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Download Calculus Early Transcendentals 7th Edition Stewart Solutions Manual all chapters
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10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
Points to Stress
2. The conversion from parametric equations to functions y = f (x) or x = g (y), and vice versa.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION What is the difference between a function and a parametric curve?
ANSWER Many answers are possible. The graph of a function can be made into a parametric curve, but not
necessarily the other way around. A function has to pass the vertical line test and a parametric curve does
not.
• DRILL QUESTION Sketch the parametric curve x(t) = sin t y(t) = t 2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ π . Is the point (1, π4 ) on this
curve?
ANSWER y 1, π4 is not on the curve.
10
8
6
4
2
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CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
• Describe the difference between a function curve and a parametric curve, perhaps using Example 5.
Caution students to take appropriate care in sketching parametric curves, especially concerning questions
of range and direction.
• Show how reversing the functions x (t) and y (t) yields the inverse of a given relation. For example,
x (t) = t x (t) = sin t
is the sine function, so is the general arcsine function. Display an inverse
y (t) = sin t y (t) = t
for f (x) = x 3 + x + 2 graphically using parametric equations. Note that this would be difficult to do
algebraically.
√
• Give an example of a curve such as x (t) = cos (et), y (t) = sin 3 t . This curve essentially fills the
square −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1 in that the curve gets arbitrarily close to any point in the square. It can
√
be simulated using TEC or a calculator with the approximations e ≈ 2.7183, 3 ≈ 1.7321. The range
0 ≤ t ≤ 200 should be sufficient to convey this property to the students. Next, describe the family of
√
functions x (t) = a cos (et), y (t) = b sin 3t . If the students are following well, perhaps consider the
√
family x (t) = cos (at), y (t) = sin 3t . The students might be tempted to conclude that every member
√
of this family has the property, but in some cases (such as a = 2 3) they do not.
• Foreshadow polar coordinates. Show how x (t) = r cos t, y (t) = r sin t is a circle of radius r. Draw
x (t) = f (t) cos t, y (t) = f (t) sin t for f (t) = t and f (t) = 1 − sin 2t.
Workshop/Discussion
• Revisit Examples 2 and 3 using different parametric representations and speeds, such as x (t) = sin et ,
y (t) = cos et , ln π ≤ t ≤ ln 3π .
580
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SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
• Have the students get into groups, and have each group try to come up with the most interesting looking
parametric curve. After displaying their best ones, perhaps show them the following examples:
x2 y2
• Describe two different parametrizations for the ellipse + = 1.
9 4
• Have the students sketch the following curves using the parametric equations, and then eliminate the
parameters to find Cartesian equations. Visualization using TEC could be helpful.
(a) x (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
(b) x (t) = 12 t 3 , y (t) = 12 t 3 − 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
• Have the students try to guess the shape of x (t) = t, y (t) = sin t. Then have them consider the family
x (t) = at, y (t) = sin (bt). If they are following well, additional parameters can be added: x (t) = at + c,
y (t) = d sin (bt).
3. They are the same if considered as curves in the 5. (a) Use the technique of Exercise 4.
plane. The second one “moves” twice as fast as (b) y
the first. f
4. (a) The curves are inverses of each other (or, they 2
are symmetric about the line y = x). f Ð!
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CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
Group Work 2: How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?
This exercise gives students practice in finding different parametrizations for the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4, using
the forms x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t.
ANSWERS
1. Each of a1 and a3 must be ±2.
2. Once around counterclockwise, starting at (1, 0).
3. a2 = a4 = 2, a2 = a4 = 3
4. Once around clockwise, starting at (1, 0).
5. a2 = 3, a4 = −3; a2 = 5, a4 = −5
0 1 x
a2 = 2, a4 = 3
2. y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 1, a4 = 2 a2 = 1, a4 = 3 a2 = 1, a4 = 4
As a4 increases, the figure doubles back on itself more in the vertical direction.
3. y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 1, a4 = 1 a2 = 2, a4 = 1 a2 = 3, a4 = 1 a2 = 4, a4 = 1
The behavior is different, but analogous. This time, the doubling back doesn’t always yield a new loop.
