that we know of, have their
origins in the various theories of learning.
Methodology is the study and practice of various methods of teaching. This implies
that methodology is both the study of different methods and the systematic means of
presenting subject matter and learning experiences.
The study of the methodology covers not only the philosophy of methods, but also the
influence of psychological principles involved in learning. The student-teachers are
taught about teaching aids and their possible uses, and the advantages and
disadvantages of the various methods of teaching.
(b) Teaching: Teaching is an occupation (the job we do); it is an enterprise (a cluster of
activities a teacher may be engaged in during a specific time period); it is an act (i.e.
the very act of teaching itself, explaining, reading, writing etc). The purpose in
differentiating the concept of teaching in this way, is to provide a conceptual means
for separating teaching acts from non- teaching acts, and more importantly, to
separate a basic sense of teaching from the many kinds of things one might do to get
people to learn, like indoctrinating, conditioning, etc.
(c) Learning: Learning refers to a process which produces series of changes in human
behaviours and experiences. It involves the acquisition of new ideas, experiences,
knowledge, skills and values which ultimately make the learner change his behaviour.
To make a success of various methods of teaching, the teacher should observe certain
principles.
1. Understand both the theory and practice of methodology.
2. Use the methods to teach according to the nature of the topic, the subject, the pupils,
the available resources in the school as well as the location of and the prevailing
situation in the environment.
3. Consider the individual differences of the pupils.
4. Use his knowledge of child psychology and personality development to determine the
teaching procedure and evaluation technique to be used.
5. Develop a good rapport with the pupils, colleagues and the school administration.
The above mentioned will contribute to the success of the methods the teacher may use in
teaching.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define methodology and teaching.
2. What are the principles that promote effective teaching?
WHAT IS TEACHING?
The term teaching can be defined in several ways. First, teaching can be defined as the work
we do, and by means of which we earn our living i.e. an occupation. Secondly, it can be
defined as a cluster of activities that we engage in during some specific time period, and
thirdly teaching may be defined as an act of a particular kind i.e. movement of the body, or
parts of the body, talking, pausing, explaining, reading etc.
2
Thus, one might be a teacher but may not engage in teaching at the moment. Or one may
actually be engaged in the teaching enterprise of trying to get students to learn during a lesson
but may not be performing a teaching act at the moment e.g. marking a register, opening the
windows for ventilation, checking noise and maintaining discipline and so on. Yet if you ask
the teacher what he did in school during the first period, he would reply (and legitimately too)
that he has been teaching. This is the sense of teaching as an enterprise - a cluster of activities
that have the teaching act itself as its centre, that facilitate or promote the teaching act, and in
a larger sense, that contribute toward the total education of children committed to the
teacher's charge. A good teacher, it is true, is marked out by the excellent way in which he
performs these activities, but the most central act which lends the name of teaching to all
other activities is the teaching act itself.
Basically however, we shall be primarily concerned in this unit with the kinds of things
teachers actually do when they are teaching. Obviously, teachers do many different kinds of
things when teaching. The question, explain, demonstrate, motivate, listen, make judgments,
evaluate, and so on. And it is just these particular kinds of act that can be called teaching.
FUNCTIONS OF TEACHING:
i. Informing and Explaining: A good teacher is expected to be well-informed in his
areas of specialization. He is expected to be able to communicate his knowledge to his
students.
ii. Stimulating, Directing, Guiding and Administering: Teaching involves stimulating
the pupils to learn. The child is equally to be directed and guided in his study. The
teacher has the task of administering many children in the classroom. He is to see that
none of the pupils is disturbed from learning.
iii. Identifying what to learn: The proprietor of the school gives the teachers the
syllabus. It is the responsibility of the teacher to interpret and present it to the child.
iv. Identifying Learning Problems: During teaching, the teacher asks series of
questions. These help to expose the pupils' learning problems. It is the responsibility
of the teacher to solve these problems through remedial work.
v. Evaluating, Reporting and Recording: Teaching includes evaluating the pupils'
performances. These are reported and recorded to show the progress record of the
pupils. Educationists rates evaluating as important as instructing.
vi. Classroom Arrangement: This is a part of teaching activities. The classroom is the
stage for learning. The methods to be used and the likely atmosphere of the class is
determined by the organisation of the classroom.
vii. Socialization: Some functions of teaching are deliberate while some are latent.
Among the latent functions, is socialization. As the pupils learn together, they
become intimate. Thus, they become friends.
viii. School-Community Relationship: The school is known to be a microcosm of the
society. Through teaching, the teacher may foster relationships with the community.
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING TEACHING

Teaching has some underlying principles. These are:
3
i. Clear Objectives: Teaching is goal-oriented. To achieve the goal, there should be set
objectives. In preparing to teach, the objectives to be achieved must be clearly stated.
This serves as a guideline in teaching.
ii. Pupils' readiness: Teacher should ensure that the pupils are intellectually ready for
what is to be taught.
iii. Previous experience: Every child had some experiences before going to school. The
teacher should build on these.
iv. Individual differences: It is known that learners are different from one another in
many ways. These differences must be realized by the teacher. He should recognize
these differences and use a variety of methods and materials to teach.
v. Teaching should be systematic: It should proceed from known to unknown, simple
to difficult, concrete to abstract, and general to specific.
ACTIVITY II
1. What principles underline teaching?
LEARNING:
The main function of the teacher is to bring about learning. This means that the essence of
teaching is to bring about learning. Learning involves the acquisition of new knowledge,
ideas, skills, values and experiences which enable the individual to modify or alter his
actions. It also involves the utilization of the newly acquired knowledge or experience as
well. Learning brings about permanent changes in the learner.
THE PROCESS OF LEARNING:

i. The first step in the process of learning is the INPUT. This is in form of a
stimulus. For example, let us assume that you want to learn about an aero plane. The
input or stimulus is an aero plane or a picture of an aero plane you saw or a model of
it.
ii. The next stage is that of perception which leads to choice and actions. Perception
has to do with the process of becoming aware of change through the mind or the eyes.
It is at this stage we start thinking of the shape of the plane, the interior, how it flies
and lands, the risks and the importance of it.. The perception leads to the stage of
mental activities called covert activities.
iii. After that stage, comes covert activities: This is the stage of visible activities that
bring about the learning. It is now you examine, draw, write, talk, and discuss about
the plane. This is the period when learning takes place.
iv. To have a permanent change of behaviour, some authors emphasize that there should
be repetitive action (repetition) as in (iii) above e.g. You re-examine the plane and
discuss it again and again.
v. After repetition, comes association : This is the time we can interpret things in the
light of our previous experiences. For example, you now associate the time when a
plane flew over your school with the new information you heard about it and so on.
By now you reach the stage of output which is the learning stage. Learning has
taken place.
4
EFFECTIVE WAYS OF LEARNING:

Learning is a continuous process. To stimulate the pupils to learn, the teacher should:
i. create avenues for learning in and outside the classroom.
ii. inform the pupils of the educational facilities around them i.e. libraries, bookshops,
resource centres etc.
iii. give the students assignments regularly. He should mark and discuss the assignment
with the pupils.
iv. encourage the pupils to develop their area of interest.
v. organise discussions, debates and competitions to challenge the pupils' thoughts.
vi. give the pupils feedback on their work.
vii. use problem solving approach in getting the pupils to learn.
viii. use group and individual methods to stimulate the spirit of independent learning
among the pupils.
ACTIVITY III:
1. Explain the process of learning.
2. What are the effective ways of learning?
SUMMARY
• Man has through ages educated his young ones through many media. These media
are called methods. Methodology is defined as the study of the methods of teaching.
• Methodology in this unit, is examined as the study and practice of various methods of
teaching. Various aspects of education in relationship to methodology are studied in
methodology class.
• The principles underlying methods of teaching are: understanding the theory and
practice of methodology in order to be able to teach according to the nature of the topic;
consideration for the individuality of the` pupils and flexibility in methods, the
utilization of child and adolescent studies and the development of good relationship
with others in the school as well as the pupils.
• Teaching is more than imparting of knowledge; it includes attempts to help someone
acquire or change some skills, attitudes, knowledge, idea or appreciation. Its functions
include informing, explaining, stimulating, directing, guiding and administering the
pupils; identifying what to learn and learning problems; evaluating, reporting and
recording the performances of the pupils. Other functions include classroom
management, class unity, giving security, development of school community
relationship, participating in school and professional activities. The principles
underlying teaching include formation of clear objectives, pupils readiness, building
on pupils previous experiences, meaningful learning and respect for individual
differences.
• Learning in ancient times emphasized memorization or rote learning. Now it is seen
as the acquisition of new knowledge, ideas, skills, values and experiences which
enable the individual to modify or alter his actions. Learning and teaching are
inseparable activities.
• The process of learning involves input, perception, covert activities, overt activities,
repetition, association and output.
5
ASSIGNMENT
1. What is meant by learning?
2. What are the functions of teaching?
3. In what ways can methodology be viewed as a science as well as an art?
REFERENCES
1. Chauhan, S.S. Innovations in Teaching Learning Process, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House PVT Limited, (1981).
2. Onwuka, U. (ed). Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana-FEP

Publishers Limited 1985.
3. Robinson Adjai. Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen

and Unwin Limited, 1980.
6
MODULE 6 Units 02: Education EDU 123
UNIT 2 (EDU 123.2): THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION

METHODS
INTRODUCTION
One of the prominent areas of education which had attracted the attention of educationists
through the ages is the process of making the teaching-learning situation easy for both the
teachers and the learners. This has led to the evolvement of various types of methods of
teaching. Some of these methods had been in use as early as the period of the Greek
philosophers i.e. Socrates (470 - 399 B.C) and Plato (427-347 B.C). Some methods however,
surfaced in recent times. Educationists are still conducting researches to improve
methodology. One of the earliest methods in use is the lecture method. Some educationists
termed it as one of the Traditional Methods. The ancient time teachers, the Greek
Philosophers, the Jewish Rabbis were known to be surrounded by their students to listen to
the `words of knowledge or wisdom' of their teachers. The teachers talked or `pumped out
their knowledge' while the students listened attentively. The lecture method, though regarded
by some educationists as traditional or out-dated, is one of the methods which is widely used
particularly in the post secondary institutions today. It is equally used in the upper classes of
secondary schools.
OBJECTIVES
1. define the lecture method;
2. distinguish a lecture method from the discussion method;
3. determine when to use each of them;
4. plan and use them; and
5. list at least three advantages and three disadvantages of each.

1. Read through the Unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as
you read, look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
2. Then go back and study the Unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities
3. Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the Unit assignment. If
you carry out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this Unit.
WORD STUDY
Auditory Sense - One of the special powers of the body by which a
Person is conscious of hearing.
Visual Sense - The special power of the body by which a person is conscious
of sight.
Assumption - Supposed to be true but not proved.
Moderator - The director of a panel of discussants (Speakers).
Sequential - Orderly.
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MATERIAL AIDS
A sketch showing a class listening to their teacher lecturing.
A sketch showing a group of five sitting in a circle discussing. There could be three of such a
group drawn.
THE LECTURE METHOD: DEFINITION AND WHEN USED

The Lecture Method is a process whereby the teacher verbally delivers a pre-planned body of
knowledge to his students. The teacher talks while the students listen and jot down points. In
some cases the teacher may not take questions from the students. Some times, he entertains
questions either to emphasize some points or to make some points clearer. This method
which is teacher - centered is often used in upper classes of secondary schools and in post
secondary institutions. These days, teachers can lecture a crowd of students or unseen
students through the use of radio or television. It may be used in the lower classes in some
situations. For example:
i. It may be used when introducing a new topic to the pupils. This introduction is
expected to give the pupils a clear idea of what the topic is all about.
ii. It could be used to stimulate the interest of the pupils in the new topic.
iii. It is a method that can be used to clarify a point or some points which many of the
pupils misunderstood when another method i.e. individual or group method is used.
iv. It can be used when there are no appropriate or adequate textbooks for the pupils to
use. The method is then used as a supplement to whatever the pupils are able to
gather, if any.
USING THE LECTURE METHOD

Like in any method, using lecture method requires adequate and thorough preparation. In
your preparation you have to consider the objectives to be achieved in the lesson. A good
command of language is very necessary for successful use of this method. It is necessary for
the teacher to prepare for this. It is necessary for the teacher to prepare appropriate and
related examples to use during the lesson to 'drive home' his points. Illustrative materials like
pictures, concrete objects etc. that can make the points clearer to the students should equally
be prepared beforehand.
The introduction in a Lecture Method should be as interesting as possible. This may be in the
form of a short story, a statement, a question or any activity which may stimulate the students
to like to listen to the lesson.
In the presentation of the lesson, the teacher should display a good command of the language.
A fluent teacher is likely to arrest the attention of the students more than a stammerer or a
'poor speaker'. It is also necessary that the points to be taught should be presented in a
sequential and interrelated manner for easy understanding. Sequential presentation also aids
recall. It is not out of place to repeat some points when necessary for emphasis and clarity.
However, the teacher should not over do this. A repetition of every point made may bore the
students or make some to form the habit of not listening to the teacher at times as they know
that the points they may miss will be repeated later. Periodic humour and the use of
appropriate examples do enliven the interest of the students and avoid the strain of following
the lecture. The teacher should prepare for these during the preparation stage and employ
them at the appropriate stages of presentation. One pitfall of some teacher in the use of
8
humour is that they digress from the actual point of lecture. Teachers should avoid this as
digressions may ruin a lesson.
In conclusion the teacher could summarize the points taught and emphasize as necessary. It is
useful to give references for further reading or other forms of assignment for reinforcement.
Chalkboard work - Some teachers particularly in higher institutions only talk when they
lecture. They do not write the points they make on the chalkboard. The ideal thing is to write
on the chalkboard each point made in sequential order.
The students would copy at each point. Equally the defect of lecture method which appeals
to auditory sense alone will be minimized. Jotting points on the chalkboard do appeal to the
visual sense.
ADVANTAGES
Like other methods, the lecture method has its good points. Some of these are as follow:
i. It can be used to cover a wide area of study within a short period.
ii. The teacher can teach a large population of students at once.
iii. Unlike individual or group method, fewer instructional materials are required in the
lecture method.
iv. The students are given the same material contents at the same time. In other words,
there is uniformity in the facts the students are given.
v. The students' efforts in searching for facts in books are saved as they are told the facts
by the teacher.
vi. The teacher has full control on what the students should learn or know.
DISADVANTAGES
i. The students are passive and spoon-fed.
ii. The method is teacher-centered and not learner-centered.
iii. The method does not give the students the opportunity for oral communication
interactions with the teacher or colleagues.
iv. The method does not encourage the growth of the students enquiring or creative mind.
v. The method does not cater for the individual differences of the students. All the
students in the class are taught the same thing at the same rate without minding the
fact that the students assimilate at different rates.
vi. It is the auditory (hearing) sense that is mainly called to work in Lecture Method.
Students with ear defect are often at a disadvantage.
vii. In lecture method, the students' understanding is judged by mere assumptions by the
teacher. As the teacher speaks, he is of the opinion that the students understand and
follow. This is an assumption which is often wrong.
viii. As the students are not involved in active work in the lesson, they are prone to forget
what is taught easily.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is meant by the lecture method?
2. In what situations can it be used in most classes?
9
3. In preparing to use lecture method in a lesson, what are the points you as a teacher
should take note of?
4. What are the advantages of Lecture Method?
5. What are the disadvantages of Lecture Method?
THE DISCUSSION METHOD: MEANING

A verbal exchange of view, opinions or ideas between two or more people is referred to as a
discussion. This activity is what takes place in Discussion Method. The teacher gives the
students a problem to solve. They carefully consider the topic, argue among themselves in
democratic manner, suggest solutions and draw conclusions. Sometimes, a short discussion
among the students may take place as a part of lesson in which another method is dominantly
used. This may be an exercise or a form of reinforcement. In this unit, the discussion method
is treated as a pre-planned and organised process of teaching and learning. In preparing to use
the discussion method, the teacher has to first of all consider the topic. He should ensure that
the topic has no clear-cut answer but can be viewed from various angles. The topic should
also be at the students' level and also the type they are familiar with. That means that it
should be within their ability to discuss. The students should be informed some days before
hand. This will enable them to think about the topic, collect points and make up their minds
as regards what to say.
USING DISCUSSION METHOD

The discussion group may be in three forms i.e. the whole class, small groups or the panel.
The whole class discussion is usually used when the students are inexperienced to handle an
organised discussion on their own. In this case, the teacher should be the chairman. He
directs and guides the discussion. The small group discussion is the ideal for meaningful
learning. A small group of about five or six students is better than a large group. Children in
small groups will have more opportunities to contribute to the discussion.
The teacher should be careful in selecting the students in groups. In each group, the students
must be of various abilities and disposition. Both the brilliant and the weak ones, the vocal
and the quiet students should be together. The leadership should be interested in the topic.
The shy or submissive students should be mixed in each group. A leader and a recorder
(secretary) should be chosen by each group. The leader or the recorder reports to the class
the conclusions of the group during the reports session. As for the panel, a group of about
five students are selected to address the class on different aspects of a topic. The class jots
down points made as the members of the panel speak one after another. At the end of the
presentation, the topic is thrown open to the class for comments. The teacher or whoever, is
chosen as the 'moderator' summarizes the points made and he draws the conclusions.
Whatever grouping is used, the democratic principles should be emphasized.
i. Thus, each student should talk only when he is asked to.
ii. They should learn to listen to and respect the views of others.
iii. There should be no personal or verbal attack during or after a discussion.
ADVANTAGES
i. This method encourages students to listen, think, analyse and critically evaluate points
made.
ii. Students learn from each other.
iii. It gives the students the opportunity to practice their oral communication skills.
10
iv. It gives the students training in respecting others' views.

v. It gives the students training in looking for facts on their own.
DISADVANTAGES
i. It cannot be used in all topics in all subjects, particularly in Mathematics and the
Sciences. It is useful mostly in the Arts and the Social Sciences.
ii. While the brighter and vocal students may find it as an avenue to show off, so also do
the weak or shy students find it uneasy to argue convincingly in the group.
iii. Unlike lecture method, it is not ideal for a large class.
ACTIVITY II
1. Define the discussion method.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the discussion method.
SUMMARY
• Lecture Method is a process of teaching whereby the teacher tells the students his pre-
planned facts. The students listen and take notes. It is one of the oldest methods in
use. The success of this method depends on the ability of the teacher to speak fluently
in good tone and style. Among its advantages is that many students can be taught at
the same time. It is economical in time, teaching materials and students labour.
However, its limitation lies in the fact that the students are passive in class.
• Discussion Method is an organized teaching/learning process. By this method, the
class may be arranged in groups or panels. The class may remain together to exchange
views, opinions or ideas on a pre-determined topic. This is a method in which the
students are actively involved if the groups are in small numbers and heterogeneous.
Its limitations include the fact that it cannot be used in some aspects of Mathematics
and the Science subjects. Equally, the talkative or brilliant students may seize the
opportunity of the open discussion to show off. On the other hand, the shy or weak
ones may feel ashamed.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Carefully examine the various factors you will consider at each stage of a lesson (that
is Introduction, Presentation and Conclusion), when using the Lecture Method.
2. Describe how three discussion groupings can be effectively organised and used in
classroom situation.
REFERENCES
1. Bello, J. Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons
Limited, 1980.
2. Onwuka, Uga (Ed) Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana
Publishers Limited, 1985.
3. Callahan, J. F. and Clark, L. H. Teaching in the Elementary School, New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co Inc. 1977.
11
UNIT 3 (EDU 123.3): INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
In most of our schools today, teachers still use the traditional method of instruction i.e.
talking to a group of pupils in the classroom. By mere method of talking, many pupils are
taught the same thing in the same way and at the same time. The teacher appears to forget
that students differ from each other in their interest, the ways they learn and their rate of
learning. Educationists appreciate the importance of individual differences in learning.
Unfortunately, this fact is often neglected during teaching. In recent years, emphasis has
been laid on the child as an individual. This means that in teaching and learning, each child is
considered in line with his\her individual differences. This has led to what is now known as
Individualized Instruction.
OBJECTIVES
1. define individualized instruction;
2. identify the objectives of individualized instruction;
3. identify the methods used in individualized instruction;
4. point out the characteristics of individualized instruction;
5. enumerate the reasons why individualized instruction is not in use in our country;
6. give some suggestion as to its use.

1. Read through the Unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as
carry out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this Unit.
WORD STUDY
Assimilation - Absorb.
Capabilities - Power of doing things.
Communication - Information, feeling.
Conformity - Behaviour in agreement with what is usual
Consultant - Person who gives expert advice.
Developed Countries - Nations which are advanced in technology.
Electrical Machines - Machines operated with electricity.
Electronic Machines - Advanced electrical machines.
Feedback - Response.
Programmed - Carefully graded amount of.
12
MEANING OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Individualized Instruction is defined as a process in which the student learns all on his own a
field of study or a topic broken into bits, according to his interest and ability, using specially
prepared programmed books, cards, and electrical or electronic teaching machines. The
teacher serves as a 'consultant'. The student studies on his own and consults the teacher only
when he needs him. This way, he is able to determine and learn the amount of work he is able
to study at a given period and at his own pace.
METHODS OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Series of researches had been conducted to find the best method of teaching using the
Individualized Instruction which started in 1950s. Among the methods developed are:
1. Programmed Instruction (PI)
2. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
3. Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI)
4. Teaching Machine (TM)
5. Personalized - System of Instruction (PSI)
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Individualized instruction is based on the principles of operant learning theory developed by
Professor B. F. Skinner. As a result, the characteristics are in line with the principles
emphasised by Skinner.
i. The learner determines his instructional objectives. That means, he determines what
he wants to study.
ii. He specifies what he would want to know at the end of the study. This is specified in
behavioural changes which can be observed and measured at the end of the study.
iii. The instruction is broken into bits according to the needs, capabilities and interests of
the individual learner.
iv. The learner performs the learning activities either by reading, writing or manipulating
the instructional materials in use. He is active not passive.
v. Questions on areas covered are asked at interval to show the learner whether he
understands or not. The teacher attempts to reward and reinforce the learner's efforts.
Usually, the correct answers are given in a corner of the book or in the machine.
vi. The immediate feedback received motivate the learner to learn more.
vii. The learner works at his own pace. He is not `held up' or `pulled forward' by the
others.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define Individualized Instruction.
2. In what ways are students different from each other in learning?
3. Mention some of the methods used in Individualized Instruction.
4. Enumerate some of the characteristics of Individualized Instruction.
13
PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION IN

NIGERIA
i. Individualized Instruction is relatively a new approach to teaching. It was developed
in 1950s in U.S.A. It takes sometime before such a new method gains ground over the
long existing system.
ii. Many teachers in Nigeria have no practical training, if any at all, in Individualized
Instruction.
iii. There are no Individualized Instructional books, electrical and electronic machines in
the country.
iv. It is very expensive to import such books and machines for Nigerian Schools.
v. Education is examination oriented in Nigeria. The concern of the teachers and the
students is to cover the syllabus. Thus individualized instruction may not be easily
accommodated.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

i. The Teacher should be more conscious of the individuality of each of the students in
the class.
ii. The Teacher should respect each pupil's opinion as much as possible. Conformity and
uniformity of opinion should not be enforced.
iii. Students should be encouraged to ask and answer questions in the class.
iv. The spirit of inquiry and discovery should be encouraged among the pupils.
v. Free and constructive communication should be encouraged between the teacher and
the students and among the students.
vi. Students should be encouraged to go into the Library to find out things.
vii. Students should be given assignments regularly. They should be encouraged to do it
on their own.
ACTIVITY II
1. Why is individualized instruction not widely used in Nigeria now?
2. What suggestions can you give to make the learners develop their individual
potentials?
SUMMARY
• Most teachers in our schools do not pay attention to the individuality of each pupil in
the class. Mere talking methods is used in teaching instead of individualized
instruction.
• As far back as 1950s, the developed countries had been changing to Individualized
Instruction. This method is defined as a process in which the students, through the use
of specially programmed books or electrical or electronic machines, learn what they
want at their own pace. The teacher serves as a consultant. Among the techniques
used in Individualized Instruction include Programmed Instruction (PI), Computer
Assisted Instruction (CAI), Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI), Teaching Machine
(TM), and Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).
14
• The learner determines his instructional objectives and goals. Other characteristics of
the method is that the learner covers the fields of study in bits. At each stage,
questions are answered.
• The learner has to answer and master the questions before he goes further. The
immediate correct answer given helps to reward and reinforce the learner as well as
stimulate him to work further. Above all, the learner works at his own pace.
• This method of teaching is not in use in our schools due to non-availability of trained
teachers. Equally, there are no suitable books and machines. Above all , the
examination-oriented educational system in operation in the country may not
accommodate its implementation. However, the encouragement of the students to
develop their potentials and good teacher and students relationships will go a long
way to develop the individuality of each learner.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Through what media is individualized instruction put into use?
2. Why is individualized instruction not in use in our Schools?
3. What are the characteristics of Individualized Instruction?
REFERENCES
1. Chauhan, S.S. Innovations in Teaching-Learning Process, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, PVT Limited, 1981.
2. Chipley, C. M.A Synthesis of Teaching Methods New Y ork: McGraw Hill, 1964.
15
MODULE 6 Units 04: General Principles of Methodology of Teaching I EDI 123
UNIT 4 (EDU 123.4): PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
INTRODUCTION
The title 'problem-solving' is a pointer to what the method is all about; life is full of problems.
Man is always faced with one form of problem or the other. Equally, it has become part of
man to find solutions to his problems. In problem solving method, students are trained, using
learning situations, to solve problems scientifically.
Many authors see the discovery, inquiry and problem-solving methods as inter-related. Much
as they overlap, for the sake of emphasis, the problem-solving method is treated separately in
this unit. The history of this method can be traced to John Dewey.
OBJECTIVES
i. explain what the problem-solving method means;
ii. identify three types of problem-solving approaches;
iii. name and describe two procedures used in the problem- solving method; and
iv. list at least four advantages and three disadvantages of the problem-solving method.

1. Read through this unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as
you carry out all the above-stated steps, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Tentative - A suggestion.
Hypothesis - A suggestion put forward as a starting point for
explanation or reasoning.
Data - Facts or information.
Generalization - A general conclusion.
Inductive - Method of reasoning which obtained or discovers
general laws from particular examples by reasoning
from general laws to a particular case.
DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING
METHOD
Omstatted (1944) defined problem-solving method as an application of the unit idea. It
embraces a continuous, meaningful, well integrated activity beginning with a problematical
situation. It then ends when the problem has been solved and the solution checked. The series
16
of actions involved in the process constitute a unit of experience, he added. In other words,
problem-solving method is a teaching-learning process in which the students work on solving
a problem. They do this by using the result of some analysed data. The data are collected
from a proved solution rather than an assumed solution.
In problem - solving method, the students are given a problem. They are to find proven
solutions to the problem.
i. The first thing to do is for the students to think of the nature of the problem.
ii. The next activity is to formulate (put forward) a tentative, guessed or suggested
solution termed hypothesis.
iii. At the third stage the students collect relevant data (facts or information).
iv. The data are then analysed.
v. The next activity is to test the hypothesis against the result of the data analysis.
vi. The outcome determines whether the hypothesis (tentative, assumed or suggested
solution) is acceptable, rejected or to be modified.
vii. The students then draw conclusions.
viii. The conclusions are then applied in new situations and new data.
ix. Lastly meaningful generalizations can then be developed.
PLANNING STAGE
In planning to use problem-solving method for teaching, the teacher has to undertake the
following measures:
i. The teacher plans the topic and suggest some ideas that will be of interest to the
students.
ii. He determines how to organise the class in groups
iii. Considering available resources, he determines the time for the task, and
iv. Finally, he identifies and directs the students to initial the students' reference
materials.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define Problem Solving Method.
2. What steps should you as a teacher take when planning a problem-solving lesson?
PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
TYPES
There are three types of problem-solving approaches.
These are: (i) the guided approach, (ii) the modified approach, and (iii) the free approach.
i. The guided approach is used when the students are inexperienced in the use of the
method. The teacher takes control and directs the students in all areas of the lesson.
He initiates the topic, the hypothesis, the collection and analysis of the data. He
guides the students to arrive at a generalisation.
ii. The modified approach is used when the students are 'catching up' the method. They
can handle some parts of the procedure. However, the teacher still serves as a resource
person.
17
iii. The free approach is used when the students can handle the method on their own.
They can formulate the topic and work on it to the making of the general statements
(generalizations).
PROCEDURE
There are two procedures students can use in problem-solving method. These are:
i. Inductive procedure
ii. Deductive procedure
The purpose of inductive procedure is to enable the students to establish generalizations
(general principles) from observed cases. The procedure considers:
i. the study of the topic.
ii. finding out facts about the topic
iii. formulating hypothesis.
iv. collecting and analyzing data.
v. testing the hypothesis against the result of the data analysis.
vi. drawing of conclusion.
vii. application of the conclusion to new situations and new data.
viii. Meaningful generalizations are then drawn.
The above (i) - (viii) are the same as in 4.1 (i) - (ix). But (v) under Procedure represents both
(v) and (vi) in 4.1.
A simple example of inductive procedure could be as follows:

i. Topic - Height of Men
ii. Hypothesis- Men are tall
iii. Data - collection of the heights of as many men as you may wish to use.
iv. Data analysis - comparing the heights of these men with what you consider to be the
height of a tall person.
v. Conclusion - Many men are tall or some men are tall.
vi. Re-test - collection and comparison of the heights of more men.
vii. Generalization - some men are tall.
In deductive procedure, the students are given established rules. These rules are to be used to
solve a problem or to prove the correctness of the rules. The procedure is as follows:
i. the generalization is given.
ii. the generalization is applied in new situations and against new data.
iii. a conclusion is drawn.
From the example above, the procedure could be as follows:
i. Generalization - Some men are tall.
ii. Test - collection and comparison of the height of some men.
iii. Conclusion - Some men are tall.
ACTIVITY II
1. Mention and describe the three types of problem-solving approaches.
2. Define the Inductive and the Deductive procedures.
18
TEACHER'S ROLES IN A PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH

During a problem-solving lesson, the teacher is expected to be actively involved.
i. He is to encourage the students to explore and test new ideas.
ii. He is to encourage the students to prove and share their findings with the other
students.
iii. He should be raising new questions to guide the students to look for more ideas.
iv. He should point out to the class the creative and original work of any student or
students.
v. He is expected to summarize all findings and announce to the class.
vi. He should throughout the lesson be in full control of the class.
ADVANTAGES
i. Students are actively involved in the lesson.
ii. The activities may generate enthusiasm and interest in the students.
iii. Students are trained to organise their own learning.
iv. As students find out things for themselves they remember them better.
v. The method encourages critical thinking and scientific investigation skills.
vi. It changes the attitudes of the students to knowledge. They look at knowledge as
tentative rather than permanent. They get new knowledge.
vii. Gifted and brilliant students benefit a lot from this method.
DISADVANTAGES
i. It is time consuming.
ii. It may be demanding on the teacher as students may discover series of facts and raise
questions which may embarrass ill prepared teachers.
iii. Slow students may be at a disadvantage.
iv. It is not possible to use the method in all situations.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the roles of a teacher in a problem-solving lesson.
2. In what ways is problem-solving method time consuming?
SUMMARY
• Problem-solving method is a process in which students solve a problem using the
scientific approach to collect and analyze data. The data collected are used to arrive at
a proven solution rather than a guessed solution. John Dewey was one of the
philosophers who emphasized the use of this method in recent times.
• The procedure of using the method involves:
i. formulating a topic
ii. formulating a hypothesis.
iii. collecting and analyzing data.
iv. testing the hypothesis
v formulating a conclusion
vi. testing the conclusion against new data and analysis
vii formulating generalizations.
19
• This is an inductive approach. The deductive procedure involves testing from the
generalization to a conclusion. The approach is the opposite of the inductive
procedure. At the initial stage of using the method, the students are to be guided until
when they are capable of working on their own. Then the Free Approach could be
employed.
• Like any method, the problem-solving has its advantages and disadvantages. It is to
its credit that the students are actively involved in the lesson and they find out facts on
their own. This may make them remember for a long time. It also makes recall easier.
But, it is time-consuming.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Clearly explain the steps to be taken when using the inductive approach in Problem-
Solving.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Problem- Solving Method.
REFERENCES
1. Bello, J. Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
2. Callahan, J.F. and Clark L.H. Teaching in the Elementary Schools, New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. 1977.
3. Nacino Brown R. et. al. Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan Publishers,
1985.
20
UNIT 5 (EDU 123.5): DISCOVERY AND INQUIRY

METHODS
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever forgotten the name of a familiar person before? What efforts did you make to
remember it? Think of the time you nearly remembered but you could not recall it. Think of
when you remembered it. How did you feel? Were you happy?
Now think of the time you read a topic in readiness for an examination but you did not
understand it. How did you feel? How did you feel when you read the topic again and you
understood it? Were you happy? What actually happened was that, you discovered the
concept explained in the topic and it became clear to you. This is the concept of (idea
underlying) Discovery Method.
The inquiry method is more or less the same as the problem method. Both of them use the
same scientific approach to investigate facts. They are equally based on discovery method.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain both Discovery and Inquiry methods;
2. explain what precepts, concept and generalization mean;
3. explain the techniques of teaching concepts;
4. identify the advantages and disadvantages of the Discovery method; and
5. explain the procedure in using inquiry method in teaching.

you carry out instruction stated above, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Categorize - Place in class or division.
Attributes - Qualities associated with an object
Incorporat - Make or become part of
S.S.S. Classes - Senior Secondary School classes.
Classification - Arranged in classes.
21
THE DISCOVERY METHOD
DEFINITION
The word `discovery' means `finding out' Discovery method is defined as a process through
which students find out facts or knowledge through the understanding of concepts.
By its definition discovery implies ìnduction'. By it, students proceed from specific example
(precepts) to concepts, and from concepts to a generalization or principle. Three basic words
are prominent in the discovery method. These are precepts, concepts and generalization.
However, concepts formation is the dominant activity in the method. Concepts formation is
the difference between this method and the problem and inquiry methods. However, the
discovery, problem and inquiry methods are inter-related.
Ìnquiry' means ìnvestigation'. The method is based on investigation. Accordingly, the
students use scientific investigation to arrive at a probable generalization as in problem
method.
USING THE DISCOVERY METHOD

A good understanding of the terms `precept' and `concept' will throw light on the procedure
of using discovery method in teaching. The word 'precept' means specific example. Man
comes across series of experiences. These experiences or specific examples form the basis for
the formation of concepts.
A concept defines a class of objects, events or processes in terms of its common elements. To
have a concept of any object is to categorize it. Categorizing is the means by which the
objects around us are identified. It is a means of reducing the complexity of our immediate
surrounding into manageable and understandable groups. No doubt, our surrounding is full
of many objects that we cannot always identify one by one. But through the use of concepts,
we can group these objects according to their characteristics.
Concepts may be either concrete or abstract. They must have critical or defining attributes.
Concrete concepts can be seen. Their defining or critical attributes refer to their shape or size
or other visible characteristics, for example. A house is a concrete object. It may be a hut, a
bungalow or a storey building. They have common attributes. Abstract concepts are
sometimes called defined concepts. They cannot be seen and must be learned by definition.
Such concepts include 'truth', ''honesty'', 'justice', etc.
TEACHING OF CONCEPTS
There are some steps expected in the teaching of concepts. These are:
i. The teacher should state the objective of the lesson clearly. He should present the
student with many examples and ask them to select the appropriate ones. For
example, if the concept is 'animal,' the teacher should give examples like goat, shop,
lion, tiger, tree, cows etc. He then asks the student to pick the animals in the list. This
can take place after the students have learnt the attributes of animals.
ii. The teacher should be aware of the required knowledge that will facilitate the
understanding of the students. The student must be able to distinguish one object from
another. This ability to discriminate among objects, ideas, etc. is a pre-requisite
knowledge.
22
iii.. The teacher should present definitions and examples. The teacher should first select
the definition, including the attributes, before selecting appropriate examples and non-
examples. Enough examples should be given so that they can fully understand the
attribute of a concept. Equally enough, non-examples should be presented so that the
students can recognize and exclude them.
iv. The teacher should provide for the response from students and give feedback. He
should test the students' knowledge of concepts by having students point out new and
unfamiliar examples of each concept, and when necessary the teacher should
demonstrate the use of the concepts.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define Discovery Method.
2. Explain what is meant by the term `concept'.
TEACHING OF PRINCIPLES
The teaching of principles follows the same steps as the teaching of concepts. It takes the
same steps.
A principle is a statement of relationship between concepts. The steps are:
i. Students should be aware of the performances expected of them after learning the
principle (the objectives)
ii. Identify the principles that the students must recall to learn the new principle.
iii. The teacher must aid the students in revising the concepts involved in the principles.
iv. The teacher directs the students in deriving at the new principles.
v. The student should be given lots of practice and examples of the principles.
vi. The teacher should provide the students 'with new examples to assess the students'
understanding of the principle.
In discovery method the students are expected to learn by providing new examples.
ADVANTAGES OF THE DISCOVERY METHOD

i.. It is self-rewarding. Students discover the facts on their own.
ii. The students are actively involved in the lesson.
iii. The students are rewarded by being motivated.
iv. The students remember longer because they discover the facts (concepts and
principles) on their own.
v. Discovery learning helps in understanding the structure of knowledge. When one
understands the structure of a subject, one understands how other subjects are related
to it.
DISADVANTAGES
i.. it is time consuming
ii. It is expensive in the sense that many resource materials (teaching aids) are required.
iii. It cannot be used in all situations as it is not possible for the students to rediscover all
knowledge. The teacher has to teach them some aspects of it at one time or the other.
ACTIVITY II
1. What are the advantages of the discovery method?
2. What are the disadvantages of the discovery method?
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THE INQUIRY APPROACH

Teaching concepts by discovery involves teaching a method of inquiry with broad application
to problem solving and knowledge gathering. Some believe that problem solving comes first
and that students can begin to understand specific elements of the subject after learning how
to solve problems and how to work with concepts and principles. The discovery method and
the problem-solving method are interrelated.
Inquiry/Problem-Solving Methods incorporate discovery approach as one of its elements.

Some believe that the Inquiry/Problem-Solving method is a natural extension of the discovery
approach. The Inquiry/Problem solving are better for the higher classes of secondary schools
(S.S.S Classes). On the other hand, the discovery method is suited to all levels.
In using the Inquiry approach strategy, the learner

i. identifies and classifies the purpose of the inquiry;
ii. formulates a hypothesis;
iii. collects and analyzes data;
iv. tests the hypothesis against the result of data analysis;
v. draws conclusions;
vi. applies the conclusions to a new situation and new data; and envelops a meaningful
generalization.
As had earlier been stated, the problem-solving approach and inquiry method are the same.
This has been treated in detail in Unit 4. There is no need repeating it here. The relationship
between the discovery method and Problem- Solving /Inquiry method had been explained.
Further reading on the inquiry approach should take place under Unit 4 to avoid repetition.
ACTIVITY III
1. Enumerate the procedure for using the inquiry approach.
SUMMARY
• Discovery method is a process through which students find out fact or knowledge
through the understanding of concepts. In this method, students proceed from specific
examples (precepts) to concepts and from concepts to generalisation. The emphasis on
the formation of concepts is the difference between this methods and the problem-
solving/Inquiry method. The word 'inquiry' means investigation. The Inquiry method
is the process in which the students use scientific investigation to arrive at a
generalization.
• Concepts have to do with the classification of objects or ideas. There are concrete and
abstract concepts. In teaching concepts, the teacher should identify the objective of
the lesson, plan the required procedure that will make the students understand the
concept, present many positive and negative examples for the student to classify. The
steps to take in teaching principles are that; the students should be aware of the
objectives of the lesson, the teacher should guide the students in revising the concepts
that would lead to the principles and series of examples should be provided to aid the
learning of the required principles.
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• Discovery and inquiry/problem-solving methods are interrelated. In the inquiry

approach, the student identifies the topic, formulates the hypothesis and collects the
data. The hypothesis is tested against the data. A conclusion is then drawn. This is
retested against new data before a generalization is made.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the steps to follow in teaching concepts.
2. Explain the steps to follow in teaching principles.
REFERENCES
1. Yelon, S. L. and Weinstein G. W. Psychology in the Classroom, New York:
McGraw Hill Book Company, 1977.
2. Nacino-Brown et al. Curriculum and Instruction London: Macmillan Publishers
Limited, 1985.
25
UNIT 6 (EDU 123.6): PLAY AND SIMULATION GAMES
INTRODUCTION
Simulation, games, play and roles playing are old methods employed by man to learn to prepare
themselves for further responsibilities in the family, and the society and for recreation. In other
words, all these had been in use by the young ones to adjust themselves to their environment.
Often, we see little children imitating the actions of the elders. They play the roles of teachers,
hunters, fathers, mothers, drivers etc. During these roles playing, they simulate (imitate) the ways
the elders behave and perform their responsibilities in actual life situation. We have all undergone
this experience at one time or the other, no doubt. However, simulation games are relatively new to
man's society. They are miniature realities of situations prepared for man to react to, get him ready
for real life situations. These simulation games have certain characteristics which identify them.
These we shall examine in the unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. define play simulation, and simulation games;
2. explain the procedure in using simulation games;
3. explain the procedure in utilizing play;
4. mention the advantages and disadvantages of play;
5. mention the advantages and disadvantages of simulation games.

1. Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as you
read, look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
2. Then go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities given.
carry out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Accessible - Able to be reached or used or visited.
Capability - Power of doing things.
Intellectual - Having or showing good reasoning power.
Miniature - On a small scale
Prominence - Stand out.
Unconsciously - Unaware.
DEFINITION OF PLAY AND SIMULATION GAMES

Play is an activity which employs the ''make believe'' medium for learning purposes. It is an age-
long method through which the child learns.
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Simulation means imitation. In teaching situation, simulation refers to calculated copying of real
life activities in a simplified manner so that it becomes more accessible and understood. Instead of
mere verbal descriptions or explanations, imaginary or miniature situations are provided for
learning activities.
Simulation games is a term used for various simulation exercises which may be a high level activity
carried out by the government or anyone.
Simulation games have the following characteristics.

(a) competitive.
(b) they make use of mental and social skills.
(c) marked by chance.
(d) marked by clearly defined issues and view points.
(e) clearly rewarding.
(f) characterized by a regular, orderly progress towards a specified and realistic goal.
An example of such a simulation game is monopoly (You can get this to buy in the market,
Supermarkets or Sports Shops). It is a board game involving four players who compete to buy and
control property. The player who is able to buy the most as well as the expensive properties wins.
This board game satisfies the characteristics listed above.
PROCEDURE IN USING SIMULATION GAMES IN TEACHING

i. In planning to use simulation games, the first thing the teacher should do is to learn to play
the game.
ii. The teacher must decide on the groupings of the pupils for the game. Equally, he has to
decide on the sitting arrangement.
iii. The class should be taught how to handle the games materials so that they are not ruined.
Equally, he should announce the general rules and regulations to the class in order to
prevent quarrels emanating from competitions.
iv. In introducing the game, the teacher should make a brief explanation about the rules of the
game.
v. He should make sure the pupils understand the rules and the language of the game before
playing.
vi. He should first of all play the game with some students he had already taught for the
introduction in front of the class.
vii. If there are enough copies of the game, each group should have one to play.
viii. The teacher should go round the class and guide the pupils as necessary.
ix. The Teacher should call the attention of the class to common problems noticed. He should
explain to them as necessary.
x. In conclusion, the class meets to discuss their opinions, learning and questions at the end of
the period.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define play.
2. What are the characteristics of simulation games?
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PROCEDURES FOR USING PLAY METHOD

A. For drama-type plays:
i. The play must be simple and straight forward particularly in primary classes.
Ii It should not be too long.
iii. Choose the actors. Make sure you have two or three pupils for each character.
iv. The speeches may be memorized or read from pieces of paper.
v. The location of the stage in the classroom must be a point where all the pupils can see the
play and hear the speakers.
vi The important points which the teacher would want the students to understand must be
given prominence.
vii. The discussion session must be used to end the play.
During this period, the points to be noted should be re-emphasized.
B. In other forms of play activities, the procedure includes:
i. The objectives of the play activities must be made clear.
ii. The pupils should be given the necessary materials.
iii. The pupils should be guided.
iv. The teacher should draw the attention of the pupils to the points of importance.
v. A short discussion session should end the play activities.
ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

The games have some sterling advantages.
i. The realities of life are presented in concrete and simple forms.
ii. Simulating games are highly self motivating.
iii. The mental ability of the pupils are fully put into use.
iv. Simulation games give the pupils the increase in personal sense of the environmental
control. The success of a skilled player gives him the confidence of his capability to solve
similar problems in every day life situation.
v. They are effective techniques of teaching.
ADVANTAGES OF PLAY
i. It makes young children learn while playing.
ii. It is motivating.
iii. Learning becomes concrete and true to life.
iv. The complexities of concepts are made simple.
v. Plays aid retention and recall as a result of the imagery that could be built from the activities
of the play.
DISADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION GAMES

i. Simulation games are expensive and in many cases, not available. For example some useful
Social Studies simulation games are not available in our country.
ii. Some of those games which are available are foreign in background. They are not based on
Nigeria cultural background.
iii. Some games are time-consuming.
iv. Because of the competitive nature of the games, there are tendencies for disorderly
behaviour in the class.
v. Some games are too difficult to understand.
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DISADVANTAGES OF PLAY
i. Both drama-type plays and other forms of plays are time consuming.
ii. Plays also requires a lot of materials and are expensive.
iii. Some pupils may not find it easy to transfer the learning in plays to other situations.
ACTIVITY II
1. What are the procedures in play activities?
2. What are the advantages of simulation games?
3. What are the advantages of play?
4. What are the disadvantages of Simulation Games?
SUMMARY
• Play is an activity through which children learn real life activities using the ''make believe''
technique. Simulation means imitation. Simulation games is a term used for various
stimulation exercises which possess the following characteristics:
(a) Competitive.
(b) They make use of mental and social skills.
(c) Marked by chance.
(d) Marked by clearly defined issues and view points.
(e) Clearly rewarding.
(f) Characterized by a regular, orderly progress towards a specified and realistic goal.
• In using simulation games, certain procedures are to be followed:
i. the teacher should learn to play the game.
ii the teacher should decide on the groupings of the pupils as well as the sitting
arrangement.
iii. the class must be taught how to handle the materials to avoid destruction.
Iv a brief explanation should start the game.
v. the rules of the games must be understood by the pupils.
vi. if there are enough copies of the game, each group should have one to play.
vii. the teacher should go round and guide the pupils as necessary.
viii. the teacher should call the attention of the class to common problems noticed.
ix there should be a discussion session at the end of the game.
• The general principles for using play method are: The play must be simple, straight forward
and short. The chosen actors may memorize the parts or read them from paper. The stage
must be located where every child can see and hear the actors. The important points of the
play should be emphasized. A discussion session should end the play.
• In other forms of play activities, the objectives must be clear and there should be adequate
materials. The teacher should guide the play and draw the attention of the pupils to
important points. A short discussion should end the play.
• The advantages of simulation games includes; the presentation of the realities of life in
simplified form to the level of any ability group. The pupils are involved and occupied.
• The games are motivating and the pupils learn unconsciously with pleasure. The mental
ability of the pupils are utilised. The pupils develop certain confidence of ability to solve
social problems in every day life. Above all, simulation games are effective teaching
technique to raise the intellectual, motivationals and retention levels of classroom learning.
29
• The advantages of play are: It motivates the learners to be fully involved in learning.
Learning becomes concrete, true to life and the concepts are made simple. Plays aid
retention and recall through imagery formation.
Both simulation games and plays have their limitations.
Simulation games are expensive.
They are based on foreign cultures and therefore, complex.
• Plays are time consuming and require a lot of materials. The entertainment nature of play
overshadows the concepts, information and subject matter it is supposed to convey.
Therefore, pupils may find the transfer of learning from play to other situations difficult.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the procedures for using Simulation Games in the class?
2. What are the disadvantages of play?
3. What are the advantages of simulation games?
REFERENCES
1. Chauhan S. S. Innovations in Teaching Learning Process, New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House, PVT Limited, 1981.
2. N.E.R.C. Social Studies Methods for Teachers, Lagos: N.E.R.C., 1983.
30
UNIT 7 (EDU 123.7): TEAM TEACHING
INTRODUCTION
Researches of various types in all areas of Education had been and are being undertaken in
various countries of the world. In the area of Instruction (teaching) in the last few decades,
many innovations and techniques had been introduced. One of such techniques is Team
Teaching. Among the age-long teacher/class arrangements in our Schools are the one-class
one-teacher arrangement and the one-class one subject-specialist teacher or rotation system.
The Team- Teaching technique is a new innovation.
It was identified and named in the United States of America around 1957. But the practice
had been used even in some parts of this country before 1957.
OBJECTIVES
1. define what team-teaching means;
2. explain the concept of team-teaching;
3. explain the procedure of using team teaching; and
4. identify at least five advantages and four disadvantages of the technique.

you comply with all the instructions above, you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Instruction - Teaching School Subject or Skill.
Decades - Periods of ten years.
Innovations - New things or ideas introduced for specific purposes.
Techniques - Method of doing something expertly.
Harmonising - Satisfactorily arranged without discord or friction.
Potentials - Existing qualities or abilities which are capable of being
Developed: or dormant qualities which still have to be
developed.
Tutorial - Studies for a small number of students.
Methodology - The Science or study of way of doing something.
Photocopying - Copying of document by photographic method.
Educational
Technologist - Teachers or people who studied the operation and
maintenance of electrical or electronic materials used for
teaching.
31
THE TEAM TEACHING APPROACH
Team teaching is an instructional technique in which teachers get together to plan, implement
and evaluate a teaching activity. The teachers may be those handling one subject or related
subjects. They may be teachers of one class or a group taking a particular course or a unit of
instruction. Thus, a teacher of English Language may plan and teach together with teachers of
English Literature, History, Arts, Drama and Geography.
This is a departure from the age-long arrangement of a teacher teaching all the subjects in a
class particularly in the primary schools. It is equally different from the rotation system.
This is the practice in which teachers who 'major' or specialize in a subject teach the subject
in some classes. Team Teaching is a cooperative teaching in a broad sense.
It is based on the concept that each teacher has his own area of specialization, preference or
content mastery. It also recognizes that teachers vary in experience, exposition, interest,
resourcefulness, voice and ability to control classes, etc. In the one-teacher, one-class
system, students are at an advantage in the areas in which their teachers are good. They are at
a disadvantage in the areas in which their teachers are weak. The concept of team- teaching is
also based on the principle of harmonizing teachers' potentials in the interest of many pupils.
Thus, many more pupils are exposed to the personalities and competencies of various co-
operating teachers.
There are variations in the team-teaching approach. The variations may be based on content-
strength or interest, methods or panel approaches, etc.
i. Content-Strength or Interest approach
In this approach, the teachers are assigned to teach the age group involving the whole
class. A teacher takes a topic in which he is very good or in which he is very much
interested. After he has taught, other teachers take their tutorial groups. The emphasis
here is that, various teachers have the opportunity of teaching their special areas to the
large group.
ii. The Methods Approach
By this approach, teachers take their turns in applying their special methods. Those
who are competent in handling large groups take the large groups while others handle
smaller tutorial classes. The consideration here is the method or technique to be
adopted.
iii. The Panel Approach
According to this approach, teachers are put in charge of the large group. The
consideration is neither their content ability nor their method specialization. They are
there as a matter of choice to maintain discipline while the specialist is teaching.
They may be assigned to some routine tasks while other teachers are involved with
the tutorial groups.
There are a series of other approaches adopted as a result of researches or
experiments. However, the success of the technique does not depend on the structure
and organization employed. Rather, much depends on the co-operative planning, and
close unity on the part of team members. Other vital conditions are free flow of
communication, and sincere sharing of responsibilities among the teachers in the
team.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define and explain what Team Teaching means.
2. On what concepts is Team Teaching based?
32
USING TEAM TEACHING: ORGANIZATION OF THE TEAM

The members of the team could be many or few. This depends on the number of teachers
teaching the subject in the class. Some members of staff in other areas of the school may be
invited to join the team. For example, the team must have the blessing of the Head teacher of
the school. He may not necessarily attend the team's meetings but he must be told of the plan
and progress. The importance of the School Librarian cannot be overemphasized. He is very
important to the team. He is required to get relevant books to the topic ready in the Library
for the students' individual study. The Team also needs the services of a Typist/Clerical
Officer. This member handles all the required typing and duplicating of handouts as well as
photocopying of materials where necessary. In a nutshell, he handles all the clerical work of
the team.
The services of a technician or educational technologist are needed. This personnel handles
any electrical or electronic gadgets i.e. overhead projectors, slides, or film-strips, etc. The
Time - Table master who may be the Assistant Head teacher (Vice Principal or Assistant
Headmaster or Headmistress) should equally be involved. If Team Teaching is the approach
to be used in the school or certain classes or certain subjects, he should be informed and
involved so that he could reflect the programme on the Time-Table. You will discover that
the members of the team include the class or subject teachers, the School Librarian, a
Typist/Clerical Officer, and a resource material technologist, of necessity, the Head teacher
(for his information and permission) and the Time-Table master must be involved. The
leader (Chairman) of the team is usually the most senior teacher in the team. He coordinates
and directs the activities of the team. He is the Chairman at the team's meetings. One of the
teachers in the team is usually made the recorder (Secretary).
PROCEDURE FOR USING TEAM TEACHING:

There are three stages in team teaching implementation. These are
i. The whole class lecture
ii. The groups (streams) tutorial.
iii. The individual study.
i. The Class Lecture - This is usually conducted by the teacher assigned to
handle the topic or as arranged in the team. He teaches the whole class. He is
supported by the Educational Technologist who operates the electrical or
electronic gadgets (overhead projector, film slide etc).
The whole class (comprising all the students in all the streams of the class i.e.
From 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E, 2F) may be assembled in a large hall for the lecture.
Equally, where there is a closed circuit television the students may be in their
different classrooms. The teacher would then teach from the studio and it will
be relayed to the students in their classes. The real class-teacher would
supervise the class to make sure that discipline is maintained. (This aspect of
closed circuit television teaching cannot yet be practised in Nigeria. There are
very few Universities in the country which has the closed-circuit television not
to talk of secondary or primary schools). The students are given assignments
and told the books for further reading at the end of the lesson.
ii The Tutorial Groups - After the class lecture had been given by the expert
teacher; the students break into their groups in their classrooms. There, their
class teacher will give them a follow up tutorial when next they have the
33
lesson. Usually, students have no opportunity- ties to ask questions during the
whole class lecture. During the tutorials they ask questions on the points they
did not understand.
In the tutorial classes students exchange views with their colleagues. They are
also advised on more books to consult in the Library.
Three points are worth noting here. First, all the team members are usually
fully informed of the points to be emphasized during the group lecture.
Secondly, the teachers emphasize those points during the tutorials. Thirdly,
they also know the resource materials to be used; that is, the electronic gadgets
and books. Thus, when the pupils ask questions, the team members know
exactly what to say. On his/her part, the Librarian knows what books to direct
the pupils to read for extra information.
iii. Individual Study. This is mostly carried out in the Library. The Librarian
who is a member of the team is aware of the books to be consulted. These he
makes available in the Library for the use of the pupils. Of course, the pupils
consult him when they need his advice.
ACTIVITY II
1. Mention the various members of the Teams and their roles.
2. Explain what is done at the whole class lecture stage.
ADVANTAGES
Team Teaching has its advantages.
Eight are identified here.
i. It encourages the spirit of cooperation among the teachers and other workers in the
school.
ii. The students are exposed to good teaching because they are taught by the 'expert'
teachers in the school.
iii. All the students in the same class are exposed to the same teaching by the èxpert'
teacher.
iv. It allows for efficient use of the school staff. The expert teacher teaches the large
class. He is supported by the other teachers in the team who give reinforcement.
v. The students come in close contact with many teachers and they benefit from it.
vi. The combining of several streams for instruction helps each child to find his place in
the crowd, to respect it, to learn from its behaviour pattern, to contribute to its unity,
and to feel the impact of group dynamics.
vii. Each teacher has the opportunity to thoroughly prepare his work. The division of
labour in the team is an asset for thorough preparation.
viii. The teachers in the team learn from each other. They have the opportunity to listen to
the best among them.
34
DISADVANTAGES
1. Team Teaching requires teachers with training and disposition to engage in team
work. Many teachers may not have these qualities and the end result is poor
performance.
2. Special facilities are required for team teaching. The provision of such facilities may
be expensive.
3. The per-student cost of team-teaching is sometimes higher than the per-student cost of
other techniques or methods of teaching because of the population and composition of
the team members.
4. Large group teaching hampers the emotional, social, and academic progress of the
students constant contacts with their class teacher.
5. The technique requires constant meeting. This takes the non-teaching members of the
team away from their main jobs.
PROBLEMS OF OPERATING TEAM TEACHING IN NIGERIA
1. The teachers are not used to it. Personality clash may crop into the team when the
technique is in operation.
2. There are no large classroom or halls for whole class use.
3. Many Schools do not have Libraries.
4. The problem of time for meetings may be an obstacle later.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are the advantages of Team Teaching?
2. What are its disadvantages?
SUMMARY
• Team Teaching is an instructional technique in which the teachers of the same subject
and class come together to plan, implement and evaluate a teaching activity. It is
based on two concepts. Each teacher has his own area of specialization, preference or
content mastery, and teaching ability, or technique. Secondly, that these qualities
should best be shared by the class as a whole rather than a section of a class.
• There are various team teaching approaches. These depend on the experiment of each
school. However, three are commonly in operation.
They are:
i. Content strength or Interest approach,
ii. The methods approach; and
iii. The panel approach.
• Each team is made up of the teachers teaching the subject in the class, the Librarian, a
typist/clerical officer, and a technician or educational technologist. The Time-Table
master should also be involved. The Head teacher is to be informed. The most senior
teacher in the Team should lead. A recorder should also be elected.
• The three stages of team teaching implementation are the whole class lecture, the
groups tutorial and the individual staff.
35
• Among the advantages of the technique are the staff cooperation, and the fact that the
students receive lectures from the 'experts' among the teachers. However, it is
expensive to start using the technique particularly in Nigeria where halls and good
Libraries are not available in many schools.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain some of the approaches in use in Team Teaching.
2. Enumerate the procedure to be followed in the implementation stage of Team
Teaching.
REFERENCE
1. Nacino-Brown R. et. al. Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan
36
UNIT 8 (EDU 123.8): MICRO-TEACHING I: THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Micro teaching is one of the new techniques in teaching. This is used in exposing the student
teachers into the art of teaching.
Micro Teaching was introduced at Stanford University, U.S.A. in 1963 by Doright Allen,
Frederick J. McDonald and a group of the faculty members. This new technique is different
from the conventional methods of introducing student teachers to teaching. In the
conventional methods, student- teachers are attached to a school and they attempt to
implement recommended theories and practices. The teaching supervisors go round, to
inspect, advise and assess the students. Often, many student-teachers panic in the presence of
numerous students they have to face. The students also have to cope with presence of the
supervisor who is often regarded as a critic. To overcome some of the problems associated
with the conventional teacher training methods, Micro teaching •
was introduced.
OBJECTIVES
1. define and explain what micro-teaching is;
2. explain the concept of Micro teaching;
3. explain the procedure of using the technique; and
4. identify the advantages and disadvantages of the technique.