582
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SECTION 10.1 CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
5. y 6. y
1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x
a2 = 3, a4 = 2 a2 = 7, a4 = 5
b = 2π . x goes through three cycles, and y b = 2π . x goes through seven cycles, and y
goes through two. This can be seen by goes through five. This can be seen by
tracing the graph with a finger, paying tracing the graph with a finger, paying
attention first to the cycles in the x-direction, attention first to the cycles in the x-direction,
then to the cycles in the y-direction. then to the cycles in the y-direction.
a2 = 2, a4 = 3 a2 = 5, a4 = 7
ANSWERS
1. y 2. y 3. y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
583
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CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
4. y y y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 5t y (t) = 1.5 sin 7t
y y y
1 1 1
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
√ √
x (t) = 2 cos 2t y (t) = 1.5 sin 18 t
If p and q are relatively prime, then the curve is aperiodic.
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 13, 21, 25, 31
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31
EXERCISE D A N G
3 × ×
7 × ×
9 × ×
11 × ×
13 × ×
15 ×
21 × ×
25 ×
31 ×
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GROUP WORK 1, SECTION 10.1
Name that Parametrization
1. Consider the graph of the following set of parametric equations:
(a) Graph this curve with your calculator. Why does it look the way it does?
(b) Write this equation in the form y = f (x). (Hint: Use the formula cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.)
2. Try to guess what the graph of the following set of parametric equations looks like, and then see if you are
right.
x (t) = sin 2t y (t) = cos 6t 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π
These curves are called Lissajous figures, and are used in electrical engineering to see if two signals are
“in sync”.
585
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Name that Parametrization
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GROUP WORK 2, SECTION 10.1
How Many Ways Can You Trace That Curve?
Consider the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4. We want to construct parametric curves x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t,
with a1 , a2 > 0, which will trace this circle in different ways.
1. What must be the values of a1 and a3 so that (x (t) , y (t)) lies on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4?
2. Describe the motion of the particle if you set a2 = a4 = 1 and let 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π . What is the starting point?
3. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle twice in a counterclockwise direction starting at (1, 0)?
What choice will trace the circle three times in a counterclockwise direction?
5. What choice of a2 and a4 will trace the circle three times in a clockwise direction starting at (1, 0)? What
choice will trace the circle five times in a clockwise direction?
587
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GROUP WORK 3, SECTION 10.1
Lissajous Figures
The curves with parametric equations x (t) = a1 cos a2 t, y (t) = a3 sin a4 t are called Lissajous Figures. In
this exercise, we fix a1 = a3 = 1 and try to determine the effects of varying a2 and a4 on the shape of the
figure.
1. Compare the graph of x (t) = cos 2t, y (t) = sin 3t to the graph of x (t) = cos t, y (t) = sin 1.5t. Is there
any difference in the shapes of the two figures? Is there any difference in how they are traced out? Now
look at the graph of x (t) = cos 4t, y (t) = sin 6t. Can you make a generalization about figures where the
ratio of a2 to a4 is some fixed value?
2. Fix a2 = 1 and look at the graphs with a4 = 1, 2, 3, and 4. What happens as a4 increases? Can you predict
how the figure will look if a2 = 1 and a4 = 5?
3. Now fix a4 = 1 and look at the graphs with a2 = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Do you see the same behavior as in
Problem 2?
4. The figure with a4 = 1 and a2 = 2 should have a familiar geometric shape. What is this shape? Can you
use a trigonometric identity for x = cos 2t to explain why the figure looks the way it does?
588
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Lissajous Figures
5. Now set a2 = 3 and a4 = 2. Starting at t = 0, what is the upper value b of t so that the figure is traced out
exactly once between t = 0 and t = b? How many cycles does x (t) = cos 3t go through between t = 0
and t = b? How many cycles does y (t) = sin 2t go through? Can you see how these cycles are reflected
in the shape of the Lissajous figure?
7. Repeat Problems 5 and 6 with the values of a2 and a4 reversed. Can you explain the difference in the
shapes of the curves in this case?
589
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GROUP WORK 4, SECTION 10.1
Aperiodic Curves
Consider the parametric curve
√
x (t) = 2 cos 2 t ≈ 2 cos (1.4142 t)
√
y (t) = 1.5 sin 3 t ≈ 1.5 sin (1.7321 t)
2. Next graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 100. What is your guess now?
3. Finally, graph this curve for 0 ≤ t ≤ 200. What is your guess this time? How is your guess related to the
rectangle −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −1.5 ≤ y ≤ 1.5?
4. If we extend this curve’s domain far enough, it can be made to come as close as we like to any desired
√ √ √ √ √
point in the rectangle. Try this activity again, replacing 2 with 5 and 3 with 7. Now try it with 2
√ √ √
and 18. Given p and q, how can you tell whether or not the curve has this property?
590
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LABORATORY PROJECT Running Circles Around Circles
There is an interesting history behind epicycloids that can be used in introducing this project. After Coperni-
cus showed that the sun didn’t move around the Earth, astronomers believed that the planets moved in circular
paths around the Sun. Gradually, mathematical analysis showed that this wasn’t quite the path of the plan-
ets. So they posited that the “circular paths” were actually epicycles: small circles rolling around larger ones.
(See Problems 5–6 in the project.) More accurate numerical data showed that this theory was also wrong. It
was then believed that the paths were double-epicycles: circles rolling around circles rolling around circles.
Finally, Kepler (using Brahe’s data) showed that the paths were elliptical, and then Newton, using his newly
developed calculus, derived laws to discover reasons why Kepler’s discovery was true.
Problems 1–3 are relatively straightforward, with 4–6 being more of a challenge for the students. Any of the
first three questions could easily be included in a regular assignment. I recommend assigning at least the first
four problems if this is to be an extended project, with the remaining problems being used as extra credit if
they are not mandatory. It would be helpful to have several large drawings of the various curves on paper
ready for students who come to office hours with questions. (TEC can be helpful in answering Problems 2–4
and 6.)
The final results will have some excellent figures, and particularly nice examples should be distributed to the
class.
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10.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves
Points to Stress
1. Computation of the line tangent to a parametrically defined curve (using the Chain Rule).
2. Integration used as a tool to determine the area enclosed within a parametric curve, or several such curves.
3. Computation of the arc length of a parametrically defined curve.
Quiz Questions
• TEXT QUESTION Why does the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g (t) have a horizontal tangent line when
dy/dt = 0 and dx/dt = 0, and not the other way around?
ANSWER dy/dt gives the rate of change in the vertical direction.
• DRILL QUESTION Let x (t) = t 3 + t, y (t) = t. Compute d 2 y/dx 2 at the point (2, 1).
3
ANSWER − 32
Workshop/Discussion
• Analyze the parametric curve x (t) = 2 sin 2t, y (t) = 2 sin t. Find the equation of the tangent line when
t = π3 . Find the points where the tangent line is vertical and the points where it is horizontal.
• Foreshadow polar coordinates by finding the area of the ellipse 14 x 2 + y 2 = 1 using the parametrization
x = 2 cos θ, y = sin θ.
• Find the surface areas of the ellipsoids obtained by rotating the ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ (a > b),
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π about both the x-axis and the y-axis.
• Compute the length of the curve x = 2 cos2 θ, y = 2 cos θ sin θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π . Check the result by graphing
the curve and showing that it is a circle of radius 2.
• Present a straightforward parametric arc length problem such as x = t 2 + 1, y = t 2 − 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
√
(The computations work out nicely for this one, giving L = 4 2.)
592
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SECTION 10.2 CALCULUS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES
This exercise is for classes that have covered parametric curves, and the areas enclosed by parametric regions.
It develops the equations of an involute of a circle. String, tape, and paper towel rolls should be made available
to the students for Problem 2.
Note that although θ is the parameter, the curve is not given in polar form because the cow is tethered to a
point on the circle of radius r rather than to the origin.
The picture in the answer to Problem 2 below may be given as a hint for Problem 4. A1 + A2 can be computed
by integrating y dx from θ = π to θ = π2 and subtracting off the integral from θ = 0 to θ = π2 .
ANSWERS
1. πr
2.
3. The coordinates of T are (r cos θ , r sin θ ). Since T P was unwound from arc T A, T P has length
r θ, the length of the sector. Also, ] P T Q = ] PT R − ] QT R = π
2 − θ, so P has coordinates
x = r cos θ + |T P| cos ] P T Q = r cos θ + r θ cos π
2 − θ = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) and
y = r sin θ + |T P| sin ] P T Q = r sin θ + r θ sin π
2 − θ = r (sin θ − θ cos θ).
π 3r 2 πr/2 πr/2 r
4. A3 = 14 π (πr )2 = . A 1 + A2 = y dx − r y dx = y dx. Using the results from
4 −r −r
1
0 π π3
Problem 3 gives A1 + A2 = r 2 −θ cos2 θ − 2 θ2 − 1 sin θ cos θ − 16 θ3 + 12 θ = r2 + .
π 2 6
5 3 2
Therefore, the total area is 6π r .