1. Read through this unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also
follow the instructions stated above, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Faculty members - Lecturer in a group of related departments in the
University.
Conventional Method - Customary way of doing things.
Exposition - Explanation.
Peers - Equals, age mates, classmates etc.
Feedback: - Information given by the receiver to the giver.
Self-analysis - Examined.
Resource Person - Ultant.
37
MICRO-TEACHING
Micro teaching is a technique of training student-teachers in teaching skills in a manner that
the teaching is scaled down in terms of class size, time, task and skill. It could be simply
defined as teaching miniature. It is one of the attempts to simplify the problems of normal
classrooms. It is an attempt to use the simulation technique to break down teaching process
into smaller and more easily understood units. The teaching involves four phases. They are:
Model Performance
Teaching - Record Stage
Play Back Critique.
Re-teach Session.
The activities which take place in the four phases show that Micro-teaching provides a
campus laboratory experience. In such an experience, the student teachers practise in a non
threatening environment. Importantly, opportunities are provided to help correct mistakes
through its system •
of teach-critique-reteach cycles.
1. What makes some students panic when using the conventional methods in teaching
practice?
2. Define and describe Micro-Teaching.
PROCEDURE FOR USING MICRO TEACHING

There are four phases in using Micro Teaching. These are:
i. Modelling.
ii. Teach-Record Stage.
iii. Play back critique.
iv. Reteach Session.
i. Modelling -
A recorded videotaped demonstration of an expert is shown to the student. He should have a
clear understanding of the particular teaching skill. He must know what he should do and
why.
This can be achieved in three ways.
(a) The first way is by the use of oral explanations and instructions.
(b) The second is by the use of written expositions and directions.
(c) The final way is by providing recorded demonstrations of the special teaching
behaviours.
These three ways show that the models may be in oral, written or video- taped recorded
forms.
ii. Teach-Record Stage -
The student-teacher teaches about 5 students or his peers for about 5 to 10 minutes
imitating the model. The student's attempts are to be recorded on video-tape for play
back. The student-teacher is to be supervised by the supervisor and his peers during
the attempts.
38
iii. Play-back Critique (Feedback)

Feedback or play back critique in micro teaching is the reports and criticism a student
receives about his attempts to imitate certain patterns of teaching.
Thus, criticism is based on the examples of the model. The aim of play back critique
is to tell student teacher about his performances.
The criticisms are to make him improve his teaching performances.
The criticism can be approached in three ways.

(a) Self-analysis. This means asking the student-teacher what good qualities and
weaknesses he noticed in his attempt.
(b) Supervisor's Criticism - In this approach, the supervisor commends the student-
teacher for his good performances and advises him on how to improve upon his
weaknesses.
(c) Analysing of some aspects of the teaching skill. The supervisor calls the attention of
the students to certain aspect of the attempt for critical observation. The use of video
recording is very important at this stage. It will provide the basis for detailed
discussion by the supervisor and students.
iv. Teach - Reteach -
After the criticism or feedback discussion, the student - teacher is told to put the
suggestions into practice. He is given another chance to teach. The reteach may be
after a day or thereafter.
ROLES OF THE TEACHER IN MICRO-TEACHING

The teacher serves as the supervisor. His other roles are listed below.
i. He introduces the skill.
ii. He observed the students practice.
iii. He advises and commends the students during the critique session.
iv. He helps in planning the reteach.
v. He may serve as the model.
vi. He is an assessor who rates the students attempt.
vii. He serves as a Resource Person to the Student Teacher.
ACTIVITY II
Mention and explain the three ways the Play back Critique
(Feedback) can be approached.
What are the roles of the teacher in Micro-Teaching?
ADVANTAGES
i. Micro-Teaching provides the required teaching attempts before the student teacher
goes into the class to face many pupils. This could otherwise, be embarrassing.
39
ii. It provides low risk'' for the student-teacher and learners. A risk is taken when a
student teacher who has never taught before goes and teaches about 40 pupils.
iii. It provides many short practices rather than the long session in the conventional
method.
iv. The video recording shows the real teaching performance. This eliminates the usual
student- teacher arguments in the conventional method.
v. It gives immediate feedback.
vi. It gives opportunity for rectifying mistakes quickly.
vii. The student-teachers are given the opportunity to see themselves on the video-tape as
they teach. They could see their mistakes and correct them.
DISADVANTAGES
i. It is expensive as it involves the use of many video and audio tapes.
ii. The pupils taught gain little or nothing from the teaching which is for professional
development of the student-teacher rather than the content acquisition of the pupils.
ACTIVITY III
What are the advantages of Micro-Teaching?
What are the disadvantages of the technique?
SUMMARY
• Micro-teaching is one of the techniques used in teacher training institutions. Its major
purpose is to expose the student-teachers to the various skills in teaching. The
technique scales down the teaching in terms of class size, time, task and skill.
• Micro-teaching is carried out in four phases. Model Performance, Teach-Record
Stage, Play back Critique and Reteach session.
• In modelling, oral explanations, written expositions, or video recorded demonstrations
may be used. This will be imitated by the student-teacher during the Teach-Record
Stage. The feedback may be self assessment or supervisor's criticism focusing
attention on some aspects of the attempt.
• Another preparation and reteach follow. The cycle continues until the student-teacher
masters the required skills. The teacher serves as an adviser, and a model. In some
cases, he is an assessor and a resource person. The technique no doubt has its
advantages. These include availability of examples to imitate, availability of
immediate feedback and the opportunity to reteach. However, it is expensive in
operation.
ASSIGNMENT
1 Examine the possible ways to provide a good model for the student-teacher.
2. In what ways is the Micro-teaching technique better than the conventional method?
40
REFERENCE
Nacino-Brown R et al., Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan
41
NIT 9 (EDU 123.9): MICRO-TEACHING II: PRACTICAL
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 8, the theoretical aspect of micro-teaching was treated. This aspect of teacher education
was defined and the procedure in using the technique was explained. The advantages and
disadvantages were also discussed. In this unit, the operational procedure of Micro-Teaching •
is examined.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify the various operations in micro-teaching;
2. list the concrete steps involved in the use of micro-teaching;
3. identify the similarities between traditional teaching practice and micro-teaching;
4. mention the differences between traditional teaching practice and micro-teaching;

1. Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as you
2. Then go back and study the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities given.
3. Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If you carry
out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this unit.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS AT THE
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
Boredom - Uninteresting and unexciting situation.
Incorporating - Taking into
Operation - Working
Orientation - Bring into clearly understood relationship.
Personnel - Persons employed in any work
Reinforcement - Supporting, giving more weight.
Verbal - In words.
OPERATIONS IN MICRO-TEACHING
It is mentioned in unit 8, that the model teacher who may be the class-tutor or a video-taped expert
teacher, the class- tutor who also is the supervisor, the practising student- teacher and his
classmates are the personnel involved in a micro-teaching session. Some of the classmates serve as
42
the `pupils' while the others watch with the class-tutor. As explained in unit 8, the procedure in
using micro-teaching are broadly in four phases. These are:
i. Modelling Phase.
ii. Teach-Record Phase
iii. Play back Critique Phase
iv. Reteach Phase.
In practice, the detailed operations which we shall study in this unit are as follows:
i. The objectives of the skill should be made clear to the student-teacher.
ii. The modeling or demonstration of the skill. This may be a video taped or film of an expert
teacher brought for the demonstration. Equally, the class-tutor may demonstrate the skill to
the student teachers in the classroom. The demonstration is to be supported with verbal
explanations of the aspects of the modeling which require more attention.
iii. The student-teacher preparation stage. The trainee plans a short lesson of about 5 to 10
minutes on a topic of his choice incorporating the demonstrated skills.
iv. The student teacher teaches the lesson to a small group of 5 pupils, his mates. His attempt
is video- taped and or audio-taped for play backs.
v. Feedback or playback critique is another operation. At this stage the class-tutor/supervisor
makes reinforcing remarks on the trainees performance. This may be in the form of asking
for self-analysis from the student-teacher, or the supervisor. The video-tape and audio-tape
should be played back to give the feedback. It should be noted that, both the good qualities
and weaknesses in the attempt should be mentioned. This feedback is to give the student-
teacher an insight into how he could improve on his performance.
vi. The replan is another operation. At this stage, the student teacher replans his lesson,
incorporating both personal and supervisor's observations.
vii. The revised lesson is retaught to another set of pupils or classmates. The reason for the
change of learners is to avoid the effect of boredom on the pupils or students. The reteach is
also video-taped and or audio-taped.
viii. Another round of feedback takes place after the reteach.
ACTIVITY I
1. Name the personnel involved in a micro-Teaching Lesson.
2. What are the required electrical machines in a Micro-Teaching Lesson?
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE FOR MICRO-TEACHING

The concrete steps involved in Micro-teaching as suggested by Singh (1977) are as follows:
i. Orientation: To attract the attention of student teachers and to stimulate them to use
micro-teaching, there is the need to organise discussions on the theory of the technique as
regards teacher education. The advantages and limitations of the technique should be
known to the student-teachers.
ii. Discussion on Teaching Skills: Singh suggests that the concept of teaching skill be
clarified first. Each skill to be practised should be thoroughly discussed before practice.
Selected student-teachers should be trained in observing the teaching skill.
43
iii. Presentation of Model Lesson: The model lessons on the skills to be practised should be
demonstrated by the model-teacher preferably in all the subjects chosen by the student-
teachers.
iv. Preparation of Micro-Lesson Plan: The student teacher is expected to plan for a skill at a
time.
v. Micro-teaching Setting: The following timing and setting are suggested by Singh:
(a) Time Teach 6 minutes
Feedback 6 minutes
Replan 12 minutes
Reteach 6 minutes.
Refeedback 6 minutes.
Number of Students - 10
Supervisors - 1 or 2.
Feedback by the Supervisor(s).
vi Simulated Condition: The student-teachers (classmates) should act as pupils. The micro-
teaching is conducted in the College itself.
vii Practice of Teaching Skills
Singh suggests that five skills may be practised by a student-teacher, using the following
processes:
1 Probing questions
2. Stimulus Variation
3. Reinforcement
4. Silence and non-verbal cues
5. Illustrating with examples.
6. Encouraging pupils participation.
7. Explaining.
8. Effective use of blackboard.
9. Set introduction.
10. Closure.
viii. Observation of Teaching Skills
The student-teacher's attempts are to be observed by the classmates as well as the college
supervisor(s).
ix. Feedback
Immediate feedback may be given to the student-teachers individually.
x. Teaching Time
The teach-feedback-replan-reteach-refeedback, a complete cycle, is expected to take about
35 minutes.
Singh's suggestions may not be the same with the timing suggested by some other
researchers.
Teaching Skills are numerous. Those suggested in (vii) are only a sample. You should
suggest many of such skills.
44
ACTIVITY II
1. What time span did Singh suggest for the following activities?
Teach
Feedback
Replan
Reteach
Refeedback.
2. What are his suggestions as regards -
Number of Students?
No of Supervisor(s)?
Who to give feedback?
The Pupils?
Where micro-teaching should take place?
SIMILARITIES IN TRADITIONAL TEACHING PRACTICE AND
MICRO-TEACHING
Teaching practice, whether traditional or micro, has same ultimate objective. That is to produce
effective teachers.
Both traditional teaching practice and Micro-teaching require:
i. Preparations before the student-teachers go to the classroom to teach. The preparation
document made for each lesson is referred to as the Lesson Note or Lesson Plan.
ii. Intensive supervision by the teacher or supervisor.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL TEACHING PRACTICES AND

MICRO-TEACHING
i. The orientations of the two approaches are different. In Micro-Teaching the objective of a
lesson is geared towards the student-teacher mastering a teaching skill. In traditional
teaching practice it is geared towards the student-teacher teaching the pupils certain
contents.
ii. In traditional teaching practice, the student-teacher is expected to teach many pupils i.e. 30
or more pupils in regular classroom settings. In micro- teaching only about 5 to 10 students
are taught and often in a micro-teaching laboratory.
iii. In micro-teaching, the lesson duration is about 5 to 10 minutes. In traditional-teaching
practice it is about 35 to 40 minutes.
iv. In traditional teaching, the student-teacher is expected to teach the pupils a number of facts
and also exhibit mastery of some basic teaching skills. In micro-teaching, the trainee is
expected to exhibit only one teaching skill.
v. Micro-teaching gives room for immediate feedback whereas in traditional teaching practice,
the feed back is not immediate.
ACTIVITY III
1. Mention some similarities in both traditional-teaching practice and micro-teaching.
2. Why is traditional teaching practice regarded as complex?
45
SUMMARY
• In unit 8, the theoretical aspect of micro-teaching was treated while in this unit the practical
aspects are discus-sed. The detailed operations include the analysis of the objectives of the
skills, the demonstration of the skill, the preparation by the student-teacher and the actual
teaching. The feedback, the replan, the revised lesson and the refeedback are equally
examined.
• Singh's (1977) suggests the concrete steps involved in micro-teaching. These include
Orientation, Discussion on Teaching Skills, Presentation of Model Lesson, Preparation of
Micro Lesson Plan, the Micro-teaching Setting, Simulated Condition, Practice of Teaching
Skills, Observation of Tea-ching Skills, the Feedback and the Teaching Time. The
simi-larities and dissimilarities between the two approaches were equally examined. It is
explained that although the two approaches have a common goal i.e. producing effective
tea-chers, there are some differences between them. These are evident in orientation,
population of pupils taught, the duration of the lesson, the emphasis when teaching, the
presence of immediate feedback, replan, reteach and refeed-back in micro teaching. These
are absent or delayed in traditional teaching practice.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Enumerate the detailed practice operation in micro-teaching.
2. Explain the steps to take in the practical use of micro-teaching.
3. What are the differences between traditional-teaching practice and micro-teaching
REFERENCES
1. Chauhan S.S. Innovations in Teaching/Learning Process, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House PVT Limited, 1981.
2. Nacino-Brown R. et al Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan Publishers, 1985.
46
UNIT 10 (EDU 123.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9
INTRODUCTION
Going through this Module, you would have realized that the first five (5) units were based
on methodology while the last four (4) were on some of the new techniques of teaching. In
unit 1, the concept and nature of methodology were examined with emphasis on the concepts
of teaching and Learning. Lecture, Discussion, Problem Solving, Discovery and Inquiry
Methods, and Individualized Instruction were dealt with in units 2 to 5. Play and Simulation
Games appeared in unit 6 while unit 7 was on Team Teaching. Micro- Teaching: Theory and
Practice were the substance of units 8 and 9. In this unit, we shall be revising all that we have
covered in the nine (9) units.
OBJECTIVES
1. define and discuss the concepts of teaching and learning;
2. define and explain lecture and discussion methods;
3. define and explain individualized instruction;
4. define and discuss problem-solving approach;
5. define and explain discovery and inquiry methods;
6. explain what simulation games and play are; and
7. define and explain team teaching and micro-teaching.

1. Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as
WORD STUDY
Incorporating - Making to become part of; uniting.
Make-believe - Cause to appear as real or pretence;
Refeedback - Give a response again;
Simplified - Make simple.
Unconsciously - Unaware, unknowingly.
47
THE CONCEPT AND NATURE OF METHODOLOGY

Teaching and Learning.
Methodology in this unit is examined both as the study and practice of various methods of
teaching. The principles underlying methods of teaching are: understanding the theory and
the practice of methodology. It involves teaching according to the nature of the topic,
consideration for the individuality of the pupils and flexibility in methods. Included are the
utilisation of child and adolescent studies and the development of good relationship with the
others in the school as well as the pupils.
Teaching is defined as an attempt to help someone change some skills or acquire new
attitudes, knowledge, idea or appreciation. Its function include informing, explai-ning,
simulating, directing, guiding and administering the pupils, identifying what to learn and
learning problems, evaluating, reporting and recording the performances of the pupils. Other
functions include classroom management, class unity, giving security, development of
school-community relationship, participating in School and professional activities.
Learning is defined as the acquisition of new know-ledge, ideas, skills, values and
experiences. The process of learning involves input, perception covert activities, overt
activities, repetition, association and output.
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS

Lecture method is one of the oldest methods in which the teacher tells the students his pre
planned facts. Among its advantages are that many students can be taught at the same time
and that, it is economical in time, teaching mate-rials and students labour. The limitation lies
in the fact that the students appear passive.
Discussion method is a process of teaching in which the students exchange opinion. The
pupils are actively involved in the lesson but the brilliant ones may dominate the discussion
while the shy ones withdraw.
INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
Considerations for individual differences are among the factors which lead to Individualized
Instruction system which was started in U.S.A in 1950s.Among the media used are
Programmed Instruction (PI), Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Learner - Controlled
Instruction (LCI), Teaching Machine (TM), and Personalized System of Instruction (PST).
The learner determines his instructional objectives and goals. He covers the field of study in
bits. He has to master and answer a question before he goes further. The learner works at his
own pace. The method is not in use in our Schools because of its age, non-availability of
programmed text books and machines. Our educational system is also examination oriented.
It may give the innovation a chance.
ACTIVITY I
1. What are the functions of Teaching?
2. Discuss the advantages of lecture method.
3. What are the advantages of Individualized Instruction?
48
PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

Problem solving method is a process in which students solve a problem using his scientific
approach to collect and analyse, data. The data collected are used to arrive at a proven
solution rather than a guessed solution. The procedure of using the method involves:
i. Formulating a topic,
ii.. Formulating a hypothesis,
iii. Collecting and analyzing data,
iv. Testing the hypothesis,
v. Formulating a conclusion,
vi. Testing the conclusion against new data and analysis, and
vii. Formulating generalizations.
This is inductive approach. The deductive procedure involves testing from generalization to a
conclusion. Using the method, the students are actively involved and they find out facts on
their own. It makes recall easier but it is time consuming.
DISCOVERY AND INQUIRY METHODS

Discovery method is a process through which students find out facts or knowledge through
the understanding of concepts. In this method, students proceed from specific examples
(precepts) to concepts and from concepts to generalisation. The emphasis on the formation of
concepts is the difference between this method and the Problem- Solving/Inquiry Method.
The Inquiry method is the process in which the students use scientific investigation to arrive
at a generalization. Concepts have to do with the classification of objects or ideas. In
teaching concepts, the teacher should identify the objectives of the lesson, plan the required
procedure that will make the students understand the concept, present many positive and
negative examples for the students to classify. The steps to take in teaching principles are
that, the students should be aware of the objectives of the lesson. The teacher should guide
the students in revising the concepts that would lead to the principles. Series of examples
should be provided to aid the learning of the required principles.
Discovery and Inquiry/Problem-Solving methods are inter- related. In inquiry method, the
student identifies the topic, formulates a hypothesis and collects the data. The hypothesis is
tested against the data. A conclusion is then drawn. This is retested against new data before a
generalization is made.
PLAY AND SIMULATION GAMES

Play is a happy activity through which children learn real- life activities using the "make-
believe'' technique. Simulation Games is a term used for various simulation activities which
possess the characteristics of competition or element of conflict, use of mental and social
skills, play of luck or chance, the need for clearly defined issues, the incentive of a reward
system to motivate the desire to play, and the need for a regular, orderly progress towards a
specified and realistic goal. In using Simulation Games, the teacher should be able to play the
game and know the rules. He should group his class and give an introductory game after
telling the students the rules of the game. Every group should play the game while the
teacher goes round to guide. A discussion session should end the game.
In play activities, the objective must be clear and there should be adequate materials. The
teacher should guide the play. A short discussion session should round the activities. The
advantages of simulation games include the presentation of the realities of life in simplified
49
form to the level of any ability group. The pupils are involved and unconsciously occupied.
They learn with pleasure. The advantages of play include motivating the learners to be fully
involved in learning unconsciously. Learning becomes concrete, true to life and the concepts
are made simple.
Simulation Games are expensive, unavailable, and foreign oriented. Plays are time
consuming and requires lots of materials. The entertaining nature of play may overshadow
the concepts, information and subject matter it is supposed to convey.
ACTIVITY II
1. What is the procedure in using the problem-solving method?
2. What are the steps to take in teaching concepts?
3. What are the disadvantages of simulation games and play?
TEAM TEACHING
Team teaching is an instructional technique in which the teachers of the same subject and
class come together to plan, implement and evaluate a teaching activity. It is based on the
concept of maximizing the use of the teachers and their qualities. There are three common
approaches i.e. the strength or interest approach, the method approach and the panel
approach. Each team consists of the teachers teaching the subject in the class, the Librarian, a
typist, and an educational technologist. The three stages of team teaching implementation
are; the whole class lecture, the group tutorial and the individual study. The advantages
include the co-operation of the staff and the fact that the students receive lectures from the
expert among the teachers. It is expensive to start using the technique as there are no halls
and good Libraries in our schools.
MICRO TEACHING I: THEORY

Micro-Teaching is one of the techniques used in Tea-chers Training Institutions. Its major
purpose is to expose the student-teachers to the various skills in teaching. The technique
scales down the teaching in terms of class size, time, task and skill. It is carried out in four
phases i.e. Model performance, Teach-Record stage, Play-back critique and Reteach Session.
In modelling, oral explanations, written exposition or video recorded demonstration may be
used. This is to be imitated by the student-teacher during the teach-record stage. The
feedback is to be directed by the supervisor. Another preparation, incorporating the
suggestions given is made by the student-teacher. He then reteaches. The cycle continues
until he masters the required skills. The teacher serves as an adviser, a model, an assessor or a
resource person. The advantages of the technique include availability of examples to imitate,
availability of immediate feed back and the opportunity to reteach. However, it is expensive
to operate.
MICRO-TEACHING II: PRACTICAL

Unit 8 treated the theoretical aspect of Micro-teaching. In unit 9, the practical aspect was
treated. The detailed operations examined included the analysis of the objectives of the
skills, the demonstration of the skill, the preparation by the student-teacher and the actual
teaching. The feedback, the replan, the revised-lesson and the refeedback were equally
treated.
50
Singh's (1977) suggestions on the concrete steps involved in micro-teaching were dealt with.
These included orientation, discussion on teaching skills, presentation of model lesson,
preparation of micro-teaching lesson plan, the micro- teaching setting, simulated condition,
practice of teaching skills, observation of teaching skills, the feedback and the teaching time.
The similarities between micro-teaching and traditional teaching are in writing a lesson plan,
being supervised by College supervisors and the fact that the two approaches have a common
goal..The differences between them are evident in orientation, pupil population, duration of
lesson, emphasis when teaching, the presence of immediate feedback, re-plan, reteach and
refeedback in micro-teaching. These are absent or delayed in traditional teaching practice.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the three stages of team teaching implementation.
2. Enumerate the advantages of micro-teaching.
3. What are the differences between the traditional teaching and micro-teaching?
SUMMARY
• In this Module, you would have realized that the units were based on teaching and
learning methods. Unit 1 was an introduction to the Concept and Nature of Teaching
and Learning. In units 2 - 5 some of the oldest known methods i.e. Lecture,
Discussion, Individual, Problem solving, Discovery and Inquiry methods were
examined alongside with some relatively new ones.
• The lecture method was presented as an old method in which the teacher mostly does
the talking. In Discussion method, students are allowed to exchange views. The
Individualized Instruction involves the use of Programmed Instruction (PI), Computer
Assisted Instruction (CAI), Learner's Controlled Instruction (LCI), Teaching Machine
(TM), and Personalized System of Instruction (PSI). The problem solving method
employs Scientific approach to formulate generalizations. The Discovery and Inquiry
Methods are similar to the problem solving method. The difference is in the emphasis
on concept formulation in discovery method.
• Units 6 to 9 dealt with play and simulation games, team and micro-teaching.
• The play way method is an old device of teaching. The simulation games is a ''make
believe'' technique of learning. Real life situations are translated into games for the
learner to master. Team teaching is a device in which some teachers join together to
teach the pupils in the same class, the same subject or related subjects. Micro
teaching is a technique of preparing student teachers in teaching skills.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Describe the process of learning.
2. Name the media used in individualized instruction.
3. Enumerate the advantages of simulation games.
4. Explain the advantages of team-teaching.
51
REFERENCES
1. Bello, J.Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1981.
2. Chauhan S. S. Innovations in Teaching/Learning Process, New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House PVT Ltd., 1981
3. Nacino-Brown R.et al Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan Publishers,

1985.
52
MODULE 6 ANSWERS General Principles of Methodology of Teaching I EDU123
UNIT 1 (EDU 123.1): THE CONCEPT AND NATURE

OF METHODOLOGY: TEACHING
AND LEARNING
ACTIVITY I
1. Methodology as a discipline is a science involving the study of the methods of
teaching. Teaching is an activity which enables the child to learn and possess
desirable knowledge, skills and ways of life. It is meant to stimulate the child to be
able to respond to his environment in an effective manner.
2. The Teacher should:
i. understand both the theory and practice of methodology.
ii. use the methods to teach according to the nature of the topic, the subject, the
pupils, the available resources in the school as well as the location of and the
prevailing situation in the environment.
iii. consider the individual differences of the pupils.
iv. vary the methods he uses in teaching.
v. use his knowledge of child psychology and personality development to
determine the teaching procedure and evaluation techniques.
vi. develop a good rapport with his pupils, colleagues and school administration.
ACTIVITY II
1. The activities are: preaching, advertising, propaganda, and indoctrination.
2. i. Clear objectives: The teacher should state clear objectives for his lessons.
ii. Pupil's readiness: The teacher must be sure that the pupils are intellectually
ready before they are taught any topic.
iii Previous experience already acquired: The teacher should make use of the
children's previous experience and teach from known to unknown.
iv. Individual differences: The teacher must realize that children differ and cater
for them.
v. Teaching should be systematic: The teacher should proceed from known to
unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract, general to specific. He
should give frequent reinforcement.
ACTIVITY III
1. The process of learning proceeds in the following ways:
i. The first stage is one at which there is an input which is regarded as a
stimulus.
ii. Next comes the perception stage where mental activities regarding the
stimulus take place. This is called covert activity.
iii. The third stage is overt activities which include visible activities on the
learning.
193
iv. The next stage is the period of practice to make the learning permanent. This
is the repetition stage.
v. The association stage is the stage when the learning is related to other
activities and experiences. This is the stage of learning the output.
2. i. The teacher should create avenues for learning in and outside the classroom.
ii He should inform the pupils of the educational facilities in the environment.
iii. He should give the pupils assignments regularly.
iv. The children should be encouraged to develop their area of interest.
v. Discussions, debates and competition should be organised in the class.
vi. He should give the pupils feedback on their work.
vii. Problem solving approach could be used in getting the children to learn.
viii. Group and individual methods should be used to stimulate the spirit of
independent learning among the pupils.
ASSIGNMENT
1. In ancient time, learning was taken as 'memorizing' or 'rote learning'. Memorization is
not learning. Often, some feel they have learnt when they read about a skill and they
understand the concepts explained in the book. They have never attempted the skill
and they assume they know it.
They have actually not learnt the skill. This example can be transferred to other areas
of learning. Learning has to do with the acquisition of new knowledge which
ultimately changes the experiences of the learner.
2. The functions of teaching are:
i Informing and explaining. The teacher should master his subject and he should
be able to communicate it to the pupils.
ii. Stimulating, directing, guiding and administering. The child is to be
motivated, directed, guided and administered in the classroom.
iii. Identifying what to learn. - The teacher determines what and how the child
learns.
iv. Identifying learning problems. - The teacher locates the children's learning
problems and find solutions to them.
v. Evaluating, Reporting and Recording. These are parts of the duties of the
teacher to have a complete teaching/learning situation.
vi. Classroom arrangement. This has to do with the appropriate preparation for
teaching and learning.
vii. Socialization; and
viii. School-Community Relation.
3. Methodology is viewed as a science when it is examined as a discipline to be studied.
This involves the study of the methods of teaching. These are methods which had
been proved effective by researchers. The study covers all areas of education relating
to methods.
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It is an art when it is viewed from the point of view of teaching. In this case, it is
regarded as methods of teaching.
UNIT 2 (EDU 123.2): THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION
ACTIVITY I
1. Lecture Method is a teaching process whereby the teacher verbally delivers a pre-
planned body of knowledge to his students. The teacher talks while the students listen
and take notes.
2. i.. It can be used when introducing a new topic.
ii. It can be used during the introduction to stimulate the interest of the students.
iii. It can be used when there is the need to clarify a point or some points or
concepts which many students misunderstood.
iv. It can be used when there are no appropriate or adequate text books.
3. i. Consider the objectives of the lesson.
ii. Prepare appropriate and relevant examples to site.
iii. Prepare illustrative materials.
4. i. It can be used to cover a wider area of study within a short period.
ii. The teacher can teach a large population of students at once.
iii. There is uniformity in quantity of contents the students are given and the mode
of teaching.
iv. The teacher has the full control of what the students should learn.
v. The students' efforts in searching for facts are saved.
5. i. The students are passive in the class.
ii. The method is teacher-centred.
iii. The method does not encourage verbal interaction between the teacher and the
students or among the students.
iv. It does not cater for individual differences.
v. It does not encourage the spirit of enquiry or creative mind.
vi. It is only the auditory sense of the students that is often called to work.
vii The students' understanding of the Lesson is based on mere assumption
ACTIVITY II
1. A method in which the students are organized in class, groups or panel to speak, say
their opinions, views or ideas or argue on a pre-determined topic with a view to find
possible solutions to the problem and draw conclusions is referred to as Discussion
Method.
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ADVANTAGE
i. Discussion method encourages students to listen, think, analyse and critically
evaluate points made by other students.
ii. Students learn from one another.
iii It gives the students training in respecting others' views.
iv. The students are also trained to look for facts on their own.
v. The students have the opportunity to practice their oral communication skills.
DISADVANTAGES
i. It cannot be used at all times in all subjects.
ii. It is not ideal for large classes.
iii. Brighter and vocal students may like to show off and dominate the discussion.
By so doing, they make the shy and weak students keep quiet.
ASSIGNMENTS
INTRODUCTION
i. It should be interesting.
ii. It should stimulate the students to like to listen to the lecture.
PRESENTATION
i. The teacher should be fluent and use appropriate words.
ii. The points should be presented in sequential order.
iii. The teacher should be humorous.
iv. Relevant teaching should avoid digression.
v. Write the important points made on the chalk wall/chalkboard as @1LINE =
they are made.
CONCLUSION
i. The teacher should round off his lesson with a summary of the points made.
ii. Give assignment.
iii. Give references for further reading.
2. i. The Class Group:
This is used in a class where the students are inexperienced to handle a
discussion session on their own. The Teacher leads and directs the discussion.
He summarizes the points made at the end of the discussion.
ii. The Small Groups:
Groups of five or six students are the most ideal for discussion. A leader and a
recorder should be chosen in each group. The teacher goes round the group to
observe their performances. The members of each should be heterogeneous.
iii. The Panel:
A group of students are selected to speak on a topic. The other students jot
down points as each speaker talks. The topic is thrown to the class for further
comments. The teacher or any chosen student may serve as the moderator
who summarizes the points made and draw conclusions.
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UNIT 3 (EDU 123.3): INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
ACTIVITY I
1. Individualized Instruction is a process in which the student learns on his own a field
of study or a topic broken into bits, according to his interest and ability, using
specially prepared programmed books, cards, and electrical or electronic teaching
machines. The teacher serves as a consultant.
2. Students differ in their academic interest, the ways they learn and their rate of
assimilation.
3. Among the Methods are:
1. Programmed Instruction (PI).
2. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
3. Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI).
4. Teaching Machine (TM).
5. Personalized-System of Instruction (PSI).
4. Individualized Instruction is based on the Operant Learning theory of Prof. Skinner.

The characteristics are in line with the principles of the theory. These include:
i. The learner determines his instructional objectives.
ii. He specified his instructional goals.
iii. The instruction is broken into bits according to the learner's needs, capabilities
and interest.
iv. The learner performs the learning activities.
v. Questions on areas covered are asked at intervals. The learner answers the
questions. The correct answers are given in a corner of the book or in the
machine.
vi. The immediate answers given motivate, reward and reinforce the learner's
effort.
vii. The learner works at his own pace.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. Individualized Instruction is relatively a new approach to teaching.
It has not been widely adopted in most countries.
ii. Most teachers in Nigeria have no practical training in it.
iii. There are no Individualized Instruction books and machines.
v. Education is examination centred in Nigeria. The concern of the teachers and
pupils is to cover the syllabus.
2. i. The teacher must be more conscious of the individuality of each of the
students in the class.
ii. The teacher should respect each pupil's opinion as much as possible.
Conformity and
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uniformity of opinion should not be enforced.

iii. Students should be encouraged to ask and answer questions in the class.
iv. The spirits of inquiry and discovery should be encouraged among the pupils.
They should not be unnecessarily spoon-fed.
v. Free and constructive communication should be encouraged between the
teacher and
the students and among the students.
vi. Students should be encouraged to go into the Library to find out things.
vii. Students should be given assignments regularly. They should be
encouraged to do it on their own.
ASSIGNMENT
1. The Media are:-
1. Programmed Instruction (PI).
2. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
3. Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI).
4. Teaching Machine (TM).
5. Personalized-System of Instruction (PSI)
2. i. Individualized Instruction is relatively a new approach to teaching.

It takes some time before a new method can be adopted.
ii. Many teachers in Nigeria have no practical training, if any at all,
in Individualized Instruction.
iii. There are no Individualized Instruction books, electrical and electronic
machines to use.
v. Education is examination-oriented in Nigeria. The concern of the teachers and
the students is to cover the syllabus. Thus individualized instruction may not
be easily accommodated.
3. i. The learner determines his instructional objectives.

ii. He specifies what he would want to know at the end of the study.
iii. The instruction is broken into bits according to the needs,
capabilities and interest of the individual learner.
iv. The learner performs the learning activities either by reading, writing or
manipulating instructional materials in use. He is active not passive.
v. Questions on areas covered are asked at interval to show the learner whether
he understands or not.
vi. The immediate feedbacks received motivated the learner to learn more.
vii. The learner works at his pace. He is not `held up' or `pulled forward' by the
others.
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UNIT 4 (EDU 123.4): PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
ACTIVITY I
1. Problem-solving method is a teaching/learning process in which the students work on
solving a problem. In doing this, they use the result of some analyzed data collected
to arrive at a proved solution.
2. i. The teacher plans the topic, generalization and ideas that will be of interest to
the
students.
ii. He plans the organization of the class.
iii. He plans the timing and the available resources.
iv. The teacher identifies and directs the students to the initial reference materials.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. he guided approach
ii. The Modified approach
iii. The Free approach
i. In the guided approach, the teacher leads and directs the class step by step in
problem solving. This is a stage when the students are inexperienced in the use
of the method.
ii. In the modified approach, the teacher serves as a resource person to the
students. At this stage the students are able to handle some aspects of the
method.
iii. The free approach stage is reached when the students are experienced in using
the method. They are able to formulate the topic, the hypothesis and collect
the data. They could work up to the generalization formulation.
2. i. The inductive procedure is the process in which the students use hypothesis
and data analysis to arrive at a generalization. In the deductive procedure the
students work from a given generalization to a modified or confirmed
generalization.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. The teacher is to encourage the students to explore and test new ideas.
ii. He is to encourage the students to prove and share their finding with the other
students.
iii. He should raise new questions to guide the students to look for more ideas.
iv. He should point out to the class the creative and original work of any student
or students.
v. He is expected to summarize all findings and announce to the class.
vi. He should control the class.
2. i. Unlike in lecture method, the students look for the facts on their own.
ii. The students have to consult many books or perform experiments if and when
necessary.
iii The students have to test and re-test their findings before accepting them.
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iv. The students are prone to make many mistakes before arriving at the correct or
acceptable conclusion or generalization.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. The students have to study the topic.
ii. They have to find out the existing relevant facts about the topic.
iii. They should formulate a hypothesis.
iv. Data on the topic should be collected.
v. They should analyze the data collected.
vi. They should test the hypothesis against the data analyzed.
vii. They should then draw a conclusion from their finding.
viii. The conclusion should be tested against new situations and new data.
ix. Meaningful generalizations are then drawn.
2. ADVANTAGES
i. Students are actively involved in the lesson.
ii. The activities may generate enthusiasm and interest in the students.
iii. Students are trained to organise their own learning.
iv. As students find out facts on their own, they remember them better.
v. The method encourages critical thinking and scientific investigation skills.
vi. It changes the attitudes of the students to knowledge.
They look at knowledge as temporary and not permanent.
vii. Gifted and brilliant children benefit a lot from this method.
3. DISADVANTAGES
ii. It may be demanding on the teacher as students may discover series of facts
and raise questions which may embarrass ill-prepared teachers.
iii. Slow learners may be at a disadvantage.
iv. It is not possible to use the method in all situations.
UNIT 5 (EDU 123:5): DISCOVERY AND INQUIRY

METHODS
ACTIVITY I
1. Discovery means `finding out'. Discovery method is a process through which students
find out facts or knowledge through the understanding of concepts. Discovery implies
induction because the student proceeds from specific examples (precepts) to concepts
and the generalization.
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2. Concepts refer to the categorization of objects and ideas with common attributes.
There are concrete and abstract concepts.
They are identified by their critical attributes and characteristics.
ACTIVITY II
1. i.. It is self rewarding.
ii. The students are actively involved in the lesson.
iii. The students are motivated because they are rewarded
iv. The students remember longer because they discover the facts themselves.
v. The method helps in understanding the structure of knowledge.
2. i. It is time consuming.
ii. It is expensive in the sense that many teaching aids are required.
iii. It cannot be used in all situations as it is not possible for the students to
rediscover all knowledge.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Identify and classify the purpose of the Inquiry.
ii. formulate a hypothesis.
iii. collect and analyze data.
iv. test the hypothesis against the data.
v. draw conclusions.
vi. apply the conclusions to new situations and new data.
vii. develop meaningful generalization.
viii. The teacher/pupils should identify and classify the purpose of the inquiry.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. The teacher should state the objective of the lesson clearly.
ii. He should be aware of the required knowledge that will attract the
understanding of the students.
iii. The teacher should present definitions and examples.
iv. He should provide for the responses from the students and give feedback.
2. i. The students should be aware of the performances expected of them after

learning the principles.
ii. The teacher should identify the principles that the students must recall to learn
new principles.
iii. The teacher must aid the students in revising the concepts principles.
iv. The teacher should direct the students in deriving the principle.
v. The students should be given lots of practice and examples of the principles.
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vi. The teacher should provide the students with series of new examples to assess
the students' understanding of the principles.
UNIT 6 (EDU 123.6): PLAY AND SIMULATION GAMES
ACTIVITY I
1. Play is an activity which employs the "make believe" medium for learning purposes.
2. The characteristics of simulation games are:
i. Competitive.
ii. They make use of mental and social skills.
iii. Marked by chance.
iv. Marked by clearly defined issues, viewpoints or sides.
v. Clearly rewarding.
vi. Characterized by a regular, orderly progress towards a specified and realistic
goal.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. the objectives of the play activities should be made clear.
ii. the pupils should be given the necessary materials to play with.
iii. the pupils should be guided.
iv. the teacher should emphasize the major points of the play.
v. a short discussion session should end the play activities.
2. i. The realities of life are presented in concrete and simple forms.
ii. The games can be brought down to the level of any ability group.
iii. During the games the pupils are fully involved.
iv. Simulating games are highly self motivating.
v. The mental ability of the pupils are fully put into use.
vi. Simulation Games give the pupils the increase in personal sense of the
environmental control. The success of a skilled player gives him the
confidence of his capability to solve similar problems in every day life
situation.
vii. They are effective technique of teaching.
3. i. It makes young children learn.
ii. It gets the children fully involved in the lesson.
iii. It could be motivating.
iv. Learning becomes concrete and true to life.
v. The complexities of concepts are made simple.
vi. Play could aid retention and recall as a result of the imagery that could be built
from the activities of the play.
4. i. Simulation Games are expensive and in many cases not available.
ii. Some of those games which are available are based on foreign cultures. They
are not based on the Nigerian culture.
iii Some games are time consuming.
iv. Because of the competitive nature of the games, there could be tendency for
disorderly behaviour in the class.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. i. In planning to use a simulation game, the first thing the teacher should do, is
to learn
to play the game. He should be able to answer questions on it.
ii. He should decide on the groupings of the pupils for the game and the seating
arrangement.
iii. The class should be taught how to handle the games materials to avoid
damages. He should also announce to the pupils the rules guiding the conduct
of the game.
iv. In introducing the game, the teacher should make a brief explanation about the
rules of the game.
v. He should ensure that the pupils understand the rules before playing.
vi. If there are enough copies of the game, each group should have one to play.
vii. The teacher should go round and guide the pupils as necessary.
viii. The teacher should call the attention of the class to common problems noticed.
2. i. Play requires time to prepare.
ii. Play requires a lot of materials which could be expensive.
iii. Some pupils may not find it easy to transfer the learning in plays to other
situational uses.
3. The advantages of simulation games are:
i. The realities of life are presented in concrete and simple forms.
ii. During the games the pupils are fully involved.
iii. Simulation games are highly self motivating.
iv. The mental ability of the pupils are fully put into use.
v. Simulation games give the pupils the increase in personal sense of
environmental control.
vi. They are effective techniques for teaching.
UNIT 7 (EDU 123.7): TEAM TEACHING
ACTIVITY I
1. Team Teaching is an instructional technique in which the teachers of the same subject
and class come together to plan, implement and evaluate a teaching activity.
It is based on the concept that each teacher has his own area of specialization,
teaching ability and content mastery. These qualities of each teacher should be made
available to the general class students rather than to a stream of the class.
The team is made up of the teachers teaching the subject in the class. The librarian, a
typist and a technician are invited to join. The school head teacher and time- table
master are informed and involved.
2. It is based on the concept that each teacher has his own area of specialization, content
mastery and teaching ability which should be used by the class as a whole rather than
a stream of the class. The concept is thus based on the idea of harmonizing the
potentials of the teachers in the same class to the best interest of the students.
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ACTIVITY II
1. The members of the team are:
i. The teaching staff teaching the subject in the class. They will teach the whole
class in general, lecture as well as conduct the tutorials. They are also to help
the students in their individual studies.
ii. The Librarian - He makes the necessary books available in the Library.
iii. The Typist - He types, duplicates and photocopies all documents necessary for
the lessons.
iv. The Technician/Educational Technologist - He operates the electrical and
electronic materials which may be used.
v. The Head teacher and Time-Table Master are to be informed and involved.
2. i. The 'expert' teacher lectures the entire class.
ii. The technician operates or shows the necessary teaching aids.
iii. The other teachers help to maintain discipline in the class.
iv. The students and the other staff listen to the èxpert' teacher and jot down
points.
v. The expert gives the students assignment.
vi. He gives them a list of books for further reading.
ACTIVITY III
1. The Advantages are:
i. It encourages the spirit of co-operation among the teachers and
the other workers in the school.
ii. The students are exposed to good teaching because they are taught by the
'expert' teacher in the school.
iii. All the students in the same class are exposed to the same teaching by the
'expert' teacher.
iv. It allows for efficient use of the school staff.
v. The students come in close contact with many teachers and they benefit from
it.
vi. Each teacher has the opportunity to thoroughly prepare his work as a result of
the division of labour in the team.
vii. The teachers in the team learn from each other.
2. The Disadvantages are:
i. It is expensive to implement such a technique. It requires the building of halls
and equipment of the Libraries.
ii. There is no opportunity for interactions with the expert during the whole class
lecture.
ASSIGNMENT
1. There are many approaches. These depend on the experiments of each institution.
Three of the approaches are:
i. Content-strength or Interest Approach. In this approach the teachers are
assigned to teach the large group involving the whole class in the topics in
which he is much interested or very good.
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The other teachers are assigned to the tutorial groups.

ii. The Methods approach - Teachers who are good in whatever method is to be
employed in teaching the large group are assigned to handle the large group.
Those who are good in handling the small tutorial groups are assigned those.
iii. The Panel Approach - A group of teachers are put in charge of the large
group. This is not done in line with their content ability or methodology, but
the team's choice. The other teachers are put in charge of tutorials.
2. There are three stages in Team Teaching Implementation. These are:
i. The class Lecture - This is given by the best Teacher in term of mastery of
content or method of teaching the topic. The teacher may simply be chosen by
the Team for one reason or another. He is supported by the technician in the
presentation of audio-visual resources. The other teachers are also around to
check the students. The Teaching may take place in a hall or over the closed
circuit television where there is one.
ii. The Tutorial groups - The students go back to their streams for tutorials
when next they have the lesson. The class teacher takes the tutorial. He
explains whatever is not clear to the students.
iii. The Individual Study - This is done in the Library by each student. The
Librarian makes available the relevant books.
UNIT 8 (EDU 123.8): MICRO-TEACHING I: THEORY
ACTIVITY I
1. The students panic because:

i. They are expected to put into practice many theories at the same time. These
theories they have not had the opportunity to practice before.
ii. They have many pupils to face, control and teach at the same time.
It is usually a big task to a new comer into the profession.
iii The supervisor is also there to assess him.
2. Micro-Teaching is a technique of training student- teachers in teaching skills in a
manner that the teaching is scaled down in terms of class size, time, task and skill. It
is teaching in miniature.
The size of the class may be between 5 and 10 students. The student teacher practises only a
skill at a time for about 5 to 15 minutes. The student teacher's attempt is recorded on video
tape and played back for criticism and advice. He goes back and reteaches, taking into
account the advice given.
ACTIVITY II
1. The play back critique may be in the form of:
i. Self analysis in which the student-teacher points out the qualities and
weaknesses he noticed in his teaching.
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ii. Supervisor's criticism. The supervisor does the criticizing. He commends the
student-teacher for his qualities and advises him on how to overcome his
weaknesses.
iii. The attention may be focused on some aspects of the teaching skill for careful
examination and discussion.
2. The Teacher's roles are many.
i. He introduces the skill to be practised.
ii. He observes the students' practice.
iii. He advises and commends the student-teacher during the critique session.
iv. He helps in planning the re-teach.
v. He may serve as the model.
vi. As an assessor, he rates the student-teacher's attempt.
vii. He serves as a resource person to the student-teacher.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Micro-teaching provides the required teach-attempts before the student-
teacher goes
into a real classroom.
ii. It provides 'low risk' for the student teacher and the pupils. It is a risk asking
an 'amateur' to go and handle about 40 pupils.
iii. It provides many short practices rather than a long session in the conventional
method.
iv. The video recording shows the real teaching performance. This eliminates the
usual student teacher arguments in the conventional method.
v. It gives immediate feedback.
vi. It gives opportunity for rectifying mistakes quickly.
vii. The student-teachers are given the opportunity to see themselves on the video
tape as they teach. They could see their mistakes and correct them.
2. i. It is expensive as it involves the use of many video and audio tapes.
ii. The pupils taught do not gain much from the teaching which is more for the
professional development of the student-teacher rather than the pupils' content
acquisition.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. By the use of oral explanations and instruction.

ii. By the use of written expositions and directions.
iii. By providing recorded demonstrations of the special teaching behaviours. This
refers to a video taped or audio taped model.
2. i. The Micro-teaching provides the teach attempts before the student teacher
goes into
a class to teach many pupils. The conventional method does not give the pre-
teaching attempts.
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ii. It provides many short practices rather than the long session of the
conventional method.
iii. It provides the student teacher the opportunity to see himself on video tape as
he teaches. This is absent in the conventional method.
iv. The student-teacher has the opportunity to rectify mistakes quickly in the
conventional method which is a result of lack of visible evidence of the
student-teachers performance.
vi. Micro-teaching gives immediate feedback which is not very practical in
conventional method.
UNIT 9 (EDU 123.9): MICRO-TEACHING II: PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY I
1. i. The Model teacher
ii. The Tutor or the College Supervisor.
iii. The Pupils - the classmates.
iv. The practising Student-teacher.
2. i. Video tape.
ii. Audio-tape i.e. Radio Cassette.
ACTIVITY II
1. Teach - 6 minutes
Feedback - 6 minutes
Replan - 12 minutes
Reteach - minutes
Refeedback - 6 minutes.
2. Number of Students - 10
No of Supervisor(s) - or 2
Who to give feedbac - Supervisors
The Pupils - The (Peers) Classmates
Where microteaching should take place - In the College.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Both approaches have the same goal i.e. to produce effective teachers.
ii. The two approaches require preparations before the student-teachers go to the
classroom to teach.
iii. The College supervisors supervise in the two approaches. They also give the
feedback.
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2. In traditional teaching practice the student-teacher is expected to:

i. teach and control many students as well as
ii. teach many facts (contents) and
iii. attempt to put into use the teaching skills he was taught.
All these (i - iii) he has to do at the same time within the rather long 35 to 60 minutes lesson.
ASSIGNMENT
1. i. The objectives of the skill should be made clear to the student- teacher.
ii. The modelling or demonstration could be practically done by the College
tutor/supervisor or it could be a video-taped or film of an expert teacher.
iii. The student-teacher prepares a lesson of about 5 to 10 minutes on a topic of
his choice incorporating the skills demonstrated.
iv. He teaches the lesson imitating the skills demonstrated.
v. The supervisor gives the student-teacher feedback of his performances as seen
on the videotape or heard on the audio tape. The feedback should give the
motivation to prepare for a better attempt.
vi. A replan of the lesson should be done incorporating the suggestions given
during the feedback.
vii. A revised lesson is taught to a different set of students of the same capabilities.
The supervisor(s) should be in attendance.
viii. Another round of feedback is given after the reteach.
2. i. The student-teachers should be oriented to see the advantages and
disadvantages of
micro-teaching. This may give them the motivation to use the approach.
ii. The teaching skills to be taught should be discussed in detail. The important
aspects should be emphasised.
iii. The model lesson should be presented to the student teachers, preferably in all
the subjects chosen by them.
iv. The student-teacher should plan a lesson incorporating the teaching skill
demonstrated.
v. The Setting
The micro-teaching should be timed as follows:
1. Teach - 6 minutes
2. Feedback - 6 minutes
3. Replan - 12 minutes
4. Reteach - 6 minutes
5. Refeedback - 6 minutes
The number of students should be 10 while the College supervisors should be
either one or two in attendance.
vi. The students should play the role of the pupils.
vii. The supervisors supervise the student teachers with their classmates in
attendance.
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viii. The feedback should be immediate and could be given to each individual
student-teacher.
ix. The teach-feedback-replan-reteach-refeedback cycle is suggested to take about
35 minutes.
3. The orientations of the two approaches are not similar.
In traditional teaching practice, the student-teacher teaches about 35 or more
pupils at once. In micro- teaching, only about 5 to 10 students are taught, and
often in a micro-teaching laboratory.
iii. The lesson duration is about 5 to 10 minutes in micro- teaching whereas in
traditional-teaching practice, it is about 35 to 40 minutes.
iv. In traditional teaching practice, the student-teacher is expected to teach the
pupils a number of facts and at the same time exhibit mastery of some
teaching skills. In micro teaching, the student-teacher is expected to exhibit
only one teaching skill.
v. Micro teaching gives room for immediate feedback. In traditional teaching
practice, the feedback is not immediate.
vi. In micro-teaching, the student-teacher is expected to replan and reteach the
same skill in the earliest possible time. This aspect is not provided for in the
traditional approach.
UNIT 10 (EDU 123.X): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9
ACTIVITY I
1. The functions of teaching include informing, explaining, simulating, directing,
guiding and administering the pupils, identifying what to learn and learning problems,
evaluating, reporting and recording the performances of the pupils. Other functions
include classroom management, class unity, giving security, development of school -
community relationship, participating in school and professional activities.
2. i. Many students can be taught at once.
ii. It is economical in time, teaching materials and student labour.
3. i. The learner determines his instructional objectives and goals.
iii. He covers the field of study in bits.
iii. He has to answer and master a question before he goes further.
iv. The learner works at his own pace.
ACTIVITY II
1. The procedure is as follows:
i. choosing a topic;
ii. formulating a hypothesis;
iii. collecting and analyzing data;
iv. testing the hypothesis;
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v. formulating a conclusion;
vi. testing the conclusion against new data and analysis; and
vii. formulating generalizations.
2. In teaching concepts the teacher should:
i. identify the objectives of the lesson;
ii. plan the required procedure that will make the students understand the
concept;
iii. present many positive and negative examples for the students to classify.
3. The disadvantages of simulation games are:
i. They are expensive.
ii. They are unavailable.
iii. They are foreign based.
DISADVANTAGES OF PLAY
ii. It requires many materials.
iii. The entertaining nature of play may overshadow the concepts, information, and
subject matter it is supposed to convey.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. The whole class is lectured by the 'expert'.
ii. This is followed by group tutorial under the leadership of the other teachers;
and
iii. The Individual study.

2. i. The availability of examples to be imitated;
ii. The availability of immediate feedback; and
iii. The opportunity to reteach the same skills.
3. The two systems are different in

i. Orientation;
ii. Pupil population;
iii. Duration of lesson;
iv. Emphasis when teaching;
v. The presence of immediate feedback in micro-teaching; and
vi. The opportunity for reteaching the same skills in Micro-teaching.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. The process of learning is in the following order (i) Input, (ii) Perception, (iii) Covert
activities (iv) Overt activities, (v) Repetition, (vi) Association and (vii) Output.
2. i. Programmed Instruction (PI)
ii. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
iii. Learner-Controlled Instruction (LCI)
iv. Teaching Machine (TM)
v. Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
3. i. The presentation of the realities of life in simplified
form to the level of any ability group.
ii. The pupils are involved and unconsciously occupied.
iii. They learn with pleasure.
4. i. The co-operation of the staff.
ii. The students receive same lecture from the expert among
the teachers.
iii.. The students have the opportunity of going over the same
topic three times at least through the class lecture, group tutorial and
individual study.
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MODULE 7 Units: 01 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching II EDU 124
UNIT 1 (EDU 124.1): PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

COMPUTER ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The concept of individualized instruction is extensively discussed in Module 6 unit 3.
Among the techniques developed to achieve individualized instruction is Programmed
Instruction (PI). The English writers prefer to call it Programmed Learning (PL) since it is
learner oriented system of learning through self-instructional materials. The term
Programmed Instruction (PI) is American. The view of the American writers is that the
technique is designed to lead a learner through self instructional materials arranged in
sequential order. The learner moves from the known simple things to the unknown complex
knowledge and principles. Whether it is viewed from the English angle or the American
angle the principles underlying the technique remains the same. However, you should know
that the two terms Programmed Instruction (PI) and Programmed Learning (PL) refer to the
same technique. In this unit, the term Programmed Instruction will be used.
OBJECTIVES
1. define what Programmed Instruction is;
2. identify the principles of Programmed Instruction;
3. identify the material devises used in the technique of Programmed Instruction;
4. mention the teacher's roles in Programmed Instruction; and
5. list the advantages and limitations of the technique of Programmed Instruction.

INSTRUCTIONS
you carry out the above instructions, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Analyst - Person skilled in making analyses.
Consultant - Person who gives expert advice.
Device - An environment or adaptation.
Fixation - Being made firm or fast.
53
Geometry - An aspect of mathematics which deals with properties and

relations
of lines, angles, surface and solid.
Reinforce - Make stronger.
Sequential - Following in order.
Structure - Way in which something is put together
or organised.
Frame - A small bit of information fed into a tea-ching machine.
DEFINITION
Programmed Instruction is a self-instructional approach to teaching. It is the kind of teaching
that follows a sequence. This means that the learning material is presented in an ordered,
structured programme which has been prepared before the learner begins his task. It is
characterised by breaking up of the learning content into small bits that lead a learner from
what he knows to new and more complex knowledge and principles. The small bits of
information are presented in an orderly manner in steps. Simple problems are also given in
each step. The learner responds at each step. When his response is correct, a reinforcement
is given by the immediate confirmation of the right answer or a correction of the wrong
answers. The idea is for the first concepts of skills to be mastered first before new ones are
introduced. The learner going through the material is aided by suggestions and hints. Also,
there are frequent repetition of key terms and concepts.
HISTORY OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Programmed Instruction is based on the principle of operant conditioning developed by
Professor B.A Skinner of Harvard University, USA in the 1950s. However, Socrates was said
to be the first programmer. He developed a programme in geometry which was recorded by
Plato in the dialogue Menu. A psychologist E.L. Thondike (1874 - 1949) and Sydney L.
Pressey of Ohio State University were among known names which contributed to the
development of Programmed Instruction.
TEACHING MATERIALS
Programmed Instruction is operated through two main materials or devices. These are
Programmed Textbook and Teaching Machines.
A Programmed textbook is a self instructional textbook. It is a written programme in a
subject field in which the subject matter has been broken into small details of the learning
sequence. The programme is written as a series of easily answered questions that lead the
student to logical conclusions foreseen by the programmer. The student reads the question
and writes his answer. This is checked against the correct answer which is written on the
same page or on the designated page. The immediate knowledge of result reinforces
learning and reduces the possibility of fixation of wrong answers.
The teaching machines are devices for self instructional materials. The effectiveness of the
machine depends on the material (programmes) used in it. In a well designed machine, one
frame is presented at a time and the student operating it brings each frame into view as it is
needed. The learner reads the frame and writes his response to the information presented.
The machine is then operated to show the correct answer. Meanwhile, the machine must
have moved the attempted response into a covered but transparent box so that it can be seen
but cannot be changed. Where the answer is correct, the learner's effort is rewarded and
54
reinforced. He is motivated to attempt the next frame. He is expected to make a correction

where the answer is wrong.
The programmes used in the programmed textbook and the teaching machine may be Linear
or Branching programme.
In the linear programme, the student has to think and recall answers while in branching
programme, multiple-choice questions requiring recognition of correct response are given.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define Programmed Instruction.
2. On what basic principle is Programmed instruction based?
OPERATIONS OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

1. The subject matter is broken into small steps in sequential order.
2. A small bit of meaningful information called frame is presented to the learner.
3. The learner reads the frame and is expected to give an answer by writing a response.
4. He checks the correct answer written on the same page or a designated page in case of
a programmed textbook. In case of a machine, the student operates the machine to
bring out the correct answer. Seeing the correct answer gives an immediate feedback
which reinforces the correct answer and corrects the wrong response.
5. The learner goes on to the next frame and responds to the information given. The
information-answer-feedback (correct answer) cycle is repeated. This is referred to as
the stimulus-response-reinforcement cycle.
PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

1 The principles of small steps. The subject matter is broken into meaningful pieces of
information. Each piece of information is called `FRAME' one piece of information
(frame) is presented to the learner at a time.
2. The principle of Associative Learning. The contents of a frame are closely related to
the contents of the one before and after it. There is strong inter-relationship among the
frames.
3. The Principles of immediate feedback or reinforcement. After writing his response,
he is provided with the correct answer to the question in the frame. If his response is
correct he is reinforced. In case his response is wrong he has at least read the correct
answer.
4. The principle of active response. The learner is given questions in each frame. These
he responds to. The learner this way remains busy and active. This means that the
learner is actively involved in the learning process.
5. Self pacing. The learner proceeds at his own pace. He is not forced to move faster
nor slowed down by the other members of the class. The principle of individual
differences is hereby respected.
6. The principle of knowing the learner's progress. The teacher can easily assess the
progress of the learner through his responses. Equally, the learner can easily evaluate
his performance.
55
7. The Principle of mastery learning. The learner is expected to master a frame before
moving to the next.
ACTIVITY II
1 Enumerate the steps in the operation of programmed instruction.
2. List the various principles involved in programmed instruction.
ROLES OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS IN PROGRAMMED

INSTRUCTION
It is true that this is a self instructional technique of learning. This does not make the
classroom teacher useless, instead, he is fully occupied as he has to play four major roles. He
is expected to direct, analyse and teach. As a director, the teacher directs the learning
experiences of the students as a specialist in education. As an analyst, he continually
analyzes and evaluates the progress of the students on the basis of the results from their daily
work and frequent testing. As a tutor, he monitors and personally teaches students during
their study when occasions demand for it. Occasional lectures to introduce a new topic or
sum up a section of the source or a unit completed
by some members of the class is recommended.
The class teacher also serves as a consultant in many discussion periods which may come up
between the Teacher and a student. The discussion may also be between the teacher and the
students or among the students to clarify more difficult parts of the programme.
ADVANTAGES
Many educationists have acknowledged that programmed instruction is a more effective
method than the traditional methods of teaching. It has many advantages.
1. Through Programmed Instruction, teaching is individualised. It is more or less having
individual tutors for each student. This takes care of the issue of individual differences
in learning.
2. In a given period of time, more content is covered than by traditional methods.
3. Students actively participate in the learning process at all times. This trains them to
take more responsibility for their own learning.
4. Due to the fact that the students are actively engaged, many problems of discipline are
greatly reduced. The students have no time to engage in acts of indiscipline.
5. As frames lead progressively from simple to difficult problems, students find it easier
to follow than the unstructured traditional methods.
6. Students work at their own pace.
7. The immediate feedback of knowing the correct answers reinforces the students'
efforts.
8. Immediate feedback avoids the fixation of incorrect responses.
9. The possibility of remedial reinforcement is another advantage. Where the student's
answer is not correct he has the opportunity to correct himself. He knows the correct
answer.
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10. The immediate knowledge of result is no doubt a motivating factor for the learner to
cover more frames.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is expensive. It involves the use of machines and programmed textbooks. Most of
these are to be imported. The cost is much and the country may not be able to afford
it.
2. There are not many trained personnels that is teachers and programmers in the use of
the technique in the country now. Thus, we cannot boast of programmes which will
match our needs in the country.
3. Programmed instruction may generate bore down. There are no varieties in the
approach to the use of the technique. The learner keeps to the same process,
programme after programme.
4. The technique is limited to questions with correct answers. Questions demanding for
originality and creativity have no place in programmed instruction.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are the roles of the classroom teacher in programmed instruction?
2. What are the disadvantages of the technique?
SUMMARY
• Programmed Instruction is a self-instructional approach to teaching. It is based on the
principle of operant conditioning of Professor B.F. Skinner of Harvard University.
The two main mediums of teaching are the programmed text books and the teaching
machines.
• In operation, the subject matter is broken into small steps in sequential order. A small
bit of meaningful information called frame is presented to the learner at once. He
checks his response against the answer which is equally available in the media. If the
answer is correct, the learner goes to the next frame. If he is wrong, he is expected to
go over the frame and master it before proceeding to the next.
• Other principles present in programmed instruction are the principles of small steps,
associative learning, reinforcement, active response, self pacing and mastery learning.
The teacher plays the roles of a director of learning, analyst of the students' progress,
a teacher as well as a consultant.
• The advantages of this technique include individualized instruction and the coverage
of a wide area of study within a limited time. Equally, the students are actively
engaged in the lesson. This controls indiscipline in the class. The learner works
progressively at his own pace. The immediate feedback associated with the technique
gives reinforcement to the learners' efforts.
• However, to procure machines and programmed textbooks for the technique is
expensive. Equally, there are not many trained personnels, i.e. teachers and
programmers for such an innovation in Nigeria. Programmed Instruction may
generate bore down because of lack of varieties of methods used. Equally, it is limited
to questions with straight forward answers.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the two main media used in programmed instruction.
2. What are the advantages of the technique?
REFERENCES
1. Chauhan S. S. Innovations in Teaching Learning Process, New Delhi:Vikas

Publishing House PVT Ltd., 1981.
2. Nacino-Brown, R. et al. Curriculum and Instruction London: Macmillan Publishers.,

1985.
3. Shipley C. M., A Synthesis of Teaching Methods, New York: McGraw Hill, 1964.
58
MODULE 7 Unit: 02 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching II EDU 124
UNIT 2 (EDU 124.2): GROUP AND CLASS TEACHING
INTRODUCTION
Among the oldest methods of teaching is the class teaching method. It closely resembles the
Lecture method but it differs in the population of pupils the teacher faces at a time. Whereas
in a class, a maximum of 35 to 40 pupils are recommended, the number of pupils involved in
the lecture method is usually larger by far. The group teaching occurs when the class is sub-
divided into smaller groups for effective instruction.
Methods are often divided into two groups that is the teacher centered methods and the child
centered methods. Where a method belongs, depends on the dominant figure in the teaching
learning activities that is either the teacher or the pupils. Often many people fail to realize
that the methods could equally be divided into two groups under the different considerations.
The division could be organisational methods and the communication methods. For example
the CLASS, the GROUP and the INDIVIDUAL METHODS are basically the organisational
structures on which the other methods operate. They have to do with how the pupils are
organised or how the class is structured. Other methods that is lecture, discussion, discovery,
etc. have to do with communication activities between the teacher and the pupils.
OBJECTIVES
1. define both class and group teachings;
2. identify the various grouping patterns;
3. list the Advantages and disadvantages of class teaching; and
4. outline the advantages and disadvantages of group teaching.

INSTRUCTIONS
WORD STUDY
Academic - Of teaching, studying, scholarly.
Compartmentalize - Separate division of a structure.
Demoralize - Weaken the courage or confidence of.
Discrimination - See a difference between, treat differently.
Fundamental - Of great importance.
Instrumental - Serving as a means.
Interaction - Act on each other.
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Overlaboured - Being made to overwork.

Pitfalls - Weaknesses
Psychologically - Of the mind.
Random - Without aim or purpose.
Rigidity - Stiffness, unbending.
CLASS AND GROUP TEACHING

Class teaching takes place when the teacher instructs the pupils in the class collectively as a
unit. Group teaching takes place when the pupils are divided and taught in groups and not as
a unit.
It will be noticed that these definitions are silent about the form the teaching is. What is
fundamental is the manner the pupils are arranged or organised. We should take note that
grouping takes place for adjusting the curriculum to the needs and abilities of the class
members. It is a means to an end. The end result is to make the pupils learn more effectively
than they would have done in the larger class. However, in class teaching, all the pupils are
taught the same thing at the same time in the same way. This means that all the pupils are
treated equally.
If we look at the class teaching from the communication point of view, we are then saying
that it is another Lecture Method or lecture method scaled down. However, we should realize
that it is the organization of the class that earns the method the name `class teaching'. We
should also realize that for class teaching to be effective other methods should be used
alongside with the lecture method. However, in class method all the pupils are taught together
as a unit. There is no discrimination or other considerations to separate the students. This
aspect may have its pitfalls but psychologically it has its advantages as regards the ego of the
pupils. Whatsoever other methods we may use, it is obvious that we cannot do but use class
method for one reason or the other.
At least it is useful in introducing a new topic or rounding up a topic.
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) Define class teaching.
(b) Define group teaching.
2. What makes the class teaching different from lecture method?
GROUP METHOD
KINDS OF GROUPING
Teachers group their pupils in various ways according to the prevailing situation in the class,
their experiences with the pupils and their objectives.
Thus, the grouping may be:

1 Ability grouping
2. Sex grouping
3. Interest grouping
4. Mixed ability grouping
5. Random selection grouping
6. Social or natural grouping
7. Needs grouping.
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1. In the ability grouping, pupils are grouped according to their intelligence or academic
ability. This may be right across all subjects or according to each subject. Grouping
in this way allows the pupils to learn at their own pace. However, much as the
brilliant group may be proud of their group, those in the weak group may be
demoralised or unhappy.
2. In sex grouping, the pupils are divided according to their sex. This is used mostly in
physical education in upper classes of the primary school and above.
3. Interest grouping. Pupils are divided according to their interest. Their common
interest should lead to social interaction, exchange of ideas and better learning.
4. Mixed ability grouping. In this grouping, brilliant, average and dull pupils are
grouped together. This is to avoid the lapses of ability grouping. In this grouping, the
brilliant pupils are expected to encourage or pull up weak ones. However, the teacher
must not allow the brilliant ones to be pulled down or slowed down.
5. Random Grouping. Pupils are chosen haphazardly without any consideration. This is
a good grouping when one considers fair play. But it may turn out to be that many of
the pupils of the same ability, sex, or interest may fall into the same group.
6. Social or Natural Grouping. Pupils are allowed to be in the group of their choice.
They may sit with their friends or anyone they feel to interact with.
7. Need Grouping. This grouping occurs when pupils who have the same problem are
put together for remedial work. They need special attention. This is usually in one
subject or the other. Pupils with problems receive better attention in this grouping.
There should be no rigidity in grouping. A child who is good in one subject may be poor in
another. He may not benefit from sitting with those who are good in the subject where he is
poor. Grouping requires careful planning and organization.
In the teaching of groups, there is the need for the teacher to prepare and lay out the materials
which he is going to use for each group. The class must be under the good control of the
teacher. The members of each group should interact with each other freely.
ADVANTAGES OF CLASS TEACHING

1. It saves time and effort. The whole class is taught the same thing at the same time.
The common problems are equally explained to the class at once.
2. The children's desire to work together with others is utilized in class method. This
way they learn from each other.
3. Class teaching affords the children the opportunity to compete among themselves.
The challenges posed by competition could make the weak pupils to work harder.
4. It also gives the pupils the opportunity to work co-operatively as a team rather than as
individuals.
5. In the classroom, pupils see each other's work. This gives them the opportunity to
compare and appreciate good work.
6. The positive effects of the crowd could be instrumental to the progress of some
pupils.
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7. Usually the emotion of pupils can be more easily aroused in the class than with
individuals.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLASS TEACHING

1. In class teaching as in the Lecture Method, the teacher cannot cater for the pupils'
individual differences.
2. The weak students can easily hide among the other pupils in the class without doing
much.
3. Teachers are often misled to believe that most of the pupils understand the lesson
because a few of them answer questions correctly.
4. Class teaching is teacher-centered.
5. Class method is an organisational method. Other methods are to be used with it before
there can be effective learning.
ACTIVITY II
1. List the various possible groupings one can have in the Group Method.
2. What are the disadvantages of class teaching?
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP TEACHING

1. This method is child-centered. As the population of each group is small, each child is
noticed and he is able to get attention of the teacher.
2. The Teacher is able to keep the attention of a smaller group better than that of a class.
3. The pupils learn to depend on themselves for their studies when the teacher is busy
with another group. Thus, it satisfies one of the advantages of individualised
instruction.
4. Working in a group gives the child the training for future cooperative living. We live
in groups. For example, a family is a group. The group affords the teacher the
opportunity to teach the pupils the spirit of group living.
5. It is easier to provide each student in a group the necessary teaching aids and books
than giving each member of a class.
6. The pupils feel the presence and social interaction of the teacher more in a group than
in a class.
7. Each group is able to go at its own pace. The brilliant groups can go fast while the
weak ones are not unnecessarily hurried up.
8. The group size is very good for practices and drills.
9. Children gain confidence when they work with their colleagues of the same ability.
They perform relative to the others. The confidence may lead to progress.
10. Grouping may give a challenge to some children particularly if the grouping is
according to their abilities. A child in group `D,' a weak group, who has a friend in
`B' may be ashamed initially. This shame may make him determine to work harder to
be at par with his friend. Equally, the friend in `B', may be more concerned about the
weakness of his friend and may decide to work with him during their lecture or free
time to pull him up.
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DISADVANTAGES OF GROUPING
1. Grouping gives the teacher more work. Instead of planning a single work for a lesson,
he may end up planning about three or four.
2. In ability grouping, a child who finds himself in `D' group, the weak group, may be
ashamed, discouraged and withdrawn.
3. Grouping tends to categorize or compartmentalize the pupils. The positive effects of
a class are removed.
4. Troublesome children may have the chance to disturb the class when the teacher is
busy with another group.
5. Competitions are limited in group teaching. This does not help in making progress as
competition is known to be one of the instruments for progress.
6. Social interactions and exchange of ideas among the class pupils are limited to a small
number of pupils. This is so because they now see themselves as members of a class
within the class.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are the advantages of group teaching?
2. What are the disadvantages of group teaching?
SUMMARY
• The class method is one of the oldest methods of teaching. It is similar to the Lecture
Method. The difference between them lies in the population of the learners in each
method. The Group method takes place when the class is divided into groups for
teaching- learning purposes. Both the class and group methods and individual method
can be classified as organisational methods while the others can be termed
communicational methods. Each complements the other for effective teaching and
learning. Whatever method we use, class method is still useful in introducing a new
topic or rounding up a topic.
• Among the possible groupings used in schools are ability, sex, interest, mixed ability,
random, social or natural and needs groupings.
• The advantages of class teaching include:

1 It saves time
2. The pupils work together as a team.
3. The pupils compete among themselves.
4. They learn from each other.
5. They see each others works compare and appreciate good work.
6. They enjoy the positive effects of the crowd.
7. They can be easily aroused emotionally in a crowd.
• The disadvantages are:
1. There is no consideration of individual differences.
2. The weak students can easily hide in the class.
3. The teacher is often misled to believe that all the pupils understand his lessons.
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4. It is teacher-centered.
5. It requires the use of other methods before there could be effective teaching.
• The advantages of group teaching are:
1. It is child centered.
2. The teacher is able to keep the attention of the smaller group better than the
class.
3. The pupils learn to be independent when the teacher is busy with another
group.
4. Working in a group gives the training for future life living.
5. It is easier to provide each child in a group with materials.
6. The pupils feel the social interaction and presence of the teacher more in a
group than in a class.
7. Each group goes at its own pace.
8. The small groups are good for practice and drills.
9. Children gain confidence when they work with their equals.
10. Grouping may give some children the challenge progress.
The disadvantages of the grouping method are:

1. The teacher is overlaboured.
2. Weak pupils may be discouraged.
3. The pupils are rather compartmentalised.
4. Troublesome children have opportunity to disturb when the teacher is busy
with another group.
5. Social interactions and exchange of ideas are limited to a few number of
children in a group.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the advantages of class teaching?
2. Enumerate the disadvantages of group method?
REFERENCES
Bello J. Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Ibadan: John Wiley & Sons/ Spectrum
Books Limited, 1981.
Jacinta, Sister Mary and Regina, Sister Mary, Primary Methods Handbook,
London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1981.
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MODULE 7 Units: 03 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching II EDI 124
UNIT 3 (EDU 124.3): THE PROJECT METHOD
INTRODUCTION
John Dewey an American Philosopher argued that education should prepare the child for the
unknown future. It should not merely fit him into his society. He further stated how
education can do this. It should allow the child to take full part in the life of his village and
the wider neighbourhood. Dewey's followers developed this view to what we have as the
Project Method in schools today. What Dewey's view implies is that the child should be
educated in the manner he lives in the society. That means learning by doing in the pattern
the activity is done in the society.
OBJECTIVES
1. define and explain what project method means;
2. explain the factors to be considered in planning a project;
3. explain the procedure of organising a project method;
4 identify the basic principles that underline using a project method;
5. identify the advantages and disadvantages of the project method.
INSTRUCTION
1. Read through this unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also, as
you read look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
2. Then go back and read the unit step by step as arranged. Attempt all the activities
given. Do not look at the sample answers provided before attempting the
exercises.
you follow the instructions here, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Aesthetic - Has to do with beauty. Subjects like Fine Art Poetry,
Music, creative arts in general deal with Aesthetics.
Appreciation - Valuation.
Assessment - Evaluation, test the value of.
Autonomy - Freedom.
Communication skills - Speech ability.
Counselling - Advise.
Implementation - Put into use, carry an activity into effect.
Organization - Make preparation for.
Playfulness - In a mood for play, full of fun.
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DEFINITION
The project method is a process of learning or a study carried out by learners in real life
situation. This may be carried out individually in groups or class, under the guidance of the
teacher to achieve set objectives. This definition describes the characteristics of the method.
The project is essentially a learning unit designed and conducted by the learner in true-to-life
manner of the environment. Students working under the project method have more freedom
and autonomy to decide on what and how they want to learn. They are free to perform their
investigations the way they deem best. That means that the students decide on the topics they
want to work on. They also decide on how to collect their data, and the analysis model to
employ. They also draw the conclusion. But this does not mean that the teacher is idle. The
teacher is not expected to teach as such. His main role is to guide the activities going on in
the class through discussion, advice, Counseling, conference, or instruction be it in written or
oral form.
TYPES
A project may be in:
1. Theoretical form or
2. Practical form
This depends on the type.
Onwuka (1985) identified four types of projects.
1. The first one is the objective type (practical activity) i.e. building a table, a football
field, writing a play, etc.
2. Another type is the Aesthetic type – that is, appreciating a picture or music.
3. A third type is the problem type – that is, ascertaining the development and growth of
towns etc. The purpose of this type is to straighten intellectual difficulty or solve
some problems.
4. Finally there is the skill project type – that is, learning to play musical instruments,
etc. This is to obtain some item of knowledge.
What determines the type or classification of projects are the objectives and nature of
the projects.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define and explain what project method is.
2. Explain four various types of project method.
USING PROJECT METHOD

1. Project method can be used in all subjects but not in all topics. This may be because
of the nature of the topic or the problem of time-table or the nature of the education
system which is examination centered. There are not many resource materials and
appropriate books in our schools. The project may be undertaken by each student in
groups or by the class as a whole. Equally, the project may be for a short term
covering few lessons or for a long term which may cover some lessons for days.
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There are four stages in using project method. These are:

1. Planning Stage.
2. Class or site Organisation stage.
3. Project implementation stage.
4. Assessment stage.
PLANNING STAGE
In planning to use the project method the teacher has to consider:
i. the overall interest of the course in advising the students on their topics;
ii. the quality and justifications of the objectives set by the students;
iii. the alternative methods to teach the topic and justifications for choosing project
method;
iv. the available resources and space;
(v) that the activities planned for the project could sustain the students' interest as well as
providing useful results;
(vi) the result in line with the course requirements.
ORGANIZATION STAGE
(i) The teacher divides the students into groups (when necessary) in a way that they are
mixed, cutting across their ability and differences.
(ii) The teacher should arrange the class in a manner that the students do not disturb one
another.
(iii) The resource materials should be easily accessible to all the students.
(iv) The Teacher should equally be accessible to all the students.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STAGE

(i) The students should be fully aware of what the project is all about.
(ii) They should have the freedom to conduct the project the way they feel best to achieve
their set objectives.
(iii) The teacher should be in full control of the class.
(iv) He should make sure that order is maintained in the class.
(v) He should not allow indiscipline or playfulness.
(vi) The students should be free to ask for help or explanation from one another when
facing any problems.
(vii) The teacher should be a guide and a resource person.
(viii) The students' findings should be compiled and reported to the class.
(ix) Resource materials used should be returned to their places at the end of the project.
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ASSESSMENT STAGE
(i) A review of the objectives. The collection and analysis of data of activities performed
and generalisation drawn should be made after the project.
(ii) Mistakes made should be marked or recorded for correction.
(iii) The generalisation drawn should be made known to the class.
(iv) The findings should be accessible to the students for consultation or appreciation.
ADVANTAGES
(i) The students are fully involved in the project.
(ii) It is child-centered.
(iii) It is a natural approach to learning.
(iv) It encourages learning by doing.
(v) It calls for the use of the students' experiences.
(vi) It encourages creativity on the part of the students.
(vii) As the students are free to determine their goals, they could be motivated to succeed.
(viii) The sense of failure is highly reduced among the students.
(ix) The method is useful in unifying school subjects. The students are able to relate the
instruction in different subjects.
(x) The method makes school work real to life.
(xi) The students have opportunities to practice their communication skills.
(xii) It fosters good spirit of cooperation among the students.
(xiii) At the end of the lesson, the students learn more about the topic or skill.
DISADVANTAGES
(i) It is time-consuming.
(ii) It is expensive as it requires many resource materials.
(iii) The class may be in chaos as the students move about placing materials here and
there.
(iv) A times order and discipline may be difficult to maintain.
(v) Some school subjects may suffer under this method.
(vi) It is difficult to choose a subject that is of interest to all students.
(vii) This method can be used in all situations.
(viii) It may be a problem to schedule a project as it may disrupt the school time-table.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Give any four reasons why the project method cannot be used in all topics.
2. Mention any four points to take note of at the organisation stage.
3. Name any four advantages of the project method.
4. Give any five disadvantages of the project method.
SUMMARY
• The idea of project method could be traced to John Dewey. The method is a study
activity carried out by learners in real life situation. Unlike many other methods,
project method gives the students the freedom to determine the topic they like to work
on. Equally, the process of collecting and analysing data and drawing of
generalisation are left to them. The teacher serves as a guide and resource person.
The project may be theoretical or practical. There are four stages in using the project
method. These are the planning, the organisation, the implementation and the
assessment stages. The method has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages
include the fact that it is child centered. The students are given freedom to do their
activities in their own ways under the guidance of the teacher. Compared with some
of the other methods, i.e. lecture method, project method is time consuming. It is
equally expensive in terms of resource materials.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the points you take note of when planning to use project method?
2. Carefully examine the principles which will guide you during the implementation
stage of project method.
3. What are the advantages of project method?
REFERENCES
1. Bello J.Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Ibadan: John Wiley and Sons Spectrum
Books Ltd., 1981.
2. Onwuka. U. Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana-Fep

Publishers limited, 1985
3. Nacino-Brown, R. et al, Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan

Publishers Ltd., 1985.
69
UNIT 4 (EDU 124.4): QUESTIONING METHOD
INTRODUCTION
From childhood, man asks questions for various reasons prominent among which is to find
out or learn new experiences. In teaching, questions are important tools the learners and
teachers use to learn or to teach. This is why teachers and students ask questions of various
order at various stages of the lesson. This may be during the introduction stage, presentation
stage, or at the conclusion stage. The questions are asked not as the basic method used in the
lesson but as means of giving the learners adequate facts and making the facts clearer and
understood. In another way, questioning may be used as a method. This is termed as the
questioning method or Socratic method. It is named after the Greek Philosopher Socrates
(470 - 399 BC) who had the reputation of asking questions to make his points. With skilful
handling of questions or the Socratic Method, a teacher can make a success of any lesson.
However, the method should not be used for a long period. Restless students easily get
discouraged.
OBJECTIVES
1. define what questioning or Socratic Method means;
2. identify the various types of questions;
3. identify the purpose of asking questions;
4. explain the uses of questions;
5. identify the characteristics of good questions;
6. explain the procedure of asking questions;
7. identify the principles to note in the art of questioning; and.
8. explain how to treat students' answers.

INSTRUCTION
you, read look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary.
you carry out all the instructions, then you will benefit from this unit.
WORD STUDY
Socratic Method - Questioning method.
Recapitulate - Repeat, revise.
Cue - Hint on what to say.
Preplanned - Considered in advance.
Ultimate - Basic.
Enumerate - List one by one.
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DEFINITION
Questioning Method is the process in which, a sequence of suitable questions are asked with
the objective of leading the students to draw a logical conclusion or generalisation. In this
method, the teacher skillfully asks students questions so that they could see the limitations or
inadequacies in a statement earlier made. This statement they eventually reject for a more
adequate one. For example, the teacher makes a statement which the students accept without
any doubt. The teacher then asks a question based on the statement. The answer to the
question would throw light to the inadequacy of the statement. From this point, the teacher
builds up more questions which would lead the students to the generalisation. The questions
asked in Socratic Method are pre-planned and thought provoking.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Researchers have identified four types of questions which are broadly categorized into two
that is, the lower order questions and the higher order questions. The lower order questions
are equally termed by some authors as the factual questions while the higher order questions
are labeled the thought-provoking questions. The two categories are broken into the four
types as follows:
(i) The factual or lower order type

(ii) The complex or higher order type
(iii) The probing type
(iv) The divergent or creative type.
(i) The factual or lower order questions are those questions which require only
established factual data. They are the "yes" or "no" or "recall" questions.
(ii) The complex or higher order questions are those which require the students to make
use of ideas. The students are to relate one idea to another, compare and contrast
them or reason out the cause and effect. Such questions are those which ask for
"why"?
(iii) The probing questions. This is the type of question asked to keep a discussion going.
This type makes the students go beyond their initial response. The student's first
answer is the teacher's cue. The teacher then goes on to probe the student's responses.
This probe may be in the form of asking for clarification or justification of a response
or redirection of the question.
(iv) In the divergent or Creative questions, the students are to use both concrete and
abstract thinking to select for himself an appropriate response. The type of question is
an open ended type in which the students are expected to think creatively and
rationally. In this case, any response given by the students may be difficult to be
classified as `wrong' or `right'.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define the Questioning Method.
2. Mention and discuss the various types of questions
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PURPOSE OF ASKING QUESTIONS

In questioning method lesson, the teacher asks questions with the ultimate aim of making the
students learn the preplanned concept. To achieve this end result, questions serve the following
purposes.
(i) Questions serve as a means of learning new ideas or concepts and making the
acquired experiences meaningful.
(ii) Questions help the students to develop their ability to think rationally and solve
problems.
(iii) Questions stimulate the students to actively participate in the lesson.
iv) Questions guide the teacher to know the previous knowledge of the students.
(v) The teacher knows how successful he has taught from the responses the students give.
As regards questions asked in lesson involving other methods, teachers and students
ask questions:
(i) as an introduction, questions are asked to stimulate students' interests;
(ii) to clear any point not clear to the students;
(iii) to develop the imagination and rational thinking of the students;
(iv) to recall previous knowledge;
(v) to make shy students participate in the lesson and arrest wandering minds;
(vi) to emphasise important lesson;
(vii) to diagnose students' problems in the lesson;
(viii) to provide drill or practice; and
(ix) to recapitulate at the end of the lesson.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTIONS

The ultimate objective of asking a question is to have an answer. However, it is only a good
question that will stimulate the expected answer. To achieve this, the teacher has to put in
mind certain principles when asking questions. These are:
1. The question must be clear, brief and direct. This must be in a straight forward, simple
and clear language.
2. The question must be thought-provoking. Good questions are those which encourage
students to apply the knowledge learned. These are the Higher order questions.
3. The questions must be at the level of the students. It must be the type the students do
understand and can attempt.
4. The question should ask for the essential points.
ACTIVITY II
1. State any four purposes of asking questions when using the Socratic Method.
2. Give any four characteristics of good questions.
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PROCEDURE FOR ASKING QUESTIONS

Questioning is an art. In asking questions, a procedure has to be followed so as to achieve its
objectives.
(i) The question must be started in the straight forward language and manner.
(ii) The students must be given time to think of the answers after considering the
question.
(iii) Call on a student at a time to give the answer.
(iv) Allow the students to attempt the question. The teacher should not interrupt the
student. Nor should he allow any student to do the same or shout down the student
attempting the question. The class should listen to the speaker.
(v) The teacher comments on the student's answer. It is not appropriate to repeat the
students' answers. The teacher should only pass comments as necessary.
(vi) The student must be made to know whether his answer is correct or wrong.
PRINCIPLES TO NOTE WHEN ASKING QUESTIONS

(i) The important question which will lead the students to understand the topic should be
preplanned. These should be given more emphasis than the less important ones.
(ii) The questions should be asked in logical order to allow for sequential development.
(iii) The whole class must be addressed when asking a question. The teacher should face
the entire class not a group in the class.
(iv) Each student called should be given his chance to attempt the question.
(v) The teacher should avoid repeating questions. This is to make the students pay
attention to the questions.
(vi) Questions should be evenly distributed to the class. Questions should not be for only
a group in the class. It should be spread to all.
TREATMENT OF STUDENTS' ANSWERS

In the questioning method, the ways the students' answers are treated are as important as in
the ways the teachers' questions are asked. Thus, the students' answers should be treated as
follows:
(i) The teacher should encourage the students to give complete answers and in good
language.
(ii) Correct answers should be acknowledged and at times commended depending on the
complexity of the question and the efforts made by the students who answered it.
(iii) Should the answer be wrong, tell the student so. The teacher may reframe the question
and allow the student to try again. Alternatively, he should ask another student to give
the correct answer.
(iv) If the answer is partly correct, the teacher should acknowledge the correct part.
(v) Students who give wrong answers or who cannot give any answer should not be
embarrassed or shouted down.
(vi) A follow up may help a student who seems not to be answering to the best of his
ability.
73
(vii) The teacher should not repeat or reframe the students' answers.
(viii) The students should not be allowed to answer questions in unison. This does not give
the teacher the opportunity to know those who know the correct answer and those
who only repeat what others are saying.
ACTIVITY III
Answer True or False to the following statements.
1. Students that cannot answer questions satisfactorily should be politely told so.
2. Wrong answers of students should be repeated by the teacher and then corrected.
3. A teacher does not need to plan his questions in advance.
4. The Teacher should repeat his questions so that the students can hear well.
5. The students should be commended for correct answers.
6. If the answer given by a student is partly correct, the student should be told the part
that is correct.
7. Chorus answering should be allowed in order to give the weak students some
motivation.
SUMMARY
• The Questioning or Socratic Method is a process in which the teacher makes a
statement and asks higher order questions to lead the students to see the limitations in
such a statement. More questions lead the students to reject the statement and come
up with a generalisation. There are four identified types of questions. They are the
factual or lower order, the complex or higher order, the probing and divergent or
creative types. In questioning method, questions are asked to learn new concepts, to
help the students to think critically and rationally and to involve the students actively
in the lesson. Equally, the questions help the teachers to know the previous
knowledge of the students as well as to know how successful he has been in making
the students learn. Questions are also asked for other motives during the introduction,
presentation and conclusion of lessons. A good question is expected to be clear, brief,
direct, thought provoking and at the level of the students. In asking questions, there
must be a pause after the questions had been asked. After this, a student at a time
should be called to answer it without any interruption or embarrassment. Appropriate
remarks should be passed on the answers given by the teacher. Questions should be
asked in sequential order and all the students in the class should be given fair chance
to attempt the questions. The teacher should appreciate correct answers but he should
avoid repeating students' answers.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Give any four reasons why teachers ask questions at the various stages of a lesson that
is, Introduction, Presentation and conclusion.
2. Critically examine the procedure of asking questions in the classroom.
3. In asking questions in the classroom, what are the principles you should bear in mind?
74
REFERENCES
1. Dubey D.L. et al., Teaching in the Primary School, Lagos: Longman 1985.
2. Nacino-Brown, R. et al Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan Publishers,

1985.
3. Uga, Onwuka, Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana-Fep

Publishers Ltd., 1985.
75
UNIT 5 (EDU 124.5): THE TEACHING/LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT I: The Pupil, The
Teacher and The Curriculum
INTRODUCTION
When we talk of education, we talk of learning and teaching. We also talk of planned facts
and activities, learnt or taught in and outside the school. These planned activities are referred
to as the curriculum.
There can be no learning and teaching without the learner (the child), the teacher, and some
learning and teaching oriented activities. We can safely say then that learning and teaching
are centred on the child, the teacher and the curriculum. However, nothing can be achieved
in education or learning and teaching if a conducive environment is not prepared for the
cordial interaction of the three i.e. the child, the teacher, and the curriculum. As there can be
no teacher without the learner (the child), so there can be no learning without a curriculum. It
needs to be mentioned that learning takes place in various forms and places for specifically
written or unwritten purposes. it is of course certain that there is a goal for every learning.
The deliberately set goal or societal expectations of education written in experiences-to-be-
achieved form are the activities referred to above as curriculum. A lot has been explained
about curriculum in Module 6. In this unit, we shall examine the relationship between the
teacher, the pupil and the curriculum in creating a conducive environment for effective
learning.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify how some psychologists view the child
2. enumerate how the child sees himself;
3. enumerate the mistakes of some teachers in their relationship with their pupils;
4. identify why some pupils dislike their teachers;
5. identify the roles of the teacher in curriculum implementation;
6. explain the principles the teacher should note in making learning easy for the child;
and
7. state the principles the teacher should observe in order to create a conducive
environment for effective curriculum implementation.
INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. As you
76
WORD STUDY
Biological - Having to do with the science of the physical life
of animals and plants.
Confidant - Person who is trusted with private affairs.
Derogatory - Insulting or damaging remarks.
Friction - Difference of opinion leading to quarrels.
Heterogeneous - Made up of different kinds.
Latent - Present but not visible.
Manifest - Clear and obvious.
Misconception - Wrong understanding.
Nutshell - In the fewest possible words; briefly.
Sparingly - Carefully; frugally; in small bits.
Tabula Rasa - A plain or blank state especially of the mind.
Tertiary Institution - Higher institution e.g. University.
Underrate - To give a low value.
Underscore - Given a low mark, underline.
DEFINITION
The term `the pupil' in this unit refers to the leaner (the child) in the school, particularly in
primary schools. Normally `the teacher' is a common term used for all more learned
professionals who stimulate learning or transmit knowledge in schools, ranging from the
nursery to the tertiary institutions.
The curriculum refers to all forms of manifest and latent learning and teaching activities
going on between the teachers and the pupils in the school. In a nutshell, curriculum refers to
all the experiences a child has under the guidance of a school.
THE PUPIL
Psychologists describe the child (the pupil) in very many ways. Some view the pupils as
innocent God's creatures who are being pushed by the adults to face a forced task called
learning. The innocence of the child is described to the point of saying that the child's mind is
a tabula rasa, a plain or blank organ without any form of experience. On this blank mind,
adults forced-in impressions called experiences. Some psychologists argue that before the
pupils get to the school their minds are not blank. It is argued that they have had experiences.
However, it is generally agreed that the pupils differ from one another either as a result of
their biological make up or inheritance or as a result of the influences of their environment or
as a result of the misconception of the child by the teacher.
The misconception or friction between the child and the teacher centres on the teacher's
conception of a good pupil. The child on his own part sees himself as an individual and he
expects every adult to treat him in a comfortable manner as his mother does. The whole idea
of education or learning as adults perceive it is different from the child's perception. The
concept of life is unconceivable to a child. The concept of success in life is unknown to him
how much less of success through education. We should realize that the pupil in early
childhood becomes part of a pattern he never fully understands and he is powerless to change.
The process called learning, to him, is made up of rituals that follow each other in quick
succession. He cannot explain them. He is made to fit into a scheme without an alternative.
Above all, the pupil has been made to fit into a situation which he cannot change. His
reaction is immediately misinterpreted and he is the worst for it.
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Whatever way the pupils may see the teacher's attitudes as contended by some psychologists,
it is evident that teachers do all they do with innocence. They are trained to reshape the child
from the animal being to social being.
However, it must be mentioned that some teachers fail to study and understand their pupils.
Here lies the misunderstanding of their humanitarian assignment. Often, teachers make the
mistake of regarding all the pupils as the same. So, they expect them to behave alike. They
forget that each child is an individual and should be so treated. It may be true that no child is
born stupid or lazy but certainly, they learn and develop at different rates.
Some pupils have difficulty with their teachers. Some teachers make derogatory remark
about their pupils' home culture or training. Such remarks put off some pupils. The teacher's
mistakes lie in the fact that they measure each child's home culture against their own or
against what is often termed as the school culture or tradition.
Pupils in classes handled by such teachers gain very little. When they do not conform to the
school culture their teachers condemn them. More often than not, the school culture is
markedly different from that of the home.
Accepting the school culture means going against the home culture and vice-versa.
Whichever way the child goes, he stands to be condemned. However, an understanding
teacher handles such situations tactfully and saves the child.
All children who are fully integrated into the school cordial environment want to learn. By
this time they know the usefulness of the school. By this time, some of them have interest in
some subjects or activities more than in others. They make up their mind to learn what they
want and in the way they want it.. they want to find things out for themselves. They want to
develop how to be responsible for themselves and their own ideas. This is why Individualized
Instruction is emphasised. Resourceful teachers exploit the pupils exploratory activities
rather than discourage them. However, some teachers insist that the pupils should comply
with the school time-table.
The pupils need the support and guidance of their teachers at various stages of their learning.
They take their teachers as confidants where the teachers behave so. Some take their teachers
for immediate parents. This should be so. Pupils with home problems look at their
sympathetic teachers as solace and succor. A teacher should not disappoint his pupils in this
regard.
Pupils often end up disliking teachers who are:
i academically incompetent;
ii unsympathetic;
iii. particular about punishing for trivial offences;
iv biased,
v. not ready to consider pupils points of view, and
vi insensitive to the pupils' needs.
In actual fact, we should realise that the social interaction between the teacher and pupil is
affected by each other's attitudes and expectations.
ACTIVITY I
1. Briefly describe how a child sees himself.
2. Enumerate some teachers' mistakes in their relationship with their pupils.
3. Why do some pupils dislike their teachers?
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THE TEACHER
The teacher is the strong factor joining the pupils and the curriculum. Just as the success of
the pupil in learning depends in some respects on the teacher so does the successful
implementation of the curriculum depends on the teacher. The importance of the teacher in
the relationship between the pupil and curriculum therefore cannot be over emphasised. The
teacher is the key factor that can create a conducive teaching/learning environment that will
make the pupil like to learn.
In the first instance, the pupil does not know that there is any curriculum. He does not partake
in the formulation of the curriculum. He does not and cannot interpret it either. The teacher
may partake or not partake in the formulation of the curriculum but he interprets, analyses
and breaks it down to the pupils level. He also makes the pupil aware of what the curriculum
is all about. He pilots the pupils in the learning activities. The success of the teacher in all
these activities can be attributed to three factors. These are:
i. the teacher's knowledge of the curriculum;
ii the teacher's knowledge of his pupils; and
iii. the teacher's resourcefulness to create a conducive teaching/learning environment.
i. As regards the curriculum, it could briefly be said that the teacher should understand
the curriculum. A further discussion on this comes up later.
ii. A good teacher should know his pupils as individuals and as a class. This is why it is
necessary for the teacher to study his pupils. Each pupil is an individual. The pupils
differ particularly in their biological make-up and inheritance, in their environmental
location and conditions, home background and culture as well as social factors. It is
clear that every class is a heterogeneous group of pupils. Making this group learn is,
no doubt, a big task for a less resourceful teacher. To make the pupils learn, the
teacher has to take note of certain principles.
i. The Teacher must build a very good relationship with his pupils. This will make the
pupils like and respect the teacher. The teacher will have to be patient, kind and
accommodating.
ii. He has to be a master of his subject. He has to be a dedicated teacher who can make the
learning process effective and pleasant for his pupils.
iii. He should have a good command of language to be able to communicate effectively
with his pupils. His voice should be clear and pleasing to listen to.
iv. His total personality should be without questioning. He should be modest and neat in
appearance
v. He should expose his pupils to available educational resources around.
vi. He should be very observant. He should correct his pupils' mistakes promptly when
necessary.
vii. He should sparingly punish his pupils. Anyone punished must be made to have no
doubts that he deserved such a punishment.
viii. He should know his pupils' parents. He should invite them to school when necessary
and visit them in the same manner. Closeness to the parents and the pupils is a pivot
to better relationship, confidence and respect.
Any teacher who observes these principles will no doubt create a good environment for
teaching and learning.
79
ACTIVITY II
1. What are the roles of the teacher in curriculum implementation?
2. What principles should a teacher observe in order to create a conducive
teaching/learning environment for both the teacher and the pupil?
THE CURRICULUM
In Modules 6 and 7, a lot is said on Curriculum Studies. The concept, the formulation
strategies, the evaluation instruments and the change tactics among others were treated. At
this stage, the curriculum is treated from the point of view of how it can be successfully
implemented in the classroom. It is true that in most countries of the world the formulation
of the curriculum involves many national organisations within and outside educational circle.
This is because of its importance to the life of the nation. The classroom teacher may not be
involved in the formulation of a curriculum. This does not mean that he has a less important
role to play in the whole exercise. The teacher is the interpreter and the person to implement
the curriculum.
The curriculum is not so much what is found in the printed guide as what the teacher makes
of it in the classroom. His ability to adapt it to meaningful learning experiences useful to the
pupil is of much importance. The Curriculum document is a guide to the teacher to tune the
pupils to the aspirations and goals of the society. In creating a conducive teaching/learning
environment to implement the curriculum, the teacher has to note some principles. These are:
i. The Teacher should have a good knowledge of the curriculum. He should understand
the national objectives of the curriculum and he should know what the objectives are
all about.
ii. He should translate the curriculum to the syllabus, topics which are at the level of
each class.
iii. He should determine the strategies or methods which are appropriate for the pupil to
learn successfully.
iv. He should marry his knowledge of the child and his environment with his knowledge
of the curriculum in order to create a workable atmosphere for the pupil to learn
without tears.
It is worthwhile to say that the formulators, the implementer and the beneficiary of the
curriculum, i.e. the Curriculum planners, the teacher and the pupil must play their roles
appropriately in the whole exercise thereby creating a conducive teaching/learning
environment.
ACTIVITY III
1. What is the curriculum document to a classroom teacher?
2. What are the principles the teacher should note in his effort to create a conducive
teaching/learning environment to implement the curriculum?
SUMMARY
• The child (learner), the teacher and the curriculum are the hinges on which all
teaching and learning activities are based. But there cannot be any meaningful
learning if the environment is not conducive for such a vital activity.
80
• In this unit, the term pupil is used to refer to the learner at the primary school level.
The teacher is the pilot of the pupil while the curriculum refers to what is planned for
the pupil to learn under the guidance of the school.
• Some psychologists view the child as a small human being with blank brains. The
teacher on his own part often looks at a pupil like any other pupil and he expects all
the pupils to behave alike and also perform brilliantly alike. However, the child does
not look at himself as any other being but himself as an individual. He is self centred.
It is in later that he starts to compare and compete with his peers.
• The pupil needs the protection and support of his teacher like his parents. He could
like his teacher or dislike him. This depends on the teacher's relationship with him.
• The teacher on his own part has the responsibility of shaping the child to the dictation
of the society. He interprets, analyses and implements the curriculum as handed over
to him. However, in doing all these, he must take into consideration the individuality
of the child as well as the interest of the society. He should create an atmosphere in
which the pupil will interact with the curriculum.
• He should create a good relationship with his pupil, master his subject and be able to
communicate convincingly with the pupil. He should have a good personality,
observant, sympathetic and objective. He should be close to his pupil as well as the
child's parent. The teacher is a strong link between the pupil and curriculum. The
teacher should have a good knowledge of the national objectives of the curriculum.
He should be able to translate the curriculum to a meaningful syllabus topics for the
pupil. He should make use of the appropriate methods or strategies to make the pupil
learn without tears. However, the curriculum planners, the teacher and the pupil must
play their own roles appropriately to create a conducive teaching/learning
environment.
ASSIGNMENT
1. In what ways can the teacher make the pupils like to learn?
2. Discuss the ways in which the teacher is the strong link between the pupil and the
curriculum.
3. “A curriculum is meant to serve the interest of a society not the pupil." Discuss.
REFERENCES
1. Souper Patrick C About to Teach: An Introduction to Method in Teaching,
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976
2. Adjai Robinson, Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George

Allen and Unwin, 1980.
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UNIT 6 (EDU 124.6) THE TEACHING/LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT II: RESOURCES
TEACHING METHODS
INTRODUCTION
In unit 5, we examined the pupil, the teacher and the curriculum in the relationship to
Teaching/Learning Environment. In this unit, we shall examine the Resources and Teaching
Methods in relationship to Teaching/Learning Environment.
It has already been explained that the whole issue of teaching and learning are centred on the
teacher, the pupil and curriculum. However, it is pertinent to add that resources and teaching
methods are the ingredients necessary for effective teaching and learning activities. The
resources and the teaching methods are unavoidable tools for teaching or learning.
It is a common agreement among psychologists that pupils differ from one another in learning.
They differ psychologically, biologically, socially, emotionally and mentally. This fact
makes the work of the teacher to be complex. He has to appeal to the various senses of the
pupils through educational resources to learn. Equally, he has to use various appealing and
appropriate strategies (methods) to make them learn to understand.
OBJECTIVES
1. define educational resources;
2. define teaching methods;
3. identify various educational resources and teaching methods;
4. mention the advantages of educational resources;
5. explain the importance of methods in teaching/ learning environment; and
6. explain how methods can be used to enhance better teaching/learning environment.
INSTRUCTIONS
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WORD STUDY
Architectural Design - Art and science of building in styles.
Diorama- - Combination of puppets placed against a pictorial
background.
Eliven - Make lively.
Hoops - Circular band of wood, cane or iron.
Immovables - That cannot be moved.
Kindle - Roused to a state of strong interest.
Landscape - Inland scenery.
Mangrove- - Tropical tree growing in swamps and which send down
new
roots from its branches.
Monuments - building, statue serving to keep alive the
memory of a person or event.
Puppets - Small figures of characters with jointed limbs moved by
strings.
Realia Real objects.
Specimen - an example of a class.
DEFINITION
Educational resources cover all those materials human or non-human, drawn or
photographed, built but manually or electrically operated, books and all forms of related
materials used in teaching and learning progress. They are also called teaching aids or
learning aids in some books. Teaching methods are the strategies, techniques or systems used
by the teacher in piloting the pupils to learn.
RESOURCES
In module 10 unit 8 Resources in the classroom/school and their management were treated. In
this unit, resources are examined in line with the teaching/learning environment.
Learning resources are the things or materials that help pupils in learning. There are
numerous types of learning resources. In fact, any material, however small or big, that can be
used to make learning meaningful and understood is a learning resource. However, we can
safely classify these resources into seven categories i.e.
i. Human Resources
ii. Visual Resources
iii. Audio Resources
iv. Audio-Visual Resources
v. School Environment Resources
vi. Community Resources
vii. Other resources
Some authors group items ii, iii, and iv as Electrical/Electronic Resources. There are of course
some visual resources which are not electrically operated.
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i. The teacher's most important resource is himself. Besides, the fact that he does the
teaching, his personality and communication abilities influence the understanding of
the lesson a lot. Other teachers in the school or people from the community or afar
also constitute human resources.
ii. The visual Resources include real objects (realia), specimen, models, chalkboards,
flannel or felt boards, still pictures, textbooks and workbooks. Supplementary readers,
magazines and newspapers articles, graphics such as charts, maps, cartoons, diagrams,
posters globes and graphs.
In this group are real objects which provide first hand experiences to the pupils.
Where these real objects are non-available their models play similar roles.
The chalkboard is the commonest and the most readily available material mentioned
in this group. It is a versatile aid to the teacher in the classroom. The printed
materials listed in the group are among the most accessible and easy to use resources
available in schools. There are equally many different kinds of newspapers and
magazines from where pupils collect cartoons and articles. One discovers that most
of the visual materials are easily accessible and available in our schools. Except for
some dangerous real objects and specimens which normally a teacher should not bring
to the class, it is discovered that the visual materials are safe for the pupils to use.
iii. The audio resources include radio, record player and tape recorders. These are
electrically operated. Batteries can equally be used to operate them. They are very
useful in individualized instruction in study laboratories as well as classrooms. They
are equally used to teach a large population of students at once.
iv. Audio-Visual Resources. These media are basically sound motion pictures i.e. film
projector and Video tape, and television. These media combine the effects of both
seeing and hearing in teaching and learning. These are media which have the
capability of recreating the past as well as bringing the distant places and events to the
classroom.
v. The School Environment Resources. Many teachers often forget the importance of
these resources. The architectural design of the school buildings, the library and
laboratories. The horticultural layout of the surroundings, the various equipment and
the total nature of the school scenery have influence on the learning outlooks of the
pupils. These resources serve as salient resources to the pupils. Besides, teachers
during teaching find these resources nearby to refer to.
vi. Community Resources. The community has bounteous resources ranging from
human to landscapes as well as realia. All the teacher needs to do is to attract or take
the resources to the school. In the alternative, the teacher arranges for the class to
visit the immovable resources i.e. hills, factories, monuments.
vii. The Other Resources. These are numerous. Some are very important and are used for
various subjects. These resources include sheets of paper, pencils, pens, biro, ruler,
erazer and some other stationery. These are fundamental resources. Though they
may look trivial, but the non-availability of them can wreck the best of educational
intentions, and encourage indisciplined behaviour in the class. Resources like blocks,
puzzles, counters, measuring containers, scales, tape measures are useful for
mathematics. Colours, crayons and brushes are useful resources for fine art. Balls,
bean bags, hoops, ropes, and many other games equipment are necessary for physical
education. All these are necessary resources without which some of these subjects
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cannot be practically taught. Some other resources which are becoming very useful
especially in the nursery and primary schools are puppets and dioramas. They are not
yet in use in our schools; but they are in use in Europe and America.
ADVANTAGES OF RESOURCES
As had been earlier stated, pupils differ from one another not only socially or physically but
in the ways and manner they learn. It is well known that we human beings learn through our
five senses.
These are through seeing (visual), hearing (auditory), smelling, touching and feeling, and
tasting. The pupils differ in the organs they use best in learning. Before the teacher can make
his heterogeneous class learn effectively, he has to use various resources. When the teacher
lectures, the pupils make use of their sense of hearing (auditory sense) only. When he talks
and uses some educational resources, the pupils make use of many senses. This depends on
the type of resources used. However, it is known that educational resources have many
advantages, some of which appear below.
i. They appeal to the various senses of the pupils.
ii. They make the lesson interesting and arrest the attention of the pupils.
iii. They help to make clear the complexities of any skill or concept thereby making the
pupils understand the lesson.
vii. Some of the resources, particularly human and real objects, serve as sources of first
hand information.
viii. The audio visual materials now make Individualised Instruction more practicable and
effective.
ix. With the audio/visual or Audio-visual resources the pupils can now work at their own
pace on topics of their interest.
x. The Audio-visual aids have now made it possible for a teacher to teach a lesson
without being physically present. This can be done through recorded cassettes.
xi. In the same way the audio-visual materials have made it possible for the teacher to
teach thousands of students through the radio or television.
xii. The same media have the capacity to re-create the past or bring a distant place or
events or a dangerous phenomenon to the classroom through recording. The
importance of this is that, the pupils would see the real form of what they could have
imagined, perhaps with a wrong conception.
xiii. Through some of the resources, the pupils can easily store and recall any topic. In this
way, the pupils learn easily and pleasurably.
Educational resources are no doubt important in the development of a conducive
teaching/learning environment. The resources could give a more valuable and powerful
direction to teaching and learning than any teacher could watch by personal efforts alone.
ACTIVITY I
1. a. define educational resources.
b. define methods of teaching.
2. mention the various categories of resources.
3. define and describe the importance of òther' resources.
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TEACHING METHODS
In unit 5, we examined the pupil, the teacher and the curriculum in relationship with the
teaching and learning environment. It is discovered that the teacher is the unifying factor or
the link between the pupil and the curriculum. The teacher is able to perform this important
function through the use of teaching methods. In this unit, we have discussed the importance
of educational resources. Much as these resources are important, their usefulness are
determined by the teaching methods. They are used in different teaching methods. Thus, we
can see that teaching methods are important factor in teaching and learning activities. It is an
important instrument that the teacher employs in performing his basic function of teaching.
In module 6 units 2 - 5 and in this module, units 2 - 4, some methods are treated in detail.
Among the methods are the Lecture, Discussion, Individual, Problem solving, Discovery and
Inquiry methods. Others are Group, Class, Project and Questioning methods. Some
innovations in teaching techniques are treated in some other units.
As explained in module 8 unit 1, teaching methods could be categorized according to their
operations or functions. Some in their operations organise the class in the formation best
suited to the topic. Some are used to communicate with the pupils while some are in activities
forms.
From the explanations made in the units mentioned above, it can be seen that in a lesson, the
teacher uses at least two or more methods. Secondly, it is discovered that there is no single
method that can be regarded as perfect. The reasons for this could be traced to some factors.
i. The learners have their individual differences which obviously make them react
differently to each method. Hence, no single method has been identified to be able to
satisfy every pupil in a class.
ii. Subjects differ from one another while verbal explanations could be used in some,
some require practice. These subjects require different methods of teaching.
iii. Within a subject, there are many topics which require different approaches or methods
of teaching.
For example, in Geography, while a teacher in Lagos State can use verbal description
coupled with audio- visual resources to teach the features of the desert, a visit to
locality will achieve more on a topic relating to mangrove swamps.
iv. The availability or non-availability of appropriate resources may affect the level of
success of a teaching method.
No doubt, the basic factors which determine the degree of success of a method of
teaching are human resources as well as the nature of the methods. Some of these
factors are uncontrollable by the teacher. In that light a perfect method of teaching
may be difficult to come by. However, educationists continue to conduct researches
to find out better methods or innovate the existing methods.
ACTIVITY II
1. a. Name some of the methods you have learnt.
b. Name some of the innovations in methodology you have learnt.
2. What factors render all methods ineffective?
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USING METHODOLOGY TO ENHANCE BETTER TEACHING/LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT
As earlier explained, methods of teaching are strong instruments in the hand of the classroom
teacher to determine the degree of the success of a lesson. To enliven the classroom
environment for successful teaching and learning, it is necessary for the teacher to observe
the following:
i. He should use an appropriate organisational method to lay out the class in the
appropriate manner that will (a) allow all the pupils to see and hear all that may be
required, done or said in the lesson; (b) allow for social interaction among the pupils
and between the teacher and the pupils for learning purposes; (c) allow for free
movement in the class as may be necessary for the lesson; and (d) Place the pupils in
such position that they can be easily controlled by the teacher.
ii. He should employ stimulating activities within the framework of the dominant
teaching method he may use to communicate with the pupils. This is to:
a. arouse the interest of the pupils in the lesson;
b get the pupils ready for the lesson; and
c. Kindle the inquisitive spirit of the pupils so as to involve them in the lesson.
iii. During the presentation stage, the teacher should use the most suitable method
accommodating other short methods or techniques as well as resources to:
a. explain the complex skills or concepts in a lesson;
b. emphasize the basic points;
c. involve the pupils in the lesson;
d. maintain the interest and the attention of the pupils; and
e. enhance the pupils' understanding of the topic as well as retention and
recalling.
iv. The teaching/learning activities should be evaluated. The purposes of this are:
a. to have a feedback from the pupils;
b to reinforce and reward their efforts; and
c. to correct and give them remedial reinforcement where they make mistakes.
v. The pupils should be given assignments on the topic to serve as:
a extra activities for practice;
b. a means of kindling the spirit of self study and investigation; and
c a link between the topic and the next topic.
The teacher has to employ his knowledge of the pupils, his good relationship with them
alongside the methods used to create an environment which will make the pupils learn
successfully.
ACTIVITY III
1. Of what advantages are the use of an organisational method in a lesson?
2. Why does a teacher need to use short methods or techniques during the presentation
stage of a lesson?
3. What are the advantages of evaluation in a lesson?
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SUMMARY
• Educational Resources and Methods of Teaching are other important factors which
could influence the teaching/learning environment and situations in a classroom.
• The educational resources refer to all human, visual, audio, audio-visual, school
environment and community materials. They also include other fundamental materials
used in the class to make learning more meaningful to the pupils.
• The methods of teaching refer to the strategies or techniques the teacher employs to
pilot the pupils in their learning activities.
• The educational resources include the teacher, other teachers in the school, human
beings in the community, real objects, specimen or models, chalk and display boards,
electrically operated equipment like radio overhead projector, film projector, video-
tapes, television, books, newspapers and magazines. Others are graphic productions,
the school buildings and layout, the community at large and the fundamental materials
which pupils are expected to have at any time i.e. pen, pencil, etc. The resources make
learning more real and meaningful to the pupils. They are used in giving first hand
information and making clear complex points. They make Individualised Instruction
more practicable. In some cases, these resources present the teacher's lectures when
he is not physically present. They aid the pupils in storing and reproducing any topic.
• The teaching methods are the instruments the teacher uses in teaching.
• In each lesson, the teacher uses two or more methods. It is discovered that no single
method is perfect. This is because of the differences in the nature of the learners, the
subjects and the topics. The search for innovations in teaching methods is among
those activities which preoccupy educationists today. The organisation of the class,
the introduction, presentation and evaluation of a lesson could be used by resourceful
teachers to enliven the teaching/learning environment.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. List and discuss some educational resources.
2. What are the advantages of educational resources to teaching and learning activities?
3. In what ways can methods of teaching be used to create better teaching/learning
environment?
REFERENCES
H.S.N McFarland, Intelligent Teaching London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.
Adjai, Robinson, Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen and Unwin
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UNIT 7 (EDU 124.7): TIPS FOR SELECTION OF

METHODS MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
In unit 6, it is proved that Methods and Resources are important tools in the hands of the
teacher to pilot the pupils in learning. In actual fact there is no learning without using one
method or another. It is true that learning can take place without a teacher or teaching.
However, the learner would use one form of method or another in achieving his objectives.
These days, through the use of educational resources, learning has been much individualised.
For example, through the use of some educational resources the learner can learn without the
teacher being physically present. There are other forms of silent learning where teachers, in
the real sense of the term, are not involved. However, the learner uses any of the many
methods that he chooses. The contributions of resources to individualized learning these days
is a testimony to their importance in teaching methods.
Another explanation in units 5 and 6 is the heterogeneous nature of the class. Teachers teach
these pupils various subjects under various conditions. The need to be cautious in the choice
of methods and materials thus, deserve considerations. Some tips are suggested in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. enumerate some tips for the selection of methods;
2. identify some other consideration in selection methods; and
3. explain some tips for the selection of resource materials.

INSTRUCTIONS
WORD STUDY
Assimilation - Absorbing; understanding.
Curious - Eager to learn or know.
Inquisitive nature - Nature of thorough search or investigation; desiring to
learn/understand.
Instinctive - Nature of tendency to behave in a certain way with our
reasoning or training.
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Maturation - Ripe with fully developed power.

Technical subjects - Subjects connected with construction.
Vocational subjects - Subjects like Business Education, Home Economics, etc.
Toddlers - babies who walk with short and uncertain steps, babies
learning to walk.
TIPS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING METHODS
There are many methods and techniques of teaching. New innovations are introduced in
recent years. Some of the methods are simple to use while some require some time to
prepare. Some are child centred while some are teacher- centred. However, not every
method can be used in teaching every topic or subject at all times. There are some
important factors to consider in choosing a method of teaching. Some examples are given
here.
1. The objectives of the lesson. This is a strong factor which should guide the teacher
in his choice. The method chosen must be in agreement with the activities that can
lead to the achievement of the objectives of the lesson.
2. The Age and class of the pupils. The age and class determine the maturation of the
pupils to learn certain topics using certain methods. Maturation or readiness is an
important factor in learning. Certain methods are meaningful to certain ages. For
example, for pupils in the Nursery classes and Primary I the play method is ideal for
them. It is meaningful to them. Such a method should not be used with teenagers in
higher institutions. To them such a method is a waste of time and a useless exercise.
In the same manner the toddlers of the Nursery classes will not give lecture method
any recognition.
3. The Nature of the class Pupils is another factor for consideration. This may be
divided into three areas that is,
a. The biological composition of the class pupils.
b. The average rate of assimilation of the class.
c. The inquisitive and the instinctive nature of the class pupils.
a. In a class where there are boys, girls and deformed children, it will not be
appropriate to use vigorous practice method like playing football during the
physical education lesson. It is inappropriate to use the class method in this
case. The group method coupled with drill or practice method should be used.
The girls should be separated from the boys and the deformed from the normal
children. Each group can practise any game specified for their nature.
b. A class with an average high rate of assimilation deserves a method which
accommodates many facts than a class with a low average rate of assimilation.
This may be interpreted to mean a class with an average high I.Q versus a
class with an average low I.Q.
c. The inquisitive and instinctive nature of the class pupils is another factor. The
type of method to be used for inquisitive and curious pupils is different from
those who are submissive and want to be spoon-fed. While the child may use
the discovery method with the curious class, the lecture method may be used
with the docile class.
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4. The Subject is another strong factor. The subjects differ from one another in their
nature. The Arts subjects are different from the sciences. Technical and vocational
subjects are equally different from the others in nature. The teacher may successfully
use the lecture, discussion or questioning method in the arts lessons. In the sciences
such methods may fail. The discovery and the project methods may be more suitable.
5. The topic is a similar factor to (iii); but the two are different from each other. In a
subject there are many topics. For example in History the methods to be used in
teaching local history varies from those for foreign history. For local history study
trip may be used. This method will not be useful in foreign history.
6. The time limit is a factor to be considered. Some methods require long term
preparation by the pupil or class in general while some methods do not involve such a
preparation. For example, the dramatic method may not be as appropriate as the
lecture method for a short time lesson. The dramatic method requires pre- lesson
preparations, in class preparation and post lesson discussion. In the case of lecture
method the teacher gives the lecture after his own pre-lesson preparation which
relatively takes a shorter period. Definitely, some methods are time consuming while
some are not. The time factor should determine which of them to use as the situation
demands.
7. The size of the class and the classroom are factors which also affect the choice of
methods. A class of 20 or 25 pupils can be comfortably handled by the teacher using
the individual method. He would have time to pay more attention to each individual.
Whereas in a class of about 40 children or more the situation cannot be the same.
Often, the teacher uses the class and lecture methods among others.
The size of the classroom aids the use of individualized instruction or dramatic
method. In a small classroom, the dramatic method or the individualised instruction
which requires free movements may not be appropriate.
8. The size and location of the school do affect the choice of methods. In a small
school without a big hall and some streams of a class, the team teaching technique
cannot be successfully used. There is even no need for such a trial. Usually in small
schools a teacher teaches all the subjects in a class. Whereas in a big school with a
big hall and many streams of a class, the team teaching technique can be used.
As regards the school location, the accessibility or non-accessibility to certain
resources do affect the choice of a method. For example, in learning about
transportation in Nigeria, in Geography, a teacher in Port-Harcourt may decide to take
his class to the seaport, the airport, the railway station as well as the motor garage to
see the vehicles as well as activities in such places. A teacher in Geidam in Borno
State may visit the motor garage and see the camel caravans but he has to depend on
pictures, descriptions and perhaps audio-visual aids to make the pupils understand the
concept of a steamer ship, an aeroplane and a railway train. While the Port-Harcourt
teacher may use field study, the Geidam teacher may depend on lecture method.
9. The availability of Educational Resources in the school is another factor. Some
schools are rich in graphic o r electrically operated resources. They can afford to use
methods which will make use of these resources. In a school where these materials
are not available, the teachers often depend on methods which involve verbal
interactions mostly.
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10. The home and societal background of the pupils require some considerations. In a
home where there are no chairs and tables for the pupils to sit and write on and where
there are no more literate persons to put him through his assignment, it is of no use
using the assignment method. This is a method to be used where the required
furniture, home library and educated parents, brothers or sisters are available.
In some societies, the pupils help their parents on the farm, in cattle rearing, working
in the workshops or selling materials after school hours. Some of them return home
tired. It is not good enough to ask them to take home some assignments. They will
not have the time for it. Such a method should not be used.
11. The type of lesson There are three stages in the treatment of a topic or field of study.
These stages are the Introductory, Development and the application or Recapitulation
stages. The first lesson or two may be used in introducing the field of study. Some
lesson which follow may be on the development of the concept of the topic. The last
two or so lessons may be for practice. For example in Mathematics, in teaching the
concept of addition to primary one, the first two or three lessons may be spent on the
introduction of the concept. Subsequent lessons will be on the gradual developments
while the last few lessons may be on practice or application. The choice of the
method at each lesson depends on the stage of the lesson.
ACTIVITY I
1. Briefly discuss the nature of the class as a factor for selection of methods.
2. Discuss how the size of the class and classroom affects the choice of method of
teaching.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Much as the factors enumerated are considered to be very important, the teacher should not
lose Sight of some other considerations which aid learning.
i. The method to be chosen should be based on the pupils' interest. It should promote
self discovery through reading and investigation. Efforts should be made to develop
this quality in all the pupils in the class.
ii. The method should provide the pupil with opportunities for self expression.
iii. The method should be the type that will keep the pupils busy. They should be
involved in the activities of the class.
iv. It should be the method that will occupy the period allocated for the lesson. Equally, it
should not take more than the allocated time.
v. The method should be the type that will help the pupils to benefit by their effort.
vi. Attention should be paid to both the weak and the brilliant pupils in the class. The
method should provide opportunities for interaction.
vii. The method should make use of relevant resources.
viii. The pupils have some experiences. The method should be the type that will enable the
pupils utilize their experiences.
ix The method should be the type that will give the pupils the opportunity to know their
performances.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Enumerate the factors which the teacher has to consider in the choice of teaching
methods.
2. What other considerations should the teacher bear in mind in selecting teaching
methods?
TIPS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING RESOURCE MATERIALS

Just as the resources can be very useful to successful teaching and learning activities so they
can be a burden. Some of them could produce negative results in learning. For this reason
among others, there are some principles to consider in the choice of the materials.
i. The learning resources should be consistent with the objectives of the lesson. For
example, if the topic of a physical education lesson is Long Jump and the objective of
the lesson is centred on "lifting on take-off board" the graphic resources or audio-
visual materials to be used should be on this aspect of long jump.
ii. The resources to be chosen should be relevant to the topic. Using the example in (i),
all the materials to be used should be on long jump with the emphasis on the
objectives.
iii. The materials should be readily available. It is true that many materials may be
suitable for a topic. The one to be chosen should be the one that can be easily
obtained.
iv. The materials should be the cheap type. For example, if the teacher wants to use
trinkets as part of the teaching resources, it is better to use the cheap inferior type
rather than the expensive gold type.
v. The availability of the related infrastructure should be considered. For example, it is
inappropriate to choose to use electrically operated materials where there is no
electricity. At best one should choose the battery operated type.
vi. The materials must be appropriate for the age, class and interest of the pupils. For
example, a primary I pupil would prefer a model or toy motor-cycle to be used as a
resource material to the big Honda Motor-cycle. The toy is within his ability and
conception. It is useful to him as he can pull it about. He cannot roll the big Honda
about.
vii. If the teacher is using a manually or electrically operated device, he should be sure
that he can operate the machine before bringing it to the class to avoid
embarrassment. The machine should also be in good working condition.
viii. Resource materials should be big enough for every child in the class to see. Tiny
materials would not make the required impact. Heavy materials should be avoided;
they are dangerous.
ix. The safety of the pupils must be considered in selecting resource materials. Any
dangerous material should not be brought to the class. Sharp knives, uncaged snakes
(the cage should be made of glass) or any dangerous item should not be brought to the
class.
x. Printed materials should be of bold characters so that they can be easily read.
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xi. The pictures selected should be simple and bold. They should be easy to read. They
should also be neat and bright.
Teachers should produce teaching materials and encourage pupils to produce some.
Such materials should be used and neatly stored for future use.
ACTIVITY III
1. Enumerate the factors which teachers should bear in mind in the selection of resource
materials.
2. What factors should the teacher consider in selecting graphic resource materials?
SUMMARY
• Methods and resource materials are for effective learning. Their choice as learning
and teaching activities demands caution. In selecting methods the teacher has to
consider:
i. the objectives of the lesson;
ii. the age and class of the pupils;
iii. the nature of the pupils;
iv. the subject;
v. the topic;
vi. the time limit (or duration of the lesson);
vii. the sizes of the class and classroom;
viii. the size and location of the school;
ix. the availability of educational resources;
x. the type of the lesson; and
xi. the home and societal background of the pupils.
• Other considerations include the pupils' interest, development of individual
potentialities, involvement of the pupils in the lesson and adequacy of materials and
time. The method should compensate for the pupils' efforts and also cater for their
interest. Resources should be used in the methods and the pupils must be made to
determine their progress.
• In selecting materials the teacher must make sure that the materials are:
i. consistent with the objectives of the lesson;
ii relevant to the topic;
iii. readily available;
iv. cheap;
v. available with their infrastructure;
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vi. appropriate for the pupils age, class and interest;

vii. big and bold enough for easy visibility;
ix. safe; and
x. Printed or written in bold characters.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Enumerate the tips to consider in selecting methods of teaching.
2. What other considerations should a teacher bear in mind in selecting a method?
3. What are the factors to be considered in selecting resource materials?
REFERENCES
D. L. Dubey et al., Teaching in the Primary School, London: Longman, (1985).
Adjai, Robinson Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen & Unwin
95
UNIT 8 (EDU124.8): INSTRUCTIONAL AND

ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS OF
THE TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
In module 6, units 8 and 9, you learnt about Micro Teaching. You remember that the
technique is primarily to teach the student-teachers the various skills in the art of teaching.
This emphasizes that teachers make use of series of skills in their daily interactions in the
school. Among such skills or expertise are those we would in this unit simply categorize as
the Instructional and Organizational skills. These are those which have to do with the art of
making the pupils learn and those which have to do with the layout of classroom. However,
some skills will be examined in line with how the teachers utilize them for effective teaching
and learning processes.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify some instructional skills;
2. discuss teaching preparation skills;
3. discuss motivational skills;
4. discuss communication skills;
5. discuss skills in resources development and utilization;
6. discuss questioning skills;
7. discuss skills in humanity; and
8. discuss classroom organisational skills.

INSTRUCTIONS
WORD STUDY
Calibre - Person's standing or importance or quality of mind or
Character.
Diction - Choice and use of words; style of writing or speaking.
Enunciation - Style of pronouncing words.
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Facets - Aspect.
Facial - Of or for the face.
Inflection - Modulation; rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
Maturation - The state of coming to full development.
Modulation - Tegulate, adjust.
Unambiguous - Not having more than one meaning.
DEFINITION
Skills refer to expertise. Instructional and organizational skills of the teacher refer to the
teaching and arrangement expertise of the teacher. The display of many skills is required of
the teacher in teaching and learning activities. An unskillful teacher is unlikely to lead the
pupils to learn with ease. To avoid ruining the pupils in all facets of education, teachers are
trained in professional skills. This is done both in theory and in practice. What you have
been studying since you started this course are parts of the theoretical training given to
teachers of your calibre to develop professional skills.
Teaching involves the use of many skills. In this unit, you will learn about seven broad skills
which cut across the teaching/learning activities, classroom organization and the teacher's
human relationship in the school. They are skills in teaching preparation, motivation,
communication, resources development and utilization, questioning, humanity and classroom
organization.
TEACHING PREPARATION SKILLS

One of the most difficult assignments of a teacher is to determine the objectives of a lesson.
The reasons stem out of the complexities of planning and implementing the curriculum.
Specific difficulties of planning and implementing may be due to the fact that:
i. the curriculum may be planned by some people among whom may not be the class
teacher;
ii. the curriculum may be planned for specific social objectives;
iii. the classroom teacher who is not a party to the planning is expected to interprets and
implement the curriculum in line with societal objectives which may not be stated in
detail;
iv. the pupils who are to be taught differ from one another;
v. the instructional objectives to be formulated are expected to cover and operate the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains simultaneously.
It is not easy to combine all these requirements together to formulate instructional objectives.
The assignment requires professional skills of a resourceful teacher to implement.
i. A skilful teacher would tactfully solicit for the pupils' input thereby making the
objectives both teacher-and-pupils oriented.
ii. The objectives must be stated as learning outcome or pupils behavioural changes
expected after the three facets of the instructional objectives together.
iii. The teacher should skillfully balance up the objectives in such a way that the culture
of the child, his individuality, freedom, and life-long education are incorporated.
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The teaching preparation should consider the maturation and capabilities of the pupils, the
time limit for the lesson, the entry behaviour (previous knowledge) of the pupil and the
choice of appropriate methods and resources. All these different factors are to be considered
and respected in a single preparation. This activity requires professional expertise or skills.
MOTIVATIONAL SKILLS
Motivation is central to educational methods. It is not just a matter of giving a short term
stimulus for the pupils to react to. Interest and motivation are similar but they do not
necessarily mean the same thing. High interest can cause motivation but there are other
causes. Simply, motivation can be described as the natural or external conditions which
cause or encourage us to act in a certain way. A common approach to motivation is the
satisfaction of the psychological needs of the learner.
There are two types of motivations, the intrinsic and the extrinsic motivations. The intrinsic
motivations are natural. The extrinsic are external. Some of the sources are rewards and the
teachers' personality and skills.
A skilful preacher has behind his mind some principles which do, and some which can,
stimulate motivation. Some of the principles a teacher should bear in mind are as follow:
i. Intrinsic motivation produces more successful learning than the extrinsic.
ii The pupils who are intrinsically motivated work more easily and harder.
iii. Motivation by reward is more successful than by punishment.
iv. Pupils are more motivated when they understand the standard of work expected of
them.
v. The standard, goals and purposes of any lesson should be at the level of interest,
activities and maturity of the pupils.
vi. Worthy activities that are not rewarded or cheap rewards given could lead to lack of
motivation.
vii. Healthy competitions at reasonable intervals can lead to motivation.
viii. Teachers who have good relationships with their pupils can motivate them to like
their lessons.
ix. The child's environment is an influence on his level of motivation. The ability to
motivate is an important skill that teachers should possess to be able to stimulate the
pupils to learn.
ACTIVITY I
1. Why is it difficult to determine the instructional objectives of a lesson?
2. What principles should a teacher bear in mind in order to stimulate the pupil's
motivation?
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communication is defined in many ways by many authors. In a broad sense, communication is
defined to include all the procedures whereby one mind may affect another. This involves
written and oral speech, music, the aesthetic, historical and theatre arts, infact, all human
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behaviour. In this section, we shall consider the oral speech communication. This is much
needed and used by the teacher in his interactions in the school. In Module 18 unit 7, the
classroom communication process is treated. Communication skill is an important verbal
interaction instrument used by the teacher. Some teachers have the knowledge but their oral
communication is poor. In the long run, they are ranked as poor teachers. The sources of
poor oral communication are:
i. insufficient vocabulary;
ii. poor knowledge of the structure of the language;
iii. poor pronunciation;
iv. poor voice modulation or inflection;
v. poor diction and enunciation;
vi. misinterpretation of meaning; and
vii contradicting facial expressions, hand gestures and posture changes.
It requires high skills for the teacher to get his verbal messages across to his pupils. To
improve the communication skill of the teacher, he has to
i. learn to speak in simple, straight forward language;
ii. develop his vocabulary by constant reading;
iii. learn to pronounce each word distinctly;
iv. learn to use appropriate body gestures with whatever he says;
v. learn to vary the tone of his voice and rate of speech;
vi. avoid as much as possible, the use of long words;
vii. be a good listener; and
viii. encourage his pupils to listen attentively.
SKILLS IN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION

Educational resources are important tools the teachers use in their teaching. These resources
cover all those materials used in teaching and learning processes. Some of them are printed
materials, sketches, charts, pictures, objects and machines.
A skilful teacher can make some of the materials. He should also be able to handle the
graphic materials and encourage his pupils to build theirs. As many materials as are needed
should be collected and kept by the class.
The teacher should learn to make the best use of resources.
i. He should use appropriate materials for each topic.
ii. Such materials should be attractive.
iii. The materials used must be bold.
iv. They should be simple and capable of being used to explain complex concepts.
v. The materials should be safe.
vi. The materials should be used when needed.
vii. They should not be too many in a lesson.
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Educational resources could be very useful in the success of a lesson if skillfully used. In the
same way, unskillful use of them could ruin the best of a lesson.
ACTIVITY II
1. What should a teacher do to develop his verbal communication skills?
2. What should a skilful teacher note about resources development and utilization?
3. What are the sources of the teachers' poor oral communication?
QUESTIONING SKILLS
One of the characteristics of a skilful teacher is the successful use of questioning. Questions
are asked and answered throughout a lesson. The art of questioning is not an early activity.
The reason is that, before the pupils can give the answers required by the teacher, the
question must be clear and unambiguous. At times, the pupils give wrong answers not
because they do not know the correct answer but because the question was poorly asked.
There are certain guidelines to follow in asking useful questions.
i. The question must be asked before choosing a pupil to answer.
ii. The question should not be the type that requires a `yes' or `no' answer only. Such
questions are leading questions which do not require much thinking.
iii. The pupils must be given time to think and answer the question.
iv. The pupils must not be forced to answer the questions.
v. The questions asked must be at the level of the pupils.
vi. The teacher should make it a practice to ask his questions only once. This is how to
train the pupils to listen to the teacher at all times.
vii. The question should be straightforward.
Questions are important in teaching. It is a very evaluative instrument in the hands of skilful
teachers.
HUMANITY SKILLS
Teaching and learning are activities which take place among human beings including the
teacher and his pupils. There is the need for cordial relationship between the teacher and his
pupils. The development of a good relationship is not an early assignment. However, it is
important for many reasons.
i. A good relationship between the teacher and the pupils is a pivot to the creation of
good teaching/learning environment.
ii. It makes the pupils have confidence in their teacher.
iii. It also makes the pupils have interest in the teacher's lessons.
iv. Cases of indiscipline are few in a classroom where there is a cordial relationship
between the teacher and the pupils.
The development of good relationship is a skill to be developed and utilized by the teacher.
He can develop this inter-personal regard by following the highlighted principles:
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i. The teacher must prove that he is out for their success.

ii. He must be democratic in the management of the class.
iii. He must encourage the pupils to ask and answer questions.
iv. He should reward the pupils when necessary.
v. He should use appropriate situations to explain issues which will make the pupils
know that he cares for them.
vi. He should be sympathetic and kind to his pupils.
vii. He should counsel those who have problems.
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS

Classroom management among other things involves the arrangement and organisation of the
classroom facilities and specific routines of handling equipment, orderliness, and well regulated
atmosphere.
The purpose of classroom organization is to create an atmosphere of efficiency of both the
teacher's and pupils' time, efforts and energies. The efficient use of materials, furnishings and
teaching resources are the other purposes.
The class is made up of pupils of various backgrounds and characters. The behaviour of these
pupils can positively or negatively affect the morale of the classroom. A good classroom
organization aids in controlling the class.
The mode of seating arrangement depends on the classroom size, subject and method of
teaching. Before the commencement of the lesson, the teacher must organize himself. He
should make sure that all the materials he has to use are well laid out. These materials should
be arranged in such a way that they can be easily distributed and collected without disturbing
the peace of the class. The organization and coordination of all human and material resources
in a classroom require skills. The teacher must have these management skills.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are the guidelines to follow in asking useful questions?
2. What is the importance of good human relationship between the teacher and the
pupils?
SUMMARY
• Instructional and organizational skills of the teacher refer to the teaching activities and
arrangement expertise of the teacher. The necessity to possess these skills led to the
idea of teacher training. In this unit, we examined seven broad skills which cut across
the teaching/learning activities, teachers human relationship and the classroom
organization. These skills are, teaching preparation skills, motivation, communication
skills, resources development and utilization, questioning skills, humanity and
classroom management skills. One of the most difficult assignments of a teacher is to
form the objectives of a lesson. This is due to the complexities of planning and
implementing the curriculum. The teaching preparation should consider the maturation
and the capabilities of the pupils, the time for the lesson, the entry behaviour of the
pupils and the methods used.
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• Motivation is central to educational methods. A common approach to motivation is the

satisfaction of the psychological needs of the learner. There are intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations. Rewards are among the sources of motivation.
• Communication skills are limited to oral interactions between the teacher and the
pupils. Some factors inhibit the teacher's oral communications skills.
• Educational resources cover all the materials used in aiding his teaching. It could be
very useful in the hands of skilful teachers. The art of questioning requires
professional skills. The teacher must ask thought-provoking questions. The questions
must not be ambiguous. A good relationship between the teacher and the pupil is
pivot to the creation of good teaching/learning environment. The teacher must be
sympathetic and kind to his pupils.
• The teacher's organizational skills are useful in classroom arrangement as well as
class control. The teacher must be sure that all the materials he has to use in a lesson
are well laid out before the lesson begins.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What principles should guide a teacher in formulating the instructional objective of a
lesson?
2. What are the causes of poor oral communication among some teachers?
3. Enumerate the importance of good human relationship between the teacher and his
pupils.
REFERENCES
McFarland, H.S.N, Intelligent Teaching, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.
Uga, Onwuka, Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana Publishers Ltd., 1981
Adjai, Robinson, Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen & Unwin
Ltd., 1980.
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UNIT 9 (EDU124.9) LEADERSHIP AND COUNSELLING

ROLES OF THE TEACHER
INTRODUCTION
In the classroom, teachers have been described in various terms as local parents of the pupils,
the classroom doctor, lawyer, judge, administrator, leader, advice or guidance Counsellor.
A writer looking at teachers from the point of view of religion described them as workers
with God who help to reshape man from a mere animal to a social adult to continue
maintaining God's garden called earth.
Another writer described a teacher as a farmer of men, who nurtures the man's little creatures-
the babies in the Nursery called Toddlers' School from where he transplants them into the
garden called a Primary school. From there, the teacher transplants the children into a farm
called a secondary school and finally into an academic plantation called a University. By
then, the little seedlings called babies become trees of men.
Whatever names or descriptions are made of teachers, the fact remains that despite the fact
that the teacher teaches topics relating to these professionals, they perform their functions in
the classroom. Teachers' primary assignments are to lead and guide the pupils through learning
experiences to success in life. In this unit, we shall examine the teacher as a classroom leader
and guidance counsellor.
OBJECTIVES
1. define classroom leadership counselling;
2. explain the types and roles of teachers in the classroom;
3. explain the sources of teachers' leadership authority;
4. discuss teachers as classroom leaders;
5. discuss the characteristics and the principles of successful counselling in the
classroom;
6. discuss the characteristics and the principles of successful counselling in the
classroom;

INSTRUCTIONS
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WORD STUDY
Aggressive - Quarrelsome.
De facto - (Latin) - In fact whether by right or not.
De jure - (Latin) - by right; according to law.
Encyclopedia - Book or set of books giving information about every branch of
knowledge.
Hierarchy - Group of persons in authority. organization in grades of
authority.
Iron-type - Hard type.
Laissez-fair - Take-it-easy
Overpowering - Be too strong for; very powerful
Unbendable - That cannot be bent.
Wards - Children under the control of guardians.
DEFINITION
A leader is a person who by action of guiding, giving examples or encouragements by
activities, directs the affairs of a group of people, organisations or nations. Leadership is not
a single trait as described above but a composite quality involving many characteristics.
Good leaders are known to be assertive, possess intiative, tactful, possess self-confidence and
fairly understand their followers. A teacher as a leader in the classroom can be viewed from
these perspectives.
Counselling is a process by which one person tries to help another person in a person-to-
person or face to face advisory activities. In school, counselling is a discussion between a
pupil with a problem and a teacher (or professional counsellor) who can help in the
understanding of the problem and thereby advises the pupil to find a solution to the problem.
Counselling is a part of the overall guidance process. It concerns the emotional aspect of
development. Guidance, in school, is a process of offering each pupil an opportunity to
understand himself so that he can realize his potentials better.
TYPES AND ROLES OF TEACHERS

The learning/teaching situations and the school activities in general depend on the type of
roles the school teacher assumes. Some educators group teachers according to their roles in
the school. These are.
i. The Lassez - fair (Take-it-easy) teachers,
ii. The Autocratic Teachers,
iii. The Democratic Teachers, and
iv. The Authoritarian Teachers.
i The Laissez-Fair (take-it-easy) teachers care less about the activities of the
school. They exert little or no pressure to see the pupils learn. They have no
defined goals. Their pupils are usually loose and without a guide.
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ii. The Autocratic teacher is interested in his pupils and he pays much attention to
their performances. The weakness of this type of teacher is that he feels his
own ways are the best and all the pupils must conform. He has no respect for
the pupils' views.
iii. The Democratic teacher is the open minded type who listens to the views of
his pupils. He has good human relationship with his wards. He helps and
guides them as necessary.
iv. The Authoritarian teachers are the "iron type." They have no room for any
nonsense. They are very strict and harsh. They punish their pupils often.
This is a poor group of teachers. A teacher is not expected to be an
unbendable iron or an extremist. A teacher is expected to build his pupils and
not to destroy them.
The roles of the teachers in the school are basically three that is,
a. a participant in decision making in the school. In other words, a party to the school
administration,
b. a classroom teacher,
c. a counsellor or an adviser to his pupils.
i. As a part of the school administration the teacher participates in decision
making. He contributes to discussions on vital issues concerning the school.
He advises the headmaster to whom he is responsible. He carries out school
decisions or the head teacher’s instructions.
ii. As a class teacher. The teacher pilots, directs and inspires his pupils to learn.
He is responsible for whatever happens in his class. His primary assignment
includes seeing to the success of his pupils in their learning and life.
iii. As a Counsellor, he is an advisor. He advises his pupils on matters affecting
their studies and life. This assignment may take him to the point of intervening
between the pupils and their parents at home.
ACTIVITY I
1. a. Define Leadership
b. Define Counselling.
2. Enumerate the various types of teachers in our schools.
SOURCES OF TEACHERS' LEADERSHIP/AUTHORITY

i. By training and profession, he is the representative of the school authority. He is
employed and assigned to lead the class.
ii. The skills he possesses in his subject area make him a master of his subject. He
knows more than his pupils and he is respected for this. Little children look at their
teachers as an encyclopedia of knowledge and whatever he says is right. He is
recognized as a leader in his field.
iii. His experience is another source of authority. This is closely related to his academic
skills. Among equals experience is a pivot to leadership. It is even more so when the
teacher is compared with the pupils.
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iv. The personality of the teacher is another source of authority for leadership. A teacher
who is
a. committed to his calling,
b. consistent in his behaviour to all his pupils, and
c. open-minded in his relationship with his pupils and colleagues stands a better
chance of being a leader de facto if not de-jure.
TEACHER AS A CLASSROOM LEADER

Leadership may be by democratic election, by ascription or inheritance, by achievement, by
force, by appointment or by assignment. In the case of teachers, leadership in the classroom
is by assignment. Every teacher by the nature of his job is a leader. However, some leaders
are integrated into the body of the society while some are not. Some characteristics expected
of good leaders determine the acceptance or rejection. These are:
i. A leader must be fairly assertive. This is based on his conviction of a mission to be
achieved. A teacher who is a leader will be committed to the fact that he has a task to
make his pupils learn and succeed in life. The assertion, of course, must not be
overpowering, aggressive or harsh.
ii. He must have the initiative to plan, start and implement a project course of study. He
should not be the type who should be told or pushed to act. He should be able to
identify problems, think of solutions and take necessary actions.
iii. The teacher must be tactful. He should be flexible. He should learn to bend when
necessary and be firm when necessary.
iv. He should understand the pupils he leads. He should study them and know their
strengths and weaknesses.
v. He should be confident of his ability. He should not be someone to be pulled by the
nose rather he should lead the class. However, he should be over- bearing.
vi. He should be a man of his words. He should be sincere and straightforward.
vii. He should be fair and just to all his pupils.
viii. He should be sympathetic, kind and accommodating.
The pupils must see him as an image worthy of their respect. The teacher must realize that he
is not a dictator. His role is to guide the pupils in the learning activities rather than bossing
them.
ACTIVITY II
1. What factors impose leadership on teachers in the classroom?
2. Explain the characteristics of good leadership.
THE TEACHER AS A COUNSELLOR

Counselling in school is a process in which the teacher tries to help his pupil with problems
in a face to face situation. It has a personal touch in that the teacher as counsellor brings into
the exercise of solving the pupils problem his sympathy, patience, interest understanding,
concern and co-operation.
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The most important thing in counselling is the child's feelings. It is the task of the teacher to
find out why the child feels the way he does. The emphasis in counselling is on the process
of decision making rather than on the quality of decisions made.
The main objective of the teacher as a counsellor is to help each of his pupils to succeed.
Certain points have to be borne in mind to achieve the objectives. These are:
i. The teacher must have a good understanding of the pupil.
ii. He should develop good relationship with each pupil to the point that the child can
trust him.
iii. His behaviours should convince each pupil that he cares for them.
iv. He should prove to the pupil that he can keep secrets.
v. He should encourage the pupil to develop self confidence in himself.
vi. He should also encourage the pupil to develop positive attitudes towards his academic
work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING
There are five main characteristics of counselling. These are acceptance, listening,
responding, empathy and trust.
i. Acceptance means that the teacher has to take the pupils as he is at the time of
counselling. There should be no bias of any type. Any bias could influence the
teacher's sense of reasoning and advice. The teacher should be warm and sincere to
the child.
ii. Listening in counselling refers to concentration on feelings and how something is said
rather than what is said. This requires a lot of patience, attention and concentration.
iii. Responding. The teacher should discuss the problem with all indications of
understanding. He should speak in such a way that the pupils would have confidence
in him.
iv. Empathy means putting oneself in someone's position in order to fully understand his
problems. This, the teacher should be able to understand the pupil best.
v. Trust. If the teacher can perform i-iv convincingly, the child should be able to trust
him and be ready to tell him more of his problems.
Above all teachers who have good human relationship, who are just, sincere, responsible,
honest, pleasant and who possess self control and the qualities of leadership stand the chances
of being successful counsellors to their pupils.
ACTIVITY III
1. a. What is the basic objective of counselling in school?
b. What points should a teacher bear in mind to achieve this objective?
2. What are the characteristics of counselling?
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SUMMARY
• A leader is a person who by action of guiding, giving examples or encouragements by
activities, directs the affairs of a group of people, organizations or nations.
• Counselling is a process by which one person tries to help another person in a face-to-
face advisory actions.
• There are four types of teachers. These are (i) The Laissez fair teachers, (ii) The
Autocratic teachers (iii) The Democratic teachers and (iv) The Authoritarian teacher.
The roles of the teachers in the school are basically three that is (i) Participation in the
school decision making (ii) A classroom teacher and (iii) a Counsellor.
• The teacher derives his leadership status through (i) his professional training (ii) his
mastery of his subject (iii) his experience and (iv) his personality.
• Leadership may be by election, ascription, achievement, force, appointment or
assignment. The teacher is an assigned leader. The characteristics of leadership
include fair assertion, possession of initiatives, tactfulness understanding, confidence,
sincerity, fairness and justice, sympathy, kindness and accommodating.
• The main objective of the teacher as a counsellor is to help his pupils to succeed. As
a result, the teacher should understand his pupils, develop good relationship with them
and proves to them that he cares. He should prove that he keeps secrets. He should
develop the pupils' self confidence and encourage them to study hard. The
characteristics of counselling are acceptance, listening, responding, empathy and trust.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Define and describe the relationship between Guidance and Counselling.
2. What are the roles of the teachers in the school?
3 What qualities should a teacher possess before he could be a respected leader?
REFERENCES
1. Dubey D.L. et al Teaching in the Primary School London: Longman, 1985
2. Souper Patrick C., About to Teach, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited,
1976
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MODULE 7 Unit: 10 General Principles of Methodology of Technology II EDU 124
UNIT I0 (EDU124.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1-9/

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION
The first four units of this module are centred on methods and techniques of teaching. Unit 1
treats Programmed Instruction which is one of the devices for Individualised Instruction. Unit
2 deals with group and class teaching. The Project and Questioning Methods are treated in
Unit 3 and 4 respectively.
The next 4 units are devoted to basic factors affecting teaching and learning environments.
These are the pupils, the teacher, the curriculum, educational resources, teaching methods and
the teachers' skills.
Unit 9 treated leadership and counselling roles of the teacher. This Unit (10) is a review of all
that has been treated in this module.
OBJECTIVES
1. define and discuss programmed instruction;
2. describe and discuss group and class teaching;
3. define and explain the project and questioning methods;
4. identify the roles of the pupils, teacher, curriculum, educational resources and
teaching methods in teacher/learning environment;
5. explain the factors to be considered in selecting methods and educational (resources)
materials;
6. enumerate the instructional and organizational skills of the teacher; and
7. explain the leadership and counselling roles of the teacher.

INSTRUCTIONS
given. Do not look at the sample answers provided at the end of the unit before
WORD STUDY
Autonomy - Freedom, independence.
Infrastructure - The parts of a system that compose the whole.
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PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION, GROUPING AND PROJECT METHOD

Programmed instruction is a self instructional approach to teaching. It is based on the
principle of operant conditioning of Professor B.F. Skinner. The two main techniques of
teaching are the programmed text books and the teaching machines. In operation the subject
matter is broken into small steps in sequential order. A small bit of meaningful information
called frame is presented to the learner at once. He reads the information and responds. He
checks his response against the answer which is, equally available in the media. If the answer
is correct, the learner goes to the next frame. If he is wrong he is expected to go over the
frame and master it before proceeding to the next.
Other principles present in programmed instruction are the principles of small steps,
associative learning, reinforcement, active response, self pacing and mastery learning. The
class teacher plays the roles of a director of learning, an analyst of the students' progress, a
teacher as well as a consultant.
The advantages include individualised instruction and the coverage of a wide area of study
within a limited time. The students are actively engaged and each works at his own pace.
There is immediate feedback. Procuring machines and buying programmed textbooks are
expensive. The technique could be boring because it is a matter of questions and
straightforward answers.
The class method is one of the oldest ways of teaching. It is similar to the lecture method.
The Group method takes place when the class is divided into groups. The class, group and
individual methods could be termed as organisational methods while the others can be termed
communicational methods. Among the possible grouping used in schools are ability, sex,
interest, mixed ability, random social and natural as well as need groupings.
THE ADVANTAGES OF CLASS TEACHING

i. It saves time.
ii. The pupils work together.
iii. The pupils compete among themselves.
iv. They learn from one another.
v. They see one another's work, compare and appreciate good work.
vi. They enjoy the positive effects of the crowd.
vii. They can be easily aroused emotionally in a crowd.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLASS TEACHING

On the other hand, it has some disadvantages. These include (i) Lack of consideration for
individual differences. (ii) It is teacher-centred. (iii) The weak students can easily `hide' in
the class iv) The teacher is often misled into believing that all the pupils understand his
lessons. (v) It requires the use of other methods before there could be effective teaching.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP TEACHING

The advantages of group teaching are that it is child-centred and the population can easily be
controlled. The pupils learn to be independent when the teacher is busy. The pupils feel the
social interaction of the teacher more. Each group goes at its own pace. Small groups are
110
good for drills. The children gain confidence working in their groups. Each child's progress
can readily be noted.
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP METHOD

The group method has its disadvantages, too. These include the following (i) The teacher is
overloaded and the weak pupils may be discouraged. (ii) Troublesome children could have
the opportunity to disturb when the teacher is busy with another group (iii) Social interaction
and change the ideas are limited to few children.
THE PROJECT METHOD

The idea of Project Method could be traced to John Dewey. The method is study activity
carried out by learners in real life situation. Unlike many other methods, Project method gives
the students the freedom to determine the topic they like to work on. Equally, the process of
collecting and analysing data and drawing of generalization are left to them. The teacher
serves as the guide and resource person. There are four stages of using the method that is,
planning, organisation, and implementation and assessment stages. The advantages include
the fact that it is child-centred. The students are given freedom to work in their way under
the teacher's guidance. Project method is time consuming and expensive in terms of resource
materials.
ACTIVITY I
1. Enumerate the steps in the operation of Programmed Instruction.
2. Mention the various grouping used in Group Method.
3. Give some reasons why the project method cannot be used in all topics.
THE QUESTIONING METHOD

Is a process in which the teacher makes a statement and asks higher order questions to lead
the students to see the limitation in such a statement. More questions lead the students to
reject the statement and come up with a generalisation. There are four identified types of
questions. They are the factual or lower order, the complex or higher order, the probing and
the divergent or creative types. In Questioning method, questions are asked to learn new
concepts, to help the students to think critically and rationally. Questioning helps to involve
the students actively in the lesson. Equally, questions help the teachers to know the previous
knowledge of the students as well as to know how successful he has been in making the
students learn. Questions are also asked for other motives during the introduction,
presentation and conclusions of lessons. A good question is expected to be clear, brief, direct,
thought-provoking and at the level of the students. In asking questions there must be a pause
after the question had been asked. After this, a student at a time should be called to answer it
without any interruption or embarrassment. Appropriate remarks should be passed on the
answers given by the teacher. Questions should be asked in sequential order and every
student in the class should be given a fair chance to attempt the questions. The teacher
should appreciate correct answers but he should avoid repeating students' answers.
THE CHILD, THE TEACHER AND THE CURRICULUM are the hinges on
which all teaching and learning activities are based. But there cannot be any meaningful
learning if the environment is not conducive for it.
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Psychologists view the child as human kiddies with blank brains, a tabula rasa. The teacher
looks at a pupil as any pupil and the pupil looks at himself as an individual. He is self-
centred. He needs the protection of his teacher like his parents. The teacher has the
responsibility of shaping the child to the dictation of the society. He interprets, analyses and
implements the curriculum as handed over to him. In doing all these, he should take into
consideration the individuality of the child as well as the interest of the society. He should
create a good relationship with his pupil, master his subject and be able to communicate
convincingly with the pupil. He should have a good personality and be closed to his pupils'
parents. The teacher is the strong link between the pupil and the curriculum. He should have a
good knowledge of the national objectives of the curriculum. He should be able to translate it
into a meaningful syllabus topics. He should use appropriate methods to make the pupil learn.
The curriculum planners, the teacher and the pupil must play their appropriate roles in order
to create a conducive teaching/learning environment.
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES AND METHODS of teaching are other important

factors which influence teaching/learning environment in a classroom. The resources refer to
all human, audio, visual, audio-visual, school environment and community materials. The
methods of teaching refer to the strategies the teacher employs to pilot the pupil in learning.
The resources include human beings, the teacher, real objects, specimen, model, graphic
products, books, stationery electrically operated machines such as radio, video tape, film
projectors. The school materials as well as the community constitute resources too. The
resources make learning more meaningful and give first hand information. They make
Individualised Instruction more practicable. In some instances, the resources can present the
teacher's lesson when he is not physically present.
The teaching methods are the instructional instruments used by the teacher. In a lesson, the
teacher uses two or more methods. This is because of the nature of the learners, the subjects
and the topics. The organisation of the class, the introduction, presentation and evaluation of
a lesson could be used by resourceful teachers to enliven the teaching/learning environment.
ACTIVITY II
1. What are the characteristics of good questions?
2. In what ways is the teacher the strong link between the pupil and curriculum?
3. Of what importance is the use of short methods or techniques in the presentation of a
lesson?
METHODS AND RESOURCE MATERIALS

Resource materials are essential in effective learning. Their importance demands cautions in
their choice for teaching and learning activities. In selecting methods, the teacher has to
consider (i) the objectives of the lesson, (ii) the age and class of the pupils, (iii) the nature of
the class pupils (iv) the subject (v) the topic (vi) the time limit (vii) the sizes of the class and
classroom (viii) the size and location of the school (ix) The availability of educational
resources (x) the type of the lesson (xi) the home and societal backgrounds of the pupils.
Other considerations include the pupils' interest, development of individual potentialities,
involvement of the pupils in the lesson and adequacy of materials and time. The method
should compensate for the pupils' efforts and also cater for their interest. Suitable resources
should be used in the methods and the pupils must be made to know their progress.
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In selecting materials, the teacher must make sure that the materials are (i) consistent with the
objectives of the lesson (ii) relevant to the topic (iii) readily available (iv) cheap (v) available
with their infrastructures (vi) appropriate for the pupils' age, class and interest (vii) easy to
operate (viii) big and bold (ix) safe and (x) in bold writing.
The instructional and organisational skills of the teacher refer to the teaching and
arrangement expertise of the teacher. The necessity to posses these skills leads to the idea of
teacher training. In this unit, we will examine seven broad skills which cut across the
teaching/learning activities, teacher's human relationship and the class organisation. These
skills are teaching preparation skills, motivation, communication skills humanity and
classroom management skills. One of the most difficult assignments of the teacher is to form
the objectives of a lesson. This is due to the complexities in planning and implementing the
curriculum. The teaching preparation should consider the maturation and capabilities of the
pupils, the time for the lesson, the entry behaviour of the pupils and the methods used.
Motivation is central to educational methods. A common approach to motivation is the
satisfaction of psychological needs of the learner. There are intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations. Rewards are among the sources of motivation.
Communication skills are limited to oral interactions between the teacher and the pupils. Some
factors inhibit the teacher's oral communications skills. Educational resources cover all the
materials the teachers use in teaching. The art of questioning requires professional skills. The
questions must to be thought-provoking. A good relationship between a teacher and the
pupils creates good teaching/learning environment. The teacher should be sympathetic and
kind. The teacher's organisational skills are useful in class arrangement. The teacher must be
sure that all the materials he has to use in a lesson are well laid out before the lesson begins.
A leader is a person who by action of guiding, giving examples or encouragements by
activities, directs the affairs of a group of people, organisations or nations.
Counselling is a process by which one person tries to help another person in a face-to-face
advisory actions. There are four types of teachers i.e. (i) the laissez-fair teachers (ii) the
autocratic teachers (iii) the democratic and (iv) the authoritarian teachers. The roles of the
teachers in schools are (i) to participate in the school administration (ii) to teach in the
classroom (iii) to counsel his pupils who have problems.
The teacher derives his leadership status through (i) his professional training (ii) his mastery
of his subject (iii) his experience (iv) his personality. The teacher is an assigned leader. The
characteristics of leadership include fair assertion, possession of initiatives, tactfulness,
understanding, confidence, sincerity, fairness and justice, sympathy, kindness and
accommodating. The main objectives of a teacher as a counsellor is to help his pupils to
succeed. As a result, the teacher should understand his pupils, develop good relationship
with them and prove that he cares for them. He should prove that he keeps secrets. He should
develop the pupils' self confidence and encourage them to study hard. The characteristics of
counselling are acceptance, listening, responding, empathy and trust.
ACTIVITY III
1. Enumerate the factors the teacher has to consider in selecting teaching methods.
2. What are the principles a teacher should note in formulating the instructional
objectives of a lesson?
3. What are the qualities expected of a teacher as a leader?
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SUMMARY
• Programmed instruction is a self instructional approach to teaching. The principle is
based on the operant conditioning theory of learning. Other principles present in the
device are those of small steps, associative learning, reinforcement, active response,
self pacing, and mastery learning.
• The class and group methods could be termed as organisational methods. In class
method, the class pupils are taught as a whole while in group method the class is
divided in groups. The class method is a teacher-centred method while the group
method is child-centred. The Two methods are among the oldest methods in use. The
project method is a study activity carried out by learners in real life situation. The
learner is left to himself to carry out his studies while the teacher serves as a
consultant. It is a child centred method.
• The Questioning method is as old as Socrates. The Teacher makes a statement and
asks higher order questions to lead the students to see the limitations in his statement.
The questions asked would lead the pupils to learn new concepts. Good questions
which are brief, direct, thought-provoking and at the level of the learners should be
asked. The child, the teacher, and the curriculum are the hinges on which all teaching
and learning activities are based. The teacher has the responsibility of exposing the
learners to the requirements of the curriculum. Methods and educational results are
mediums through which the curriculum is translated to the pupil. There are many
methods of teaching but the appropriate ones to use in a lesson are determined by the
age and class of the pupils as well as the subject and topic among other factors. The
choice of resources is affected by the objectives of the lesson, the availability, age,
class, and interest of the children, cost, size, beauty and safety.
• Teaching involves many activities which require skills. Seven broad skills are treated
in unit 8. The skills are, teaching preparation skills, motivation skills, communication
skills, resources development and utilization, questioning, humanity and class
management. Motivation is central to teaching methods. The ability to express one's
self in the straightforward language the learner will understand is also of much use.
The development of good human relationship with the pupil is of much use to the
teacher. The teacher by virtue of professional training, mastery of his subject,
experience and personality is an assigned leader in the classroom. He should equally
be a counsellor to his pupils. He should be reliable accommodating, just,
sympathetic, tactful, kind and accommodating so that he could be trusted as a
counsellor and respected as a leader by his pupils.
• A laissez faire, autocratic or authoritarian teacher cannot be a successful
teacher/leader. Success can be expected from the democratic group of teachers. A
good teacher should have the qualities of a leader.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the advantages of class method?
2. What are the principles a teacher should note to create a conducive teaching/learning
environment to implement the curriculum?
3. What are the qualities expected of a teacher/counsellor?
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REFERENCES
Bello J.Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Ibadan: John Wiley and Sons, Spectrum Books,
1981.
Dubey D.L et.al.Teaching in Primary School, London: Longman, 1985.
Onwuka Uga, Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana Publishers Limited,
1981.
McFarland H.S.N, Intelligent Teaching London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.
Nacino-Brown,R., et al., Curriculum and Instruction, London: Macmillan Publishers, 1985.
Adjai, Robinson, Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen and Unwin,
1980.
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MODULE 7 ANSWERS General Principles of Methodology of Teaching II EDU 124
UNIT 1 (EDU 124.1): PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION/

COMPUTER ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION
ACTIVITY I
1. Programmed Instruction is a self instructional approach to teaching. It is the kind of
teaching that follows a planned sequence. The learning material is presented in an
ordered structured programme which has been prepared before the learner begins his
task. It is characterised by the breaking up of materials to lead a learner through self-
instruction from what he knows to new and more complex knowledge and principles.
The learner responds at each step. When his response is correct a reinforcement is
given by the immediate confirmation of the right answer. If the answer is wrong he is
expected to have a remedial reinforcement before he proceeds to the next frame.
2. The basic principle is the operant conditioning developed by Professor B.F. skinner.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. The subject matter is broken into small steps in a sequential order.
ii. A frame is presented to the learner at once.
iii. The learner reads the frame and gives a written response.
iv. He checks the response against the correct answer.
v. The learner goes to the next frame if his answer is correct or has a remedial
reinforcement if his answer is wrong.
2 The principles of:
i. Small steps
ii. Associative Learning
iii. Reinforcement or immediate feedback
iv. Active response
v. Self pacing
vi. Teachers Knowledge of learners' progress.
vii. Mastery learning
ACTIVITY III
1. He is a director, an analyst, a teacher and a consultant.
2. It is expensive to procure the programmed text books and machines needed.
i. There not many trained personnel i.e. teachers and programmers around to
implement the technique.
ii. It may lead to boredom because of its lack of varieties of activities.
iii. It gives no room to original and creative answers. The technique is limited to
questions with straightforward answers.
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ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENTS
1. Programmed Instruction is operated through
i. Programmed Text Books
ii. Teaching Machines.
A programmed Textbook is a self instructional textbook. It is a written programme in a
subject field in which the subject matter has been broken into small details of the learning
sequence. The Programme is written as a series of easily answered questions that lead the
student to logical conclusions foreseen by the programmer. The student reads the question
and writes his answer. This is checked against the correct answer written on the same page or
a designated page. The immediate knowledge of the result reinforces learning and reduces
the possibility of fixation of wrong answers.
The Teaching Machines are devices for self instructional materials. The effectiveness of the
machine depends on the programmes used in it.
In a well designed machine, one frame is presented at a time and the student operating it
bring information presented. The machine is then operated to show the correct answer.
Meanwhile, the machine must have moved the attempted response into a covered but
transparent box so that it can be seen but cannot be changed. Where the answer is correct, the
learner moves to the next step. He is expected to have a remedial reinforcement if his answer
is wrong.
2. The advantages are:
i. Programmed Instruction individualises teaching. This takes care of the issue
of individual differences in learning.
ii. More content can be covered in a given period of time than what would be
covered using the traditional methods.
iii. The students actively participate in the learning process
iv. Many disciplinary problems are eliminated as the students are busily engaged.
v. Students find it easier to follow a programmed Instruction than the traditional
methods because the programmes are progressively structured.
vi. Students work at their own pace.
vii. The immediate feedback of the correct answer rewards and rein forces the
student correct response.
viii. The immediate feedback avoids the fixation of incorrect responses.
ix. The possibility of remedial reinforcement is another advantage.
x. The feedback is no doubt a motivating factor for the learner to do more work.
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UNIT 2 (EDU 124.2) GROUP AND CLASS TEACHING
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) Class teaching takes place when the teacher instructs the pupils in the class
collectively as a unit.
(b) Group teaching takes place when the pupils are divided and
taught in groups and not as a unit.
4.2.2 Class teaching and lecture method are similar. They differ primarily in the number of
learners the teacher faces in each method. In lecture method, the number is unlimited
whereas in a class a maximum of 35 to 40 pupils are recommended.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. Ability grouping
ii. Sex grouping
iii. Interest grouping
iv. Mixed ability grouping
v. Random Selection grouping
vi. Social or natural grouping
vii. Needs grouping.
2. i. The pupils individual differences are not catered for.
ii. The weak students can easily `hide' among the others without working much.
iii. Teachers are often misled to believe that all the children understand their
lessons.
iv. It is teacher-centred.
v. It requires the use of other methods to make it effective as it is an
organizational method.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. Group Teaching is child-centred.
ii. The teacher is able to keep the attention of the small group.
iii. The pupils learn to depend on themselves when the teacher is busy with
another group.
iv. Working in group gives the child the training for future living.
v. It is easier to provide each student in a group the required materials and books
than each member of a class.
vi. The pupils feel the presence and social interaction of the teacher more in a
group than in a class.
vii. Each group is able to go on its own pace.
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viii. The group size is very good for practices and drills.
ix. Children gain confidence when they work with their equals.
x. Grouping may give a challenge to some children who are weak to try to
progress to a higher group.
2. i. The teacher has much to do.
ii. Weak students in the low group may be discouraged.
iii. Grouping tends to compartmentalize the students.
iv. Troublesome children may have a chance to disturb when the teacher is busy
with another group.
v. Competitions are limited in group teaching.
vi. Social interactions and exchange of ideas among the class are limited to a
small number of pupils.
1. i. It saves time and efforts.
ii. Students work together and learn from each other.
iii. Children have the opportunity to compete in class teaching.
iv. children learn to work cooperatively as a team
v. Pupils see each others' work. They compare and appreciate good work.
vi. The positive effects of the crowd could be instrumental to the progress of
some pupils.
vii. Usually, emotions can be more easily aroused in a class than with individuals.
2. Teachers do much work.
ii. Weak students in low groups may be discouraged.
iii. Grouping tends to compartmentalize the pupils. The positive effects of a class
are removed
iv. Troublesome children have the opportunity to disturb the class when the
teacher is busy with another group.
v. Competitions are limited in group teaching.
vi. Social interactions and exchange of ideas are limited to a small number of
pupils who now see themselves as members of a class within a class.
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UNIT 3 (EDU 124.3): THE PROJECT METHOD
ACTIVITY I
1. The project method is a process of learning or a study activity carried out by learners
in real life situation. Unlike in some other methods, the Project method offers the
students the freedom to handle their project their own way under the guidance of the
teacher.
2. i. The objective type involves practical activities like building or constructing
various
objects i.e. building a shed, etc.
ii. The aesthetic type involves appreciation of the various creative arts for
example appreciating a poem.
iii. The problem type which involves straightening intellectual difficulties for
example the process of rainfall.
iv. The skill project type which involves learning skills i.e. learning to play
musical instruments.
ACTIVITY II
1. The method cannot be used in all topics because of:
i. The nature of the topics.
ii. The problem of overloaded time-table.
iii. The nature of our educational system which is examination centred.
iv. Non-availability of many resource materials and appropriate books.
2. i. The Teacher divides the students into groups mixed in such a way that they cut
across ability and differences.
ii. The Teacher should arrange the class in a manner that the students do not
disturb one another.
iii. The resource materials should be easily accessible to all the students.
iv. The teacher should equally be accessible to all the students.
v. The students should be free to ask for help or explanations from each other
when facing a problem.
vi. The teacher should be a guide and resource person.
vii. The students' findings should be compiled and reported to the class.
viii. the resource materials used should be returned to their places at the end of the
project.
3. Advantages
i. The students are fully involved.
ii. It is child-centred.
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iii. It is a natural approach to learning.

iv. It encourages learning by doing.
v. It calls for the use of the students experiences.
vi. It encourages creativity on the part of the students'.
vii. As the students are free to determine their goals, they could be motivated to
learn.
viii. The sense of failure is highly reduced.
ix. The method helps to unify school subjects
x. It makes school work real to life.
xi. Students have opportunities to practice their communication skills.
xii. It fosters good spirit of cooperation.
xiii. The students learn a lot of details by the end of the lesson.
(Any five of the above will do)
Disadvantages
i. It is time-consuming.
ii. It is expensive.
iii. The class may be in chaos as the students move about.
iv Order and discipline may at times be difficult to maintain.
v. Some school subjects may suffer.
vi. It is difficult to choose a topic that is of interest to all the students.
vii. It cannot be used in all situations.
viii. It may be a problem to schedule a project as it may disrupt the school time
table.
(Any five of the above will do).
1. i. The overall interest of the course should be considered in advising the students
on
their topics.
ii. The quality and justifications of the objectives set by the students should be
considered.
iii. The teacher should consider the alternative methods to teach the topic and the
justifications for choosing the project method.
iv. The available resources and the space should be considered.
v. The teacher should consider that the activities planned for the project could
sustain the students' interest as well as providing useful results.
vi. He should consider the result in line with the course requirements.
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2. i. The students should be fully aware of what the projects is all about.
ii. The students should have the freedom to conduct the project the way they feel
best to achieve the goals.
iii. The teacher should be in full control of the class.
iv. He should make sure that the orderliness is maintained in the class.
v. He should not allow indiscipline and playfulness.
3. i. The students are fully involved in the project.
ii. It is child-centred.
iii. It is a natural approach to learning.
iv. It encourages learning by doing.
v. It calls into use the students' experiences.
vi. It encourages creativity on the part of the students.
vii. As the students are free to determine their own goals, they could be motivated
to succeed.
viii. The sense of failure is highly reduced among the students.
ix. The method is useful in unifying the school subjects. The students are able to
relate the instructions in different subjects.
x. The method makes school work real to life to the students.
xi. The students have the opportunities to practise their communication skills as
freedom of expression is encouraged.
xii. It fosters good spirit of cooperation among the students.
xiii. At the end of the lesson the students learn more about the topic or skill
because they find out the facts.
UNIT 4 (EDU 124. 4): QUESTIONING METHOD
ACTIVITY I
1. The Questioning Method is the process in which a sequence of suitable questions are
asked with the objective of leading the students to draw a logical conclusion or
generalisation. The teacher first makes a statement and skillfully asks questions so
that the students will see that the statement is not as correct as they thought. Further
questions lead them to the appropriate statement.
2. There are four types:
i. The factual or lower-order questions. These are `yes' or `no' or `recall'
questions.
ii. The complex or higher order questions are thought provoking questions which
relate one idea to the other. Such are the `Why?' questions.
iii. The probing questions. These are the types of questions which keep a
discussion going. This type makes the students go beyond their initial
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response. The student's first answer is teacher's cue. The teacher goes on
from these to probe the student's answers.
iv. The divergent or creative questions. This type of question is the open ended
type in which the students are expected to think rationally and creatively. The
answers may be difficult to categorize as wrong' or `right.'
ACTIVITY II
1. Purpose of Asking Questions in Socratic Method
i. Question serves as a means of learning new ideas or concepts and making the
acquired experience meaningful.
ii. They help the students to develop their ability to think rationally and solve
problems.
iii To stimulate the students to actively participate in the lesson
iv. Questions guide the teacher to know the previous knowledge of
v. They help the teacher to know how successful he has taught.
2. i. The questions must be clear, brief and direct.
ii. The questions must be thought-provoking.
ACTIVITY III
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
6. TRUE
7. FALSE
iii. The questions must be at the level of the students.
iv. The questions should ask for the essential points.
Introduction
i. To stimulate the interest of the students.
ii. To recall the previous knowledge.
Presentation
iii. To develop the imagination and rational thinking of the students.
iv. To emphasize the important points.
v. To diagnose the students problems in the lesson.
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vi. To make shy students participate in the lesson.

vii. To clear any point not clear to the students.
Conclusion
ix. To provide drill and pratice.
x. To recapitulate at the end of the lesson.
2. i. The question must be stated in straightforward language and manner.
ii. The students must be given time to think of the answer.
iii. The teacher calls on a student at a time to give the answer.
iv. The teacher allows the student to attempt the question without interruption.
v. The teacher comments on the students answers as necessary. He should not
repeat or rephrase the student's answers.
3. i. The important questions which will lead the students to understand the topic
should be preplanned. These should be given more emphasis than the less
important points.
ii. The questions should be asked in logical order to allow for sequential
development.
iii. The whole class must be addressed when asking a question. The teacher
should face the entire class and not a group in the class.
iv. Each student called should be given his chance to attempt the question.
v. The teacher should avoid repeating questions. This is to make the students pay
attention.
vi. Questions should be evenly distributed to the class. Questions should be for
any group in the class. They should be spread to all.

ENVIRONMENT I: The Pupil, the
teacher and the curriculum
ACTIVITY I
1. The child sees himself
i. as an individual,
ii. as someone who needs protection,
iii as someone who should be treated as his mother does,
iv. as someone who does what he is told to do or as someone who is forced to do
what he does not like to do,
v. as someone who is made to do what he does not understand,
vi. as someone who cannot change the activities `forced' on him.
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2. i. Some teachers often underscore the individuality of the child.

ii. They underrate the home culture of the pupil and force on them the school
culture.
iii. The teacher makes the pupil to follow the routine of the syllabus and time-
table contrary to the pupils' wish.
iv. Some teachers deny their pupils the necessary support and guidance when they
most need them.
3. Pupil often dislike teachers who are
i. academically incompetent.
ii. unsympathetic,
iii. particular about punishing them for trivial offences.
iv. biased in their judgements,
v. not ready to see to the pupils opinion,
vi. insensitive to the pupil's needs.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. He interprets and analyses the curriculum
ii. He breaks it down to the syllabus and scheme of work topics.
iii. He makes the pupils aware of what they are to learn.
iv. He pilots them through the learning process.
v. The teacher gives a feedback to the appropriate authorities as regards the
strengths and weaknesses in the curriculum.
2. i. The teacher must build a good relationship with his pupils.
ii He should be a master of his subject and he should be dedicated to teach it.
iii. He should have a good command of language to teach the subject.
iv. His total personality should be without questioning.
v. He should expose his pupils to the available educational resources around.
vi. He should be very observant in his class.
vii. He should be just in administering punishment when necessary.
viii. He should know his pupils' parents. He should invite them to school and he
should visit them at home when necessary.
ACTIVITY III
1. It is a guide to the teacher to tune the pupils to the aspirations and goals of the society.
It is a document which is expected to be adapted to meaningful learning experiences
for the benefit of the pupils.
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2. The principles are:

i. The teacher should have a good knowledge of the curriculum.
ii. He should translate the curriculum to the syllabus topics which are at the level
of each class.
iii. He should employ appropriate methods which should make the pupils learn
successfully.
iv. He should marry his knowledge of the child and his environment with his
knowledge of the curriculum to create a workable atmosphere for the pupil to
learn without tears.
1. i. The teacher must realize that the pupil is an individual with his differences.
He should be treated as an individual whose differences should be appreciated
and respected. He should be convinced to change his opinion when necessary.
He should be made to realize that learning is a useful necessity and not a
forced task.
ii. The child's home culture and upbringing should be respected. He should not
be made to look like a second class human being through derogatory remarks.
He should be made to see the good aspects of his home culture as well as the
culture of the school.
iii. The teacher should create a cordial atmosphere for learning in the class. He
should realize that the pupils may like certain subjects more than the others.
He should use the Individualized. Instruction in teaching. This will cater for
the pupils' individual differences.
iv. The Teacher should give the necessary guidance and support to their pupils in
the studies. They should serve as the local parents or the confidants of their
pupils.
v. To the less privileged pupils, the teacher should be a solace.
These actions of the teacher should lead to close relationship with the pupils.
Pupils respect the teachers they like and they hate to offend or disappoint such
teachers.
2. i. The Teacher is the interpreter of the curriculum.
ii. He analyses it to meet the goals and aspirations of the society.
iii. He breaks it down to syllabus and scheme of work topics at the level of each
class.
iv. He makes the pupils to be conscious of what the curriculum expects them to
know.
v. He organises the learning activities for the pupils.
vi. He pilots them in the learning activities in line with the expectations of the
curriculum.
It can be seen that minus the teachers, there may be no link between the
curriculum and the primary school pupils.
3. i. The curriculum is based on the aspirations and goals of a society.
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ii. It is then translated into subject contents that will lead to the achievement of
the goals and aspirations.
iii. The learner is made to learn the subject contents so that he can fit into the
society.
iv. The learner who runs through the curriculum finds himself better equipped for
the continuity of the society.
The curriculum can be regarded as serving the society as well as the
individual.

ENVIRONMENT II: RESOURCES
AND TEACHING METHODS
ACTIVITY I
1. a. Educational resources cover all those materials human or objects, drawn or
photographed, built and manually or electrically operated, books and all forms
of related materials used in teaching and learning processes. In some books
they are referred to as teaching or learning aids.
b. Teaching methods are the strategies, techniques or systems used by the teacher
in piloting the pupils to learn.
2. i. Human Resources
iv. Audio-visual Resources
vi. Community Resources
vii. Other Resources.
3. The Other resources are the numerous fundamental materials which each pupil should
normally possess i.e. pen, pencil, paper, ruler, etc. or those materials which are
peculiar to some subjects. For examples, blocks, puzzles, counters, measuring tapes,
etc. for mathematics; colours, brushes, crayon for fine art; various jars and chemicals
for sciences. All of these are necessary resources without which some of the subjects
cannot be practically taught. Some of the resources look trivial but the non-
availability of them can cause distraction and encourage indisciplined behaviour in
the classroom.
ACTIVITY II
1. a. The methods are Lecture, Discussion Individual, Problem
Solving, Discovery and Inquiry methods. Others are Group,
Class, Project and Questioning methods.
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b. The innovations are Play and simulation Games, Team Teaching,

Micro Teaching and Programmed Instruction.
2. i. The individual learning differences of the pupils.
ii. The differences in the nature of the subjects.
iii. The differences in the demands of each topic in a subject.
iv. The availability or non-availability of appropriate resources.
ACTIVITY III
1. a. The proper organisation of the class enables all pupils to see and hear all that
may be
required, done or said in the class.
b. It allows for social interaction among the pupil and between the teacher and
the pupils for learning purposes.
c. It allows free movement in the class.
d. It gives the teacher the opportunity to place the pupils in such a position that
he can easily control them.
2. Short methods or techniques are useful in:
a. explaining the complex skills or concepts in a lesson.
b. emphasizing the basic points;
c. involving the pupils in the lesson;
d. maintaining the interest and attention of the pupils; and
e. enhancing the pupils' understanding of the topic as well as retention and
recalling.
3. The advantages are:
a. the teacher has feedback from the pupils as regards what he taught;
b. the teacher reinforces and rewards the student's efforts;
c. finally, he is able to correct and give the pupils the necessary
remedial reinforcement where they make mistakes.
ANSWERS TO ASSIGNMENTS
1. i. Human Resources
iv. Audio-visual Resources
vi. community Resources
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vii. Other Resources

i. The teacher's most important human resource is himself. He leads the class to learn.
Other teachers in the school and community are part of the human resources.
ii. The Visual Resources include real objects, specimen, models, chalkboard, flannel or
felt boards, still pictures, textbooks, workbooks, magazines and newspapers. Others
are graphic materials like charts, diagrams, posters, maps and globes.
The real objects give first hand information while the chalkboard is the commonest
and ever-present resource to the teacher. The printed materials i.e. books are among
the most accessible and easy-to-use materials.
iii. The audio materials are radio, record player, and tape recorder.These are electrically
operated. They can be used for Individualized Instructions as well as to teach a large
population of students.
iv. Audio-Visual Resources. These are basically sound motion pictures i.e. film projector,
video tape and television. These are media which have the capacity to re-create the
past events as well as bring distant places to the classroom through recordings.
v. The School Environment Resources. There are some structures which are peculiar to
the school. The architectural design of the buildings, the library and laboratories, the
total compound layout and the horticultural surroundings are educational resources.
The serve as always-present silent resources.
vi. The Community Resources are bounteous. The landscapes, real objects and
institutions are present in the community. The teacher takes the class there or invites
the movable ones to the class.
vii. The other resources include the fundamental materials which the pupil should
normally possess or those which are peculiarly used for particular subjects. These
include stationery used by the pupils, art materials, mathematics materials and so on.
2. i. They appeal to the various organs of learning of the pupils.
ii. They make the lesson interesting and arrest the attention of the pupils.
iii. thereby making the pupils understand it.
iv. The human resources serve as first hand information.
v. The audio-visual materials now make Individualised Instruction more
practicable.
vi. The audio/visual or audio-visual resources make it possible for the pupils to
learn at their own rate.
vii. These same resources make it possible for teacher to teach a lesson without
being physically present.
viii. Through them, the teacher can teach thousands of pupils at once.
ix. The audio-visual materials have the capacity to re-create the past and bring
distant places into the classroom.
x. Pupils now use some of the resources to record and recall any topic at will.
3. i. The Teacher should use appropriate organisational method to lay out the class
so that all the pupils can see, hear and move freely as necessary.
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ii He should employ stimulating activities to arouse the interest of the pupils, get
them ready to learn and kindle their inquisitive spirit.
iii. During the presentation stage, the teacher should use the most suitable method
that accommodates other short methods or techniques to explain the complex
skills or complex points in a lesson, emphasize the basic points and enhance
the pupils' understanding.
iv. The teaching/learning activities should be evaluated to have feedback of the
pupils' understanding, reinforce and reward their efforts as well as give them
remedial reinforcement when necessary.
v. The pupils should be given assignments on the topic as practice and
stimulation for further reading as well as to link with the next topic.
UNIT 7 (EDU 124.7): TIPS FOR SELECTION OF

METHODS AND MATERIALS
ACTIVITY I
1. The nature of the pupils of the class could be considered from three views:
a. the biological composition of the class pupils;
b. the average rate of the assimilation of the class;
c. the inquisitive and instinctive nature of the pupils
a. In a class where there are boys, girls including deformed pupils they should be
grouped according to their biological make-up for physical activities. The
class method cannot be used to teach them.
b. High-rate assimilation class needs methods which accommodate more facts
than the low-rate assimilation class.
c. The inquisitive and instinctive nature of a class affect the type of methods
used. Pupils in such a class are usually curious.
2. i. Small classes can be thoroughly handled. Individualized
Instruction can be used. In larger classes it is not easy to operate an effective
Individualized Instruction.
ii. In big classrooms the dramatic method can be used. It is difficult to use it in
small crowded classrooms.
ACTIVITY II
1. In selecting teaching methods, the teacher has to consider:
ii. the age and class of the pupils;
iii. the nature of the pupils;
iv. The subject;
v. the topic;
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vi. the time limit (duration of lesson);

vii. the size of the class and classroom;
viii. the size and the location of the school;
xi.. the home and societal background of the pupils.
2. The other considerations are:
i. the pupils' interest in self discovery and investigation;
ii. provisions of opportunities to the pupils' self-expression;
iii. that the pupils must be kept busy;
iv. the period should be adequately utilized;
v. the pupils' efforts should be saved;
vi. that both the weak and the brilliant pupils should have opportunities to
interact.
vii.. that the relevant resources be used;
viii. that the experiences of the pupils should be utilized; and
ix. that the pupils should have a feedback about their performances.
ACTIVITY III
1. i The learning resources should be consistent with the objectives of the lesson.
ii The resources should be relevant to the topic.
iii. The materials should be readily available.
i v. The materils should be cheap.
v. The availability of the related infrastucture should be considered.
vi. The materials must be appropriate for the age, class and interest of the pupils.
vii. The teacher should understand and be able to operate the manually or
electrically
operated machine that may be available.
viii. The resource materials should be big enough for every child to see.
ix. The materials must not be dangerous.
x. The printed materials should be boldly written.
xi. The pictures selected should be simple, bold and bright.
2. The graphic materials should be:
i. boldly printed,
ii. simple,
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iii. neat, and

iv. bright.
1. In selecting teaching methods the teacher has to consider;
ii . the age and class of the pupils;
iii the nature of the pupils;
iv. the subject;
v. The topic;
vi. the time limit (duration of lesson);
vii. the size of the class and the classroom;
viii. the size and location of the school;
xi. the home and societal background of the pupils.
2. The other considerations are:
i. The pupils interest in self-discovery and investigation
ii provision of opportunities for the pupils' self- expression;
iii. that the pupils must be kept busy;
iv. the period should be adequately utilized;
v. The pupils' efforts should be saved;
vi. that both the weak and the brilliant pupils should have opportunities to
interact;
vii. that relevant resources be used;
viii. that the experiences of the pupils should be utilized; and
ix. that the pupils should have a feedback about their performance.
3. i. The resources should be consistent with the objectives of the lesson.
ii. The resources should be relevant to the topic.
iii. The material should be readily available.
iv. The materials should be cheap.
v. The availability of the related infrastructure should be considered.
vi The materials must be appropriate for the age, class and interest of pupils.
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vii. The teacher should understand and be able to operate the manually or
electrically operated machine that may be available.
viii. The resource materials should be big enough for every child to see.
ix. The materials must not be dangerous.
x. The printed materials should be boldly written.
xi. The pictures selected should be simple, bold and bright.
UNIT 8 (EDU 124.8): INSTRUCTIONAL AND ORGANIZA-

TIONAL SKILLS OF THE TEACHER
ACTIVITY I
1. i. The curriculum may be planned by some people among whom may not be the
class teacher.
ii The curriculum was planned for specific societal objectives.
iii The classroom teacher who is not a party to the planning is expected to
interpret and implement the curriculum in line with the societal objectives
which may not be stated in detail.
iv. The pupils who are to be taught differ from each other in learning styles.
v. The instructional objectives to be formulated are expected to cover and
operate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains simultaneously. It is
not easy to combine these requirements together to formulate instructional
objectives.
2. i. Intrinsic motivation produces more successful learning than the extrinsic.
ii. The pupils who are intrinsically motivated work more easily and harder.
iii Motivation by reward is more successful than by punishment.
iv. Pupils are more motivated when they understand the standard of work
expected of them.
v. The standard, goals and purposes of any lesson should be at the level of
interest, activities and maturity of the pupils.
vi. Worthy activities that are not rewarded or cheap rewards given could lead to
lack of motivation.
vii. Healthy competitions at reasonable intervals can lead to motivation.
viii. Teachers who have good relationships with their pupils can motivate them to
like their lessons.
ix. The child’s environment is an influence on his level of motivation.
The ability to motivate is an important skill that teachers should possess to be
able to stimulate the pupils to learn.
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ACTIVITY II
1. i. He should learn to speak in simple, straight forward language.
ii. He should develop his vocabulary by constant reading.
iii. He should try to pronounce each word distinctly.
iv. He should learn to use appropriate body gestures with whatever he says.
v. He should learn to vary the tone of his voice and rate of speech.
vi. He should avoid as much as possible, the use of long words.
vii. He should be a good listener.
viii. He should encourage his pupils to listen attentively.
2. i. He should use the appropriate materials for each topic.

ii. Such materials should be attractive.
iii. The materials used should be bold.
iv. They should be simple and capable of being used to explain complex
concepts.
v. The materials should be safe.
vi. The materials should be used only when needed.
vii. The materials should not be too many in a lesson.
3. i. insufficient vocabulary;
iii. poor pronunciation;
iv. poor voice modulation or inflection;
v. poor diction and enunciation;
vi. misinterpretation of meanings;
vii. contradicting facial expressions, hand gestures and posture changes.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. The question must be asked before choosing a pupil to answer.
ii. The question should not be the one that requires `yes' or `no' answer only.
Such questions are leading questions which do not require much thinking.
iii. The pupils must be given time to think and answer the question.
iv. The pupils must not be forced to answer the questions.
v. The questions asked must be at the level of the pupils.
vi. The teacher should make it a practice to ask his question only once. This is
how to train the pupils to listen to the teacher at all times.
vii. The questions should be straightforward.
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2. i. A good relationship between the teacher and the pupils is a pivot to the
creation of
good teaching/learning environment.
iii. It also makes the pupils have interest in the teacher's lesson.
iv. Cases of indiscipline are few in classrooms where there is cordial relationship
between the teacher and the pupils.
1. i. A skilful teacher would tactfully solicit for the pupils' input thereby making
the objectives both teacher and pupils-oriented.
ii. The objectives must be stated as learning outcomes or pupils' behavioural
changes expected after the lesson.
iii. The teacher should skillfully marry the three facets of the instructional
objectives together.
iv. The teacher should skilfully balance up the objectives in such a way that the
culture of the child, his individuality, freedom and life long education are
incorporated.
2. i. The curriculum is usually prepared by people from various organisations. The
classroom teacher may not be a member of the drafting committee.
ii. The curriculum was planned for specific societal objectives which the teacher
may not fully understand.
iii. The classroom teacher who is not a party to the planning is expected to
interpret and implement the curriculum in line with the societal objectives
which may not be stated in detail.
iv. The pupils who are to be taught differ from one another in learning style.
v. The instructional objectives to be formulated are expected to cover and
operate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains simultaneously.
3. i. A good relationship between the teacher and the pupils is a pivot to the
creation of good teaching/learning environment.
iii. It also makes the pupils have interest in the teacher's lessons.
iv. Cases of indiscipline are few in a classroom where there is a cordial
relationship between the teacher and the pupils.
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UNIT 9 (EDU 124.9): LEADERSHIP AND COUNSELLING

ROLES OF THE TEACHER
ACTIVITY I
1. a. A leader is a person who by action of guiding, giving examples or
encouragements of activities, directs the affairs of a group of people,
organisations or nations. Leadership covers the above trait as well as a
composite quality involving many characteristics. These include possession of
assertive attitude, initiative, tactfulness, self-confidence and understanding of
the followers.
b. Counselling is a process by which one person tries to help another person in a
face-to face advisory actions. In school, counselling is a discussion between a
pupil with a problem and a teacher who can help in the understanding of the
problem. By understanding the pupil's problem, the teacher can advise him to
find a solution to it.
2. Some educators group the teachers into four types according to their roles in the
school. These are.
i. The laissez fair (take-it-easy) teachers. This group of teachers care less about
whatever happens to their pupils. The pay less attention to their pupils.
ii. The autocratic teachers are interested in their pupils but they are rigid in their
ways.
iii. The democratic teachers are those who respect the opinions of their pupils as
well as develop good human relationship with their pupils. They are the
approachable type.
iv. The authoritarian teachers are harsh and take no nonsense. They are very
strict and harsh.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. The teachers professional training.
ii. The skills the teacher possesses in his subject influence the pupils' respect.
iii. His experience is another factor.
iv. The teacher's personality which include commitment to duty, consistency in
behaviour and open-mindedness earn him respect.
2. i. A leader must be fairly assertive but not aggressive or harsh.
ii. He must have his own initiative to plan and implement projects.
iv. The teacher/leader must understand the pupils he leads.
v. He should have confidence in himself.
vi. He should be a man of his words.
He should be sincere.
vii. He should be fair and just to all.
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ACTIVITY III
1. a. The main objective of the teacher as a counsellor is to help his pupils to
succeed.
b. i. The teacher must understand the pupils.
ii. He should develop good relationship with each pupil.
iii. His behaviour should convince the pupils that he cares for them.
iv. He should be able to keep secrets.
v. He should encourage the pupils to develop self-confidence in himself.
vi. He should also encourage the pupils to develop positive attitudes
towards their academic work.
2. The characteristics are:
i. Acceptance - the teacher should take the pupils as he is without any bias. He
should be warm to the pupil.
ii. Listening - He should patiently and with rapt attention listen to the pupils
explanations.
iii. Responding - The teacher should discuss with the pupil in such a way that the
pupil will see that the teacher understands his feelings.
iv. Empathy means putting oneself in the position of someone else thereby feeling
as he feels.
v. Trust - The teacher should perform items i-iv in such a manner that the pupils
will trust him and his judgement or opinions.
1. Guidance in school, is a process of offering each pupil the opportunity to understand
himself so that he can realise his potentials better.
Counselling is a process by which one person tries to help another person in a face-to-
face advisory activities. In school, counselling is a discussion between a pupil with a
problem and a teacher who can help in the understanding of the problem. By
understanding the pupil's problem, the teacher can advise him to find a solution to it.
Counselling is a part of the overall guidance process.
2. A school teacher is expected to play three broad roles i.e.
i. He is expected to be a participant in decision making in the school
administration. He carries out the school decision or the headmaster's
instructions.
ii. As a class teacher, he pilots, instructs and inspires the pupils to learn.
iii. He is a counsellor to his pupils who may have problems.
3. i. He should be fairly assertive based on his conviction. He should not be harsh
or aggressive.
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ii. He must have the initiative to plan, start and implement a project or a course
of study.
iii. He must be tactful.
iv. He should understand the pupils he leads.
v. He should be confident of his ability.
vii. He should be fair and just.
UNIT 10 (EDU 124. X) CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY I
1. i. The subject matter is broken into small steps in a sequential order.
ii. A frame is presented to a learner at once.
iii. The learner reads the frame and gives a written response.
iv. He checks the response against the correct answer.
v. the learner goes to the next frame if his answer is correct or has remedial
reinforcement if his answer is wrong.
2. i. Ability grouping
ii. Sex grouping
iii. Interest grouping
iv. Mixed ability grouping
v. Random selection grouping
vi. Social or natural grouping
vii. Needs grouping
3. Project method cannot be used in all topics because of:
i. the nature of the topics;
ii. the problem of overloaded time-table;
iii. the nature of our educational system which is examination centred; and
iv. the non-availability of many resource materials and appropriate books.
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ACTIVITY II
1. i. The question must be clear, brief and direct. This must be in
ii. The question must be thought-provoking. Good questions are those which
encourage students to apply the knowledge learned. These are the higher
order questions.
iii. The question must be at the level of the students. It must be the type the
students understand and can attempt.
vi. The question should ask for the essential points.
2. i. The teacher is the interpreter of the curriculum.
ii. He analyses it to meet the goals and aspirations of the society.
iii. He breaks it down to syllabus and scheme of work topics at the level of each
class.
iv. He makes the pupils to be conscious of what the curriculum expects them to
know.
v. He organises the learning activities for the pupils.
vi. He pilots them in the learning activities in line with the expectations of the
curriculum.
3. Short methods or techniques are useful to:
a. explain the complex concepts or points in a lesson.
b. emphasize the basic points,
c. involve the pupil in the lesson.
d. maintain the interest and attention of the pupils
e. enhance the pupils' understanding of the topic as well as
retention and recalling.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. The objectives of the lesson.
ii. The age and class of the pupils.
iii. The nature of the pupils.
iv. The subject.
v. The topic.
vi. The time-limit.
vii. The sizes of the class and the classroom.
Viii The size and location of the school.
ix. The availability of educational resources.
x. The type of the lesson.
xi. The home and societal backgrounds of the pupils.
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2. The formulation of instructional objectives is not an easy task. The principles to be

noted are:
i. The teacher should tactfully solicit the pupils' input thereby making the
objectives both teacher and pupils oriented.
ii. The objectives must be stated as learning outcomes or pupils' behavioural
changes expected after the lesson.
iii. The teacher should tactfully marry the three facets of the instructional
objectives.
iv. The teacher should tactfully balance up the objectives in such a way that the
culture of the child, his individuality, freedom and life long education are
incorporated.
3. i. He should be fairly assertive, based on his conviction. But he should not be
harsh or aggressive.
ii. He must have the initiative to plan, start and implement a project.
iii. He must be tactful.
iv. He should understand the pupils he leads.
v. He should be confident of his ability.
vii. He should be fair and just.
1. i. It saves time and effort.
ii. The pupils learn from one another.
iii It offers the children opportunities for competition.
iv. It gives the pupils the opportunity to work cooperatively among themselves.
v. In the classroom, pupils see one another's work. It gives them the opportunity
to compare and appreciate good work.
vi. The positive effects of the crowd could be instrumental to the progress of
some pupils.
vii. Usually the emotion of the pupils can be more easily aroused in a class than
with individuals.
2. i. The Teacher should have a good knowledge of the curriculum.
ii. He should translate the curriculum to the syllabus topics which are at the level
of each class.
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iii. He should employ appropriate methods which should make the pupils learn
successfully.
iv. He should marry his knowledge of the child and his environment with his
knowledge of the curriculum to create a workable atmosphere for the pupil to
learn without tears.
3. i. The teacher must understand his pupils.
ii. He should develop good relationship with each pupil.
His behaviour should convince the pupils that he cares for them.
iv. He should be able to keep secrets.
v. He should encourage the pupil to develop self-confidence in himself.
vi. He should also encourage the pupil to develop positive attitudes towards his
academic work.
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MODULE 8 Unit: 01 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching III EDU 125
UNIT 1 (EDU 125.1): OBJECTIVES IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
INSTRUCTIONAL AND
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES)
INTRODUCTION
Curriculum is the sum total of all the planned and guided programmes by means of which the
formal educational system of a nation is executed or carried out. It is the complete
experience of a child while he is under the guidance and direction of the school. Curriculum
includes all the activities of the school which are aimed at the over-all development of the
child. These include academic and non- academic, vocational and recreational activities.
Every curriculum begins with some set objectives based on the norms and values of the
society. These objectives are classified according to their nature. There are the general
objectives and specific objectives. In this unit, you will be concerned mainly with the
specific objectives which refer to the same thing as instructional and behavioural objectives.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the concept of behavioural objectives;
2. state at least four qualities of a good behavioural objective;
3. state at least three behavioural objectives; and
4. explain at least four importance of behavioural objectives.

1. This unit has been organised in steps. So study it in that order.
2. As you study, try and give your personal examples where illustrations of concepts
have been made.
3. You will benefit more from this study if you do all the activities and assignment in the
unit.
MEANING OF BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES

When a teacher picks up a topic to teach, one of the questions he must address his mind to, is
why he wants to teach it. He does not teach mainly because he wants to fulfill his obligations
to his employer. Primarily, he teaches in order to bring about some desirable changes in the
pupils' behaviour. He therefore, focuses his attention on those aspects of the pupils'
behaviour in which he wants these changes to occur. When he specifies these, we have what
we refer to as instructional and behavioural objectives.
Behavioural objectives are what the teacher expects the pupils to learn at the end of the
lesson. The emphasis here is that, these objectives or what you hope the pupils to learn are in
relation to a given instruction or lesson. Hence, they are often referred to as instructional or
lesson objectives. These may include a knowledge of some concepts, facts or information and
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competence in the application of some principles derived from the lesson. Other related
outcomes or results from instructional objectives include the development of certain attitudes,
values and aesthetics or appreciation.
The objectives of a lesson or an instruction are stated in terms of pupils' behaviour. In this
way, you become very specific in terms of the changes you want to occur in the pupils'
behaviour. Hence, they are referred to as behavioural objectives. They are behavioural in the
sense that, they specify observable and measurable actions or activities of the pupils. These
actions or activities may take the form of naming, listing, writing, drawing, defining,
explaining, describing, distinguishing, stating, calculating, criticizing and so on. These are
action verbs which, when used to state objectives of lessons, produce acceptable behavioural
objectives. For example, by the end of the lesson on the occupations of the Binis, pupils
should be able to:
1. define the term occupation;

2. identify at least three major occupations of the Binis; and
3. give at least three reasons why the Binis are known for a named occupation.
The behavioural nature of the above objectives is that, they specify clearly what the pupils
would be doing or performing during and immediately after the lesson as evidence that the
desired learning has taken place. The behavioural objectives emphasize performance.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND

BEHAVIOURAL
OBJECTIVES
The term, ìnstructional objective' means the expected outcome of instruction. This expected
outcome of instruction may be stated as a general or behavioural objective. A general
objective is that statement of objective that is written to describe in broad terms the expected
outcome of instruction. Such an objective may be stated using such terms as know,
understand, show awareness of, etc. For example: "By the end of the unit of instruction
lasting three weeks, the students should be able to:
1. know the meanings of technical terms encountered in the series of lessons,
2. understand how each of the terms has been used in the passages studied. The above
examples show that the general objectives are used when stating the objectives of a
unit plan. A unit plan is a selected amount of content and learning experiences meant
to be covered within a period of some weeks. This is different from a lesson plan
which describes what should be taught or learned in one lesson period.
General objectives are therefore used when writing unit plans while behavioural
objectives are used when writing lesson plans (notes). The relationship between
instructional objectives and behavioural objectives can be stated precisely: All
behavioural objectives are instructional objectives but not all instructional objectives
are behavioural objectives. When the instructional objective is stated in terms of
observable learner's behaviour, we call it behavioural, specific or lesson objective. But
when the instructional objective is stated in broad general term as is used for
instructional plans meant to last a few weeks (unit plan), we call it general objective.
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ACTIVITY I
1. What are behavioural objectives?
2. With the use of appropriate examples, state any three behavioural objectives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES

In order to make behavioural objectives to be of practical use in the teaching and learning
process, they should have the following characteristics:
Relevance:
Behavioural objectives should be relevant to the topic to be taught. This is necessary because
these objectives are intended to serve as guide for the teaching of the topic. They also point
to the aspects or scope of the topic to be taught.
Clarity:
It is very important to write the behavioural objectives in a clear and precise manner. This
means that, there should be no room for any one to be in doubt as to what the objectives
imply. They should communicate immediately, the intent or what tasks the learner would be
performing at the end of the lesson.
Specificity
One of the most important attributes of behavioural objectives which you must recognise is
that, they are specific. Each objective points to a single task or performance and the action
verbs used in stating it is such that gives no room for further interpretation. For example, to
calculate, draw, label, arrange, and demonstrate are precise in their meanings. This precision
helps to remove vagueness, ambiguity or a situation in which a statement may have more
than one meaning. Thus, you are strongly advised never to use such verbs as to know,
understand, see, comprehend, and so on when writing behavioural objectives.
Measurability
No behavioural objective is worthwhile if it does not possess the attribute of being
measurable. In other words, it should be such that can be evaluated in terms of the extent to
which it has been attained. It is for this purpose that behavioural objectives must be stated
clearly, categorically and specifically. For example, it is possible to measure or evaluate the
extent to which a pupil can draw the map of Nigeria showing the thirty-six (36) states by
asking him to draw it. We can also easily determine the extent to which he can recite the
National Pledge by his being asked to recite it at the end of the lesson. This would be more
measurable than trying to find out how much the pupils have appreciated the map of Nigeria
showing the thirty-six (36) states or how much they have understood the National Anthem.
These objectives cannot easily be measured or evaluated within the classroom setting.
Pupil-Centredness
The teacher does not teach purposely to test how much of he knows. Rather, the focus of
teaching is the pupils, that is to help them acquire certain desirable skills, knowledge,
attitudes, capabilities and so on. Hence the behavioural objectives must be stated in terms of
observable pupils' behaviour. In other words, they should be statements of what the pupils
would be doing and not what the teacher intends to do. For example, it is more appropriate to
have behavioural objective stated as follows:
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By the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to draw the map be able to help the pupils
draw the map of Nigeria.
The first is pupil-centred in that it focuses on what task the pupil would be performing by the
end of the lesson. The second is teacher-centred in the sense that it focuses on the task the
teacher would be performing and so is no behavioural objective.
ACTIVITY II
1. List any four attributes of a good behavioural objective.
2. Give one reason each to show why a good behavioural objective should possess the
attributes of clarity, relevance, and measurability.
IMPORTANCE OF BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES

Modern approach to teaching lays much emphasis on behavioural objectives. This is so
because these objectives play important roles in the entire teaching and learning process. The
following are some of the values of behavioural objectives:
1. Behavioural Objectives Guide Teaching
To a large intent, the behavioural objectives serve as guides for the teachers. The
objectives dictate to teachers what to emphasize in the teaching of the subject-matter
or topic. They also suggest the resource materials and activities to be used in the
teaching and learning. As you teach along, one thing keeps striking your mind. That
is, the objectives of the lesson. In this way, you try to ensure that every action you
take and every activity of the lesson are geared towards achieving the lesson
objective.
Without the behavioural objectives therefore, the teacher will have nothing on which
to focus his lesson.
2. They Provide Motivation for Teaching and Learning
In the absence of behavioural objectives, you may not be able to relate the lesson to
real life or carry all the pupils along. Behavioural objectives make the lesson to have
purpose. This purpose motivates the teacher.
Furthermore, statements of objectives accommodate the needs of the learners. In other
words, you would be expected to have all the pupils in mind while stating your
instructional objectives. Similarly, you would be guided by the desire to see that as
many of the pupils as possible attain these objectives.
3. They Facilitate Evaluation and Test Construction
A lesson begins with some set objectives. The question that must normally arise at the
end of the lesson is therefore, the extent to which the objectives have been attained.
The measurement and determination of the extent of attainment of the specified
objectives is referred to as evaluation. But evaluation of the attainment of
instructional objectives cannot be undertaken if the objectives do not possess certain
attributes which make them quantifiable or measurable. If they have been stated in
terms of pupil's behaviour, evaluation becomes very easy. Therefore, behavioural
objectives facilitate the evaluation of the outcomes or results of an instruction.
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Usually, pupils are examined or evaluated at the end of the term, year or even their
course of study. The test questions used in these examinations are supposed to be
based on the content covered as reflected in the lesson objectives all through the term,
year or course.
Behavioural objectives therefore give us an insight into what types of questions to set
for examination purpose.
4. They Make Teaching Child-Centred
Gone are the days when the teacher dominated the entire teaching and learning. He
was seen as one who knew everything to be imparted to the learners. It was entirely
passive learning. Today, the trend has changed from passive to active learning
whereby the learner himself is practically involved. The child or pupil is now the
focus of teaching. Behavioural objectives provide one of the avenues for stressing the
place of the learner in the teaching and learning process. The whole activities are
expected to centre around him and this need is constantly brought to focus each time
we state instructional and behavioural objectives.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain any four ways in which behavioural objectives are of importance to the
teaching/learning situation.
SUMMARY
• Behavioural objectives are what the teacher expects that the pupils should be able to
do by the end of the lesson as evidence that the desired learning has taken place.
• An instructional objective may be stated in general terms using such words as "know"
and "understand" especially when writing unit plans. It may also be stated in
behavioural terms as in the case when writing lesson plans. All behavioural
objectives are instructional objectives but not all instructional objectives are
behavioural objectives.
• Some of the attributes of a good behavioural objective are:
a. clarity
b. specificity
c. measurability
d. pupils centredness
e. relevance
• Behavioural objectives are important in the teaching and learning situation in the
following ways:
a. as guides to teachers
b. making teaching realistic
c. making evaluation of learning outcomes and test construction possible.
d. making teaching child-centred
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of behavioural objectives.
2. State any four attributes of a good behavioural objective.
3. Explain any four ways in which behavioural objectives are important to the
teaching and learning situation.
4. State any three behavioural objectives.
REFERENCES
Nacino-Brown R. et.al., Curriculum and Instruction - An Introduction To Methods of
Teaching Lagos: Macmillan, 1982.
Onwuegbu, O.I., Discover Teaching, Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1979.
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UNIT 2 (EDU 125.2): TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL

OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
If you examine a number of behavioural objectives or even examination questions, you will
observe that they are of varying degrees of difficulty. You will also observe that the
competences implied in the behavioural objectives, or those being tested in the case of
examinations are not all the same. They fall under various domains, classes or categories of
learning outcomes. In this unit, you will study the various levels at which educational
objectives are stated.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify the three domains of learning objectives;
2. identify the six levels of cognitive learning;
3. state at least three behavioural objectives in the cognitive domain;
4. identify the five levels of learning in the affective domain;
5. state at least three instructional objectives in the affective domain;
6. identify the three levels of learning in the psychomotor domain;
7. state at least two instructional objectives in the psychomotor domains.

1. Look for one or two question papers on examinations organized by WAEC and try to
find out what makes one question different from the other.
2. Also, go through the list of performance or behavioural objectives of syllabuses
produced by the NTI for TC II. Try to identify the differences among them.
3. As you study this unit, try to visualize the concepts by giving additional examples
where necessary.
4. Ensure that you do all the activities and assignments in this unit.
WORD STUDY
Cognitive learning objectives: This means statements describing expected outcomes of
learning which concerns intellectual or mental work.
Affective learning objectives: This means the statements of learning outcomes
pertaining to valuing, attitude, feelings or emotions.
Psychomotor learning objectives: These are statements of expected learning outcomes
related to physical skills and manipulative activities.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning outcomes are categorized into three: the cognitive domain, affective domain and
psychomotor domain. Each domain is further divided into levels, each level pointing to a
specific behaviour.
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COGNITIVE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Cognitive objectives are the learning outcomes or mastery which describe academic or
mental work. They tend towards the intellectual aspect of learning. They emphasize
knowledge, understanding and other thinking or academic tasks.
According to B.S. Bloom, cognitive objectives are stated at six levels. These are in ascending
order of complexity as follows.
1. Knowledge
The emphasis here is the ability to recall specific facts or ideas in the form in which
they have been learnt. It does not matter here whether or not the pupil understands
what he is recalling. All he is required to do is to remember. This is likened to a
situation common to learning which takes place at the kindergarten where children
learn to recite rhymes most of which they may not understand. Behavioural
objectives stated at this level utilize such action verbs as the following: identify,
recall, recite, reproduce, mention, define, name, state
and so on. For example, by the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to recite the
National Pledge.
2. Comprehension
This second level of cognitive learning involves a demonstration of understanding of
the concepts or principles or ideas. This could be by way of rephrasing or
summarizing or interpreting. It also involves the ability to isolate or compare a
number of events or ideas. For example, after reading through a passage, a pupil
could be asked to answer a number of comprehension questions based on the passage.
He could also be asked to report the message or ideas in the passage in his own words.
He could also be asked to give the meaning of certain words in his own words as used
in the passage. Behavioural objectives at this level are stated with action verbs such
as explain, classify, select, indicate, summarise, interpret, illustrate and so on. These
tend to focus on the pupil's ability to comprehend what he has learnt.
3. Application
The point should always be made that any knowledge which has no bearing with
human problems is not worthwhile. In the same way, acquiring the knowledge is
worthwhile only when the learner has the capacity and opportunity to put it into use.
In teaching, provision is made while stating the behavioural objectives for the
application of the knowledge or skill derived from the lesson. This is the level of
application in the taxonomy or classification of educational objectives. It involves
using the previous learning in a new situation. For example, one of the objectives of
teaching Simple Interest is that pupils should be able to calculate Simple Interest,
given the formula. The objective here is at the level of application. Thus, behavioural
objectives stated at the level of application utilizes such action verbs as the following:
calculate, solve, construct, compute, show, demonstrate and so on.
4. Analysis
At this level, the anticipated learning is demonstrated through divergent thinking. It
involves considering and weighing of all facts or characteristics of a given situation or
event in order to throw more light on the subject. For example, for a pupil to fully
appreciate the concept of monogamy or polygamy, he should be exposed to as many
facts as possible concerning them. He would need to know their advantages and
disadvantages from different points of view. It involves accepting and rejecting facts
at the same time. That is, while he considers the merits of a given situation, he at the
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same time pays attention to its weaknesses or demerits. For example, Let us ask a
question like `why do most people prefer smaller family size nowadays? The
operational or key word here is why and for the pupil to answer it, he has to think far
and wide. He has to look for divergent or different information to support his answer.
Analysis also implies isolating the component parts of a material so that its
organizational structure may be understood. This may include identification of the
parts, analysis of relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational
principles involved. At this level of analysis, statements of behavioural objectives
may utilize such action verbs as differentiate, contrast, compare, separate and so on.
They focus on the pupils' ability to consider facts with reference to situations or
conditions.
5. Synthesis
Although this is slightly related to analysis, its main functions are different. At the
level of synthesis, the pupil is required to do a combination of separate parts,
components or elements so that new ideas may be developed. It is like listening to the
views of different persons on an issue and coming up with an amalgam or summary of
the main points in the argument. It also involves drawing inferences or making
deductions from given observations. For example, Eze was in Agu's house throughout
yesterday. Yesterday, Musa visited Agu. It follows that Musa must have met Eze. Or
if A=B and B=C, therefore, A=C. In this way, the pupil is able to look at the
relationship between two or more observable events. He tries to draw some
inferences. These inferences are the new ideas or those resulting from combinations
of separate elements. Thus, behavioural objectives at the level of synthesis take the
form of combine, restate, summarize, argue, discuss, organise, relate, deduce,
conclude and so on. For example, after reading through a given comprehension
passage, the pupil could be asked to draw out the lessons or experiences of the
passage. He may be asked to conclude the passage, derive the aim of the author or to
suggest suitable title for the passage. To state the behavioural objectives in this case,
you could have: 'By the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to (a) suggest
suitable title for the passage read (b) show the relationship between paragraph one and
two and so on.
6. Evaluation
This is the last and highest level of cognitive learning. Here, the pupil is required to
make decision, pass judgment, assess, criticize, attack and defend a view or an idea.
This involves divergent thinking and ability to look at issues critically. Issues
involved here are those which demand divergent or opposing views. For example,
rather than ask such questions as why do most people prefer a family of smaller size
nowadays, you may ask, ìs it good to have small family size?
This requires the pupil to take a stand from his point of view on whether or not small
family size is good or not. To state behavioural objectives in this respect, you may say
that at the end of the lesson on polygamy, the pupils should be able to defend or attack
with reasons, the practice of polygamy.
ACTIVITY I
1. What are cognitive learning objectives?
2. Outline the six levels of learning in the cognitive domain.
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AFFECTIVE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

There are many changes in learners' behaviour which are not easily observable. These
include attitudes, values, feelings and emotions. These are mainly internal to the learners.
Because they are internalized, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether or not the
desired changes in attitude have been effected through teaching. Those learning outcomes
which relate to the social life of the learner fall under the umbrella of affective behaviour.
They are affective because they are concerned with learners' inner minds and feelings which
are not easy to see from outside. For example, after teaching the National Pledge, the teacher
expects that the pupils should be able to demonstrate honesty in their lives. After teaching the
Commandments of God, the pupils should be able show appreciation for or demonstrate
living by the Commandments. All these possible learning outcomes deal with the pupils,
attitudes and values. Many have made up their mind on the issue of Christianity or Islam or
Traditional Religion. It would be difficult for the teacher to know if such attitudes or values
have changed immediately after the lesson. Affective learning objectives can be achieved
both inside and outside the classroom through the influence of varied learning experiences
over a period of time. It is through observed actions of people that we can infer whether the
objectives have been achieved.
For the purpose of clarity, objectives stated in the affective domain of learning experiences
are in five levels. Arranged in a descending order of complexity i.e. from highest to the
lowest, these include characterization, organization, valuing, responding and receiving.
1. Characterization
This is the highest level of behaviour in the affective domain. The emphasis here is
that the values or attitudes or ideas have become characteristics of the learner such
that he acts on them naturally. For example, learning to stop eating or writing with the
left (in the traditional system). It may take sometime for the pupil to learn to use the
right hand in writing. After a lesson on customs and tradition, the teacher expects that
the pupil should be able to stop using the left hand in eating and writing. This is an
affective learning objective, in that, it borders on values and attitude of the learner.
However, the objective can only be accomplished over a period of time. Associated
action verbs used in stating affective objectives at the level of characterisation include
change, stop, accept, develop, decide, and so on.
2. Organization
This is the next (lower) level after characterization. At times when a new idea or
opinion has been formed and made part of oneself, it does not mean that entire old
practice is thrown away. In certain rational or organised ways, the new ideas or values
are intentionally
added to those already held ones in such a way that they fit in. For example, though
the child has been taught to learn to use the right hand instead of the left, he may have
to combine the two hands to lift a heavy object where a single hand cannot help. Thus,
you teach the child to organise or relate old and new ideas or values where they
complement one another. The action verbs used in stating objectives here include
organise, relate, correlate, associate, form and so on. An example of affective
objective would be that at, the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to adapt to
any new situation making use of a combination of social experiences. Social
experiences here, may mean different values or attitudes to life developed over-time
as a result of exposure to different social groups or environments.
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3. Valuing
This is the third level in the descending order. At a stage, the pupil fully accepts the
new ideas or attitudes or values resulting from his exposure to some learning
experiences. He now attaches importance to it. For example, the pupil may not know
the rationale for the development of the spirit of cooperation when he has not lived
such a life from home. But over time, he may begin to see the value or something
good in this and at the same time tries to demonstrate it in his living. While you
evolve a number of activities to create room for cooperation among the pupils, you
may expect that along the line, the pupils should be able to accept cooperative living.
They should be able to participate in cooperative activities such as some games or
group reading in the class, and influence some other pupils to develop the desired
attitudes and values. These are affective learning objectives.
4. Responding
This is the fourth level in the descending order. As soon as the pupil accepts the
change in attitude or values and they become part of him, he tries to have more
information about them. These are to increase his understanding of the new ideas
which he has now accepted. This is usually on the long-run when the teacher tries to
reinforce the changes which have occurred in the pupils' behaviour. The pupils now
respond to situations or questions which help them have confidence in their present
state of attitudes or feelings or values. For example, as soon as you notice a
somewhat permanent change in the pupil's behaviour, your next objective would be
for the pupil to state why he now prefers his new values and attitudes.
5. Receiving
This is the lowest level of behaviour in the affective domain. At this level of affective
learning, the emphasis is on the pupil having becoming aware of the new ideas and
being willing to learn them. A condition would have been created for appropriate
change and receptivity. That is, the pupil's appetite for new ideas has been wetted.
One of the tasks of the teacher at this stage is to create numerous and varied learning
opportunities capable of bringing about desirable changes in pupils' attitudes, emotion
and values. For example, the use of drama and moral instructions could help to impart
desired experiences to the pupils. Also, such a subject as Social Studies is an
important tool for developing in the young persons the desired social values and
ideals of the society. In stating objectives at this level, action verbs used include
listen, prefer, be aware, accept, select and so on. For example, by the end of the
lesson the pupils should be able to "perceive the existence of God." or "accept the
need for national unity."
ACTIVITY II
1. What is affective learning objective?
2. List the five levels of learning outcomes in the affective domain from the highest to
the lowest.
3. State one objective each for the following three levels of affective learning: (a)
receiving, (b) characterization and (c) valuing.
PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The psychomotor aspect of learning is concerned with the learners' ability to acquire and
apply skills. It involves muscular and motor skills or manipulation of objects or activities
using neuro-muscular co-ordination. In other words, it involves the use of the hands or legs
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or any other parts of the body as co-ordinated by the brain in any practical sense. For
example, ability to pronounce correctly, sing, dance, run, draw, shoot, and so on, form part of
psychomotor performance. Learning objectives stated in the psychomotor domain are
categorised into three.
1. Communication
This is concerned with the learner’s ability to express himself through talking and use
of language. Teaching the languages emphasizes the development of communication
skills by the learners. In stating instructional objective here, you may say that by the
end of the lesson on pronunciation, the pupils should be able to pronounce certain
words correctly. The ability to achieve this objective can be measured or evaluated
by listening to the pupil as he reads through a passage or selected words.
2. Application
The emphasis here is on the ability to manipulate objects based on the skills already
learnt. For example, riding a bicycle or throwing the javelin or using the sewing
machine. It also involves the ability to adapt to the use of similar tools or materials
such as someone who has been used to riding on Honda Motorcycle and suddenly
finds that he has to ride on a Yamaha. This requires situational or on the spot
adjustment by manipulating his skills. Similarly, if a child has been taught letters of
the alphabets, he would require skills to arrange these letters in their order if they have
been produced on pieces of plates or cards and mixed up for him to rearrange. He also
requires skills to construct perfect circles, rectangles, triangles, etc., using a set of
mathematical instruments. An instructional objective in this regard could be that, by
the end of the lesson on construction, the pupils should be able to construct a perfect
parallelogram, using a set of mathematical set. The emphasis here is on the ability to
use or manipulate tools or instrument.
3. Acquisition
Apart from the skill needed for the manipulation of instruments or objects, a person
can be very proficient or good in the practical use of natural talent. For example,
some children show more talent than others in singing or running or playing ball and
so on. These are parts of psychomotor learning where such talents are developed
through constant or habitual training or application. In the school, there are a number
of curricula and extra- curricula activities which provide opportunities for children to
develop their natural potentialities to the fullest. For example, one of the objectives of
organising sporting activities is to have pupils develop interest in sports. Thus, in
teaching music in schools, you may want the pupils to acquire some capabilities in
singing. On the whole, it should be noted that there is no marked distinction between
the functions of cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives. For example, an
affective behaviour (attitude) is usually the direct result of cognitive learning or
psychomotor performance. Furthermore, it is through cognitive behaviour that we
can identify the existence of an affective learning.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are psychomotor learning objectives?
2. List the three levels of learning in the psychomotor domain.
3. State two learning objectives in the psychomotor domain.
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SUMMARY
• Learning occurs in three categories or domains- cognitive, affective and psychomotor
• Cognitive domain of learning objectives consists of six levels. These are, from the
simplest to the most complex:
i. Knowledge
ii. Comprehension
iii. Application
iv. Analysis
v. Synthesis
vi. Evaluation
• Affective domain of learning objectives consists of five levels from the most complex
to the simplest.
i. Characterisation
ii. Organisation
iii. Valuing
iv. Responding
v. Receiving
• Psychomotor domain of learning objectives consists of three levels

i. Communication
ii. Application
iii Acquisition
ASSIGNMENT
1. Outline the three domains of learning outcomes.
2. Identify the six levels of cognitive objectives.
3. State at least three behavioural objectives in the cognitive domain.
4. Identify the five levels of affective objectives.
5. State at least three affective objectives.
6. Identify the three levels of psychomotor objectives.
7. State at least two psychomotor objectives.
REFERENCE
Kissock, R. et. al. A Guide to Questioning: Classroom Procedures for Teachers, London:
Macmillan, 1982.
Onwuegbu, O.I., Discover Teaching, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1979.
Mkpa, M. A., Curriculum Design and Instructional Evaluation, Ibadan: Evans Brothers
(Nig) Ltd., 1986.
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UNIT 3 (EDU125.3): LESSON PREPARATION,

LESSON NOTES AND LESSON
PATTERNS
INTRODUCTION
Imagine a situation in which a person is expecting guests the number of which, and the time
and duration of the visit he does not know. When the guests finally come, their host finds it
difficult to make adequate provision for their accommodation and entertainment.
Also think of a situation in which a meeting is summoned without an agenda or programmes.
The meeting will proceed in a disorganised manner and may end up without any specific
objective achieved.
Finally, think of a situation in which a woman goes to the market without an idea of what to
buy. She ends up not being able to buy a number of items for lack of money or returns home
with some unspent money because she does not know what to buy.
All these problems arise mainly due to lack of proper planning. In the classroom situation,
similar problems or uncertainties may arise if a teacher fails to prepare for his lesson. The
concern of this unit therefore, is lesson preparation.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain at least five uses of lesson notes;
2. identify the essential components of a lesson note;
3. demonstrate how to write a lesson note.

1. Study this unit thoroughly and in the order in which it has been arranged step-by-step.
2. Do all the activities and assignment provided in the unit.
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF LESSON NOTES

A lesson note may be regarded as the framework of the activities of the teacher and the pupils
during the lesson. It is usually drawn for every lesson which at times may last for two or
more lesson periods. A lesson note is usually concise, sketchy in form and yet, containing the
essentials of the lesson as well as steps of progression in the lesson. Moreover, the lesson
note contains information on the resource materials as well as the various techniques to be
used in the lesson. Some teachers believe that as soon as the teacher knows what to teach and
the teaching techniques to adopt, he does not need to bother about lesson preparation.
Strictly speaking, your knowledge of the subject-matter to be taught is a necessary but not a
sufficient condition for effective teaching. In addition, you need to be guided by a
knowledge of the pupils' problems and needs, interests and capabilities. For this purpose, you
are required to promote learning by adequately preparing for your lesson.
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IMPORTANCE OF LESSON NOTES

Preparing for lessons by writing notes of lesson or lesson note is significant to the teacher and
the learners in the following ways.
1. It is a Guide to Lesson Preparation
It makes the teacher to become more familiar with the materials to be taught. While
preparing for your lesson, you are opportune to take a number of vital decisions.
These decisions include: the most appropriate teaching aids to use; the most suitable
teaching methods to adopt and the order in which the learning material is to be
presented. Thus, a lesson note serves as a guide to lesson preparation
2. It is a Guide to Effective Teaching
Teaching is deemed effective only when it results in the realisation of the set
objectives. In order to do this therefore, the set objectives should always be your focus
while teaching. Fortunately, the lesson note is written based on some set
objectives and learning materials which are most relevant to these objectives are
selected. The use of such a lesson note serves as a guide for you to progress towards
the attainment of the lesson objectives. It is like the land-map or compass which
guides a traveler to his destination without loss of time, or bearing or direction.
3. It saves time
Since lesson notes guide the teacher to the relevant points of the lesson, he is saved
from beating about the bush. In this way, precious time is saved. It is common to see
a teacher who did not plan for his lesson. Such a teacher is unorganised and uncertain
in his delivery. At times, he exhausts the time for the lesson when he is half-way into
his teaching period. He may keep on wasting time on irrelevant examples and
illustrations, and at times digressing. But when you plan for your lesson by writing
notes of lesson, all these problems will be minimized.
4. It saves energy
If the lesson note contains only the relevant points of the lesson, it saves the teacher
the possibility of digression. It also helps him to conserve some energy. In fact, if
you fail to prepare for your lesson, you may run the risk of talking too much on
irrelevant things and at the end you develop headache. But when you are armed with
a lesson note, you talk to the point and come out strong.
5. It serves as a reminder
It is human to forget. But with the lesson note on hand, you can easily look up for the
information you could have forgotten. This is often easy to do because the lesson note
is skeletal or sketchy with the main points or procedures such that they can be seen at
a glance. However, you must not form the habit of always looking into your lesson
note. Otherwise, the pupils may develop bad impression about you.
6. It enhances logical presentation
Learning proceeds in a systematic way. Pupils learn more successfully when led from
the known to the unknown or simple to the complex. A well written lesson note is
logical and systematic. Thus, the material to be taught is presented step-by-step to
ensure continuity in pupils' learning. That is to create a situation in which what a
child learns in one step forms the basis of what he will learn in a subsequent step. In
the same manner, what he learns in a future step is made possible and clearer by what
he had earlier learned. Lesson note therefore enhances the logical and systematic
presentation of materials to be taught.
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7. It is a guide for the substitute-teacher

At times, a teacher may be unavoidably absent from school due to ill-health, accident
and so on. The pupils in his class have to be taught. The headmaster may decide to
ask another teacher to handle the class whose teacher is absent. Since the new teacher
was not informed about his new assignment in advance, he is likely to find it difficult
to teach without a lesson plan. If the original teacher had prepared the lessons in a
lesson note, the substitute teacher would have less difficulty in delivering the lesson.
This is so because the lesson note contains the essential information and
guidelines for the lesson. Thus, writing a lesson note is important because it could
solve some unforeseen problems.
ACTIVITY I
1. What is a lesson note?
2. Identify any five purposes which a lesson note serves
PARTS OF A LESSON NOTE

In spite of the numerous purposes which a lesson note serves (as discussed in 4.1.1),
educationists and educators are yet to agree on what should constitute a lesson note.
Generally, the following are some of the features common to most lesson notes.
1. Subject and topic
Without a topic, the teacher would have nothing to teach as he cannot go on
discussing the entire subject. At this point, a distinction should be made between a
subject and topic. A subject refers to the broad field of study such as Mathematics
while a topic refers to a component of the subject such as Quadratic Equation' or
"Simple Interest'. You should note that any topic selected for teaching should be
clearly and categorically stated to avoid vagueness. For example, it is not appropriate
to have 'Reading' as a topic because it is too vague. The topic should indicate the
nature of task to be performed. For example, Reading for Comprehension, `Reading
for Accuracy,' and so on.
2. Description of pupils
Since the lesson is going to be centered around the learners, you should take time to
describe the level or category of learners whom the lesson is meant for. This helps in
determining the pupils' problems, needs, interests and capabilities as bases for
effective teaching. The information needed include:
class : Primary IV
Average Age : 8 + (that is above 8 years)
Sex : Mixed
3. Instructional and behavioural objectives

These are the specific tasks or behaviours you want the pupils to perform or
demonstrate immediately after the lesson as evidence that learning has taken place.
These include a knowledge of some facts or concepts or the application of some
principles or skills. The objectives are to be stated in terms of pupils' behaviour and
in such a way that they can be evaluated. To facilitate this, you are advised to use
such action verbs as to name, identify, mention, explain, discuss, describe,
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distinguish, calculate, arrange, defend, criticise and so on. You should avoid using
such words as know, feel, understand and so on. These are nebulous or vague.
4. Duration of the lesson
This refers to the length of time allocated to the lesson as the time-table. This could
be 30 or 4O minutes. This knowledge is important because you are expected to plan
for what you can accomplish or finish within the limited time. It is embarrassing to
the next teacher and disruptive to the next subject if you teach into the next lesson
period allocated for another subject. It is worse still if you cannot accomplish your
lesson objectives before the time elapses.
5. Teaching aids
These are the resource materials to be used to facilitate the attainment of the lesson
objectives. They could be used for illustration or demonstration of processes or
concepts in the lesson. For example, maps are used to bring to reality, events which
are far away from the pupils such as that showing the physical features of a place.
Not only should the teaching aids to be used be mentioned in the lesson note, they
should be briefly described in terms of their composition and the purpose they are to
serve. In fact, for teaching aids to be of any worth, they should be relevant to the topic
and level of the learners; attractive, simple, capable of easy usage, and readily
available. Above all, they should be used at the appropriate time.
6. Pupils' previous knowledge or entry behaviour It is generally accepted that
learning cannot be built without a foundation. This foundation could be what a child
has learnt or known before, his maturity and readiness, or existing ability and
willingness to learn. Therefore, you must seek to base your lesson on the pupils'
previous knowledge which is relevant to the present task to be performed. The
previous knowledge may arise from the last lesson(s) taught. It may derive from
pupils' informal experiences such as the television, newspapers, radio, church or
social activities, peer group activities, buying and selling in the market and so on.
This is usually stated in the form of assumption. For example, before teaching a topic
like simple interest, the pupils must have known that people lend and borrow money
or any other thing. An attempt to prove the assumption helps to introduce the new
lesson in a very interesting way.
7. Introduction
This aspect of the lesson note has to do with the different activities used in initiating
or introducing the pupils into the new lesson so as to arouse their interest. This could
be by oral questioning and answers, demonstration, short analogy or story or event
similar to the experiences in the new lesson. In this way, pupils' past experiences are
linked with those expected to be met in the present lesson.
8. Development
This is the presentation stage. Here, you present the concepts or facts of the lesson
step-by-step as carefully planned in the lesson note. A number of techniques are used
to stimulate and sustain pupils' interest in the lesson. For example, oral questioning
and answer method is used at appropriate stages. They serve not only as a way of
carrying the pupils along, but as a means of moving from one step or stage of the
lesson to the other. It is important that you write down some of these questions and
their possible answers in your lesson note as they serve a number of purposes as
discussed above. At the appropriate stage of the development of the lesson, provision
should be made for the use of relevant teaching aids.
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9. Summary
As soon as you finish presenting the instructional materials, you are required to recap
or make a brief summary of the important points you want the pupils to always
remember in the lesson. This is often regarded as the skeletal note which should be
adequate enough to make sense.
10. Evaluation
This aspect relates to the procedures to be adopted in determining the extent to which
the stated objectives have been attained. These procedures or techniques depend on
the type of behavioural objective. They may take the form of oral-questioning and
answers; drawing, arranging, selecting, labelling, reciting and so on. Evaluation is
necessary as a way of determining the adequacy of every activity in the lesson.
11. Assignment
Perhaps, the last part of the lesson note is a statement of what tasks the pupils would
perform on their own after the lesson. They could be take-home assignment, enquiry
or collection of specimens such as grass-hoppers, feathers, fruits, and so on.
ACTIVITY II
1. List the parts of a lesson note
2. Of what importance is the pupil's previous knowledge to you as a teacher?
3. State any three qualities of a good teaching aid.
SPECIMEN OF A LESSON NOTE

In this section, attempt is made to write a specimen lesson note. You should therefore study it
carefully to understand how each part of the lesson note has been planned to facilitate
teaching
A Lesson Note on Social Studies

Topic : Occupations of the Binis
Class : Primary 5
Average : Age: 9+
Sex : Mixed
Duration : 35 minutes
Behavioural
Objectives : By the end of this lesson, the pupils should be able to:
(a) define the term occupation;
(b) identify at least two main occupations of the
Binis; and
(c) explain with reasons why the Binis are known
for a named occupation.
Teaching Aids Pictures showing the Bini works of art; pictures
showing the vegetation of the region occupied by Binis.
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Previous
Knowledge The pupils already know that people work to earn
a living, and that their parents do something to sustain
their families.
Introduction Questions posed to the pupils include:
Question I. What work do your parents do?
Expected
Answers Trading, Teaching, Fishing, Painting and so on.
Question 2 Do you think other people do something for a living?
Expected
Answer Yes.
Development:
Step 1 Meaning of occupation. Any lawful work which a
person does
for a living is his occupation
Question 3 Give examples of occupations you know.
Expected
Answers Medicine, Law, Engineering, Teaching, Trading,
Farming, Fishing, Barbing, Driving, Hunting.
Question 4 Can a single individual engage in all these occupations
at the same time?
Expected
Answer No. To carry out an occupation needs specialization and
depends on many other factors
Teacher follows that some people are known for certain
occupations such as the Binis (Topic written on the
board)
Step II Occupations of the Binis

The Binis are known for a number of occupations
including farming, hunting, carving, bronze-casting and
so on.
Question 5 Why do you think most Binis are farmers?
Expected
answers May be they have surplus land or they have good
vegetation and so on.
Step III Factor influencing the occupations of the Binis.
Most Binis are farmers and hunters due to the nature of
the climate and vegetation in their environment.
Step IV Use of Teaching Aids
A picture showing the rain forest vegetation is shown to
the pupils and explanation made on their suitability for
agriculture and hunting.
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Summary
(a) An occupation is any lawful activity carried out by a person for the purpose of
earning a living.
(b) The main occupations of the Binis are farming and hunting.
(c) Natural conditions (climate and vegetation) account for the popularity of
farming and hunting among the Binis.
Evaluation: Oral-questioning and answers
(a) Define the term 'occupation'
(b) Identify any two main occupations of the BINIS
(c) Explain with reasons why the Binis are known for either farming or hunting.
Assignment When you get back home, find out from your
elder brothers or sisters the main occupation of the Ijaws.
OTHER PATTERNS OF LESSON NOTES
The pattern presented above is just one out of several other patterns of writing lesson notes.
It has been pointed out above that, there is no hard-and-fast rule about the number of
components that should be included in the lesson note. Thus, some notes may add to the
elements listed in our example. Some may not in the same way; some writers may use the
tabular format. In the tabular format, the elements or components contained in the above
example are presented like a table in columns.
ACTIVITY III
1. List two possible entry behaviours or previous knowledge on each of the following
topics.
(a) Letter writing
(b) Addition of money
2. Write a lesson note on "parts of a leaf."
SUMMARY
• A lesson note may be regarded as the plan or framework of the activities of the
teacher and the pupils during the lesson.
• Importance of a lesson note include the following.
i. It serves as a guide to preparation
ii It serves as a guide to lesson presentation.
iii. Promotes effective teaching
iv. Saves time
v. Helps to conserve energy.
vi. Serves as reminder
vii. Enhances logical presentation of the lesson
viii. Serves as a guide to substitute-teachers.
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• The main parts of a lesson note include
i. Subject and Topic

ii Description of the pupils
iii. Instructional Objectives
iv. Duration of the lesson.
v. Teaching aids
vi. Pupils' previous knowledge
vii. Introduction
viii. Development
ix. Summary
x. Evaluation
xi. Assignment
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain any five purposes of a lesson note.
2. Identify the main parts of a lesson note
3. Write a lesson note on `germination of seeds.'
REFERENCES
Adjai R., Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1980
Jacinta, M. et.al. Primary Methods Handbook, London: Hodderand Stoughton, 1981
Udo-Ema, A.J. An Introduction to Teaching, Ibadan: Longman, 1975
Nacino-Brown, R. et al., Curriculum and Instruction: An Introduction to Methods of
Teaching, Lagos: Macmillan, 1982.
Mkpa M.A. Curriculum Design and Instructional Evaluation Ibadan: Evans
Brothers (Nig.) Ltd. 1986
Mkpa, M.A. Fundamentals of Unit and Lesson Planning, Onitsha: Summer
Educational Publishers Ltd., 1988.0
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UNIT 4 (EDU125.4): EVALUATION OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
In the last three units, emphasis has been on behavioural objectives in curriculum
implementation. These are the proposed results or outcomes of the lesson expressed as what
the teacher expects that the pupils would have learnt at the end of the lesson. In Unit 3,
activities, materials, methods and procedures for the attainment of some set behavioural
objectives were organised into a framework on lesson note.
One fundamental aspect of the educational process is to obtain information through some
devices to assess a child's over-all progress towards some predetermined goals or objectives.
Hence, at the end of the lesson you ask yourself whether or not, the set behavioural objectives
have been attained. On their part, parents may want to know how much progress their
children are making in school learning. Consequently, a conscientious attempt must be made
to provide both quantitative and qualitative judgment of the learner's progress. In this unit,
you will learn about the concept and process of evaluation in classroom instruction.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the term evaluation in relation to classroom instruction;
2. identify the three aspects of pupils' behaviour which are evaluated;
3. explain at least five purposes of evaluation in classroom instructions;
4. identify at least two techniques used for evaluating pupils' behaviours and
5. demonstrate how to evaluate learning outcomes.

1. Think of a situation in which pupils go through their studies without tests or
examinations. What problems do you think may arise and why?
2. Go through this unit thoroughly by mastering the concepts used.
3. Try to give additional examples of yours where some have been given.
4. Do all the activities and assignment in the order in which they appear.
MEANING AND DIMENSIONS OF EVALUATION

Before we go into the process of evaluation of learning outcomes, let us explain the meaning
of evaluation and look at what we evaluated.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process or any procedure for measuring the degree of success in any venture
or activity in relation to the set objectives. In the teaching and learning situation, evaluation is
a measure or assessment of the extent to which the pupils have mastered the desired skill or
the extent to which they have acquired the expected knowledge of some concepts, facts or
ideas.
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What to Evaluate:
For many years until recently, evaluation in schools was limited to paper and pen only. That
is, testing pupils' cognitive learning with little or no emphasis on the affective and
psychomotor learning. Hence, according to the National Policy on Education, attitudes,
values, Physical Skills and abilities are important for the students as well as cognitive skills."
Thus, there are three dimensions of evaluation. They are the cognitive, affective and
Psychomotor domains.
Evaluation of cognitive learning involves measuring the pupil's knowledge and understanding
in a subject by means of oral or written tests. In this way, you are able to give a value for or
quantify the progress which the pupil makes in his learning. For example, after teaching
"addition of numbers under units," you may ask the child to solve some problems on it to
determine how much he has understood. This is cognitive learning evaluation.
To facilitate the evaluation of cognitive learning outcomes, the instructional and behavioural
objectives should be stated very clearly and categorically in terms of pupils behaviour. For
example, "At the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to add up numbers under the unit". To
evaluate the attainment of this objective, the pupils may be asked to add up 3,4 and 2.
Another area of learning outcome which we evaluate relates to pupils' internalized behaviour,
attitudes, values or emotion. These fall within the affective domain. In order to evaluate
pupils' behaviours, a norm or standard has to be established to provide the yardstick. For
example, to assess the pupils' behaviours, you may be concerned with their mode of dressing,
hygiene or neatness, emotion, the way they talk, respect, loyalty, attentiveness, passivity and
so on. However, pupils' behaviours are influenced by a number of factors including the home,
school, community, peers and the self.
To a large extent, the pupil's behaviour has serious influence on his academic performance. A
child who is withdrawn or unassociating may find it difficult to work with others and may not
be able to participate well in group learning activities.
Moreover, evaluation of pupils' behaviours helps in making a number of decisions such as
selection for leadership or recommendation for employment. For such judgements to be valid,
the assessment should be very objective. The instrument or method used here is observation
carried out over a prolong period of time.
Lastly, the third aspect of learning outcome which we evaluate is the psychomotor. The
focus here is a measure of the extent to which the child is able to apply the skills which he
has acquired.
For example, the practical lessons in Integrated Science; Practicals in Health and Physical
Education or Domestic Science and any other area involving the manipulation of tools or
objects. The point you should note here is that, it would be unfair on the pupils to test them
on things which they have not been encouraged to learn or master.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define the term evaluation.
2. Identify the main aspects of learning outcomes which we evaluate in school.
IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

Evaluation should be regarded as an integral part of teaching and learning because of the
following purposes which it serves:
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1. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the teaching strategy

In the absence of evaluation, the teacher may feel that he has done a successful job
and may not be able to explain when the end becomes a failure. But an evaluation of
the learning outcome or what the pupils have learnt will reveal which of the
behavioural objectives have or have not been attained. You will then ask yourself why
the lesson has not been as successful as planned. You may have to re- examine the
adequacy or otherwise of the strategies used in the presentation. You may also have
another look at the teaching aids and other aspects of the lesson including the physical
environment of the class. These will provide hints for improvement in subsequent
lessons.
2. It is a source of encouragement for pupils
When a child is successful in tests or examinations or even such school activities as
sports, debates, quiz and so on, he becomes motivated to achieve more. When you
carry out a programme of evaluation once in a while, you would be creating a
situation that motivates learning in the pupil. Similarly, if evaluation reveals that a
pupil is not doing well, he is reminded to work harder. Otherwise, without
evaluation, the pupil might go with a false appearance of well-being.
3. It provides bases for guidance and counselling
Every pupil needs to be advised to solve his academic and emotional problems.
Without evaluation, you may not know which of the pupils have academic problems
for which they need advice. Evaluation at times reveals that emotional problems
retard the academic progress of the child. On the basis of this, you can be of help to
the pupil by helping him to solve some of the problems through counselling. For the
successful pupil, he may need guidance as to where his subjects of interest will take
him to in terms of vocation.
4. It serves as a basis for classification of pupils
There is a practice whereby pupils are kept in classes according to their level of
intelligence measured by their level of performance in tests or examinations. For
example, you could have the very bright ones in class 3A, the good ones in class 3B
and the average and weak ones in class 3C. This classification is impossible unless a
form of evaluation is carried out to assess the competences of the pupils. They may
become more hard-working to avoid relegation by way of being placed in streams or
arms of the class below B. It is this same explanation that holds for the use of
evaluation for selection of candidates, for admission or employment.
5. It serves as a basis for pupils' promotion
It is conventional or traditional to promote pupils from one class to the next at the end
of the academic year. This follows a form of evaluation by way of examination. In
this way, since the pupils know that their promotion depends on passing their
examination, the tendency is that, most of them may become serious with their
studies.
6. It Provides a measure of standards:
At times governments become sad over students' poor performance in competitive
examinations. Some may threaten to close down schools which consistently perform
poorly. They may want to link the seriousness of the teachers and pupils in the school
with the pupils' overall performance in their examinations. Often, a school whose
pupils always do well in external examinations tends to command more public respect
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than failure schools. Evaluation by way of examination thus, provides means of

setting standards for schools.
ACTIVITY II
1. Identify any four ways in which evaluation of learning outcomes is important.
2. What educational implications does evaluation have as a basis for classification of
pupils?
METHODS OF EVALUATING COGNITIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES

There are many methods of evaluating pupils' cognitive learning outcomes. However, the
most commonly used are the teacher-made tests and examinations.
The Teacher-made test
This involves the teacher setting questions for the pupils to answer based on a set of
objectives. These questions could be essay-type or multiple-choice (objective) type. Each of
them has its own merits and demerits. However, in using tests to evaluate your pupils, you
should be guided by the following:
1. Validity: The validity of any test material or question is the extent to which it
measures what it is supposed to measure, that is the set objectives. You should
therefore bear in mind always that there is no room for any test item which has no
specific objective to measure.
2. Reliability: One thing is to base your test items on the objectives stated in advance
another is to ensure that the tests sufficiently and correctly measure these objectives.
In other words, the test should measure accurately and consistently.
3. Objectivity: A test ceases to be objective if the scoring is affected by bias or partiality
of the teacher. Hence, teachers are advised to remove personality while using tests to
evaluate pupils' learning outcomes.
4. Usability: A test should not be complicated or cumbersome to make its use easy both
in terms of administration and scoring. For example, when some test items are not
well constructed, they become vague and difficult to score.
Types of Tests:
Essay-type tests
These are tests which permit pupils to express their opinions in their answers and in writing.
The questions to be used here may be restricted or unrestricted. Restricted essay tests are
those which do not allow a pupil to say as much as he knows about the question. He is
restricted to some aspect of the topic such as: Identify any five parts of a tree or discuss any
three uses of water. On the other hand, the tests become unrestricted when the pupil has the
opportunity to say as much as he knows about the topic. For example what are the uses of
water? Who is more important, mother or father and why?
In constructing essay test items, you should bear the following in mind:
1. Clarity: The questions should be as clear and categorical as possible to avoid vagueness
and confusion. They should clearly indicate the task to be performed or what is expected
of the pupils.
2. Pupils' level: The pupils' level of understanding and development should guide the
teacher in constructing his essay test questions. The level of language used should be such
that does not pose a barrier to pupils' understanding of what they are required to do.
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3. Accuracy: The questions constructed should be grammatically correct to convey

complete and meaningful ideas.
4. Instructions: There should be adequate guides or instructions for pupils in essay-type
tests such as the need for diagrams and the allocation of marks for the questions.
Scoring Essay-Type Tests

Scoring essay-type tests is usually not an easy one. However, you should always try to make
your scoring as objective as possible to make it reliable. A number of approaches could be
adopted.
1. Marking Scheme: Before scoring, you are required to prepare a marking guide
showing the main points expected from pupils' answers and how marks would be
distributed. This helps you to be consistent in the allocation of marks.
2. Marking Across-Board: Where the test answer sheets to be marked are many, you
are advised to score the scripts in stages. For example, you may decide to score all the
pupils in a particular question before moving to the next. This prevents tiredness and
enhances consistency.
Objective-type tests
An objective test is characterized by a question for which a number of answers have been
provided out of which only one is correct. The pupils are required to identify the correct one.
This is multiple-choice and the most commonly used method of objective tests. The major
advantages of this type of test are that, it is easy to score and more reliable. However, it is
difficult to construct. Therefore, you should bear the following in mind.
The questions which you construct should be clear and concise. You should avoid the use of
negative, long and ambiguous statements.
The questions should be as many as possible to provide wider experiences for the pupils as well
as raising the validity of the test.
The suggested alternative answers should be such that pupils cannot easily identify the correct
one without making some efforts. You do this by making the alternatives to be almost equal in
length or similar in structure. For example, which of the following is the new capital city of
Nigeria?
(a) Aladjia
(b) Abaji
(c) Abuja
(d) Aguda
In this way, the correct answer is not easily given away.
Scoring
As pointed out earlier, scoring objective type tests is relatively easy. But where the scripts are
many, you may need to device a means to facilitate your scoring.
Punching:
Here, you prepare a separate answer sheet for the pupils. Instead of answering in their bulky
question papers, they would just be required to shade the appropriate letter of the alphabet which
stand for the correct answer to a particular questions
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For example
A B C D E
1 = = = = =
2. = = = = =
3. = = = = =
During scoring, all you are required to do is to pick up an unused answer sheet and provide the
correct answers on it. You will then make holes on each of the correct answers such that when the
master-sheet is placed on the pupils' answer sheets, their correct answers are easily seen and
counted. However, you may need to scan through their work for those who may have provided
more than one answer. Generally, the arrangement of the question items and how the answers are
to be provided determine how scoring will be done.
Evaluation of learning outcomes takes place at various levels or stages.
1. Class Tests
Once in a while, you may need to give your pupils some questions to answer as a way of
testing how much they have learnt. In some cases, this comes up weekly or fortnightly.
Today, continuous assessment is highly emphasized in Nigeria to the extent that many
schools organize tests every week.
2. Terminal Examinations
At the end of term, it is traditional to organize examinations in schools to test the over-all
learning progress of the child during the term. This is also the time most parents,
especially the uneducated busy ones, do remember that their children attend school. They
would ask for their report cards to assess the level of their attainment in school work.
3. End-of-Year Examinations
At the end of the academic year, some decisions need to be made on which of the pupils
are fit for promotion to the next class. Examinations are conducted to facilitate these
decisions.
4. Certification
When a pupil completes his course of study, there has to be something to show for it. The
distinction of the learner also needs to be reflected by the grade of certificate he gets.
Through examinations, this distinction becomes possible.
On the whole, whenever tests or examinations are used to evaluate pupils' learning
outcome, there has to be a feedback. That is, the pupils should know the result of their
performance as this would serve as motivation to continue with good performance or
improve on poor one.
ACTIVITY III
1. What are the methods used in evaluating cognitive learning outcomes?
2. Mention any four qualities of a good test.
3. Construct one restricted and one unrestricted question.
4. Construct one multiple-choice question.
SUMMARY
• Evaluation of learning outcomes is a procedure or process of measuring the extent to
which the pupils have attained set objectives for the lesson.
• Evaluation of learning outcomes covers cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning.
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• Evaluating learning outcomes serves the following purposes.

i. As a measure of the effectiveness of teaching strategy
ii. As a source of encouragement for the learners
iii. As basis for guidance and counselling
iv. As basis for classification of pupils
v. As basis for pupils' promotion
vi. As a measure of standards for schools.
• Methods of evaluating cognitive learning outcomes include tests and examinations.
• The qualities of a good test are
i.. Validity
ii. Reliability
iii. Objectivity
iv. Usability
• Tests could take the form of essay questions or objective questions.
• Test questions should be clear and categorical to remove vagueness. They should also
reflect pupils' level of development and understanding.
• Objectivity and consistency should be the watch-words while scoring pupils' answers.
• Evaluation takes place at the end of the lesson, weekly, fortnightly, termly, yearly or at
the end of the course of study.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the term evaluation in relation to learning outcomes.
2. Identify the three areas of pupils' behaviour in which evaluation is done during
classroom instructions.
3. Explain at least five purposes of evaluation of learning outcomes.
4. Identify any two methods of evaluating cognitive learning outcomes.
REFERENCES
Adjai, R. Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1980
Nacino-Brow Brown, R.et-al., Curriculum and Instruction Introduction to Methods of
Teaching, Lagos: Macmillan,1982
Onwuegbu, O.I., Discover Teaching, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1979.
Mkpa, M.A. Curriculum Design and Instructional Evaluation, Ibadan: Evans Brothers
(Nig.) Ltd., 1986.
Mkpa, M.A. Curriculum Development and Implementation, Owerri: Totan Publishers Ltd.,
1987
Onwuka, Uga, Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana Fep. Publishers Ltd.,
1981.
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UNIT 5 (EDU 125.5): CHILDREN WITH LEARNING

PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION
The main aim of teaching is to help someone acquire or change some skill, attitude,
knowledge ideal or appreciation. In other words, it is to bring about some desirable changes
in the learners' behaviour. Teaching is said to be effective only when the learners have been
able to achieve the set behavioural objectives. Thus, teaching and learning go together. It is
like buying and selling. If nobody buys, it means nobody sells. Similarly, if nobody learns, it
follows that nobody teaches.
However, it should be pointed out that, it is not every teaching that brings about pupils'
learning. In fact, you can force the horse to the stream but you cannot force it to drink water.
In a sense, it is possible that you could put in your best efforts to teach and yet some pupils
fail to learn. That should not be seen as if you have not done your job, for there are pupils
who find it difficult to learn due to some learning problems. In this unit, you will learn about
some of the learning problems, of children and how to cope with them.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify at least three symptoms of learning problems in learners;
2. examine at least five causes of learning problems in children;
3. suggest at least three ways of assisting a child with learning problems;
INSTRUCTION
1. Carefully study this unit and try to master the various concepts as they have been
used.
2. Ensure that you do all the activities and assignment as they will help you to recall and
apply some of the concepts.
CHECK THE ANSWER TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING PROBLEMS

In a normal school situation, every class is heterogeneous. By normal school, I mean a school
that is not special or meant for selected children. A public school is an example of a normal
school. On the other hand, a class is heterogeneous when it is made up of children with
different needs, interests and capabilities. In such cases, it is common to find pupils with
different learning capabilities. Some may be intelligent, others average and the rest dull. The
last group of pupils often find learning more difficult than the others. They learn slowly and
much less than others. This is seen in many ways. They are less articulate, that is, less able
to follow the trend of the lesson. They are often unreasonable and lack creativity such that
they are most of the times unable to ask or answer questions during the lesson. Above all,
they perform relatively poorly in tests and examinations.
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As you teach, you should be able to monitor the pupils' reactions or feedback so as to know
which of them are following. In doing this, it is sometimes easy to detect children with
learning problems.
In addition to their inability to participate actively in the lesson, they exhibit some traits
which reveal that they are finding learning difficult. You may observe that a pupil is trying to
copy from the work of others. You may find that a pupil has covered his note-book, folding
his hands while his mates are busy doing an exercise. And you may find that a pupil is
consistently scoring low marks in his exercises. You may even observe that a particular pupil
is fond of asking irrelevant questions. Some continue to draw the class back on issues already
resolved. Some are always asking for a repetition of the lesson. These are some of the
symptoms of a child with learning problems. But what are the causes of learning problems?
You will find answers to this question in the next section.
ACTIVITY I
1. Indicate any three symptoms of a pupil with learning problems.
CAUSES OF LEARNING PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN

Some children are unable to learn as much as others due to a number of factors including the
following.
1. Physical handicaps
When a child is physically handicapped, he would find it difficult to apply himself
fully to the learning situation. Physical handicaps take many forms including hearing
and sight difficulties.
If a child does not hear properly, or does not hear at all, your message will not reach
him. As a result, he cannot respond or make a feedback to show that he has had some
experiences. Sometimes, you will observe that a particular pupil is always restless or
looking very straight into your face in an attempt to hear what you are saying. There
could be others whose parents would be courageous enough to come to tell you that
their child is hard at hearing. Another sign could be for the child to always turn his
ear to the direction where the sound or message is coming from. If they are
unfortunate not to have heard you, learning will fail to take place as expected.
Another aspect of physical handicap is sight difficulty. A child may find it difficult to
see what is too near to him. Under this condition, if such a child is seated in front of
the class, he is less likely to see what is written on the chalkboard. You should
remember that, the purpose of writing on the chalkboard is to communicate. If the
child cannot see what is written, communication will break down and learning cannot
take place effectively. The same holds for a child who can only see things which are
near but cannot see those at a distance. Thus, if he is seated at the back of the class, he
will find it difficult to receive your message.
2. Dependence
As a result of the way a child has been brought up in the home, he may grow up to
remain dependent on others in whatever he does. If he has been too petted or
pampered at home, there is the tendency that he would always want someone to do a
number of things for him. In the classroom situation, he may find learning difficult
because he has never learnt to apply himself or use his personal efforts to solve
problems. This is rather common in the African tradition whereby if one happens to
be the only child of the parents, he is over-pampered and hardly allowed to do a
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number of things on his own. In the classroom, such a child does not put in efforts to
learn. In fact, trying to learn means a new life to him which he has to adapt to. Since
he does not possess the needed capabilities, desires and attitude to be initiative, he
would normally find learning difficult. At this stage, he does not have confidence in
his ability to achieve.
3. Lack of attention and concentration
If a child is not comfortable and well-fed at home, he may not be able to give the
needed attention and concentration for classroom learning. A hungry pupil is likely to
be ill- looking and restless in the class. While you are teaching, he is more concerned
with other problems and needs than the need to learn.
Similarly, if the child does not like you as the teacher because you fail to show love or
fairness to him, that hatred may be extended to your lesson. He is in the class so that
he would not be punished for being absent and not for purpose of learning. In this
way, your message does not get to him and learning does not occur as expected.
Inattention may be caused by emotional problems. A child may come from broken
home or be under the care of a step-mother who is harsh and cruel to him. He sees his
home as insecure and gets scared to get back there. The anxiety and depression
caused him by the home can easily be extended to the classroom. The result is that, he
finds it difficult to concentrate because his mind is not settled.
4. Absenteeism and lateness
A child that is constantly absent from class work is likely to have some learning
problems. It has been pointed out that learning proceeds in a predetermined sequence
and in stages. If one stage is jumped, a problem will be created. A child that is absent
always misses the trend of the lesson sequence and finds it difficult to learn. For
example, if a child was absent when 'Conjugation of verbs' was taught, he would find
it difficult to cope when 'Sentence Construction' is taught. This is because he does not
possess the basic information or ideas for sentence construction.
A child's absenteeism may be due to a number of factors including illness, accidental
death of relations, domestic work and lack of school materials like books. Lateness
has the same effect as absenteeism.
5. Mental retardation
Learning becomes a problem for a child when he is mentally retarded, that is, if his
brain is naturally not developed to facilitate learning. Mental retardation can be shown
in many ways. A child may find it difficult to recognise objects; letters of the
alphabet or numbers; or associate object or even remember what he has learnt. These
arise because the parts of the brain which coordinate learning and memory are
deficient.
Mental retardation may be due to early childhood events such as prolonged
convulsion, epilepsy, accidental falls and even dangerous drugs taken by the mother
during pregnancy. It could also be due to natural malformation of the appropriate
organs of the body, that is, where they are not well formed just as some people are
born with twisted limbs.
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ACTIVITY II
1. Explain any four causes of learning problems in children
2. Identify three factors that may bring about mental retardation in children
COPING WITH CHILDREN WITH LEARNING PROBLEMS

One of the greatest tasks of the teacher is to help children learn according to their capabilities.
At the same time, the teacher is expected to be of help to the children in solving their learning
problems. In doing this, the following suggestions have been made.
1. Effective sitting arrangement

As soon as you identify a child with hearing difficulty, make him sit in front of the
class. In this way, he would be able to hear most of what you say in the class.
Similarly, on identifying those who cannot see faraway objects clearly, make them, sit
in front of the class. Those who cannot see close objects clearly should be seated
behind the class. This may help them, to cope with learning.
2. Encouragement and counselling
For the child to get out of dependence, he needs to have faith in his own ability. You
should try and get this into his head that he can do most things. Make him believe that
he possesses the capabilities for working on his own. You should follow this up by
providing him with the opportunities for demonstrating his potentials and initiatives.
For example, the use of simple exercises.
Also, what the child needs in order to become more attentive in the class is
counselling. You should try to find out why he is restless and inattentive. If it
originates from the home, you may need to speak with his parents or guardians to
make them realise the need for conducive home environment for the child's progress
in learning.
The child himself should be made to realise that paying attention in the class helps
him to achieve something, that is, knowledge which is important for his future
prospect. You may use cases of school drop-outs to show the effect of inattentiveness
in the class.
3. Variation in learning experiences
A child may have got tired or bored by your way of teaching. You may have to vary
your teaching methods and provide varied learning experiences like story telling,
drama, singing, games and so on to revitalise or refresh the child's interest and desire
to learn. You may use the Parent-Teacher-Association as a means of talking to the
parents not to over-burden children at home. They should be made to realise that
children need good food, clean and well ventilated room and above all sufficient rest
at home. These make them strong and lively in the class.
4. Psychiatric treatment
There is little or nothing by way of medical treatment a teacher can do for a mentally
retarded child. The most he can do here is to identify him for reference to the
psychiatric specialists for possible medical assistance.
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ACTIVITY III
1. Examine any three ways in which you would be of assistance to a child with learning
problems.
SUMMARY
• Children with learning problems are those who not only learn slowly but learn much
less than others under the same conditions.
inability to remember, inability to ask or answer questions, and low scores in tests and
examination.
Causes of learning problems include:
i. Physical handicaps
ii. Dependence
iii. Lack of attention and concentration
iv. Absenteeism and lateness
v. Tiredness
vi. Mental retardation
• Solutions to learning problems include
i. Adequate sitting arrangement for those with hearing and sight difficulties
ii. Encouragement and counselling
iii. Variation in learning experiences
iv. Psychiatric treatment
ASSIGNMENT
1. Identify any three symptoms of learning problems in children.
2. Identify any five causes of learning problems in children.
3. Suggest three ways of assisting a child with learning problems.
REFERENCE
Udo-Ema, A. J.An Introduction to Teaching, Ibadan: Longman, 1960.
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MODULE 8: Unit 06 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching III EDU 125
UNIT 6 (EDU125.6): CLASS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT
INTRODUCTION
Formal learning is not an activity for the market square because of the disturbing and
uncontrolled atmosphere. It is ideal in a quiet and controlled environment. However, a
classroom may equally not be conducive for learning if the atmosphere is similar to that of
the market square or motor park. This explains the importance of class control and discipline
in teaching and learning situation.
The classroom atmosphere is no doubt determined by the control and discipline prevailing
there. The teacher's leadership qualities and the cooperation of the pupils are among the
factors which affect the classroom climate. The relationships among the students as well as
between the teacher and the students are some other factors. Much as the classroom serves as
a theatre stage for learning, the prevailing control and discipline are strong determinants of
successful learning. However, the emphasis in this unit is on reward and punishment which
are instruments of class control and discipline.
OBJECTIVES
1. define classroom control and discipline;
2. define reward and punishment;
3. explain the factors that aid class control and discipline;
4. explain the different kinds of reward;
5. explain the principles underlying reward;
6. explain the purpose and kinds of punishment;
7. explain the principles underlying effective punishment.

Read through the unit once. You should note the important ideas as you read. Also as you
read, look up unfamiliar words in your dictionary. Then go back and study the unit step by
step as arranged. Attempt all the activities given. Do not look at the sample answers provided
before attempting the exercises.
Try to observe all the rules stated. Do not forget to attempt the unit assignment. If you carry
out the above instruction, then you will benefit from this unit.
CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS AT THE
END OF THIS BOOK
WORD STUDY
i. Antisocial - Opposed to social laws
ii. Censure - Criticize unfavourably
iii. Commendable - Worthy of praise
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iv. Complimentary - Expressing admiration, praise

v. Conducive - Helping to produce
vi. Deprivation - Prevent from enjoying
vii. Determinants - Determining factors
viii. Endowment - Dive, possess naturally
ix. Mannerism - Peculiarity of behaviour, speech etc.
x. Scolding - Blame with angry words
xi. Temper - Condition of the mind and emotion
xii. Theatre stage - Biased platform on which the actors appear.
xiii. Violation - Act contrary to
MEANING OF CLASS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE

Class control has to do with the ability to maintain order and discipline among the class
pupils with the objective of creating a conducive learning.
The word discipline is perhaps difficult to define because it means different thing to different
people and professions. To the military, discipline means complete obedience to order. To
some others it means total conformity to the laid down rules and norms. The word discipline
is also used in higher institutions of learning i.e. Universities, to denote a branch of
knowledge or a subject. However, in classroom situation, discipline is viewed differently. If
we go by the verb meaning, it means to punish. As a noun, discipline means having
developed self control. In the classroom situation, the noun meaning is preferred.
Rewards in the classroom situation refers to the complimentary comments, gifts or marks
students are given for their good performances, actions, behaviour or services. This is a
counterpart of punishment. It is actually a worthy device to compensate the pupils for their
praiseworthy actions. Equally, it is used to stimulate the pupils to more good actions or to
work harder.
Punishment is the discomfort or pain inflicted on an offender solely as a result of some
definite violation of agreed rules or regulations of the school. It is usually given by someone
in authority.
FACTORS THAT AID CLASS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE

The classroom control is much influenced by the teacher's leadership qualities. The first
assignment a teacher has to do is to bring the pupils under control and to use all possible
stimulating activities to sustain the control as he teaches. Some of the ways of creating good
classroom control are:
1. Through preparation of his lesson: A teacher who is not sure of his facts or who is
shallow in the topic will not be able to control his class as expected.
2. Teachers' own personality: This refers to the teacher's human relationship with the
pupils, his physical appearance, the way he speaks, his temper and mannerism.
3. Classroom arrangement and organization: A teacher who organizes his class in such a
way that he can get to any part or any material without disturbing the peace of the
class, will sustain the control longer than a teacher who is unorganised. Equally, the
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teacher who lays out the materials he needed for his lesson in appropriate places and
gets them without wasting time during the lesson, stands a better chance of sustaining
the class control.
4. Teacher's performances during teaching: A teacher who is dull in presentation gives
the pupils the opportunity to wander in their minds. A teacher who knows the names
of all his pupils, who is brilliant and active in his presentation, who gives brisk and
clear instructions and who has consideration for his pupils will have their cooperation
and submission.
5. One of the factors that aid discipline in schools, is the making of few simple rules and
regulations which the pupils must know
6. Interesting work and the involvement of the pupils in the lesson: When the pupils are
interested and involved in the lesson they have no time for in disciplinary activities.
7. School studies: The pupils' attention should be drawn to the lives of successful or
great men of the past and present. Such people may be near or far away. The essence
of this is for the pupils to emulate their lives.
8. The School Societies are instruments of discipline. The pupils and teachers should be
encouraged to join them. There, they can develop good relationships which will help
in the class discipline.
9. Fairness in punishment: The teacher's punishment must commensurate with the
offence. The exact offenders only should be punished. The pupils must be made to
know that there is no witch-hunting and all the teacher is doing is for their benefit
individually and collectively.
10. Teacher's strictness: The teacher should be strict, firm but kind. There should be no
favouritism or bias in all he does in class.
ACTIVITY I
1. Defiine rewards
2. Define punishment
3. Mention the factors which aid discipline in the classroom.
KINDS OF REWARD
In schools, teachers use reward to
i. commend their pupils for their efforts or a good act done,
ii. encourage the pupils to continue striving harder to do better,
iii. encourage other pupils to emulate the recipients.
Children like to get rewards. They hate to be punished. This shows the possible
effects of rewards in relation to the pupils and the school, the pupils and their class
teacher.
There are different modes of rewards.
i. Praise. This is the commonest form of reward at the disposal of the teacher.
Complimentary statements like `very good', `Well done', `Good boy' `thank you, are
praises which pupils like to hear. Equally, clapping for them, hailing them, patting
them on the back, make them, happy.
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Most educators are of the opinion that praise is far more an effective reward than
prize, for example. One of the reasons is that, it is readily available to be used.
Secondly, it is not as costly as buying a gift. In fact, it does not cost any money.
However, the teacher should consider whom to praise, when to praise and how to
praise so as to make it effective. Praise should be based on progress or praiseworthy
actions. A child A' who normally gets between 7 and 8 out of 1O has not improved as
pupil B' who rose from 2 out of 10 to 6 out of 10. Thus, pupil B' should be praised for
his progress.
ii. Prizes. This is an expensive form of reward. It should not be frequently given. The
prizes should not be too costly and they should be the type that will be useful to the
children directly. Prizes won for academic ability should not be as valued as those for
hard work, good conduct, praiseworthy actions. The fact is that, academic ability is a
natural endowment. The learner may not always have to study hard to achieve. This
is unlike a less endowed pupil but who performs highly as a result of his hard work.
iii. Place taking
A commonly used form of reward is place taking. This is a situation where the pupils
are ranked according to their performances in given tasks. Much as this is an age long
form of reward, not much modification has been done to it to achieve some of the
objectives of reward. One of the reasons, is that it is always to the advantage of the
gifted or brilliant pupils. The weak ones, however much they try, often find
themselves below. Thus, they become discouraged. Only very few children react to
low positions and say "I will do better next time!
iv. Position of Responsibility in Class or School.
This is an assignment and also a reward for the pupils who display proven qualities of
leadership or ability to perform in one activity or the other. For example, pupils who
prove to be accommodating, responsible and possess other sterling qualities of
leadership could be made the head boy or a prefect later.
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING REWARDS

i. Rewards should be within the reach of every child. They should not be limited only to
the brilliant pupils. Instead, they should be for all the children who show evidences of
progress.
ii. They should not be expensive. Rewards could be exercise books, pencil, biro, pen and
other simple school materials.
iii. Rewards should not be given frequently neither should they be numerous. This is to
avoid losing its value. If for every little act a reward is given, then it will become
cheap and valueless.
iv. Rewards should be for commendable efforts. They should not be for natural academic
ability.
ACTIVITY II
1. Why do teachers give rewards in school?
2. Enumerate the principles underlying rewards.
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PURPOSE AND KIND OF PUNISHMENT

One of the purposes of punishment is to correct the misbehaviour of the child thereby
bringing a change in him for the better. Punishment should aim at making the children see
their mistakes and stop behaving antisocially or contrary to the school or societal rules and
regulations or norms
Secondly, punishment is inflicted to deter other pupils from copying the antisocial behaviour
of the offender.
Punishment may take many forms. It ranges from simple verbal interaction to expulsion.
Punishment at each stage depends on the gravity of the offence and the prevailing situation.
Punishment can be classified broadly into three categories as follows:
i. Verbal interaction punishments. These include serious advice, conference with the
pupils' parents, censure or class scolding.
ii. Deprivation punishments. These include loss of mark, temporary deprivation from
performing responsibilities in class or school, sending pupil out of class, deprivation
of pleasure, detention and task.
iii. Harsh or serious punishments. These include corporal punishment, suspension, and
expulsion from school.
1. Verbal Interaction Punishments
(a) Advice - This may be in form of pointing out the pupil's mistake and
counselling him as to how to behave. This is to make the offender sober and
see his mistakes.
(b) Conference with the offender's parents.
This takes place when the offender continues repeating the offence. This is to
call the attention of the parents to the behaviour of their child. It is also to
solicit for the cooperation of the parents to change their child for the better. It
is equally possible that the root of the indiscipline may be the home. The
parent's attention may help.
(c) Censure - This may be in form of reprimand or re- proof.
(d) Class-scolding - The offender may be asked to stand up in the class and be
scolded. This is more or less exposing him or putting him to shame in the
class. It is known that girls hate this type of punishment more than boys.
2. Deprivation Punishment
(a) Loss of marks - This may be used when the offence is connected with cheating
in one form or the other during any work. Whatever be, the deduction should
be clearly written on the page of the exercise book where the offence was
committed.
(b) Deprivation from performing responsibilities. A monitor or a captain who
committed an offence may be deprived of his office priviledges for a day or
two. This is to call him to order.
(c) Deprivation of pleasure. An offender may not be allowed to have his siesta or
go for games.
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(d) Sending out of class. This is often not recommended unless the presence of the
offender will work strongly against orderliness and effective learning in the
class.
(e) Detention and Task. This takes place after school hours or on Saturdays in
boarding schools. The offender is not allowed to go home in time, instead he is
given an assignment which may be mental or physical to do.
3. Harsh or serious punishments:
(a) Corporal punishment is not recommended in schools these days.
However, the head teacher can administer corporal punishment. It is one of the
punishments of the last resort. A pupil who has self-discipline would have
changed with any of the milder punishments discussed earlier.
Corporal punishment should not be indiscriminately used neither should it be
inflicted under anger or frequently. Hard canes or unyielding materials should
not be used on the child. The pupils should not be beaten on the head. Above
all, the child must see that he is given a fair trial before the punishment.
Corporal punishment should be recorded in the Punishment Record Book.
This is to protect the head teacher in future.
(b) Suspension. This is meant for grievous offences.
(c) Expulsion is the last resort of punishments. Both suspension and expulsion
must be recorded in the Punishment Record Book.
Clearance must also be received from the school proprietor before expulsion.
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING EFFECTIVE PUNISHMENT

i. The punishment should be given near where the offence was committed and as soon
as possible after the trial so that the offender can associate the punishment with the
offence.
ii. It should not be prolonged.
iii. The punishment must fit the offence.
iv. The age, physical and emotional conditions of the pupil and the sex must be
considered.
v. Punishment should not be administered in anger.
vi. The teacher must be convinced and he must make it clear that the offender deserves
the punishment.
vii. As much as possible, the simplest punishment should be inflicted for an offence.
Evidence of mercy should be displayed.
viii. Punishment should educate the offender against the future.
ACTIVITY III
1. Why do teachers punish their pupils?
2. Enumerate the principles underlying effective punishment.
154
SUMMARY
• Class control and discipline are necessary to create a conducive atmosphere for
learning in the classroom. Class control has to do with the maintenance of order and
discipline. Discipline in the classroom means self control. Rewards are the
complimentary remarks or gifts given to pupils for their progressive efforts or good
acts. Punishment is the discomfort or pain inflicted on the children as a result of their
misbehaviour.
• To have a good control in his class, the teacher has to prepare his lesson thoroughly.
He should be a master of his subject. He should be active during his lessons and his
personality should command the respect of his pupils. Among the factors aiding
discipline are the teacher's personality and his involvement of the pupils in his
lessons. School lessons and societies could be good aids to discipline. The school
rules and regulations should be simple and straight forward. There should be fairness
in punishment.
• Teachers use rewards to commend their pupils for good acts and to encourage the
recipient to improve on such acts. Equally, other pupils are encouraged to emulate
such good acts. Rewards may be in form of praise, prizes, place taking or giving a
position of responsibility in the class or school. It is recommended that it should be
within the reach of every student and it should not be expensive. It should not be
given too frequently neither should it be cheaply given. It should be for commendable
efforts. Punishments are given to correct the offender and deter both the offender and
other pupils from such misbehaviour. Punishment may be in form of verbal
interaction between the teacher and the pupils or the pupils' parents. It may be
deprivation punishment or the harsh or serious punishments. The verbal Interaction
punishments include serious advice, conference with the pupil's parents, censure and
class scolding. Among the deprivation punishments are loss of marks, temporary
deprivation from performing responsibilities in class or school, sending out of class,
deprivation of pleasure, detention and task. Harsh or Serious punishments are corporal
punishment, suspension and expulsion.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Enumerate the various types of reward
2. Explain the three broad types of punishment
REFERENCES
Asiedu-Akcrofi. K The Living Classroom, Ibadan: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1981.
Bello, J. Y. Basic Principles of Teaching Ibadan:John Wiley & Sows Michester and
Spectrum Books Ltd., 1981.
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UNIT 7 (EDU 125.7): THE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
By nature, man is a social being. His life is happier when he interacts with his fellow human
beings. Human interactions may take the form of talking, exchange of ideas, sharing moments of
joy and grief and so on.
Above all, a group of people may share common beliefs, norms and values which they transmit
from one generation to another. This transmission could be by means of behaviour, instruction or
telling, writing, artifacts and any other means by which the essence of their culture is learnt.
Today, the society has become so complex that the act of governance is no longer an easy one.
Efforts are made to bridge the gap between the people and government by ensuring effective flow
of information from either way. This could be by way of radio and television broadcast,
newspapers, face-to-face contact; or even the use of the town criers as is the case in most villages.
The essence is to communicate with the people as the case may be.
Communication is also an essential ingredient of teaching.
In this unit, you will learn about the process of communication in the classroom situation.
OBJECTIVES
1. explain the concept of communication;
2. explain with the use of a diagram, the process of classroom communication;
3. point out the importance of communication in effective teaching;
4. identify at least three barriers to effective classroom communication;
5. suggest at least three ways of improving classroom communication.

1. Think of a time when you could not understand what somebody was trying to tell you.
What do you think prevented you from getting his message?
2. Carefully study this unit step-by-step as put together and try to master the use of certain
concepts in it.
3. Follow all instructions and do the activities and assignment as these will help you develop
the needed ideas and skills.
MEANING AND PROCESS OF CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

Communication is a term that has been defined in different ways by different people. Of these
definitions, the term communication may be used to mean the transfer, transmission or exchange of
ideas, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes or emotion from one person or group of persons to another. For
example, 'You have been promoted.' This is information which is passed across to another person
by talking. I can tell you to come' by using hand gesticulation or signal. I can say 'no' by shaking
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my head. These are forms of communication. If I do not like what you have done, I may decide not
to talk or do anything with you. This may make you develop some feelings as a reaction to my
attitude. You may become sad if you meet people wailing over the loss of a relation. Their state of
emotion is thus transferred to you. These are also forms of communication.
Classroom Communication Process
What is communication process? You have seen the meaning of communication. A process is the
attribute of an activity to be continuous, proceeding in stages. Communication in the classroom is
not just a unilateral or one way direction of transmitting ideas or facts. It involves organised
procedures and requires finding out whether the message has been fully got. The acknowledgment
or reaction of the learner with regard to the message gives rise to further instruction. The process
continues in that form. Hence classroom communication is a process.
Classroom communication process involves three basic elements; the communicator, the message
and the receiver. The teacher who is the communicator is often referred to as the source. He
conceives of what to communicate, organizes them in the form of a lesson, selects the means or
media by which to communicate. These media are the channel of communication such as his voice,
facial expression, body gesticulation or movement, teaching aids, and so on. The learners are the
receivers who interpret the meaning of the message which the teacher transmits in their own system
such that they can understand. While they do this, they give feedback or response by way of asking
question, taking down notes, nodding the head, staring, listening and so on. Each feedback is useful
to the teacher in reviewing what he has taught or continuing with the lesson. The following diagram
shows a typical process of classroom communication
Source Message Channel Receiver
(Teacher) (lesson) (Oral discussion, (pupils)
demonstration,
teaching aids etc.)
Feedback
(Questioning, note-taking, listening, answering questions, etc.)
Figure 1. Process of communication in the classroom.
This process is a continuous one as feedback gives rise to new activities. It is therefore essential
that you are sensitive to the reactions of your pupils while you are teaching.
ACTIVITY I
1. Define communication.
2. Why is communication in the teaching-learning situation regarded as a process?
3. Explain the various elements involved in classroom communication process.
COMMUNICATION AND EFFECTIVE TEACHING

In this section, you are to examine the relationship between communication and effective teaching.
Teaching is the complex act of a person or group of persons trying to influence the behaviour of
another person or group of persons. It is the act of transmitting knowledge of some facts, ideas,
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information skills and even capabilities through the use of some techniques. On the other hand,
communication involves the transmission or transfer of ideas or information or knowledge or
attitude from one person to another. The purpose of communication is to cause a change in
behaviour or reaction. For example, if I say 'come', your behaviour will be affected when you react
by coming.
Teaching and communication have a number of things in common. Both involve two parties - one
transmitting and the other receiving. They both focus on transmission and their object is to
influence someone else. Teaching and communication, therefore, cannot be separated. In fact,
communication is an essential instrument for teaching. Without communication, teaching cannot
take place.
Think of a situation in which a teacher goes to the class to stand in front of the pupils without
uttering a word or writing on the black-board. The pupils keep staring and at the end he would have
achieved no behavioural objective because he failed to do something to influence the pupils'
behaviour in a desirable manner. In other words, he failed to communicate.
Similarly, think of a situation in which a teacher goes into the infant class and begins to speak high
sounding words as if he is teaching in the College or University. The pupils will only be moping at
him because they do not know what he is talking about. It follows that for effective teaching to
take place, there should be effective communication. But what is effective communication? It is
that which brings about the message getting to the receiver well understood. It also entails the
receiver giving a feedback or making a response. For example, if I say "come here' and someone
says that he is coming, that is the feed-back. If he keeps quiet, it could mean that he has not got my
message for one reason or the other. The communication becomes ineffective.
From the above, you can deduce that teaching fails at times because of ineffective communication.
But what makes communication ineffective? You will learn about this in the next section
ACTIVITY II
1. Write down any two relationships between teaching and communication.
2. What is the importance of communication in teaching?
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

As a teacher, one thing that may sometimes baffle you while reading through some pupils'
assignments or tests is when they write as if you did not teach them. You may be lucky that some
of them will be doing the right thing. One basic question that comes to your mind is: does it mean
that these pupils did not understand what I taught them? Certain factors may have constituted
barrier to your communication. These include the following:
1. Noise
Ineffective communication may result from some interference in the pupils' environment.
These may be shouts, laughter of other pupils, unusual sound from moving cars, shuffling
of feet or chairs on the floor and so on. Any such event in the physical environment which
interferes in the reception of the message is known as noise. Thus, for a learning situation to
be conducive, there should be no noise. If there are noises, they may distract the attention of
the receiver (the pupils) from listening and disrupt their trend of thinking. Noise could also
cause the source to loose trend of what he is saying thereby disrupting the trend which
would have facilitated effective learning.
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2. Incompetence in the use of language

One of the greatest problems of teaching is that some teachers lack the ability to express
themselves well in English Language which is the main language of instruction in Nigerian
Schools. Not only have some of them not been well grounded or trained in the use of
English, they find it difficult to communicate well in it, not being their mother- tongue. This
poses problem to effective communication. If the teacher is incompetent in verbal
communication skills, then he is limited in his ability to translate his thoughts, ideas or
intentions into a message that will elicit or bring about response or feedback. It is very
common to see pupils who find learning difficult because their teacher lacks the ability to
express his thoughts for pupils to understand.
3. Deficiency in listening skills
A teacher may put in his best to communicate his thoughts and yet some pupils are unable
to get the message. This arises perhaps when such pupils do not possess listening skills.
Listening is not just a matter of hearing sounds but involves catching the patterns of thought
and making meanings out of them. It involves comprehension. Unfortunately, most children
in Nigerian schools come from homes where parents are not reasonably educated and where
English is hardly used as a means of communication. Hence, they find it difficult to
understand being taught in English. Experiences at the International School, Ibadan have
shown that children tend to learn more when taught in their native language than when
taught in English.
4. Confusion in meanings
Certain words or concepts mean different things to different people depending on how they
are used. For example, the term "value' may be used to describe the element of people's
culture in relation to their concept of good and bad or right and wrong. It can also mean the
amount spent on a good or the importance or usefulness of something. When the meaning of
a word is not clarified by the source to suit a particular purpose, communication is likely to
break down. You as a teacher should therefore note that there is no room for the assumption
that people have the same meanings for identical things. You should always relate the
meaning of concepts to particular situations so that the pupils can easily understand you.
5. Lack of consideration for pupils' level in the use of technical and difficult words
Communication often breaks down when you are not talking to a child in the language he
understands in terms of the relationship between your vocabulary and his level of
development and understanding. If you use words meant for high-school students for
infants, your communication may not get a positive feedback. It is common for teachers just
coming out of training to show how much they know by using high sounding English
vocabulary. The pupils will end up moping.
ACTIVITY III
1. Discuss any four barriers to effective communication in the teaching-learning situations.
2. Mention any three causes of noise in classroom communication
HOW TO IMPROVE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

The point has always been made that effective teaching demands effective communication. Hence,
there is need to improve communication in the classroom. The following suggestions have been
provided.
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1. Minimizing noise
The teacher should try to minimize distractions from within and outside the class. Effective
class control is required and attempt should be made to prevent cars from driving straight
into the classroom areas of the school.
Where noise becomes inevitable, you should increase the volume of your voice to suppress
the noise.
2. Improved speaking ability.
The teacher should make effort to improve his verbal communication skills. He does this by
trying to speak good English always. He should try to pronounce words properly and aloud
for learners to hear and understand. At the teacher training institutions, attention should be
paid to adequate preparation of teacher-trainees in the use of language.
3. Be organized
Most people fail in their communication because they are not organized. In attempt to speak
fast, they fail to coordinate their thought patterns. You should therefore learn to think about
what you want to say before saying it.
4. Consider pupils' needs, interests and capabilities
At all times, you should have the pupils' level of development and understanding in mind
while teaching so that you do not use words or concepts far above their level. In this way,
your message may be received.
5. Class control
In order to promote listening with comprehension among the pupils, ensure that they pay
attention. The attention should not be such that their minds are not there. Constant use of
questioning and watchful eyes by you will help to get their listening attention.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Explain any four means of improving classroom communication.
SUMMARY
• Communication is the process of transmitting or transferring ideas, information or
knowledge from one person to another. In the classroom situation, it is the teacher
communicating with the pupils.
• Communication process involves the source (teacher), message (lesson) channel (methods)
receiver (pupils) and feedback (learners' responses).
• Communication is essential to teaching because without it teaching cannot take place.
• Classroom communication can breakdown due to:
i. noise
ii. lack of speaking ability
iii. lack of listening ability
iv. Confusion in meaning of concepts
v. Use of listening ability
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• Classroom Communication can be improved through.

i. minimization of noise
ii. teachers improvement of speaking ability
iii. proper organisation by the teacher
iv. a consideration of pupils' capabilities
v. class control.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the meaning of communication
2. Explain with the use of a diagram the classroom communication process.
3. Examine the importance of communication in teaching- learning situation.
4. Identify any three barriers to effective classroom communication.
5. Suggest any three ways of improving classroom communication.
REFERENCE
Nacino-Brown, R. Curriculum and Instruction: An Introduction to Methods of Teaching,
London: Macmillan, 1982.
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MODULE 8 Unit 08 General Principles of Methodology of Teaching III EDU 125
UNIT 8 (EDU 125.8): RESOURCES IN THE CLASS

ROOM/SCHOOL AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Children learn at different rates and by different means. There are those who learn better
when they hear; others learn better when they see and touch and some others learn more
when they combine all the senses of hearing, sight, touch and even tasting and smelling.
Consequently, the emphasis in teaching in our schools today is on the use of devices to
provide varied learning opportunities for children. Instead of merely relying on the teacher's
verbalisation or voice, there is a movement towards the use of a great variety of materials
around which can be used to make our meanings clearer, understandable and interesting.
These materials are often referred to as resources. In this unit, you will learn about these
resources in the classroom and how they are managed.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify at least five types of visual material resources in the classroom;
2. identify at least three types of audio material resources in the classroom;
3. discuss at least five guidelines for the selection of material resources in teaching;
4. discuss at least four principles which govern the use of material resources in teaching;
5. examine at least three ways of evaluating the use of material resources in teaching.

1. Study this unit carefully and master the concepts as used.
2. Proceed your study of this unit step-by-step.
3. Follow all instructions and do all activities and assignment.
RESOURCES IN THE CLASSROOM

Ordinarily, resources are materials which help in doing something. For example, flour, sugar,
water and so on serve as resources for the preparation of bread or cake. In the classroom
situation, resources become materials or devices which are used to facilitate teaching and
learning. Resources in the classroom can be classified into two broad categories. Those
which appeal to the sense of sight are classified as visual material resources and those which
appeal to the sense of hearing are classified as audio materials. There are also those which
combine both features and are classified as audio-visual (A-V) materials. Below are examples
of material resources according to the above classifications:
1. Audio-Materials
Radio
Tape-recorded material
Record Player
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2. Visual Materials
Pictures
Objects like pen, tin, cup
Specimens like feather, egg, frog, fish
Textbooks
Workbook
Newspapers
Magazines
Chalkboard
Projected materials like slides, films and filmstrips, over-head projector
Charts
Maps and globes
Posters
Diagrams
3. Audio-Visual Materials
Television
Cinema
Video tape recorder and TV
While it should be noted that the above list is not exhaustive, it should also be noted that all
of them may not be available in a single school. Also, each of these materials or resources
has its advantages and disadvantages when selected for use in teaching. For example, the
radio has the following advantages:
It is informative. Pupils get information and news from radio. In this way, they become aware
of what is happening in the state or country. For example, pupils get to know about most
government policies and programmes on the radio.
The radio serves educative purpose. In addition to the informal experiences it provides, there
are also educational programmes on radio. These programmes are based on selected topics in
the major school subjects like English, Mathematics and the Sciences and presented by
professional teachers in these areas.
Unfortunately, radio has the following disadvantages: It does not repeat itself. If a pupil fails
to hear what the radio says, he fore-feits the opportunity as the radio does not repeat itself.
Most of the educational programmes on radio are often not aired or broadcast at suitable
times. They are hardly broadcast during schools hours. Hence, the teacher is unable to adapt
them to facilitate teaching during the normal lesson for the subjects.
At times, a number of factors could make the use of radio in teaching to fail. For example,
thunder could disturb the radio wave and the volume of the radio such that pupils may loose
trend of the radio programme.
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ACTIVITY I
1. What are the three categories of material resources used in classroom teaching?
2. List three types of material resources under each of the three categories above.
SELECTION OF RESOURCES
When the resources in the classroom are employed in teaching and learning situation, they
become teaching aids. Since these resources aid teaching and learning, they must be
carefully selected in order to facilitate the attainment of the set objectives. The following
guidelines for the selection of resources have been suggested:
1. Visibility:
Whenever, a visual material is to be selected for use in teaching, an important factor
to be considered is the ease with which the pupils can see the materials be they
objects, models or specimens. For example, if a diagram showing the parts of a leaf is
used to illustrate the topic, it is only sensible for the diagram and the labelling to be as
bold as possible. This is necessary so that pupils sitting at the back of the class can
see without straining their eyes.
2. Audibility:
If the material resources to be used are those which make sense or meaning when
heard, they should be audible. In other words, they should be easily heard by all the
pupils in the class without straining their ears. For example, if a taped or recorded
educational programme is to be used, the recording should be well done to produce
good output. Where there is no electricity, good batteries should be used so that the
sounds produced can be distinct and clear.
3. Relevance:
Resources selected for use become useless if they are not relevant to the topic to be
taught. They are supposed to promote the lesson objectives. Therefore, the
relationship between the resources and these objectives should always be the guiding
principle in the selection of material resources for teaching and learning.
4. Attractiveness:
One of the roles of teaching aids or material resources is to stimulate and sustain
pupils' interest in the lesson. Therefore, whatever materials you select for use must be
attractive and carefully arranged. A well drawn and neatly labelled diagram is likely
to be more attractive than a mutilated one.
5. Simplicity:
Any material resources selected for use is supposed to convey a given information
which is relevant to the behavioural objectives for the lesson. It should not contain at
the same time, other information not relevant to the lesson. If the material contains too
many information at the same time, there may be the tendency for pupils' attention to
be distracted. Therefore, for the selected material to be helpful, it should be simple
and not too complex. For example, if you want to teach the parts of a feather, it
would be more appropriate to use a single feather rather than drawing a complete
fowl. Otherwise, some pupils' attention would be taken by the other parts of the fowl.
6. Easy usage:
Before you choose to use a given material resource, be it visual or audio, you must
ensure that you can manipulate it with ease. It becomes ridiculous and embarrassing if
164
you come to the class with an equipment which you cannot operate. Today, there are
numerous electronic media or resources which are being used to improve teaching and
learning. These include films and filmstrips, projector, and so on. Some of these
demand little technical skill to manipulate. The ease with which you can use a given
material resource should always guide your selection.
7. Availability:
One thing is to conceive of a very important and effective material resource and
another is for it to be readily available. Therefore, you should always consider the
availability of the materials you intend to select for use. Availability here includes
locating the materials and their prices. Those to be selected should be what the school
can afford. It is however more appropriate to make use of simple and cheap materials
so that the teacher can improvise some of them when the school cannot afford them.
8. Class/School environment:
The classroom and school environment determines to a great extent what materials are
to be selected for use in teaching and learning. If there is no electricity it is no use
thinking of a television or projector. If there is no dark- room, projector may not be
thought of.
9. Durability:
When materials are used to illustrate or demonstrate teaching, they are supposed to be
kept or preserved for sometime. At times, pupils may want to demonstrate the use of
such materials at the end of the lesson. In fact, the lesson period may be too short for
the pupils to fully appreciate the meaning of the materials. As soon as the lesson
ends, they try to pay more attention to the study of the diagram or specimen or object.
Therefore, the materials to be selected should be such that is durable and capable of
being preserved for a fairly long time. Besides, other teachers may want to make use
of the materials such as maps, specimens, objects and equipment in their lessons.
ACTIVITY II
1. Explain any five criteria for the selection of material resources in teaching.
2. Why should resources for teaching and learning be durable?
USE OF RESOURCES IN THE CLASSROOM

It has been said that resources in the classroom or school are meaningless unless they are
effectively employed in teaching and learning. But how can these resources be effectively
employed? The following guidelines will help you in your use of resources in the classroom:
1. Effectiveness:
Resources selected for use should be employed as teaching and learning aid not for
decoration or casual viewing. There is the tendency for some teachers to go into the
class with as many resources as possible without proper use of them. Instead they are
kept in front of the class without referring to them at the appropriate time. In planning
your lesson, you should always make provision for when and how to use the resources
which you intend to use. And when the time comes, you should make sure that they
are properly used.
Similarly material resources should be seen as aids to teaching and learning and not as
a substitute for the teacher. In other words, you should not think that your lesson will
be successful if you have selected the appropriate resources. They become useless if
165
not effectively used. In fact, the resources cannot speak well for themselves unless
they are interpreted, applied and demonstrated.
2. They must educate:
Often, some teachers use resources to entertain and kill time. For example, if you
spend unnecessarily too long a time on the use of a given resource, the impression
may be that you do not have more fact on the lesson and that you want to use the
materials to keep the time going. Again, the purpose of the materials should be to
inform and educate and not to amuse or entertain.
3. The use of resources should be systematic:
There are three stages which the use of materials should follow. The first is before the
lesson. Here, you need to preview the relevance of the materials to the lesson. You
should conceive of how to use them, the questions to expect from the pupils and a
plan of how to answer them. The second stage is the presentation of the lesson. Here,
you should use the materials to illustrate, explain and clarify concepts or theories or
principles. The last stage is after the presentation. Here, you need to review how far
the materials have been used effectively. Some more illustrations or clarifications
may be necessary to add meaning to the materials.
4. Purposefulness:
Materials for teaching are used for definite purpose, that is to promote the attainment
of the set objectives. In this way, emphasis is on stimulating and arousing pupils'
interest and curiosity which are relevant to the objectives of the lesson. Therefore, the
interest and curiosity which the materials generate should be seen as relevant to the
objectives and not merely a fun or entertainment. More importantly, the materials
should be used to clarify and explain concepts or facts or ideas and must enrich
learning the lesson.
5. Preparation of the environment:
Before you make use of any material resource for teaching, you should ensure that the
classroom environment is conducive for it. For example, you would need to darken
the room for better visibility if you want to make use of motion pictures, slides or
filmstrips. The room should be as free from noise as possible if you are making use
of audio materials as radio. So that the pupils can hear clearly.
6. Preparation for pupils:
It is proper for the pupils to have some background information or knowledge about
the subject under which the materials are to be used. This helps them to follow the
trend as well as ask questions relating to the problems the materials are intended to
solve. For example, before moving pictures are used to teach different types of
agriculture, the pupils would have been taught the various types of agriculture so that
they can easily follow the processes involved when they see the moving pictures. This
helps to promote the effectiveness of the moving pictures used for this purpose.
ACTIVITY III
1. Explain any four criteria for the effective use of materials for teaching.
EVALUATION OF MATERIAL RESOURCES

Much of the teacher's job calls for predictions about the kind and magnitude of changes in
learners' behaviour that are likely to result from various educational experiences.
166
Consequently, decisions have to be taken on a continuous basis on every technique or

material used to bring about these changes in learners' behaviour. Resources in the classroom
instruction therefore need to be evaluated to determine the extent to which they have made
learning possible. In evaluating material resources, the following guidelines should be borne
in mind:
1. Attainment of objectives
Materials are not employed for the fun of using them. They are to facilitate the
attainment of the set behavioural objectives for the lesson. In order to assess the
adequacy, efficiency and appropriateness of the materials used, you would need to
find out whether or not and to what extent the set objectives have been attained. The
attainment of the set objectives may be a good indication that the materials used are
appropriate. This probably comes at the end of the lesson. But the evaluations of
material resources for teaching could be done at every stage as the lesson progresses.
Here, you assess how the materials being used are influencing pupils' reactions -
attentiveness, eagerness, curiosity and so on as expression of understanding of the
purpose which the materials serve. Moreover, you assess the extent to which they are
able to answer questions based on the materials used. But when these behavioural
changes are not forthcoming, you should ask yourself if you are actually
communicating. You may have to look out for what is wrong with the materials or
their use that is preventing learning to take place.
2. Principle of use
At the end of the lesson, you need to ask yourself if you have actually applied the
principles of use while employing materials to facilitate teaching and learning. That
is, a consideration of the extent to which you have used the materials properly,
effectively and purposefully. You also need to ascertain the conduciveness of the
classroom environment and the background preparation of the pupils for the use of the
materials.
3. Principle of selection
One basic question you keep asking yourself before you make use of any material is
whether you have observed the principles of selection before choosing to use the
materials in teaching. This same question may also come after the lesson. To assess
the adequacy of the materials used, you reflect on the factors which you considered
before selecting them. The more of the principles of selection that you apply, the
more the adequacy of the materials.
On the whole, evaluation of materials in teaching provides a good deal of information
which are useful for important decisions concerning the improvement of teaching and
learning. It reveals where you have or have not observed the principles of selection
and use and the need to apply them in the future.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Outline any three criteria for evaluating materials for teaching and learning.
2. Why is the evaluation of materials for teaching and learning necessary?
167
SUMMARY
• Resources in the classroom are materials which are used to facilitate teaching and
learning
• Resources in teaching and learning are categorised into visual, audio and audio-visual.
• Each type of audio, visual and audio-visual materials has its advantages and
disadvantages.
• Principles for the selection of materials for teaching include.

i. Visibility
ii. Audibility
iii. Relevance
iv. Attractiveness
v. Simplicity
vi. Easy usage
vii. Availability
viii Environment
ix. Durability.
• Principles for the use of materials in teaching include

i. Effectiveness
ii. Educativeness
iii Purposefulness
iv. Environment
v. Preparation for pupils
vi. Systematic approach.
• Evaluation of materials in teaching can be based on the following criteria.

i. Attainment of behavioural objectives
ii. Principle of selection
iii. Principle of use.
168
ASSIGNMENT
1. Identify any five types of visual materials in teaching.
2. Identify any three types of audio materials in teaching.
3. Discuss any five guidelines for the selection of materials in teaching.
4. Discuss any four guidelines for the use of materials in teaching.
5. Examine any three ways of evaluating materials in teaching.
REFERENCES
Adjai, R. Principles and Practice of Teaching, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980.
Nacino-Brown R. et.al. Curriculum and Instruction - An Introduction to Methods of

Teaching, Lagos: Macmillan, 1982
Onwuka, U. (ed.) Curriculum Development for Africa, Onitsha: Africana Rep-

Publishers, (1981)
169
UNIT 9 (EDU125.9): RECORD KEEPING: IMPORTANCE,

TYPES AND PROCEDURE FOR
KEEPING THEM
INTRODUCTION
Like in many other social institutions, it is mandatory for the school to keep some records
which are vital to its existence and for the benefit of the pupils who pass through it. The
records are not kept for the fun of it. They are meant to be used as occasions demand. They
are equally meant to assist the teacher to perform his duties efficiently. An average child
spends 16 years in schools from the primary school till he graduates from the university.
Thus, the history of such a young man of early twenties is more or less his school life history.
A well kept school record is an instrument to build a history of the pupils. The society all
over the world is becoming more and more complex such that we cannot but keep accurate
records in schools in the interest of the state, of the teachers as well as the students. All these
facts were realized before the idea of continuous assessment record was introduced into our
educational system. This innovation depends on accurate keeping of records.
OBJECTIVES
1. identify the various records kept in schools;
2. list the importance of the school records;
3. explain the procedure for keeping the school records.

given. Do not look at the sample answers provided before the exercises.
MATERIAL AIDS
Each student should look for and study the following:
i. an admission register
ii. an attendance register
iii. a punishment log book
iv. a log book
v. a visitor's book
vi. a school record and diary
170
vii. a transfer certificate sheet

viii. a student progress record register or continuous assessment record.
ix. store ledger/stock book
x. cash account
xi. record of handicraft
xii. weather observation record
xiii agriculture record.
WORD STUDY
Aesthetic - Appreciation of beauty
Affective domain - Behavioural objective of feelings and emotions
Aptitude - Natural or acquired talents
Cognitive domain - Behavioural objective of knowing,
Disposal - Getting rid of, sell off
Embarrassment - Make to feel ashamed
Immense - Very large
Mandatory - Compulsory
Psychomotor - Behavioural objective about motor skills
Statistics - Collection of information shown in numbers.
TYPES OF RECORDS
There are many records kept in the school. Some are frequently or daily used while some are
used occasionally. They include:
1. The Attendance register,
2. The School record and diary;
3. The Continuous Assessment Record;
4. The Store ledger or stock book; and
5. The cash account book. These five are among those frequently kept and used. Others
include:
6. The admission register;
7. The log book;
8. The punishment log book;
9. The visitor book; and
10. The transfer certificates are among those not kept daily.
11. The Record of Handicraft,
12. The weather record, and
13. The agriculture record.
171
IMPORTANCE OF AND PROCEDURE FOR KEEPING THE RECORDS

1. THE ATTENDANCE REGISTER
The register is supplied by the school proprietor to as many classes as there are in the
school. Each class has one. It is marked on resumption in the morning and after the
long break in the midday.
Importance -
i. It shows the number of pupils present and absent each day.
ii. It helps to inculcate the spirit of regularity and punctuality in the mind of the pupils.
iii. It is used to give the parents the information as regards the regularity and punctuality
of their children in school. This is known when the records in the register is
transferred to the term's report.
iv. It helps the teacher to know when a pupil is absent and be able to check for the
reason(s). Cases of truancy are exposed in this way.
v. It helps the teacher to locate the possible cause or causes of a weak pupil's
performance. If a truant fails at the end of the session, a possible cause can be
established through the record in the register.
vi From the register, statistics of the population, sex and age of the pupils are given to
the Ministry of Education of the state or other interested researchers.
Procedure
i. The names of all the children in the class are written in the register.
The boys' names are written first in blue in alphabetical order while the girls' names
are written in red below in the same manner.
ii. The register is marked twice daily i.e. in the morning and afternoon sessions. In the
morning a slanting stroke from the left to the right i.e. (V) is marked in front of the
name of the child, who is present, under the week and the day of the week. In the
afternoon the slanting stroke goes opposite i.e. (V). At the end of the day, the strokes
will be (V). If the child is absent he will be marked zero on the two occasions i.e.
(oIo).
iii. The headmaster checks the register daily.
iv. At the end of the week the total number of strokes against the name of each child is
recorded in the analysis session.
All these are added together to know the total number as well as the percentage
present that week. The same is done at the end of the term and session accumulating.
2. THE SCHOOL RECORD AND DIARY

This record contains.
1 the scheme of work
2 the weekly record of work
3 list of books currently in use in the school
4. terminal and yearly examination results
5. the headmaster's special note column is also included.
172
Importance
(a) The scheme of work to be followed week by week in each subject is laid out there.
(b) The amount of work done each week in each subject is recorded in the diary.
(c) It shows areas of alterations in the scheme if there are any.
d) In case the teacher is transferred the dairy is the indicator of where the teacher
stopped and where his successor should start.
(e) The terminal and seasonal results of the class are also recorded there.
Procedure
(a) The scheme of work for each subject should be recorded there at the beginning of the
year. This should include the list of books.
(b) The topics covered in each subject each week should be recorded.
(c) The examination results for the terms and session should be recorded in the
appropriate columns.
(d) It has to be checked and signed by the head teacher every week and term.
3. CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT RECORD

(CUMULATIVE RECORD)
This is a comprehensive record which shows the particulars of the child as well as his
performances, activities and progress from the day he enrolled in the school until he
left.
Importance
i. The record contains the year by year physical development of each child.
ii. The monthly termly and yearly academic progress of each child is recorded.
iii. The emotional development and the child's behaviours are equally recorded.
iv. The detailed information about the child during his stay in the school can be obtained
from the record.
v. is now useful for certification and recommendations in later life.
vi. I is a reference document which contains the cognitive,
psychomotor and affective development of each child.
Procedure
The form used is supplied by the Ministry of Education. It may vary from one country or
state to the other. However below are the essential information required (i) General
Information.
(a Name -- Abebi, Bolade

(b) Date of Birth - 6th June 1980
(c) Home town - Igashi Ajowa Local Government Area (LGA)
Akoko North
(d) Nationality - Nigerian
(e) Date of Admission -1Oth Jan.1988 Adm. No. 2864
(f) Name of parents - S. B. Abebi
(g) Address of parents - 7 Bimbi St. Lagos
(h) Last School attended - Model Primary School Surulere.

(i) Date of Leaving - Dec. 4, 1987
(j) Class passed - Primary Two
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(ii) Academic Record

__________________________________________________________________
Year Primary Grading Strong Weak Remarks
Passed Subjects Subjects
__________________________________________________________________
1986 I Fair - - Hardworking,
1987 II Fairly Good Arithmetic Fine Art Cooperative
1988 III Good Arith. Gen. - and Kind.
Science
__________________________________________________________________
(iii) Health Record

__________________________________________________________________
Year Weight Height Days absent Illness General
(kg) (Meters) through ilness Health
1986 9.4 1.06 8

Fever Good
1987 10.3 1.15 5
Fever Good
1988 11.2 1.28 10
Headache
& Fever Good
_______________________________________________________________________
(iv) Games Record

_________________________________________________________________
Year Events Achievements Position of
Responsibility
1986 Active at play

1987 Egg race Won Junior race
in Interhouse
1988 Egg race Won Junior race Junior team
Relay race in Egg & relay leader
_________________________________________________________________
CONDUCT
____________________________________________________________
Year Remarks
____________________________________________________________
1986 Quiet
1987 Cooperative with peers
1988 Cooperative with peers, kind
__________________________________________________________________
General Comments Upon Leaving:
A kind, cooperative and well behaved girl.

Sign:______________
Head Teacher
174
Date:______________
ACTIVITY I
1. List some of the record books kept in schools.
2. What is the importance of the school Attendance Register?
4. THE STORE LEDGER/STOCK BOOK

In a school where there is a storekeeper, this record should be kept by him. He should
be supervised by the headmaster who is accountable to the proprietor of the school.
However, if there is no storekeeper, the headmaster is to keep the record.
Importance.
i. The store ledger is important because it is a record of all the materials in the
school.
ii. It helps both the school proprietor and the head teacher to know what has been
used among the consumable materials and what left. In other words, it helps
in stock taking of materials.
iii It assists the head teacher in the maintenance of the school materials.
Procedure
i. Reserve few pages for listing the materials and list the pages on which they are
recorded in front of them. This is to aid easy identification of records.
ii. Categorize the materials into permanent, semi permanent consumables. i.e.
1. Furniture - tables, cupboards, benches, desks etc.
2. Textbooks
3. Library books
4. Geography materials - Globes, maps, thermometer etc.
5. Science Materials
6. Agricultural Materials
7. Office materials etc.
iii. Allocate enough pages to each heading and record items.
vi. Spaces must be created for the receivers to sign as well as make further
remarks i.e. date and materials broken, when repaired or replaced.
v. All correspondences about stock should be filed.
5. THE CASH ACCOUNT BOOK
If there is an accountant or account officer in the school, he keeps this record under
the supervision of the head teacher. If there is no accounts' officer, the head teacher
keeps the record.
Importance
i. It is to record the income and expenditure of the school.
ii. To know the balance in the account at any given time.
iii. To guide the head teacher in the judicious spending of the funds.
175
Procedure
This depends on the kind of ledger supplied. However, the head teacher must record:
i. the amount received and the source
ii. the expenditure and the reason
iii. the counter-foils of all the bank tellers for deposit must be kept safe.
iv. the cheque book must be kept safe
v. the voucher must be filled and signed before any payment
vi. receipts for all purchases must be kept safe.
6. THE ADMISSION REGISTER

This is the first record in which the name of a new child should be written. It is kept
by the head teacher only. It is not frequently used like the Attendance Register.
(a) Importance
i. It is used to record the arrival and presence and withdrawal of any of
the pupils.
ii. It is kept to have an up-to-date list of all the children who had enrolled
in the school
(b) Procedure
It is a printed record supplied to the school by the pro-prietor. Usually, it is
ruled in tabular form under these headings:
i. Admission Number
ii. Name of pupil and date of admission (surname first)
iii. Sex
iv. Date of Birth
v. State of origin
vi. Name and address of parent or guardian
vii. Last School Attended: Name of School
Date of Leaving
Class passed
viii Date of passing successive classes
1st Yr. 2nd Yr. 3rd Yr. 4th Yr. 5th Yr. 6th Yr.
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985
ix. Date of Leaving and Reason
x. Date of re-admission (if any)
xi. Remarks.
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1. Each child should be given an admission number in serial order. This

he uses as long as he is in that school.
2. Start the number from OOO1 and continue as long as the school exists.
3. The surname is to be written first.
7. THE LOG BOOK
This is an important record in the school where all the important events and activities
which took place in the school are recorded. It is supplied by the school proprietor
and kept by the head teacher only.
i. It is the record for the keeping of important events and activities
in the school. i.e. the list of staff for the year - their names and qualification
tions, absence from school by staff, transfer, assumption of duty, inspection,
dates of opening and closing for the term etc.
ii. The reports of inspectors are usually copied into the log book.
Iii It is a record that keeps the history of the school.
8. THE PUNISHMENT LOG BOOK

The use of corporal punishment is no more allowed in our schools. Only the head
teacher is allowed to administer when it is very necessary. Other teachers are not
allowed. In an attempt to protect the head teacher as well as the students, every
corporal punishment is expected to be recorded.
Importance
i. Information about the offence committed by the child which necessitated the
punishment is kept in this record.
ii. The type of punishment and the manner in which it was given are recorded in
this record. Interested people can see it and compare the gravity of the offence
with the punishment given. This is to avoid misrepresentation of facts.
iii. The consciousness of the availability of a record to fill, makes many young
teachers to restrain themselves from punishing the children indiscriminately.
iv. The record serves as a protection for the head teacher against possible
prosecution in case the parents of the pupils punished decide to go to court.
Procedure
i. The head teacher keeps the record
ii. The information in the record should include the admission number, date,
name of pupil, sex, age, class, the nature of the offence, the punishment
showing number of strokes of the cane given. It should be signed by the one
who inflicted the punishment (usually the head teacher or anyone assigned
to),two witnesses one of whom could be the school head boy or girl and the
other a senior teacher. The head teacher should also sign. Minor offences and
the punishment should not be recorded in the Log Book.
ACTIVITY II
1. Give any two uses of the Admission Register?
2. Explain any three uses of the Log Book?
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IMPORTANCE AND PROCEDURE FOR KEEPING THE RECORDS

CONTD
9. THE VISITORS' BOOK

This record is to be signed by visitors to the school, particularly the government
officials
Importance
i. This is to show the names of the important visitors who had visited the school.
Ii It is also kept to show the degree of interest people in the environment take in
the school.
Procedure
i. It is kept by the head teacher.
ii. The information in the record should include visitor's name, address,
occupation, purpose of visit, remarks, signature and comments.
iii. When an important visitor calls, the book is given to him to record his
comments.
10. TRANSFER CERTIFICATE

This is usually given to a child who wants to leave the school for another school. This
record is provided by the school proprietor to be filled by the head teacher.
Importance
i. This is to testify to the particulars, standard and conduct of the child who is
going to another school so that he could be fixed in his appropriate class.
ii. This gives an up-to-date information regarding students who withdraw from
the school.
Procedure
i. It is issued by the head teacher at the request of the parent or guardian of the
pupil concerned.
ii. Detail information about the academic standard and conduct of the child as
well as his particulars should be recorded. The reason for leaving should be
written.
iii. A duplicate should be kept in the booklet.
11. THE RECORD OF HANDICRAFT

This should be kept by the class teacher or subject teacher. It should contain a record
of articles made by each child and their whereabouts.
Importance
i. The record is kept to show the aesthetic attitude and skills of each child.
ii. The record also shows the movements of the materials.
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Procedure
In tabular form the record should show:
i. The name of the pupil
ii. The article made
iii. The material and quantity used
iv. The source of materials
v. Date began
vi. Date completed
vii. Grade given
viii. How disposed of.
This is to be recorded for each item made for all the class pupils.
12. THE WEATHER RECORD

This is to be kept by the Geography teacher or any teacher assigned to keep it (in case
there is no special geography teacher).
Importance
i. This is to train the pupils in observing the geographical conditions of the
environment.
ii. It trains them to keep their own records at home.
Procedure
i. The record should be kept under the following headings in different pages:
(a) Temperature
(b) Rainfall
(c) Wind direction
(d) Nature of weather.
ii. The record should be kept daily, possibly throughout the year.
13. THE AGRICULTURAL RECORD

This is to be kept by the agricultural master if there is one, or by the class teacher.
Importance
i. This is to make the pupils create interest in agriculture.
ii. To have a record of planting and harvesting period as well as the quantity of
seeds planted and the harvest.
iii. To have a record of how the harvest was disposed of.
Procedure
The records should include the dates of making ridges, planting, hoeing and harvesting. The
quantity and weight of each item harvested should be recorded. The procedure of disposal
and any revenue accrued from it should be recorded.
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ACTIVITY III
1. Explain the procedure for keeping the visitors' book
2. Why does a child need a transfer certificate when moving to another school?
SUMMARY
In this unit, a list of school Records kept by the class teacher, subject teachers, other school
officers or head teacher were given. These records include:
1. The Attendance Register
2. The School Record and Diary
3. The Continuous Assessment Record
4. The Store Ledger or Stock book
5. The Cash Account book
6. The Admission Register
7. The Log Book
8. The Punishment Log Book
9. The Visitors' Book
1O. The Transfer Certificate
11. The Record of Handicraft
12. The Weather Record
13. The Agriculture Record.
The importance and procedure of keeping these records were given. Some of the records are
of immense importance to the future of the pupils and they must be kept accurately. From
them, future confidential reports about ex-students could be extracted. Some of the records
help to keep the history of the school. Some of them are to protect the teachers and head
teacher against embarrassment or court action while some are very useful to the educational
planners as well as researchers. The importance of these records cannot be over emphasized.
They need to be kept accurately.
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) What does the school record and diary contain?
(b) Of what importance is the School Record and Diary?
(c) How is it to be kept
2. (a) What are the advantages of keeping the punishment log book?
(b) How is it to be kept?
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UNIT 10 (EDU 125.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1-9
INTRODUCTION
Objectives are central to every educational activity, be it curriculum planning, teaching,
selection and use of materials and techniques. Consequently, every measure is taken to
ensure that these objectives are appropriate and attainable and that appropriate methods and
resources are employed for their attainment. Besides, special understanding is required of
children who have peculiar problems as well as how to assist them. These are some of the
themes you have learnt in Units 1 -9. In this unit, you shall recapitulate the main points in
these preceding units.
OBJECTIVES
1. state at least three behavioural objectives;
2. discuss the importance of behavioural objectives in teaching;
3. demonstrate how to prepare a lesson note;
4. demonstrate how to evaluate learning outcomes;
5. examine rewards and punishment as instruments of class control and discipline;
6. describe the process of communication in the classroom;
7. suggest how to improve communication in the classroom;
8. identify types of records kept in the classroom;
9. discuss the importance of record keeping in the classroom.

1. Read through this unit once, taking note of important concepts and ideas.
2. Then go through the unit carefully and step by step
3. Do all the activities before proceeding to the next step and do the assignment at the
end.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
Without objectives, there would be no basis for the implementation and evaluation of
curriculum. So objectives are very fundamental in all educational processes. Educational
objectives are conveniently classified into general and specific. General objectives are those
broadly stated without limitation in terms of the specific action to take. For example, the
objective of teaching Social Studies is for pupils to appreciate the relationships between man
and his physical and social environment. This is general. But specific or instructional or
behavioural objectives are those which state in concrete and operational terms the kind of
changes expected in pupils' behaviours or performances. They provide the specific guidelines
for curriculum implementation and evaluation. For example, at the end of the lesson on Man
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and his Physical Environments, the pupils; should be able to explain at least five ways in
which the physical environment influences man's life. Behavioural objectives are stated at the
instructional or each lesson level to specifically and clearly show what the pupils would be
doing at the end of the lesson. Moreover, they should be pupil-centred, relevant to the lesson
and capable of being measured. In this way, the objectives guide teaching, make teaching
realistic, facilitate tests construction and evaluation.
However, behavioural objectives are stated depending on the aspects of learning we are
concerned with. There are the cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of learning. The
Cognitive deals with the acquisition of knowledge and facts which can be recalled for
evaluation. The affective deals with behaviours that relate to attitudes or values. On the other
hand the psychomotor deals with the application of skills to manipulate objects.
These areas of learning are further classified into levels. For example, the cognitive is broken
into six level as follows: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. The first two are lower levels concerned mainly with factual learning while the
last four are higher levels concerned with divergent thinking and value judgement.
Objectives stated at the various levels reflect this distinction.
ACTIVITY I
1. What are behavioural objectives?
2. Explain any four features of a good behavioural objective.
3. State two behavioural objectives
4. Identify the six levels of cognitive learning.
LESSON PREPARATION AND EVALUATION OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
Preparation and planning are fundamental in every human endeavour as a way of outlining
the goals and methods to be used in their attainment. In the classroom situation, you are
bound to always prepare for your lesson before teaching. You do this by writing a lesson
note that is a framework or outline of the activities to take place during the lesson. These
activities could be teacher-oriented or pupil-oriented.
A lesson note , though concise and sketchy, contains the vital points and steps of progression
in the lesson. Hence, it guides you to the most relevant points, thereby saving time and
conserving your energy.
Though, there are no formats generally recommended for use in writing your lesson note,
there are parts of the lesson note that are common to all formats. These are as follows:
(a) The subject and topic
(b) Description of the pupils to be taught
(c) Instructional and behavioural objectives.
(d) Duration of the lesson
(e) Teaching aids or material resources
(f) Pupils' entry behaviour
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(g) Introduction of the lesson

(h) Development of the lesson
(i) Summary
(j) Evaluation of the lesson
(k) Assignment for the pupils
These components can be developed upon to produce a lesson note. For example:
Lesson Note on Mathematics
Topic: Area of a rectangle
Class: Primary
Age : 1O+
Sex : Mixed
Objectives : At the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to

(a) describe a rectangle
(b) draw a rectangle
(c) state the formula for finding the area of a rectangle
(d) find the area of a rectangle
Duration: 35 minutes
Teaching Aids: Chalkboard, ruler, chalk and cardboards containing rectangles of
various sizes and an empty carton of sugar.
Entry Behaviour: The pupils have known the shape of a box or carton
Introduction: A cardboard containing a rectangle is shown to the pupils
Question : What is the shape of this diagram?
Answer: It is a four-sided diagram with opposite sides having
equal length.
Teacher If we move round the sides of a rectangle, the distance
covered in the area is written on the board.
Topic Construction of a rectangle"
Development:
Step I: Formula for the area of a rectangle
Area = breadth x length
(explain the meaning of breadth and length.)
Step II: Finding the area of a rectangle
(draw a rectangle on the board with dimensions and apply the formula
and appto find the area).
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For example:
10cm
5cm
length = 10cm
breadth= 5cm
Area = Length times breadth
i.e. 10cm times 5cm =50cm.
Step III: Bring out cardboards with rectangles drawn on them and ask the pupils, to find
their areas (dimensions should be provided).
Summary:
(a) A rectangle has four sides with opposite sides equal
(b) The area of a rectangle is its breadth x length.
Evaluation: - Oral questions and written work.
(a) What is a rectangle?
(b) Draw a rectangle.
(c) What is the formula for finding the area of a rectangle?
(d) Find the area of a rectangle whose length is 17cm and breadth 12cm
Assignment: What is the difference between a rectangle and a square? This is a specimen
lesson note.
At the end of the lesson, there is always the need for you to evaluate the learning outcomes.
That is a judgment on the extent to which the set objectives have been attained. A number of
techniques are used to do this. They include tests and observations.
Tests are commonly used to evaluate cognitive learning outcomes. The tests are either essay
types or objective types.
Essay-type tests permit the pupils to express themselves while the objective tests provide
alternative answers to the questions from which they are required to choose the correct one.
In any case, tests construction should follow certain guidelines including validity, reliability,
objectivity and usability. Each of these criteria has been explained. In addition, the
construction should be clear and grammatically correct; reflect pupils' level of understanding
and development; accurate and directing. The essay should not be complicated but point to
the exact information expected from the pupils. On the other hand, the objective tests should
be such that do not have more than one answer neither should the correct answer stand out for
easy identification. For example which of the following is the odd one out?
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(a) flowers
(b) fruits
(c) trunk
(d) Intelligence
If a pupil does not know the correct answer, he may consider the length or the answer and
feel that the one that is shortest or longest is the correct one. Hence, there should be equality
in length and similarity in structure of the alternative answers. The above objective question
is therefore deficient.
Evaluation of learning outcomes comes at the end of the lesson, week, term, year or course of
study and serves the following purposes:
1. As a measure of the effectiveness of the teaching strategy.
2. As a source of encouragement for pupils.
3. As a basis for guidance and counselling.
4. As a basis for streaming.
5. As a basis for promotion.
6. As a basis for certification.
ACTIVITY II
1. Examine the importance of lesson preparation
2. Write a lesson note on the principles of Hygiene.
3. Why is the evaluation of learning outcomes necessary?
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING PROBLEMS

The primary aim of teaching is to help the learners acquire or change certain attitudes, skills,
knowledge and values so that they become useful to themselves and the society.
Unfortunately, it is not every teaching that brings about the desired learning on the part of
every pupil. Some learn fast, others slowly and some others do not learn at all. This is due to
the fact that some children have difficulties in learning. These difficulties manifest in various
forms such as inability of learners to participate in most learning activities, poor
performances in tests and examinations, and so on. Hence, you are advised to monitor the
rate at which your pupils learn to identify those with learning problems.
Learning problems are caused by a number of factors including:
(a) Physical handicaps - visual and hearing or auditory problems

(b) Dependence or learnt inability to do most things on one's own.
(c) Lack of attention and concentration in the class due to noise and emotional stress
(d) Absenteeism and lateness to school
(e) Tiredness
(f) Mental retardation.
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The above problems can be solved or minimized by:

(a) adequate sitting arrangement in the class to facilitate better hearing and vision;
(b) encouragement and counselling;
(c) variation in learning experiences and methods of teaching to stimulate pupils' interest
in learning; and
(d) psychiatric treatment.
ACTIVITY III
1. Give any four causes of learning problems in children.
2. Suggest three ways of handling learning problems in children.
THE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The essence of teaching is to influence the behaviour of the learner. This change is
acknowledged or shown by the learners' response to the learning situation. But when the
information conveyed does not reach them, they would have nothing to learn. For there to be
learning, you are expected to employ suitable means of transmitting the ideas, information or
knowledge to the learners. The process of doing this is referred to as communication.
Communication in the class is regarded as a process because it is characterised by continuity.

It involves the source who is the teacher, the message which is the lesson, that feedback
which is the signs that the message has reached the receiver. This is shown below
Source Message Channel Receiver
Feedback
Fig. 2: Classroom Communication Process

When the message gets to the receiver, the meaning it makes is shown
in the ways the receiver or pupils respond by way of asking or answering questions. This will
further lead you to come up with another message by way of clarifications or answering
questions. The process continues.
For communication to be effective, the message must get to the receiver and the receiver
must make meaning of it. Unfortunately, a number of factors prevent effective
communication in the class. These include:
(a) Noise or distractions.
(b) Inefficient use of language by the teacher.
(c) Poor listening skills of pupils.
(d) Confusion in meaning of concepts.
(e) Lack of consideration for the level of pupils' understanding and development in the
teacher's use of difficult and technical concepts.
186
Effective communication is very basic for effective teaching. Without communication, there
would be no way of the pupils hearing what you are saying or seeing what you are doing.
Therefore, the following are suggested for the improvement of classroom communication.
i. Noise minimization.
ii. Improved speaking ability of the teacher.
iii. Self-confidence and organisation. Teachers should think of what to say before
saying it and should be organized in their speech.
iv. A consideration for pupils' level of understanding and development while
teaching.
v. Effective class control.
ACTIVITY IV
1. Use a diagram to show the communication process in the classroom.
2. Explain any four means of improving classroom communication.
CLASS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE

One of the qualities of a good teacher is his ability to control his class and make the best use
of the available resources in the school.
Class control and discipline are necessary for conducive atmosphere for learning to take
place. This has to do with the maintenance of order and discipline.
Discipline is the ability of the pupils to control themselves without necessarily being forced
to. When a child demonstrates self-control in the class, he gets complimentary remarks or
gifts. These are rewards. But when he misbehaves he gets punished or reprimanded.
To have a good control on your class, you have to be a master of your subject so that you can
command the respect and attention of your pupils. In addition, you should develop
acceptable personality and the school rules and regulations should not be too harsh and rigid.
When punishments are used to correct and reprimand offenders or deter others, they should
be fair and commensurate to the gravity of the offence committed. Such punishment could be
ordinary verbal disapproval; deprivation, corporal punishment, suspensions or expulsion.
On the other hand, if a child does something commendable, he deserves reward to keep him
on and encourage others to try. All the same, the rewards which could be material or verbal
should be used sparingly to make them valuable. They should be within the reach of every
child and should be given distinctions.
Thus, punishment is used to discourage unacceptable behaviours and rewards used to
encourage good efforts and acts. These help to keep the class under control.
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

In the classroom/school, there are resources which you can use to facilitate teaching and
learning. These are audio and visual material resources such as radio, pictures, charts,
specimens, objects, textbooks, and so on. These are supposed to assist you in clarifying,
illustrating and demonstrating your lesson for the pupils', understanding. In order to make
their use effective, the following should be borne in mind while selecting material resources.
1. Visibility, if they are those which make meaning by being seen.
2. Audibility, if they are those which produce sounds.
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3. Relevance, they should have something to do with the objectives and content of the
lesson.
4. Attractiveness, to arouse pupils' interest in the lesson.
5. Simplicity. They should not carry too much information at the same time.
6. Easy usage.
7. Availability in terms of where to see them and their cost.
8. Classroom environment should be conducive to the use of the materials.
9. The materials should be able to last for some time.
Similarly, the use of these resources selected should be based on the following.
i They should be effectively and properly used as teaching aids and not as
decoration.
ii. They should be used to inform and educate and not to entertain.
iii. They should be used in a systematic manner.
iv. Their use should be purposeful.
v. Their use should follow pupils' background knowledge of what to expect from
the use of such materials.
(vi) They should be used only when the classroom environment is conducive.
At the end of the use of a given material resource, you need to find out the extent it has
contributed to the lesson objectives. This is evaluating the resources themselves.
Things to consider here include:
i. The attainment of the set objectives for the lesson.
ii. The extent to which you based your selection on prescribed criteria.
iii. The extent to which you based your use of the materials on the prescribed
criteria for the use of resources in teaching.
ACTIVITY V
1. Define rewards.
2. Define punishment.
3. What should be the guiding principles in the use of punishment in the class?
4. What purposes do reward and punishment serve in classroom management?
5. Explain any four criteria for the selection of resources for teaching.
RECORD KEEPING: IMPORTANCE, TYPES AND PROCEDURE

FOR KEEPING THEM
The school is a permanent feature of the society whose activities continue so long as the
society exists. Consequently, it needs to draw from its past for future planning. Also it needs
to keep record of its pupils and teachers whether past or present. It is therefore necessary that
all vital records of the school be kept for they serve a number of purposes. In fact records
188
serve as documented customs and tradition which guide school administration from time to
time.
Records commonly kept in schools include the following:
i. The Attendance Register.
ii. The School Record and Diary.
iii. Pupils' Continuous Assessment Record.
iv. Store Ledger.
v. Pupils' Admission Register.
vi. Stock Book.
vii. Cash Book.
viii. Log Book.
ix. Transfer Certificates.
x. Punishment Log Book.
xi. Visitors Book.
xii. Record of Handicrafts.
xiii. Agriculture Record.
xiv. Weather Observation Record.
Some of these records are kept daily while others as the situation arises. For example, the
attendance register is kept on daily basis by taking the roll call in the morning and afternoon.
Those present in the morning are marked with strokes slanting to the left (\) while the strokes
slanting to the right are used in the afternoon. Thus, the mark (v) shows that a student/pupil
was present all day while those absent get (OO).
On the other hand, the record and diary is kept on weekly basis. In it, the teacher enters what
he has taught in the week. Whatever record that is kept in the school should be well preserved
so that they become references for generations to come.
ACTIVITY VI
1. List any five records kept in the school.
2. What is the importance of record keeping in schools?
SUMMARY
• Behavioural (or lesson or instructional or performance) objectives are what you hope
the pupils would be able to do the end of the lesson as evidence that learning has
taken place.
• Educational objectives fall into cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Cognitive
learning has six levels-knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation.
• The behavioural objectives are clear, specific, pupil centred and measurable.
Moreover, they serve a number of purposes.
189
• The lesson note is the framework of all the activities of the teacher and the pupils
during the lesson. It has basic parts including the topic to be taught, objectives of the
lesson, development and evaluation of the lesson.
• Evaluation of learning outcomes is a measure of the extent to which the stated
behavioural objectives have been attained. Evaluation of cognitive learning outcomes
makes use of tests which could be essay or objective types.
• Tests should be valid, reliable, objective and usable.
• Evaluation of learning outcomes has a number of uses including serving as:
i. a basis for assessing the effectiveness of teaching strategies.
ii. a basis for streaming the pupils.
iii. a basis for promotion.
iv. a basis for certification.
v. a basis for guidance and counselling.
• Children with learning difficulties are those who not only learn slowly but learn much
less than others under the same conditions. Learning problems in children are caused
by:
i. Physical handicaps.
ii. Dependence.
iii. Lack of attention in the class.
iv. Absenteeism and lateness.
v. Tiredness.
vi. Mental retardation.
• Solutions to the problems of learning in children include:
i. effective sitting arrangement in the class.
ii. encouragement and counselling
iii. variation in learning experiences and methods of teaching.
iv. Psychiatric treatment.
• Communication is the process of transmitting ideas or information from one person to
another. In the classroom, it is the teacher communicating with the pupils. The
process involves the source, message, channel, receiver and feedback. While teaching
is an act, communication is the process of transmitting knowledge. So, without
communication there would be no teaching. Also, effective teaching depends on
effective communication.
• Barriers to classroom communication include.
i. noise
ii. poor listening skills of pupils
iii. Teachers' poor speaking skills
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iv. Inattentiveness of pupils

v. Lack of consideration for pupils' level of understanding in the use of difficult
words.
• Classroom communication can be improved in these ways:
i. Noise minimization
ii. Teachers' improvement in speaking ability
iii. Proper organisation of what to say by the teacher
iv. Effective class control
v. A consideration of the pupils' level of understanding in your use of difficult
and technical words.
• Orderly and disciplined atmosphere is necessary for effective learning in the class.
Hence, the class needs to be under control at all times. Rewards and punishment serve
as tools for class control.
• Resources available in the school include audio and visual materials which are used to
facilitate teaching and learning. Their selection should be based on:
i. Their relevance to the lesson
ii. Visibility to the pupils
iii. Availability to the pupils
iv. Attractiveness
v. Simplicity
vi. Availability
vii. Easy usage.
• The use of the material resources should be based on:
i. Effectiveness
ii. Educativeness
iii. Purposefulness
iv. Preparation of the pupils
v. Preparation of the environment.
• In evaluating resource materials, the extent to which they have helped to attain the set
objectives as well as the criteria for their selection and use should be considered.
Record keeping in school provides references for the administration of the school.
• Records kept in schools include:
i. Attendance register
ii. Admission register
iii. Log book
iv. Store ledger
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v. Cash book
vi. Record and Diary
vii. Transfer register
viii. Stock book, etc.
• Some of the school records are kept on daily basis while others as the need arises.
ASSIGNMENT
1. State any three behavioural objectives.
2. Discuss the importance of behavioural objectives in teaching.
3. Write a lesson note on a topic of your choice.
4. Construct a multiple choice question.
5. How do rewards and punishment help in class control and discipline?
6. Describe the process of communication in the classroom.
7. Suggest four ways of improving classroom communication.
8. Identify any five types of records kept in schools.
9. Of what importance is record keeping in schools?
REFERENCES
Bello, J.Y. Basic Principles of Teaching, Ibadan: John Wiley and sons, 1981
Akrofi, A. The Living Classroom, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981.
Adjai, R. Principles and Practice of Teaching London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980
Nacino-Brown, R. etal, Curriculum and Instruction: Introduction to Methods of Teaching,
Lagos: Macmillan, 1982
Mkpa, M. A. Curriculum Design and Instructional Evaluation Ibadan: Evans Brothers
(Nig) Ltd. 1986
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MODULE 8 ANSWERS General Principles of Methodology of Teaching III EDU 125
UNIT 1 (EDU 125.1): OBJECTIVES IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
(INSTRUCTIONAL AND
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES)
ACTIVITY I
1. Behavioural objectives are the desired changes in behaviour that the pupils are
expected to accomplish by the end of the lesson as evidence that the desired learning
has taken place.
2. At the end of the lesson on community development, the pupils should be able to:
(a) define community development;
(b) state any three objectives of community development; and
(c) identify at least three agents of community development.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Clarity
(b) Relevance
(c) Measurability
(d) Child centredness
(e) Specificity
2. (a) The behavioural objectives have to be clearly stated to avoid doubts about the
intentions of the teacher.
(b) The objectives should be relevant because they are supposed point to the
aspects or scope of the topic or subject-matter to be taught.
c) Measurability is required of behavioural objectives because it facilitates the
evaluation of the lesson.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Behavioural objectives serve as guide to teaching.
(b) They facilitate evaluation and test construction.
(c) They provide motivation for teaching and learning.
(d) They make teaching pupil-centred.
1. Behavioural objectives are what the teacher expects the pupils to be doing at the end
of the lesson as evidence that the desired learning has taken place.
2. (a) Clarity
(b) Specificity
(c) Measurability
(d) Pupil-centredness
(e) Relevance
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3. (a) Behavioural objectives serve as guides to teachers.

(b) They facilitate evaluation and test construction.
(c) They provide motivation for teaching and learning.
(d) They make teaching pupil-centred
4. By the end of the lesson on the occupations of the Binis, pupils should be able to:
(a) define an occupation;
(b) identify at least three main occupations of the Binis; and
(c) give two reasons why the Binis are known for their occupations.
UNIT 2 (EDU 125.2): TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL

OBJECTIVES
ACTIVITY I
1. Cognitive learning objectives are those statements describing the expected outcomes
of learning which concern intellectual, mental or academic tasks.
2. (a) Knowledge of facts
(b) Comprehension of ideas
(c) Application of facts and skills
(d) Analysis of issues.
(e) Synthesis of facts
(f) Evaluation-making judgment or decision
ACTIVITY II
1. Affective learning objectives refer to statements of expected learning outcomes which
concern such internalized state of the mind as attitudes, feelings, emotion or values.
2. (a) Characterization
(b) Organisation
(c) Valuing
(d) Responding
(e) Receiving
3. (a) Pupils to demonstrate awareness of the existence of God (Receiving)
(b) (Characterization)
(c) Pupils to participate in cooperative activities (Valuing)
ACTIVITY III
1. Psychomotor learning objectives are statements of expected learning outcomes that
relate to the ability of the learner to acquire and apply manipulative, motor or physical
skills.
239
2. (a) Communication
(b) Application
(c) Acquisition
3. (a) By the end of the lesson, the pupil should be able to draw the correct map of
Nigeria.
(b) The pupils should be able to make use of the electronic calculator
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) Cognitive domain relates to intellectual or mental learning outcomes.
(b) Affective domain involves learning of internalized behaviours e.g. attitude and
value
(c) Psychomotor domain relates to the application of skills to manipulate objects
2. (a) Knowledge
(b) Comprehension
(c) Application
(d) Analysis
(e) Synthesis
(f) Evaluation
3. By the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to:
(a) define division of labour;
(b) distinguish between polygamy and monogamy; and
(c) discuss a method of population control in Nigeria.
4. (a) Characterisation
(b) Organisation
(c) Valuing
(d) Responding
(e) Receiving
5. By the end of the lessons, students should be able to do the following:
(a) develop honesty as a value;
(b) show awareness of the existence of God; and
(c) appreciate the importance of national unity in Nigeria.
6. (a) Communication
(b) Application
(c) Acquisition
7. By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) construct perfect squares; and
(b) draw and label a right angled triangle.
240
UNIT 3 (EDU 125.3): LESSON PREPARATION, LESSON

NOTES AND LESSON PATTERNS
ACTIVITY I
1. A lesson note may be seen as the plan or framework of the activities of the teacher
and the pupils during the lesson.
2. The lesson note:
(a) Serves as a guide to lesson preparation.
(b) Serves as a guide to lesson presentation.
(c) Serves as a reminder.
(d) Makes lesson systematic.
(e) Saves time.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Subject and topic/title.
(b) Description of pupils (class, average age, sex).
(c) Instructional objectives.
(d) Duration of the lesson.
(e) Teaching aids.
(f) Pupils' previous knowledge.
(g) Introduction.
(h) Development.
(i) Summary.
(j) Evaluation.
(k) Assignment.
2. It bridges the gap between what the pupils have possibly known and what they have
not known.
3. (a) Relevance
(b) Attraction
(c) Simplicity
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) i. The pupils know that people communicate through letters.
ii. The pupils have been seeing envelopes and know that they are used for
letters.
(b) i.. The pupils can recognise different denominations of the Nigerian
currency.
ii. They are used to buying and selling.
2. Take your answers to the course tutor at the study centre.
241
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) A lesson note serves as a guide to the teacher.
(b) It serves as a reminder.
(c) It promotes effective teaching.
(d) It makes teaching logical and systematic.
(e) It saves the teacher's time.
2. The main parts of a lesson note are:
i. Subject and Topic to be taught.
ii. Description of the pupils to be taught.
iii. Instructional and behavioural objectives.
iv. Duration of the lesson.
v. Teaching aids to be used.
vi. Pupils' previous knowledge.
vii. Introduction.
viii. Development of the lesson.
ix. Summary.
x. Evaluation.
xi. Assignment for the pupils.
3. Check against the format and procedures used in the specimen lesson note. Take your
answers to the course tutor at the Study Centre.
UNIT 4 (EDU 125.4): EVALUATION OF LEARNING

OUTCOMES
ACTIVITY I
1. Evaluation is the process of or procedure for measuring the extent to which the set
objectives have been attained.
2. (a) Cognitive learning outcomes
(b) Affective learning outcomes
(c) Psychomotor learning outcomes
ACTIVITY II
1. Evaluation of learning outcomes:
(a) serves as a basis for pupils' promotion.
(b) serves as a basis for selection of pupils for admission or employment.
(c) It is a measure of teaching effectiveness.
(d) helps to assess teaching strategy.
242
(e) It is a measure for standards for schools.

(f) It forms basis for guidance and counselling.
2. It makes the pupils to work hard to avoid relegation to arms of the class meant for dull
pupils.
ACTIVITY III
1. Tests and examinations.
2. (a) Validity
(b) Reliability
(c) Objectivity
(d) Usability.
3. Example of a restricted and an unrestricted question respectively.
(a) Discuss any five qualities of a good citizen.
(b) What are the qualities of a good citizen?
4. Example of a multiple-choice question.
Multiply 0.5 by 1.3
(a) 65
(b) 6.5
(c) 0.65
(d) 0.065
Relevant examples will do.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Evaluation is the process of or procedure for measuring the degree of progress which
a child makes in his class work. This is done in relation to the set behavioural
objectives.
2. (a) Cognitive learning
(b) Affective learning
(c) Psychomotor learning.
3. Evaluation of learning outcomes is important in that:
(a) It measures the effectiveness of teaching strategy
(b) It provides motivation for pupils
(c) It serves as a basis for pupils' classification
(d) It serves as basis for pupils' promotion.
(e) It provides information for pupils' guidance and counselling.
4. Tests and examinations.
243
UNIT 5 (EDU 125.5): CHILDREN WITH LEARNING

PROBLEMS
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) Low scores in tests
(b) Inability to ask and answer questions during the lesson
(c) Dependence on others
(d) Drawing the class back by asking for a repetition of what had been taught
before.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Physical handicaps such as hearing and sight difficulties
(b) Dependence
(c) Absenteeism
(d) Mental retardation
2. (a) Accidents in early childhood.
(b) Prolonged convulsion
(c) Mal-formation of the brain.
(d) Effects of drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy, etc
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Adequate sitting position for children with hearing or sight difficulties.
(b) Giving suggestions to parents on how to care for the learner.
(c) Counselling.
(d) Variation of learning experiences and techniques.
(e) Identification and referral to the medical specialist.
ASSIGNMENT
1. (a) Short-memory.
(b) Inability to recognise objects.
(a) Physical handicaps - hearing and sight.
(b) Dependence.
(c) Absenteeism and lateness.
(d) Tiredness.
(e) Mental retardation.
3. (a) Encouragement and counselling.
(b) Adequate sitting arrangement for those with hearing and sight difficulties.
244
(c) Variation in learning experiences.

(d) Referring them to medical specialists.
(e) Counselling their homes to discuss the problems.
UNIT 6 (EDU 125.6): CLASS CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE;

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT
ACTIVITY I
1. Rewards in the classroom refers to the complimentary words or gifts or marks
students are given for their good performances, actions, behaviour or services.
2. Punishment is the discomfort or pain inflicted on an offender solely as a result of
some definite violation of the agreed rules and regulations of the school.
3. Factors that aid discipline:
i. Making of few simple rules and regulations
ii. Teacher's personality.
iii. Interesting work and the involvement of the pupils in the lesson.
iv. School studies on heroes and their performances.
v. School societies and their teaching.
vi. Fairness in punishment.
vii. Adequate lesson preparation.
viii. Good classroom organization and arrangement.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. To compensate the pupils for their progress or good acts.
ii. To encourage the recipients to continue with such progress or good acts.
iii. To encourage others to emulate the recipient of the reward.
2. i. Reward should be within the reach of every student
ii. They should not be expensive.
iii. Rewards should not be given too frequently.
iv. They should be for commendable efforts and actions of the pupils.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. To correct the misbehaviour of the pupils thereby changing them for the
better.
ii. Punishment is inflicted to deter other pupils from copying the misbehaviour of
the offender.
2. i. The punishment should be given near where the offence was committed and as
soon as the trial was completed.
245
ii. It should not be prolonged.

iii. The punishment must fit the offence.
iv. The age, physical and emotional conditions and the sex of the offender must
be considered.
v. Punishment should not be administered in anger.
vi. The teacher must be convinced and he must make it clear that the offender
deserves the punishment.
vii. As much as possible the simplest punishment should be inflicted for an
offence. Evidence of mercy should be displayed.
viii. Punishment should educate the offender against the future.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. i. Praise: This is the commonest form of reward. It is not expensive and it is
always available with the teacher. Thus it is preferred to prize given. Simple
complimentary statements or words could stimulate the pupils to better actions
or performances. However, praises should be for progress rather than natural
ability. Commendable acts should equally be praised.
ii. Prizes. This is an expensive form of reward. It should not be frequently
given. Anytime this is given the materials must be useful to the recipients
directly.
iii. Place taking. This is a commonly used reward. It takes place when the
pupils are ranked according to their performances in a given task. It is noticed
that the gifted pupils are always at an advantage in this type of reward. The
weak students are often discouraged.
vi. Position of Responsibility in the class or school.
This is an assignment or appointment given to pupils of proven abilities who
can lead others.
2. Punishment could be broadly categorized into three: i.e.
i. Verbal Interaction Punishments: These include serious advice, conference
with the pupils' parents, censure or scolding in the class. All these involve
discussions or counselling. They are mild forms of discipline.
ii. Deprivation Punishments: Loss of marks, temporary deprivation from
performing responsibilities in class or school, sending pupils out of class,
deprivation of pleasure, detention and tasks are among the punishments in this
group. Here the offending pupils are deprived of privileges temporarily.
iii. Harsh or Serious Punishments: These involves corporal punishment,
suspension and expulsion. These are serious punishments for grievous
offences.
246
UNIT 7 (EDU 125.7): THE CLASSROOM

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
ACTIVITY I
1. Communication is the transfer or transmission of ideas or information, knowledge,
attitudes or behaviours from one person or group of persons to another.
2. It is regarded as a process because it is characterised by continuity.
3. (a) Source means the communicator - the teacher.
(b) Message means the lesson.
(c) Channel-techniques and teaching aids.
(d) Receiver refers to pupils.
(e) Feedback is pupils' reactions or responses.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Teaching and communication involve the transmission of information or ideas.
(b) Both try to influence the behaviour of the receiver.
2. Communication is important in teaching because without any means of
transferring ideas or information, teaching cannot take place.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Noise which distracts attention.
(b) Deficient use of language.
(c) Deficient listening skills.
(d) Problem of meanings of concepts.
2. (a) Unusual sound.
(b) Laughter.
(c) Dragging of chairs on the floor.
ACTIVITY IV
(a) Noise minimization.
(b) Teacher to organise himself and think about what to say before saying it.
(c) Consideration of pupils' level of development and understanding in the use of
technical and difficult concepts.
(d) Teacher to improve his speaking ability.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Communication is the process of transmitting or transferring ideas or information or
knowledge from one person to another. In the classroom, the teacher communicates
with the pupils.
247
2. Source Message Channel Receiver
Feedback
3. Communication is essential to teaching because both of them are similar in process

and objective. Without communication, teaching cannot take place.
4. (a) Noise .
(b) Lack of speaking ability.
(c) Lack of listening ability.
(d) Problem of meaning of concepts.
5. (a) Noise minimization.
(b) Teacher to improve his speaking ability.
(c) Consideration of pupils' capabilities in the use of difficult concepts.
UNIT 8 (EDU 125.8): RESOURCES IN THE CLASSROOM/

SCHOOL AND THEIR MANAGE-
MENT
ACTIVITY I
1. (a) Visual materials
(b) Audio materials
(c) Audio-visual materials.
2. (a) Visual materials
i. Pictures
ii. Chart
iii. Maps
iv. Film strips and slides.
(b) Audio - materials:
i. Radio
ii. Record player
iii. Tape recorded materials.
248
(c) Audio-Visual materials:

i. Television
ii. Cinema
iii. Video tape recorder and TV.
ACTIVITY II
1. (a) Resources should be relevant to the lesson objectives.
(b) Resources should be attractive to stimulate pupils' interest.
(c) They should be simple.
(d) They should be readily available.
(e) They should be easy to use.
2. (a) To provide a second or more opportunities for pupils to make use of them for
learning.
(b) To provide other teachers the opportunity to use them.
(c) To make it possible for the teacher to use them some other time.
ACTIVITY III
1. Materials should be used as aids not as a substitute for the teacher.
2. They should be used properly.
3. Their use should be systematic.
4. They should be used in a conducive classroom environment.
ACTIVITY IV
1. (a) Applying the principle of selection.
(b) Applying the principle of use.
(c) Evaluating behavioural objectives.
2. Evaluation of materials for teaching and learning provides information for the
improvement of teaching and learning.
1. (a) Maps
(b) Pictures
(c) Charts
(d) Textbooks,
(e) Specimens
(f) Models, etc.
2. (a) Radio
(b) Tape recorded materials
(c) Tape record players, etc.
249
3. (a) Visibility
(b) Audibility
(c) Relevance
(d) Attractiveness
(e) Availability, etc.
4. (a) Purposefulness
(b) Effectiveness
(c) Educativeness
(d) Environment, etc.
5. (a) Attainment of behavioural objectives
(b) Principle of selection
(c) Principle of use, etc.
UNIT 9 (EDU 125.9): RECORD KEEPING: IMPORTANCE,

TYPES AND PROCEDURE
FOR KEEPING THEM
ACTIVITY I
1. i. The attendance register.
ii. The school record and diary.
iii. The continuous assessment record.
iv. The store ledger or stock book.
v. The admission register.
vi. The Log book.
vii. The punishment log book.
viii. The visitors' book.
ix. The transfer certificate.
x. The record of handicraft.
xi. The weather record.
xii. The agriculture record.
2. i. It shows the number of pupils present and absent each day.

ii. It helps to inculcate the spirit of regularity and punctuality in the minds of the
pupils.
iii. It is used to give the parents information as regards the regularity and
punctuality of their children in school.
250
iv. It helps the teacher to know when a child is absent and be able to check for the
reason(s)
v. It helps the teacher to locate the possible cause or causes of a weak pupils'
performances.
vi. From the register, the statistics of the population, sex and age of the pupils are
given to the Ministry of Education or other interested researchers.
ACTIVITY II
1. i. It is used to record the arrival, presence and withdrawal of any of the pupils. ii.
It is kept to have an up to date list of all the children who had enrolled in the
school.
2. i. It is the record for the keeping of important events and activities in the school
i.e. the list of staff for the year, their names, and qualifications, absence from
school by staff, transfer, assumption of duty, inspection, dates of opening and
closing for the term etc.
ii. The report of inspectors are usually copied into the log book.
iii. It is a record that keeps the history of the school.
ACTIVITY III
1. i. It is kept by the head teacher.
ii. The information in the record should include visitor's name, address, and
occupation, purpose of visit, remarks and signature.
2. i. The child needs an evidence to attest to his particulars, conduct and standard.
ii. It also attests to the fact that he had been attending a school and he is moving
to another school for a reason to be inserted in the transfer certificate.
ASSIGNMENT
(a) The school record and diary contains.
1. The scheme of work.
2. The weekly record of work.
3. List of books currently in use in the school.
4. Terminal and yearly examination results.
5. The headmaster's special note column.
(b) Importance
i. The scheme of work to be followed weekly is recorded there.
ii. The amount of work done each week is recorded there.
iii. It shows areas of alterations in the scheme of work if there is any.
iv. In case the teacher is transferred, the diary is the indicator of where the teacher
stopped and where his successor should start.
v. The terminal and seasonal results of the class are recorded there.
(c) i. The scheme of work for each subject should be recorded there
at the beginning of the year. This should include the list of books
recommended.
ii. The topics covered in each subject each week should be recorded.
iii. The examination results for the term and session should be recorded in the
appropriate columns.
It has to be checked and signed by the head teacher every week and term.
251
2(a) i. Information about the offences committed by the child which necessitated the
punishment is kept in this record.
ii. The type of punishment and the manner in which it was given are recorded in
this record. Interested people can see it and compare the gravity of the offence
with the punishment given.
This is to avoid misrepresentation of facts.
iii. The consciousness of the availability of a record to fill makes young teachers
to restrain themselves from punishing the children indiscriminately.
iv. The record serves as a protection for the headteacher against a possible
prosecution in case the parents of the pupils punished decide to go to court.
(b) Procedure for keeping the Punishment Log Book.
i. The head teacher keeps the record.
ii. The information in the record should include the admission number, date, name
of pupil, sex, age, class, the nature of the offence, the punishment- showing
number of strokes of the cane given. It should be signed by the one who
inflicted the punishment (usually the head teacher or any he may delegate) two
witnesses one of whom could be the head boy or girl and the other a senior
teacher. The headteacher should also sign. Minor offences and the punishment
should not be recorded in the Log Book.
UNIT 10 (EDU 125.10): CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS 1 - 9
ACTIVITY I
1. Behavioural objectives are what you expect that your pupils would have learnt and so
would be able to do at the end of the lesson as evidence that learning has actually
taken place.
2. Features of good behavioural objectives.
(a) Clarity.
(b) Specificity.
(c) Pupil-centredness.
(d) Measurability.
3. At the end of the lesson on construction the pupils should be able to:
(a) Construct a rectangle accurately.
(b) Find the area of a rectangle correctly.
4. (a) Knowledge.
(b) Comprehension.
(c) Application.
(d) Analysis.
(e) Synthesis.
(f) Evaluation.
252
ACTIVITY II
1. Lesson preparation serves as a guide to the teacher by keeping him to the relevant
points, thereby saving time and energy.
2. Compare your answer with the specimen lesson note.
3. Evaluation of learning outcomes serves the following purposes:
(a) As a measure of the effectiveness of teaching.
(b) As basis for streaming pupils.
ACTIVITY III
1. (a) Pupils with auditory or sight problems will find learning difficult as they may
not
hear properly what you are saying or see clearly what you are writing.
(b) Dependence or inability to do things without assistance.
(c) Inattentiveness
(d) Lateness and absenteeism etc.
2. (a) Adequate sitting arrangement in the class.
(b) Encouragement and counselling of learners.
(c) Variation in learning experiences and methods of teaching (etc.)
ACTIVITY IV
1. Source Message Channel Receiver
(teacher) (lesson) (methods,
materials) (pupils)
Feedback
(questions and answers, writing and listening)
2. (a) Improved speaking ability of the teacher

(b) Noise minimization
(c) Class control
Consideration of pupils' level of understanding in your use of difficult words
(etc.)
ACTIVITY V
1. Reward is the complimentary word or gift for a pupil's good performance, actions or
behaviour.
2. Punishment is the discomfort or pains inflicted upon a pupil in the class as a result of
his violation of the school rules and regulations.
253
3. Principles which should guide the use of punishment in the class include the
following:
i. The punishment should be equal to the gravity of the offence.
ii. It should be fair.
iii. The pupil should be made to know that he is being punished for the offence
committed.
iv. School rules and regulations should not be too rigid and harsh.
4. Punishment corrects offenders and deters others from offending while reward
encourages good act. Therefore, they help to bring orderliness and discipline to the
class.
5. (a) Relevance to the lesson.
(b) Visibility to the pupils.
(c) Audibility to the pupils.
(d) Attractiveness to arouse pupils' interest.
ACTIVITY VI
1. (a) Admission register. (g) Log book.
(b) Attendance register. (h) Visitors book.
(b) Record and Diary. (i) Transfer certificate.
(c) Store ledger. (j) Continuous assessment record.
(d) Cash books. (k) Weather observation record
(e) Admission register, etc. (l) Record of handicrafts
(f) Punishment log book. (m) Agriculture record.
2. Record keeping in school is important because it provides references for the
administration of the school.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. At the end of the lesson on parts of insect, the pupils should be able to:
(a) draw a named insect.
(b) give the characteristics of an insect.
(c) name the parts of a named insect.
2. Behavioural objectives make teaching realistic and purposeful, guiding all actions of
the teacher and the pupils to the desired target.
3. Compare your lesson note with the format used in Unit 3.
4. An example of a multiple choice question:
Which one of the following is not an insect?
(a) Spider.
(b) Cockroach.
(c) Mosquito.
(d) Fly.
254
5. Rewards encourage acceptable behaviours while punishment discourages

unacceptable behaviours, thus, it brings orderliness and discipline to the class.
6. The classroom communication process involves the source (the teacher) the message,
the channel, the receiver (who is the pupil,) and the feedback.
7. (a) Improved speaking skills of the teacher.
(b) Improved listening skills of the pupils.
(c) Noise minimization.
(d) Effective class control, etc.
8. (a) Attendance register.
(b) Admission register.
(c) Transfer register.
(d) Records and diary.
(e) Cash book, etc.
9. Record keeping is important in schools because it provides references for the
administration of the school.
255

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MODULE 1 Unit:01 Historical Foundations of Education EDU 101

UNIT 1 (EDU 101.1): INDIGENOUS EDUCATION IN

OBJECTIVES OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

3 Development of Intellectual and Social Skills

CURRICULUM AND METHODOLOGY OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION

1. Moral and Character Curriculum

4. Health Education Curriculum

MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF INDIGENOUS EDUCATION MERITS

• CURRICULUM AND METHODOLOGY_

UNIT 2 (EDU 101.2): ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT

THE ORIGIN OF ISLAM IN NIGERIA

Fig. 1: The Spread of Islam in Nigeria

PHILOSOPHY OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM OF ISLAMIC

QUR'ANIC SCHOOLS: (The Elementary Level)

MAKARANTUN ILMI: The Advanced Level).

HADITH The words and deeds of the Prophet Mohammed.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION SYSTEM

UNIT 3 (EDU101.3): CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEK AND

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

Syncretism - The modification of some of the stiff tenets of Christianity in

GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREEK EDUCATION TO MODERN EDUCATION

5. The Spread of Christianity

UNIT 4 (EDU101.4): CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION

CURRICULUM OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY EDUCATION

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIAN

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIAN

UNIT 5 (EDU 101.5): EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

THE RULE OF COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE

• THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE

UNIT 6 (EDU 101.6): EDUCATIONAL EVELOPMENT IN

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

THE ROLE OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE 1969 CURRICULUM CONFERENCE

• SECONDARY EDUCATION: The post independence period of secondary education

UNIT 7(EDU101.7): HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

CHECK THE ANSWERS TO THE ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENT AT THE END

HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

restriction of corporal punishment; inadequate supervision of schools, either by the

OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

b) develop a sound standard of individual conduct and behaviour; and

THE PRIMARY SCHOOL COURRICULUM

THE NIGERIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL AND POPULATION EXPLOSION

OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

UNIT 8 (EDU101.8) THE TEACHING PROFESSION IN