593
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CHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES
0 1 2 x
_1
2
(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 + cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t
π
2. 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) dt
π √
= 0 2π (sin t) (1 + cos t) (2 cos t + 2) dt
3. First consider the expression under the square root sign:
(−2 sin t cos t − sin t)2 = 4 sin2 t cos2 t + 4 sin2 t cos t + sin2 t
2
cos t + cos2 t − sin2 t = cos2 t + 2 cos3 t − 2 sin2 t cos t + cos4 t − 2 sin2 t cos2 t + sin4 t
Homework Problems
CORE EXERCISES 7, 11, 17, 25, 31, 41, 65
SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 25, 29, 31, 39, 41, 65
EXERCISE D A N G EXERCISE D A N G
3 × 25 × ×
5 × 29 ×
7 × 31 ×
9 × × 39 ×
11 × 41 ×
13 × 65 ×
17 × ×
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GROUP WORK 1, SECTION 10.2
Clarifying Areas
Clara the Calculus Cow has been tied to a silo with radius r by a rope just long enough to reach a point
diametrically opposite to the point where she is tied, as depicted in the diagram below:
If she goes to the left side of the silo, she can stand far away from the silo, while at the right side, she can only
graze right next to the silo. We wish to compute the total area of the region upon which she can graze.
1. How far from the silo can sweet Clara stand when she is to its left?
2. Draw a picture of the shape of the region that she can reach. It may help to actually tie a string to a
cardboard tube, and model the situation.
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Clarifying Areas
3. Assume that a very long rope is wound around the circular silo, and then unwound while being held taut.
The curve traced by the end of the rope is called the involute of the circle. If the silo has radius r and
center O, as shown in the figure below, and if the parameter θ is chosen as in the figure, show that the
parametric equations of the involute are
x = r (cos θ + θ sin θ) y = r (sin θ − θ cos θ)
r
¬ P
O x
4. What is the area of the grazing region available to Clara the Calculus Cow?
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GROUP WORK 2, SECTION 10.2
You Gotta Have Heart
Consider the parametric curve x = (cos t) (1 + cos t), y = (sin t) (1 + cos t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
1. Draw a graph of this curve.
2. Set up an integral to find the surface area formed by rotating the portion of the curve in the first quadrant
about the x-axis.
π /2 √
3. Show that your first integral can be simplified to 0 2 2π (1 + cos t)3/2 sin t dt. Compute this integral
to find the surface area.
597
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LABORATORY PROJECT Bézier Curves
This project can be used as an out-of-class assignment, or as an extended in-class exercise. Most commercial
drawing programs have the facility to create Bézier curves, although they often aren’t identified as such. A
group project on Bézier curves should certainly include some figures illustrating the varied forms these curves
can take.
598
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equivalgono da 10 fino a 54: sulla quinta finalmente questi: IIIVX, V,
XX, XXX, IIII, cioè 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 20, 30, 34.
Bilancie Pompeiane. Vol. I Cap. IV. Storia, ecc.
coll’altra sottoposta:
IVLIVS . POLIBIVS . COLLEGA . FECIT [61]
Così Pompei era del pari celebre per le sue pere e ne forniva le più
ricercate mense, come Tivoli le poma; ferace per le messi e per gli
ulivi, e gli scavi ci hanno dato saggi di frumento ed olive appunto,
come altri molti frutti sia naturali che preparati, pane, focaccie ed
altrettali leccornie; nè parrà vero che mentre tutti questi camangiari
appajono anneriti e bruciati dalle ardenti ceneri onde furono investiti,
parte del grano rinvenuto conservasse tuttavia la proprietà vitale, e
seminato, malgrado fossero trascorsi più che diciassette secoli,
germogliasse e porgesse la propria spica e le olive fossero
conservatissime ancora nell’olio.
Virgilio nelle Georgiche aveva la fertilità di queste terre celebrato in
questi versi:
Dalle onde poi del Tirreno, che baciavano, frangendosi, il piede alla
voluttuosa Pompei, il pescatore pompejano, tra i cento svariati pesci
traeva in copia il Garo, che or non saprebbesi designare con nome
conosciuto, e con esso facevasi colà il caviale liquido, che nella
bassa Italia si fa tuttavia. «Evvi, dice Plinio, un altro genere di liquore
assai ricercato, al quale si è dato il nome di garum: esso è composto
d’intestini di pesci o d’altre parti che sarebbero diversamente a
gittarsi, e che si fanno macerare nel sale in guisa che divenga
l’effetto della putrefazione. Questo liquore componevasi una volta col
pesce che i Greci chiamavano garon» [75]. Lo stesso Plinio attesta
che Pompei andasse assai lodata, come Clazomene e Lepti, per il
garo [76].
Orazio ne faceva menzione, dicendolo composto di succhi di pesce
iberico: