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 Section 5.1

Chapter 5
Section 5.1
√ √ √
5.1.1 k~v k = 72 + 112 = 49 + 121 = 170 ≈ 13.04
√ √ √
5.1.2 k~v k = 22 + 32 + 42 = 4 + 9 + 16 = 29 ≈ 5.39
√ √ √
5.1.3 k~v k = 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 = 54 ≈ 7.35

·~ √7+11 √18
5.1.4 θ = arccos k~u~ukk~
v
v k = arccos 2 170 = arccos 340 ≈ 0.219 (radians)
√

·~ 2+6+12
5.1.5 θ = arccos k~u~ukk~
v
v k = arccos 14 29 ≈ 0.122 (radians)
√ √

·~ 2−3+8−10
5.1.6 θ = arccos k~u~ukk~
v
v k = arccos
√ √
10 54
≈ 1.700 (radians)

5.1.7 Use the fact that ~u · ~v = k~ukk~v k cos θ, so that the angle is acute if ~u · ~v > 0, and obtuse if ~u · ~v < 0. Since
~u · ~v = 10 − 12 = −2, the angle is obtuse.

5.1.8 Since ~u · ~v = 4 − 24 + 20 = 0, the two vectors enclose a right angle.

5.1.9 Since ~u · ~v = 3 − 4 + 5 − 3 = 1, the angle is acute (see Exercise 7).

5.1.10 ~u · ~v = 2 + 3k + 4 = 6 + 3k. The two vectors enclose a right angle if ~u · ~v = 6 + 3k = 0, that is, if k = −2.

·~ √1
5.1.11 a θn = arccos k~u~ukk~
v
v k = arccos n

θ2 = arccos √12 = π
4 (= 45◦ )

θ3 = arccos √13 ≈ 0.955 (radians)

θ4 = arccos 12 = π
3 (= 60◦ )

b Since y = arccos(x) is a continuous function,

 
lim θn = arccos lim √1n = arccos(0) = π2 (= 90◦ )
n→∞ n→∞

~ 2 = (~v + w)
5.1.12 k~v + wk ~ · (~v + w)
~ (by hint)

= k~v k2 + kwk
~ 2 + 2(~v · w)
~ (by definition of length)

≤ k~v k2 + kwk
~ 2 + 2k~v kkwk
~ (by Cauchy-Schwarz)

~ 2 , so that
= (k~v k + kwk)

~ 2 ≤ (k~v k + kwk)
k~v + wk ~ 2

Taking square roots of both sides, we find that k~v + wk

~ ≤ k~v k + kwk,
~ as claimed.

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5

5.1.13 Figure 5.1 shows that kF~2 + F~3 k = 2 cos kF~2 k = 20 cos θ2 .
θ



2

It is required that kF~2 + F~3 k = 16, so that 20 cos θ2 = 16, or θ = 2 arccos(0.8) ≈ 74◦ .

Figure 5.1: for Problem 5.1.13.

5.1.14 The horizontal components of F~1 and F~2 are −kF~1 k sin β and kF~2 k sin α, respectively (the horizontal compo-
nent of F~3 is zero).

Since the system is at rest, the horizontal components must add up to 0, so that −kF~1 k sin β + kF~2 k sin α = 0 or
~
kF~1 k sin β = kF~2 k sin α or kF1 k = sin α .
~2 k
kF sin β

EA EA tan α sin α cos β ~1 k cos β

kF
To find EB
, note that EA = ED tan α and EB = ED tan β so that EB
= tan β = sin β · cos α = ~2 k cos α .
kF
Since
EA ~1 k
kF
α and β are two distinct acute angles, it follows that EB
6= ~2 k ,
kF
so that Leonardo was mistaken.

5.1.15 The subspace consists of all vectors ~x in R4 such that

x1 1
   
 x2   2 
~x · ~v =   ·   = x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0.
x3 3
x4 4
−2r −3s −4t −2 −3 −4
       
 r  1  0  0
These are vectors of the form   = r  + s  + t .

s 0 1 0
t 0 0 1
The three vectors to the right form a basis.

5.1.16 You may be able to find the solutions by educated guessing. Here is the systematic approach: we first find
all vectors ~x that are orthogonal to ~v1 , ~v2 , and ~v3 , then we identify the unit vectors among them.

Finding the vectors ~x with ~x · ~v1 = ~x · ~v2 = ~x · ~v3 = 0 amounts to solving the system
 
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
 x1 + x2 − x3 − x4 = 0 
x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0

we can omit all the coefficients 12 .

x1 t
   
 x2   −t 
The solutions are of the form ~x =   =  .
x3 −t
x4 t

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 Section 5.1

1
Since k~xk = 2|t|, we have a unit vector if t = 2 or t = − 21 . Thus there are two possible choices for ~v4 :
1
− 21
   
2
 − 12   1
2

  and  .

 −1   1
2 2
 
1
2 − 21

5.1.17 The orthogonal complement W ⊥ of W consists of the vectors ~x in R4 such that

x1 1 x1 5
       
 x2   2   x2   6 
  ·   = 0 and   ·   = 0.
x3 3 x3 7
x4 4 x4 8
 
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0
Finding these vectors amounts to solving the system .
5x1 + 6x2 + 7x3 + 8x4 = 0

The solutions are of the form

x1 s + 2t 1 2
       
 x2   −2s − 3t   −2   −3 
 =  = s  + t .
x3 s 1 0
x4 t 0 1

The two vectors to the right form a basis of W ⊥ .

1 1 1 1 4 1
5.1.18 a k~xk2 = 1 +


4 + 16 + 64 + ··· = 1− 41
= 3 use the formula for a geometric series, with a = 4 , so that
k~xk = √2 ≈ 1.155.
3

b If we let ~u = (1, 0, 0, . . .) and ~v = 1, 12 , 41 , · · · , then

√
·~ 1 3
θ = arccos k~u~ukk~
v
v k = arccos √2 = arccos 2 = π
6 (= 30◦ ).
3

 
c ~x = 1, √12 , √13 , · · · , √1n , · · · does the job, since the harmonic series 1 + 1
2 + 1
3 + · · · diverges (a fact discussed in
introductory calculus classes).
√
3
d If we let ~v = (1, 0, 0, . . .), ~x = 1, 21 , 41 , · · · and ~u = ~
x
1, 12 , 41 , · · · then



k~
xk = 2

3
1, 21 , 41 , · · · .


projL~v = (~u · ~v )~u = 4

5.1.19 See Figure 5.2.

5.1.20 On the line L spanned by ~x we want to find the vector m~x closest to ~y (that is, we want km~x − ~y k to be
minimal). We want m~x − ~y to be perpendicular to L (that is, to ~x), which means that ~x · (m~x − ~y ) = 0 or
·~
m(~x · ~x) − ~x · ~y = 0 or m = ~x~x·~
y 4182.9
x ≈ 198.532 ≈ 0.106.

x·~
~ y k~
yk
Recall that the correlation coefficient r is r = k~
xkk~yk , so that m = xk r.
k~ See Figure 5.3.

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5

Figure 5.2: for Problem 5.1.19.

Figure 5.3: for Problem 5.1.20.

5.1.21 Call the three given vectors ~v1 , ~v2 , and ~v3 . Since ~v2 is required to be a unit vector, we must have b = g = 0.
Now ~v1 · ~v2 = d must be zero, so that d = 0.

Likewise, ~v2 · ~v3 = e must be zero, so that e = 0.

√
1 3
Since ~v3 must be a unit vector, we have k~v3 k2 = c2 + 4 = 1, so that c = ± 2 .
√
3
Since we are asked to find just one solution, let us pick c = 2 .
√
3
√
The condition ~v1 · ~v3 = 0 now implies that 2 a + 12 f = 0, or f = − 3a.

Finally, it is required that k~v1 k2 = a2 + f 2 = a2 + 3a2 = 4a2 = 1, so that a = ± 12 .

√
3
Let us pick a = 12 , so that f = − 2 .

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Section 5.1

Summary:
  √ 
1   3
2 0 2
~v1 =  √0  , ~v2 =  1  , ~v3 =  0 
   
− 3 0 1
2 2

There are other solutions; some components will have different signs.

5.1.22 Let W = {~x in Rn : ~x · ~vi = 0 for all i = 1, . . . , m}. We are asked to show that V ⊥ = W , that is, any ~x in
V ⊥ is in W , and vice versa.

If ~x is in V ⊥ , then ~x · ~v = 0 for all ~v in V ; in particular, x · ~vi = 0 for all i (since the ~vi are in V ), so that ~x is in
W.

Conversely, consider a vector ~x in W . To show that ~x is in V ⊥ , we have to verify that ~x · ~v = 0 for all ~v in V .
Pick a particular ~v in V . Since the ~vi span V , we can write ~v = c1~v1 + · · · + cm~vm , for some scalars ci . Then
~x · ~v = c1 (~x · ~v1 ) + · · · + cm (~x · ~vm ) = 0, as claimed.

5.1.23 We will follow the hint. Let ~v be a vector in V . Then ~v · ~x = 0 for all ~x in V ⊥ . Since (V ⊥ )⊥ contains all
vectors ~y such that ~y · ~x = 0, ~v is in (V ⊥ )⊥ . So V is a subspace of (V ⊥ )⊥ .

Then, by Theorem 5.1.8c, dim (V ) + dim(V ⊥ ) = n and dim(V ⊥ ) + dim((V ⊥ )⊥ ) = n, so dim (V ) + dim(V ⊥ ) =
dim(V ⊥ ) + dim((V ⊥ )⊥ ) and dim (V ) = dim((V ⊥ )⊥ ). Since V is a subspace of (V ⊥ )⊥ , it follows that V = (V ⊥ )⊥ ,
by Exercise 3.3.61.

5.1.24 Write T (~x) = projV (~x) for simplicity.

To prove the linearity of T we will use the definition of a projection: T (~x) is in V , and ~x − T (~x) is in V ⊥ .

To show that T (~x + ~y ) = T (~x) + T (~y ), note that T (~x) + T (~y ) is in V (since V is a subspace), and ~x + ~y − (T (~x) +
T (~y )) = (~x − T (~x)) + (~y − T (~y )) is in V ⊥ (since V ⊥ is a subspace, by Theorem 5.1.8a).

To show that T (k~x) = kT (~x), note that kT (~x) is in V (since V is a subspace), and k~x − kT (~x) = k(~x − T (~x)) is
in V ⊥ (since V ⊥ is a subspace).

5.1.25 a kk~v k2 = (k~v ) · (k~v ) = k 2 (~v · ~v ) = k 2 k~v k2

√
Now take square roots of both sides; note that k 2 = |k|, the absolute value of k (think about the case when k
is negative). kk~v k = |k|k~v k, as claimed.

1 1
b k~uk = vk ~
k~ v = v k k~
k~ vk = 1, as claimed.

by part a

5.1.26 The two given vectors spanning the subspace are orthogonal, but they are not unit vectors: both have length
7. To obtain an orthonormal basis ~u1 , ~u2 of the subspace, we divide by 7:
   
2 3
~u1 = 17  3  , ~u2 = 17  −6  .
6 2

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5

 
49
Now we can use Theorem 5.1.5, with ~x =  49 :
49
     
2 3 19
projV ~x = (~u1 · ~x)~u1 + (~u2 · ~x)~u2 = 11  3  −  −6  =  39 .
6 2 64

5.1.27 Since the two given vectors in the subspace are orthogonal, we have the orthonormal basis
2 −2
   
2  2
~u1 = 13   , ~u2 = 13  .
1 0
0 1

Now we can use Theorem 5.1.5, with ~x = 9~e1 : projV ~x = (~u1 · ~x)~u1 + (~u2 · ~x)~u2

2 −2 8
     
 2  2  0
= 2   − 2   =  .
1 0 2
0 1 −2

5.1.28 Since the three given vectors in the subspace are orthogonal, we have the orthonormal basis
1 1 1
     
1  1  −1 
~u1 = 12   , ~u2 = 12   , ~u3 = 21  .
1 −1 −1
1 −1 1

3
 
 1
Now we can use Theorem 5.1.5, with ~x = ~e1 : projV ~x = (~u1 · ~x)~u1 + (~u2 · ~x)~u2 + (~u3 · ~x)~u3 = 14  .
−1
1

5.1.29 By the Pythagorean theorem (Theorem 5.1.9),

k~xk2 = k7~u1 − 3~u2 + 2~u3 + ~u4 − ~u5 k2

= k7~u1 k2 + k3~u2 k2 + k2~u3 k2 + k~u4 k2 + k~u5 k2
.
= 49 + 9 + 4 + 1 + 1
= 64, so that k~xk = 8.

5.1.30 Since ~y = projV ~x, the vector ~x − ~y is orthogonal to ~y , by definition of an orthogonal projection (see Theo-
rem 5.1.4): (~x − ~y ) · ~y = 0 or ~x · ~y − k~y k2 = 0 or ~x · ~y = k~y k2 . See Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: for Problem 5.1.30.

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Section 5.1

5.1.31 If V = span(~u1 , . . . , ~um ), then projV ~x = (~u1 · ~x)~u1 + · · · + (~um · ~x)~um , by Theorem 5.1.5, and kprojV ~xk2 =
(~u1 ·~x)2 +· · ·+(~um ·~x)2 = p, by the Pythagorean theorem (Theorem 5.1.9). Therefore p ≤ k~xk2 , by Theorem 5.1.10.
The two quantities are equal if (and only if) ~x is in V .

5.1.32 By Theorem 2.4.9a, the matrix G is invertible if (and only if) (~v1 · ~v1 )(~v2 · ~v2 ) − (~v1 · ~v2 )2
= k~v1 k2 k~v2 k2 − (~v1 · ~v2 )2 6= 0. The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality (Theorem 5.1.11) tells us that k~v1 k2 k~v2 k2 −
(~v1 · ~v2 )2 ≥ 0; equality holds if (and only if) ~v1 and ~v2 are parallel (that is, linearly dependent).

   
x1 1
5.1.33 Let ~x =  · · ·  be a vector in Rn whose components add up to 1, that is, x1 + · · · + xn = 1. Let ~y =  · · · 
xn 1
(all n components are √ 1). The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality (Theorem 5.1.11) tells us that |~x · ~y | ≤ k~xkk~y k, or,
|x1 + · · · + xn | ≤ k~xk n, or k~xk ≥ √1n . By Theorem 5.1.11, the equation k~xk = √1n holds if (and only if)
the vectors ~x and ~y are parallel, that is, x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = n1 . Thus the vector of minimal length is
 1 
n
~x =  · · ·  all components are n1 .


1
n

Figure 5.5 illustrates the case n = 2.

x2

1 1
→ = 2
x
X 1
2

x1
1

x1 + x2 = 1

Figure 5.5: for Problem 5.1.33.

 
1
5.1.34 Let ~x be a unit vector in Rn , that is, k~xk = 1. Let ~y =  . . .  (all n components are 1). The Cauchy-Schwarz
1
√ √
inequality (Theorem 5.1.11) tells us that |~x · ~y | ≤ k~xkk~y k, or, |x1 + . . . + xn | ≤ k~xk n = n. By Theorem 
5.1.11,

√ k
the equation x1 +. . .+xn = n holds if ~x = k~y for positive k. Thus ~x must be a unit vector of the form ~x =  . . . 
k
 1 
√
n  
for some positive k. It is required that nk 2 = 1, or, k = √1n . Thus ~x =  . . .  all components are √1n .
√1
n

Figure 5.6 illustrates the case n = 2.

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Copyright c 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5

x2

1
→ √2
x =
X 1
√2

x1
1
x1 + x2 =√ 2

Figure 5.6: for Problem 5.1.34.

   
x 1
5.1.35 Applying the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to ~u =  y  and ~v =  2  gives |~u · ~v | ≤ k~ukk~v k, or |x + 2y + 3z| ≤
z 3
√ √
14. The minimal value x + 2y + 3z = − 14 is attained when ~u = k~v for negative k. Thus ~u must be a unit
− √114
 
 
k
vector of the form ~u =  2k , for negative k. It is required that 14k 2 = 1, or, k = − √114 . Thus ~u =  √2 
 
 − 14 .
3k − √3 14

   
a 0.2
5.1.36 Let ~x =  b  and ~y =  0.3 . It is required that ~x · ~y = 0.2a + 0.3b + 0.5c = 76. Our goal is to minimize
c 0.5
quantity ~x · ~x = a2 + b2 + c2 . The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality (squared) tells us that (~x · ~y )2 ≤ k~xk2 k~y k2 , or
762
762 ≤ (a2 + b2 + c2 )(0.22 + 0.32 + 0.52 ) or a2+ b2 +  c2 ≥ 0.38 2 2 2
 . The quantity a + b + c is minimal when
a 0.2k
762
a2 + b2 + c2 = 0.38 . This is the case when ~x =  b  =  0.3k  for some positive constant k. It is required that
c 0.5k
0.2a + 0.3b + 0.5c = (0.2)2 k + (0.3)2 k + (0.5)2 k = 0.38k = 76, so that k = 200. Thus a = 40, b = 60, c = 100: The
student must study 40 hours for the first exam, 60 hours for the second, and 100 hours for the third.

5.1.37 Using Definition 2.2.2 as a guide, we find that ref V ~x = 2(projV~x) − ~x = 2(~u1 · ~x)~u1 + 2(~u2 · ~x)~u2 − ~x.

5.1.38 Since ~v1 and ~v2 are unit
vectors, the condition ~v1 · ~v2 = k~v1 kk~v2 k cos(α) = cos(α) = 12 implies that ~v1 and ~v2
enclose an angle of 60◦ = π3 . The vectors ~v1 and ~v3 enclose an angle of 60◦ as well.
In the case n = 2 there are two possible scenarios: either ~v2 = ~v3 , or ~v2 and ~v3 enclose an angle of 120◦ . Therefore,
either ~v2 · ~v3 = 1 or ~v2 · ~v3 = cos(120◦ ) = − 21 .
In the case n = 3, the vectors ~v2 and ~v3 could enclose any angle between 0◦ (if ~v2 = ~v3 ) and 120◦ , as illustrated
in Figure 5.7. We have − 12 ≤ ~v2 · ~v3 ≤ 1.
 √  
3

0
 cos θ
  √2 
 
0
 √3 

For example, consider ~v1 = 0 , ~v2 =  2 , ~v3 =  3
 
sin θ
  
2
1 1
 
2 1
2

3 1
could be anything between − 12 (when sin θ = −1) and 1 (when sin θ = 1), as


Note that ~v2 · ~v3 = 4 sin θ + 4
claimed.

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 Section 5.1

Figure 5.7: for Problem 5.1.38.

If n exceeds three, we can consider the orthogonal projection w

~ of ~v3 onto the plane E spanned by ~v1 and ~v2 .

Since proj~v1 w ~ v1 = 21 ~v1 , and since kwk

~ = (~v1 · w)~ ~ ≤ k~v3 k = 1, (by Theorem 5.1.10), the tip of w
~ will be on the
line segment in Figure 5.8. Note that the angle φ enclosed by the vectors ~v2 and w ~ is between 0◦ and 120◦ , so
that cos φ is between − 12 and 1.

Therefore, ~v2 · ~v3 = ~v2 · w ~ cos φ is between − 12 and 1.

~ = kwk

This implies that ∠(~v2 , ~v3 ) is between 0◦ and 120◦ as well. To see that all these values are attained, add (n − 3)
zeros to the three vectors ~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 in R3 given above.

v1

v2
φ

Figure 5.8: for Problem 5.1.38.

5.1.39 No! By definition of a projection, the vector ~x − projL ~x is perpendicular to projL ~x, so that
(~x − projL ~x) · (projL ~x) = ~x · projL ~x − kprojL ~xk2 = 0 and ~x · projL ~x = kprojL ~xk2 ≥ 0. (See Figure 5.9.)

Figure 5.9: for Problem 5.1.39.

√ √
5.1.40 ||~v2 || = ~v2 · ~v2 = a22 = 3.

·~ 20
5.1.41 θ =arccos( ||~v~v22||||~
v3 √ a23
v3 || ) =arccos( a22 a33 ) =arccos( 21 ) ≈ 0.31 radians.
√

p √ √
5.1.42 ||~v1 + ~v2 || = (~v1 + ~v2 ) · (~v1 + ~v2 ) = a11 + 2a12 + a22 = 22.

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Chapter 5

~
v2 ~
v2
5.1.43 Let ~u = ||~
v2 || =3 . Then, ~ u is an orthonormal basis for span(~v2 ). Using Theorem 5.1.5, proj~v2 (~v1 ) =
(~u · ~v1 )~u = ( 3 · ~v1 ) 3 = 3 (~v2 · ~v1 ) ~v32 = 31 (a12 ) ~v32 = 95 ~v2 .
~
v2 ~
v2 1

20
5.1.44 One method to solve this is to take ~v = ~v2 − proj~v3 ~v2 = ~v2 − 49 ~
v3 .

5.1.45 Write the projection as a linear combination of ~v2 and ~v3 , c2~v2 + c3~v3 . Now you want ~v1 − c2~v2 − c3~v3 to be
perpendicular to V , that is, perpendicular to both ~v2 and ~v3 . Using dot products, this boils down to two linear
25 1
equation in two unknowns, 9c2 + 20c3 = 5, and 20c2 + 49c3 = 11, with the solution c2 = 41 and c3 = − 41 . Thus
25 1
the answer is 41 ~v2 − 41 ~v3 .

5.1.46 Write the projection as a linear combination of ~v1 and ~v2 : c1~v1 + c2~v2 . Now we want ~v3 − c1~v1 + c2~v2 to be
perpendicular to V , that is, perpendicular to both ~v1 and ~v2 . Using dot products, this boils down to two linear
equations in two unknowns, 11 = 3c1 + 5c2 and 20 = 5c1 + 9c2 , with the solution c1 = − 12 , c2 = 52 . Thus, the
answer is − 21 ~v1 + 52 ~v2 .

Section 5.2
In Exercises 1–14, we will refer to the given vectors as ~v1 , . . . , ~vm , where m = 1, 2, or 3.
 
2
5.2.1 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 31  1 
−2

 
6
5.2.2 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 71  3 
2
 
2
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1
~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 17  −6 
3

Note that ~u1 · ~v2 = 0.

 
4
5.2.3 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 51  0 
3
 
3
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1
~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 15  0 
−4

   
4 3
5.2.4 ~u1 = 51  0  and ~u2 = 1 
5 0  as in Exercise 3.
3 −4
 
0
Since ~v3 is orthogonal to ~u1 and ~u2 , ~u3 = k~v13 k ~v3 =  −1 .
0

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 Section 5.2

 
2
5.2.5 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 31  2 
1
   
−1 −1
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1
~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = √118  −1  = 1 
√
3 2
−1 
4 4
 
1
5.2.6 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 =  0  = ~e1
0
 
0
v2⊥
~
~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
= k~~vv22 −(~
u1 ·~
−(~
v2 )~
u1 ·~
u1
v2 )~
u1 k =  1  = ~e2
0
 
0
v3⊥
~ ~ v3 −(~ u1 ·~
v3 )~
u1 −(~u2 ·~v3 )~u2
~u3 = v3⊥ k
k~
= k~v3 −(~u1 ·~v3 )~u1 −(~u2 ·~v3 )~u2 k =  0  = ~e3
1
   
2 −2
5.2.7 Note that ~v1 and ~v2 are orthogonal, so that ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 13  2  and ~u2 = 1
v2 = 31  1 . Then
v2 k ~
k~
    1 2
2 1
~v⊥
~u3 = k~v3⊥ k = k~~vv33 −(~
u1 ·~
−(~
u
v3 )~
·~
v
1 3
u1 −(~
)~
u 1
u2 ·~
−(~
u
v3 )~
·~
v
2 3
u2
)~
u 2 k = √1  −4  = 1  −2 .
36 3
3
4 2

5
 
4
5.2.8 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 71  

2
2
−2
 
 2
~u2 = k~v12 k ~v2 = 71 
5

−4

1
 
1
5.2.9 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 21  

1
1
−1
 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 1  7
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 10
k~ −7
 
1

1
 
1
5.2.10 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 21  

1
1

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Chapter 5

1
 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1  −1 
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 12 
k~ 1

−1

4
 
1 1 0
5.2.11 ~u1 = k~v1 k ~v1 = 5  
0
3

−3 −3

  
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 1  2  1  2 
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = √225 = 15  14 
k~ 14

4 4

2
 
3
5.2.12 ~u1 = 71  

0
6

0
 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1  −2 
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 13 
k~ 2

1

1
 
1
5.2.13 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 = 21  

1
1
 1 
2
 −1 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1  2
~u2 = = =

v2⊥ k
k~ k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k  1
 −2


1
2
 1 
2
v3⊥
~ v3 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v3 )~
u1 −(~
u2 ·~
v3 )~
u2
 12 
~u3 = v3⊥ k
k~
= k~
v3 −(~
u1 ·~
v3 )~
u1 −(~
u2 ·~
v3 )~
u2 k = 
 −1


2
− 12

1
 
1 1 7
5.2.14 ~u1 = k~v1 k ~v1 = 10  
1
7

−1
 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1  0
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = √12 
k~ 1

0

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 Section 5.2

0

v3⊥
~ v3 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v3 )~
u1 −(~
u2 ·~
v3 )~
u2  1
~u3 = v3⊥ k
= k~
v3 −(~
u1 ·~
v3 )~
u1 −(~
u2 ·~
v3 )~
u2 k = √12 
k~ 0

−1

In Exercises 15–28, we will use the results of Exercises 1–14 (note that Exercise k, where k = 1, . . . , 14, gives the
QR factorization of the matrix in Exercise (k + 14)). We can set Q = [~u1 . . . ~um ]; the entries of R are

r11 = k~v1 k
r22 = k~v2⊥ k = k~v2 − (~u1 · ~v2 )~u1 k
r33 = k~v3⊥ k = k~v3 − (~u1 · ~v3 )~u1 − (~u2 · ~v3 )~u2 k
rij = ~ui · ~vj , where i < j.

 
2
5.2.15 Q = 13  1  , R = [3]
−2

 
6 2  
7 0
5.2.16 Q = 17  5 −6 , R =

0 7
2 3

 
4 3  
5 5
5.2.17 Q = 15  0 0 ,R =

0 35
5 −4

   
4 3 0 5 5 0
5.2.18 Q = 15  0 0 −5  , R =  0 35 0 
5 −4 0 0 0 2

− √12
 
2  
1 − √12 , R = 3 1 √1
 
5.2.19 Q = 2
3   0 2
1 √4
2

 
2 3 5
5.2.20 Q = I3 , R = [ ~v1 ~v2 ~v3 ] =  0 4 6
0 0 7

   
2 −2 1 3 0 12
5.2.21 Q = 31  2 1 −2 , R =  0 3 −12 
1 2 2 0 0 6

5 −2
 
 
1 4 2 7 7
5.2.22 Q = 7  , R =
2 5 0 7

2 −4

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Chapter 5

0.5 −0.1
 
 
 0.5 0.7  2 4
5.2.23 Q =  , R =
0.5 −0.7 0 10

0.5 0.1

1 1
 
 
1 −1  2 10
5.2.24 Q = 12  , R =

1 1 0 2
1 −1

12 −3
 
 
1  0 2 5 10
5.2.25 Q = 15 , R =
0 14 0 15

9 4

2
0

7
3
− 23 
 
7 14

7
5.2.26 Q =  , R =
 
0 2 

0 3
3
6 1
7 3

1 1 1
   
2 1 1
1 1 −1 1
5.2.27 Q = 2  , R =  0 1 −2 
1 −1 −1

0 0 1
1 1 −1
 1

10 − √12 0  
 7
0 √1
 10 10 10
√
10 2
 
5.2.28 Q =  1
, R =  0 2 √0 
 √1 0 

 10 2 0 0 2
7
10 0 − √12

   
1 1 −3 v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 1 4
5.2.29 ~u1 = v1 k ~
k~ v1 = 5 ~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = 5 . (See Figure 5.10.)
4 k~ 3

Figure 5.10: for Problem 5.2.29.

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 Section 5.2

5.2.30 See Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: for Problem 5.2.30.

 
1
5.2.31 ~u1 = k~v11 k ~v1 =  0  = ~e1
0
       
b b 0 0
v2⊥
~
~v2⊥ = ~v2 − projV1 ~v2 =  c  −  0  =  c , so that ~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
=  1  = ~e2
0 0 0 0

Here V1 = span(~e1 ) = x axis.

       
d d 0 0
v3⊥
~
~v3⊥ = ~v3 − projV2 ~v3 =  e  −  e  =  0 , so that ~u3 = v3⊥ k
k~
=  0  = ~e3 .
f 0 f 1

Here V2 = span(~e1 , ~e2 ) = x-y plane. (See Figure 5.12.)

Figure 5.12: for Problem 5.2.31.


  
−1 −1
5.2.32 A basis of the plane is ~v1 =  1 , ~v2 =  0 .
0 1

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Chapter 5

Now apply the Gram-Schmidt process.

 
−1
1
~u1 = v1 k ~
k~ v1 = √12  1 
0
 
−1
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1
~u2 = v2⊥ k
k~
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = √16  −1 
2

Your solution may be different if you start with a different basis ~v1 , ~v2 of the plane.
 
1 0 0 1
5.2.33 rref(A) =
0 1 1 0

−1 0
   
 0  −1 
A basis of ker(A) is ~v1 =  , ~v2 =  .
0 1
1 0

−1 0
   
 0  −1 
Since ~v1 and ~v2 are orthogonal already, we obtain ~u1 = √12  , ~u2 = √1  .
0 2 1
1 0
 
1 0 −1 −2
5.2.34 rref(A) =
0 1 2 3

1 2
   
 −2   −3 
A basis of ker(A) is ~v1 =  , ~v2 =  .
1 0
0 1
We apply the Gram-Schmidt process and obtain

1
 
1  −2 
~u1 = v1 k ~
k~ v1 = √16 
1

0
2
 
v2⊥
~ v2 −(~
~ u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1  −1 
~u2 = v2⊥ k
= k~
v2 −(~
u1 ·~
v2 )~
u1 k = √130 
k~ −4

3

1
1 0
 
3
1
5.2.35 rref(A) = 0
 1 3

0 0 0

The non-redundant columns of A give us a basis of im(A):

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 Section 5.2

   
1 2
~v1 =  2 , ~v2 =  1 
2 −2
   
1 2
Since ~v1 and ~v2 are orthogonal already, we obtain ~u1 = 13  2 , ~u2 = 1 
3 1 .
2 −2

1 1 1
   
2 3 5
1 −1 −1 
5.2.36 Write M = 21   0 −4 6

1 −1 1

0 0 7
1 1 −1
↑ ↑
Q0 R0
This is almost the QR factorization of M : the matrix Q0 has orthonormal columns and R0 is upper triangular;
the only problem is the entry −4 on the diagonal of R0 . Keeping in mind how matrices are multiplied, we can
change all the signs in the second column of Q0 and in the second row of R0 to fix this problem:
1 −1 1
   
2 3 5
1 1 −1  
M = 12  0 4 −6 
1 1 −1

0 0 7
1 −1 1
↑ ↑
Q R

1 1 1 1 3 4
   
1  1 −1 −1 1 0 5
5.2.37 Write M = 2 
1 −1 1 −1 0 0
  
1 1 −1 −1 0 0
↑ ↑
Q0 R0
Note that the last two columns of Q0 and the last two rows of R0 have no effect on the product Q0 R0 ; if we drop
them, we have the QR factorization of M :
1 1
 
 
1  1 −1  3 4
M = 2
1 −1 0 5

1 1
↑ ↑
Q R

5.2.38 Since ~v1 = 2~e3 , ~v2 = −3~e1 and ~v3 = 4~e4 are orthogonal, we have
0 −1 0
     
k~v1 k 0 0 2 0 0
 ~v1 ~
v2 ~
v3  0 0 0
Q = k~v1 k k~v2 k k~v3 k =  and R =  0 k~
v 2 k 0  =  0 3 0.
1 0 0

0 0 k~v3 k 0 0 4
0 0 1

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Chapter 5

     
1 1 −5
5.2.39 ~u1 = √114  2 , ~u2 = √1  1 , ~
3
u3 = ~u1 × ~u2 = √1  4 
42
3 −1 −1
 
k~v1 k 0
5.2.40 If ~v1 , . . . , ~vn are the columns of A, then Q =
 ~
v1
··· ~
vn 
and R = 
 .. .

k~
v1 k k~
vn k .
0 k~vn k

(See Exercise 38 as an example.)

5.2.41 If all diagonal entries of A are positive, then we have Q = In and R = A. A small modification is necessary
if A has negative entries on the diagonal: if aii < 0 we let rij = −aij for all j, and we let qii = −1; if aii > 0 we
let rij = aij and qii = 1. Furthermore, qij = 0 if i 6= j (that is, Q is diagonal).
     
−1 2 3 −1 0 0 1 −2 −3
For example,  0 4 5 =  0 1 0  0 4 5
0 0 −6 0 0 −1 0 0 6
↑ ↑ ↑
A Q R

5.2.42 We have r11 = k~v1 k and r22 = k~v2⊥ k = k~v2 − projL~v2 k, so that r11 r22 is the area of the parallelogram defined
by ~v1 and ~v2 . See Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13: for Problem 5.2.42.

5.2.43 Partition the matrices Q and R in the QR factorization of A as follows:

 
R1 R2
[ A1 A2 ] = A = QR = [ Q1 Q2 ] = [ Q1 R 1 Q1 R 2 + Q2 R 3 ] ,
0 R3
where Q1 is n × m1 , Q2 is n × m2 , R1 is m1 × m1 , and R3 is m2 × m2 .

Then, A1 = Q1 R1 is the QR factorization of A1 : note that the columns of A1 are orthonormal, and R1 is upper
triangular with positive diagonal entries.

5.2.44 No! If m exceeds n, then there is no n × m matrix Q with orthonormal columns (if the columns of a matrix
are orthonormal, then they are linearly independent).

5.2.45 Yes. Let A = [ ~v1 · · · ~vm ]. The idea is to perform the Gram-Schmidt process in reversed order, starting
with ~um = k~v1m k ~vm .

Then we can express ~vj as a linear combination of ~uj , . . . , ~um , so that [ ~v1 · · · ~vj · · · ~vm ] = [ ~u1 · · · ~uj · · · ~um ] L
for some lower triangular matrix L, with

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 Section 5.3

l1j
 
 ··· 
~vj = [ ~u1 · · · ~uj · · · ~um ]  ljj  = ljj ~uj + · · · + lmj ~um .
 
···
 
lmj

Section 5.3
5.3.1 Not orthogonal, the column vectors fail to be perpendicular to each other.

5.3.2 This matrix is orthogonal. Check that the column vectors are unit vectors, and that they are perpendicular
to each other.

5.3.3 This matrix is orthogonal. Check that the column vectors are unit vectors, and that they are perpendicular
to each other.

5.3.4 Not orthogonal, the first and third column vectors fail to be perpendicular to each other.

5.3.5 3A will not be orthogonal, because the length of the column vectors will be 3 instead of 1, and they will fail
to be unit vectors.

5.3.6 −B will certainly be orthogonal, since the columns will be perpendicular unit vectors.

5.3.7 AB is orthogonal by Theorem 5.3.4a.

5.3.8 A + B will not necessarily be orthogonal, because the columns may not be unit vectors. For example, if
A = B = In , then A + B = 2In , which is not orthogonal.

5.3.9 B −1 is orthogonal by Theorem 5.3.4b.

5.3.10 This matrix will be orthogonal, by Theorem 5.3.4.

5.3.11 AT is orthogonal. AT = A−1 , by Theorem 5.3.7, and A−1 is orthogonal by Theorem 5.3.4b.

5.3.13 3A is symmetric, since (3A)T = 3AT = 3A.

5.3.14 −B is symmetric, since (−B)T = −B T = −B.

5.3.15 AB is not necessarily symmetric, since (AB)T = B T AT = BA, which is not necessarily the same as AB.
(Here we used Theorem 5.3.9a.)

5.3.16 A + B is symmetric, since (A + B)T = AT + B T = A + B.

5.3.17 B −1 is symmetric, because (B −1 )T = (B T )−1 = B −1 . In the first step we have used 5.3.9b.

5.3.18 A10 is symmetric, since (A10 )T = (AT )10 = A10 .

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Chapter 5

5.3.19 This matrix is symmetric. First note that (A2 )T = (AT )2 = A2 for a symmetric matrix A. Now we can use
the linearity of the transpose, (2In + 3A − 4A2 )T = 2InT + 3AT − (4A2 )T = 2In + 3A − 4(AT )2 = 2In + 3A − 4A2 .

5.3.20 AB 2 A is symmetric, since (AB 2 A)T = (ABBA)T = (BA)T (AB)T = AT B T B T AT = AB 2 A.

5.3.21 Symmetric. (AT A)T = AT (AT )T = AT A.

5.3.22 BB T is symmetric: (BB T )T = (B T )T B T = BB T .

5.3.23 Not necessarily symmetric. (A − AT )T = AT − A = −(A − AT ).

5.3.24 Not necessarily symmetric. (AT BA)T = AT (AT B)T = AT B T A.

5.3.25 Symmetric, because (AT B T BA)T = AT B T (B T )T (AT )T = AT B T BA.

5.3.26 Symmetric, since (B(A + AT )B T )T = ((A + AT )B T )T B T = B(A + AT )T B T

= B(AT + A)T B T = B((AT )T + AT )B T = B(A + AT )B T .

~ = (A~v )T w
5.3.27 Using Theorems 5.3.6 and 5.3.9a, we find that (A~v ) · w ~ = ~v T AT w
~ = ~v · (AT w),
~ as claimed.

5.3.28 We will follow the hint.

(iv) ⇒ (vi) : If AT A = In , then (A~x) · (A~y ) = (A~x)T (A~y ) = ~xT AT A~y = ~xT In ~y = ~x · ~y for all ~x and ~y .
p √
(vi) ⇒ (ii) : If (A~x) · (A~y ) = ~x · ~y for all ~x and ~y , then kA~xk = (A~x) · (A~x) = ~x · ~x = k~xk for all ~x.
Recall that the equivalence of statements (i) through (v) is proven in the text.

5.3.29 We will use the fact that L preserves length (by Definition 5.3.1) and the dot product, by Summary 5.3.8
(vi).
v )·L(w)
L(~ ~ ·w
∠(L(~v ), L(w))
~ = arccos kL(~
v )kkL(w)k
~ = arccos k~v~vkk~
~ = ∠(~
wk v , w).
~

5.3.30 If L(~x) = ~0, then kL(~x)k = k~xk = 0, so that ~x = ~0. Therefore, ker(L) = {~0}.

By Theorem 3.3.7, dim(im(L)) = m − dim(ker(L)) = m.

Since Rn has an m-dimensional subspace (namely, im(L)), the inequality m ≤ n holds.

The transformation L preserves right angles (the proof of Theorem 5.3.2 applies), so that the columns of A are
orthonormal (since they are L(~e1 ), . . . , L(~em )).

Therefore, we have AT A = Im (the proof of Theorem 5.3.7 applies).

Since the vectors ~v1 , . . . , ~vm form an orthonormal basis of im(A), the matrix AAT represents the orthogonal
projection onto im(A), by Theorem 5.3.10.
   
1 0   x1
x 1
A simple example of such a transformation is L(~x) =  0 1  ~x, that is, L =  x2 .
x2
0 0 0

246
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voyage is over, they separate, with no expectation of ever meeting
again, unless some chance should make them fellow-travelers
another time.
All the children on board are sure to make friends with each other;
and they have plenty of room to play on the long decks, and in the
saloons, without interfering with the comfort of older persons.
 THE SALOON OF THE GREAT EASTERN.
It would be a delightful thing to take a voyage on such a
magnificent steamer as this. Apart from the pleasure that the ship
itself, with all its great machinery and its splendid appointments
would afford, there would be the satisfaction of knowing that there is
some chance of escaping sea-sickness when on board of the Great
Eastern.
 And any one who ever has been sea-sick would be very apt to
appreciate the advantages of a vessel that does not pitch and toss
on every ordinary wave.
 KANGAROOS.

In the continent of Australia where there are so many queer plants

and animals, lives the numerous, and droll-looking family of the
kangaroos.
There are several varieties of this family, but all have the same
general characteristics; a very large tail, very long hind legs, and
very short fore legs.
Kangaroos can out-jump the very best jumpers you ever saw, or
heard of. They use their long hind legs something in the grasshopper
style; and their tails are not only big, but strong, and are of great
assistance to them in their leaps.
Their flesh is good to eat, and so they are hunted a great deal.
Instead of running from their pursuers like the swift-footed hares and
antelopes, they jump away from them, and in this manner they get
over a great extent of country in a very short time. Running would be
impossible to creatures with such ridiculously short front legs; but
leaping answers the same purpose; and, as this is their natural mode
of progression, they do not get tired any sooner than other animals
do by running.
The kangaroos are by no means ugly animals; and, though they
look awkward when standing on all fours (which they seldom do)
they are very graceful while making their leaps.
One of the prettiest species of the kangaroo family is called the
antelope kangaroo. Its head and ears are similar to those of the
antelope in appearance.
 THE ANTELOPE KANGAROO.
Kangaroos are common enough in menageries, and the next time
you visit such a place look for one. It seems a pity to shut them up in
cages, where they have no room to take even the smallest jump.
But, then, if they were not caged there is no knowing where they
would jump to. Some of the old kangaroos are rough customers
when brought to bay. A big fellow will sometimes seize a dog in his
short fore legs and with one of his great hind feet give him a scrape
that will make him wish he had never seen a kangaroo.
Just as you have seen a quiet peaceable boy when he had been
worried and annoyed by a teasing and quarrelsome fellow, suddenly
blaze up and astonish the young rascal by giving him a good
thrashing.
 THE STORY OF POLARGNO.

Polargno was an Esquimaux boy. At the time the things happened

to him that I am going to relate to you he was sixteen years old, and
as merry a fellow as you could find anywhere. Here is his portrait.
Perhaps you think him ugly, but our
ideas of beauty depend a good deal
upon what we are accustomed to see
around us. You like a white skin,
regular features, and fine, soft, wavy
hair. But the negroes of Central Africa
do not admire this style in the least.
They prefer thick lips, flat noses,
shining black skins, and hair as tightly
twisted and as wiry as possible. And
Polargno’s friends looked upon him as
a boy of a remarkably fine
appearance, for they considered it very
proper that he should have a stubby
nose, thick lips, small eyes, and lank,
coarse hair. His parents thought him
handsome, but his mother was grieved
because he was not quite as fat as
other Esquimaux boys of his age. To
be very beautiful in the eyes of an
Esquimaux one must be very fat.
Polargno’s father was not much taller POLARGNO.
than his son, but he was very much
broader. He consoled his wife,
however, by assuring her that he was no larger than Polargno at the
same age.
In this picture, Polargno is dressed in the suit he wears out of
doors in the winter. It is a complete suit of seal-skin, with the fur
outside. This is put on over the in-door suit, boots and all. This in-
door suit is also of seal-skin, but it is made up with the fur turned
inside. To make the costume complete, he should have on his head
a fur hood. People have to dress warmly in the Esquimaux country
where the ground is covered with snow three-fourths of the year.
Polargno’s father owned a winter and a summer residence; which
sounds very grandly, to be sure, but he was no richer than the rest of
the tribe. There was much similarity among the families of the
settlement in regard to wealth. One family might possess a few more
skins than the others, or softer beds, or an extra lamp; but, on the
whole, one man was about as well off as his neighbors, and they
visited each other in the most sociable manner, knowing nothing of
rank and riches.
The winter residence of Loonerkoo, the father of Polargno, was
constructed in the following manner: Blocks of snow two feet long,
and six inches wide and several inches thick, were cut out from the
great snow heaps that abounded everywhere. These were carefully
pared with a large knife and made even and smooth. They were then
built into a dome. A good many layers of blocks were used to make
the walls very thick and solid. There were two windows in this dome,
and what do you think they were made of? Each one was a single,
inch thick square of transparent, fresh water ice. There was not the
least danger of its melting from the heat of the house, the outside
cold being too intense for that to happen.
There was no door to this house, but there was quite a large
doorway. A hole was left in the wall. It was not more than three feet
high, and everybody, except very little children crawled into it on their
hands and knees. The passage way was no higher, and was about
sixteen feet long, so that this crawling back and forth was somewhat
wearing on the clothes, although the floor was of ice and snow
instead of the rough ground. This entrance was made low and
narrow, so as to shut out as much cold air as possible.
The next thing was to make a chimney. This was easy enough.
They simply cut a hole in the roof of the dome of snow. This
contrivance did not always work well, as the wind sometimes blew
the smoke back into the room as fast as it came out of it, but the
Esquimaux are used to smoke in their houses; and, supposing it to
be one of the necessary evils of life, are quite content to have it
when it cannot be helped.
Inside of this dome there was one large, circular room. In most
Esquimaux houses this was reception-room, dining-room, bed-room,
and kitchen, all in one. But a few very elegant dwellings, and, among
them Loonerkoo’s, had curtains of skins hung up so as to make a
couple of bed-rooms.
It may make you shiver when I tell you how they made their
bedsteads. These were blocks of snow, making a platform a couple
of feet high, and five and six feet long. On them whalebones and
seal skins were laid for mattresses. The coverlets consisted of nice,
warm furs.
Exactly in the middle of the large room a circular platform was
made with blocks of snow. On this stood the lamp for cooking
purposes, and over it was a wooden scaffolding on which the
cooking utensils were hung.
The lamp was nothing but a dish, filled with whale oil and blubber,
with a long wick of dry moss.
Around the walls the weapons and clothes of the family were
hung.
This was all the furniture the house contained, and it was quite
enough for these simple people. Warm clothing, plenty to eat, and
comfortable places to sleep were all they required.
It is difficult for us to believe that these snow houses are
comfortable, but they are very warm indeed; or, rather, I should say
they are the warmest houses that could be made for the very severe
climate of Greenland. The Esquimaux is hardened to the cold, and
can bear it much better than we can. He wraps himself up in his furs,
and lays down on his icy couch, and sleeps as peacefully and
comfortably as we do on our soft mattresses.
It only required a few hours to build the winter house of
Loonerkoo, and to put it into perfect order.
 A still shorter time sufficed for constructing his summer residence,
which was nothing more than a large tent, made of dressed skins.
The Arctic summer is short. It really lasts only about six weeks.
For, after the worst of the wintry weather is over, it takes the sun a
good while to melt the heavy masses of snow and ice, and to send
them floating down the rivers and bays, and out into the ocean,
where they finally disappear. This season is scarcely warm enough
to call Spring; it is, more properly, the breaking up of Winter. It is a
time when icebergs abound, and boating is a very dangerous
amusement.
But, after the ground is freed from its icy envelope, everything
starts into life, and grows with the most astonishing rapidity. A plant
will spring up, grow two or three feet high perhaps, bud, blossom,
and bear fruit in the time our plants of the temperate zone will be
producing a foot or so of stalk and leaves. In a few days after the fir
trees have dropped the last of their snow-wreaths their branches will
be covered with delicate spears of fresh green. A field that a week or
two before was white with snow will be carpeted with flowers. The
reason of this growth, which seems magical, is that in the Arctic
zone, after the sun once gets well up above the horizon, it stays up
—it does not set again for a long time, but shines steadily on, day
and night.
 ICEBERGS AND GLACIERS.
I use the words day and night in the sense we generally use them
to mark the division of time into twenty-four hours. In our latitude this
division of time also marks the periods of light and darkness, but it is
not so in the Arctic countries. There, you know, the day is six months
long, and the night six months. But the Esquimaux have their regular
times for sleeping, for, of course, they can’t stay awake six months,
or sleep six months; but they naturally spend more time in sleep in
their dreary winter than during their beautiful summer.
It was on Polargno’s sixteenth birth-day that he had his adventure
with the fox. It was mid-winter, and consequently midnight—that is
the middle of the six months’ night—the seventh of January, I think,
that his birth-day came around.
I don’t know that the Esquimaux are in the habit of remembering,
or celebrating birth-days, but it was easy for Polargno’s parents to
remember his birth-day, because he was the only child they had. His
father, that morning, gave him a bright, new hatchet, that he had
bought from the fur traders, and Polargno was so delighted with it
that he started off as soon as he had his breakfast to use it in making
a new trap, and to mend his old ones which were getting to be rather
shaky.
The only persons he found astir in the village were two boys about
his own age, and the three proceeded together to inspect their traps.
They took no dogs with them, as they were of no use on such an
expedition, and were apt to be troublesome.
At this season, trap-making and trap-baiting were about the only
amusements that the boys had, for the cold was too severe for
hunting. The men of the settlement had their traps too. These traps
were made of different sizes and forms, and baited with several sorts
of food, to attract all hungry animals, large and small, that might be
prowling around. The Esquimaux had many ingenious ways of
concealing the traps from the cautious creatures, and thus leading
them suddenly to destruction. The fur of all the animals they
captured in this way was valuable, and was bought up readily by the
fur traders once a year. But some kinds these traders were very
anxious to get, and paid for them what to the simple Esquimaux
were enormous prices, though, in reality, they were almost nothing
compared to the prices these traders got from the fur dealers.
Among the most valuable of these animals is the silver fox.
The boys first visited their traps near the village, but there was
nothing in them; and they went on to the more distant ones, which
were more likely to have tenants. They were in high spirits and
walked briskly along the shore. It was quite light, although they had
not had a glimpse of the sun for weeks, for the moon and stars
shone brightly, and the reflection from the snow was brilliant.
Suddenly a red light flashed up from the horizon, and ran across
the sky, quickly followed by other flashes of various colors. This
circumstance did not alarm the boys, for it had happened often
enough before, and they knew it to be the commencement of what
we call an Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights. We see them
sometimes in this part of the world, but ours are very feeble
compared to those in the Arctic zone. This proved to be such a
magnificent display that even these Esquimaux boys were touched
with the sense of its beauty, and paused for awhile, and gazed
upward with delight. White, red, yellow, green and blue lines crossed
each other all over the sky in bewildering confusion. These would
suddenly vanish, and great spears of flaming red would stand
marshalled in rows. Then yellow and green banners waved across
them, and extinguished them, and the whole air seemed filled with
undulating waves of color. Finally, these took form, and hung, high
up in the vault of heaven, a gorgeous canopy that seemed to be
formed of crystal pendants, and jewelled columns, glittering with
every conceivable shade and color. Every peak and crag was
touched with light. Even the little stones on the beach gleamed like
gems.

AN AURORA BOREALIS.
The boys could not have described the scene to give you any idea
of it, as I have tried to do, but they enjoyed it. It never occurred to
them to ask what it was, or where it came from. They accepted it as
they did their six months’ day and night, and great snows, and
volcanoes, and all the other forms of Nature. If they thought about it
at all, they probably supposed that all the world was just like
Greenland.
After a little while they grew tired of the Aurora, and turned their
attention once more to the traps. Polargno’s were on a point of land,
shielded somewhat by a large rock. He had no less than four, and he
usually found them all empty. As the boys silently approached this
rock they caught sight of an animal, which was circling about the
outside of one of the traps. All saw it at the same instant, and all
knew it to be one of the most valuable of their Arctic animals. Their
seal-skin boots had made no noise on the smooth ice, and the
animal was not aware of their approach. They were not on his
windward side, and therefore he was not likely to detect them by
scent. The boys stood still behind the rock, and cautiously peered
around it, watching every movement of the creature. They were
afraid to draw a long breath lest he should hear them.
Polargno’s eyes gleamed with satisfaction. Here was a prize
indeed! This was a fine Arctic fox, and he had never caught so
valuable an animal! It was seldom that anybody did, for the Arctic fox
is quite as wise and cautious as his brethren of warmer climes. He
imagined himself returning to the village with this trophy, and thought
with pride of the excitement he would cause, and how the people
would gather around him, and congratulate him, and how the fur
traders would praise him. And then he began to think what fine
things he would get from them in exchange for the skin.
But still he was anxious; for, all this time, the animal was on the
wrong side of the trap. If he did not go inside of it, farewell to
Polargno’s visions, for the boys had no guns, and they would not
have done much with them, if they had had them, for they were not
skilful in the use of firearms. The animal was evidently suspicious of
the fir boughs thrown so carelessly down, and lightly covered with
snow; but he was also very hungry, and eager for the food under this
arrangement. His hunger proved too great for his prudence, and,
after investigating the trap on all sides, and thinking over the matter
for a time that seemed very long to the watching boys, he cautiously
placed one foot over the spot where the bait lay. This was enough.
Click went a wooden spring, concealed among the branches, and
down went the fox through a wooden trap underneath, that snapped
together again, and shut him in.
“Hi,” cried Polargno, as he rushed out from behind the rock,
followed by both boys. But he was in too great a hurry. He stumbled
over a stone. His feet went up into the air, and his back and head
went crashing down into the trap, sending fir boughs and splints of
wood flying in all directions.
The fox snapped at him, but, fortunately missed his face; and
having snipped a little piece out of the boy’s ear, evidently came to
the conclusion that running away was better than revenge. He
therefore ran over Polargno’s prostrate body, and up his elevated
legs, and, making a tremendous spring from the quivering feet, he
darted away at his utmost speed.
The boys left Polargno to get out of his trap as best he could, and
immediately gave chase to the fox. But they knew it was useless.
They might as well try to catch the wind. If they had brought the dogs
the fox would probably have had the worst of it. But, as it was, he
escaped—hungry, but safe.
This was Polargno’s adventure with the fox.
The next summer, Polargno had a very surprising adventure with a
seal. He was in a cave alone on the bay. He had paddled out a short
distance from the shore because he had nothing else to do just then.
He paddled up and down until he got tired, and then he rested on his
oars, and looked about him. The scene was very different from what
it had been when he and the fox had caught each other. Now the bay
was entirely free from ice, and the waves leaped and danced as if
rejoicing to be free once more. There was not a cloud in the sky,
where the sun shone brightly far above the horizon in the same
place, apparently, that it had been for several days and nights.
Flowers bloomed in the grassy fields, birds perched upon the rocks,
and the noise of insects could be faintly heard.
 SUMMER-TIME.
But a Greenlander is never free from the sight of snow; and, even
now, in mid-summer, every high mountain peak had its white cap;
and on the tallest mountains the snow extended far down the sides.
Polargno took pleasure in the summer warmth and life, but I do not
suppose he thought much about the objects he saw around him. His
mind was busy with the prospect of the good time he would have
when two whaling ships that were cruising some miles below in the
bay, should come up as high as their settlement. There was a report,
too, that a large school of whales was making its way northward.
Thinking of these things while he idly looked about him, he
suddenly felt that he was being lifted into the air. Before he could
recover from his surprise at this rapid elevation he found that his
canoe was being borne swiftly over the surface of the water.
Instinctively he tightened his hold upon the paddle that he might not
lose it, and this action caused one end of it to strike an animal under
the boat, which immediately flapped itself free, and rolled off to a
little distance, where it remained, as motionless as a log, evidently
waiting to see what would happen next.
The thing that came near happening was the upsetting of
Polargno’s canoe, for the blow it received from the flap of the
creature’s tail sent it spinning around like a top. Polargno would not
have been much alarmed if it had upset, for he could swim like a
fish; but still he was very glad it remained right side up.
As soon as he could gather together his scattered wits he found
that the animal which had given him this unceremonious ride was not
a sea-lion, as he had at first supposed, but a large specimen of the
common seal. Its bouncing up under his boat was an
unpremeditated act on the part of the seal, who was quite as much
alarmed as the boy, and quite as glad to get away.
But should he get away? This question came into Polargno’s mind.
The Esquimaux boats at this season were kept prepared for whaling
expeditions, and in the bow of this one there laid a harpoon with a
nice long coil of rope. The boy glanced from this to the shining back
of the seal that lay so temptingly just above the surface of the water.
He knew all about seals. He had helped kill many a one. That was
very different from fighting one entirely alone, but then the glory
would be so much greater if he conquered.
A seal is a timid animal, but when brought to bay it can fight boldly
and fiercely enough, and Polargno knew well that there was a
chance of his coming to grief if he once began the combat. But then
again the glory was so much the greater if he conquered.
He wished to wipe out the memory of his ridiculous adventure with
the Arctic fox, which had brought upon him the laughter of the whole
village, and was a joke against him to that very day.
These thoughts passed swiftly through his mind, and he made his
determination. He cautiously paddled towards the seal, but this act
alarmed the creature, and it sank into the water out of sight.
Polargno knew it would come up again to breathe, and he uncoiled
the harpoon line, and held the weapon all prepared to throw.
Meantime the canoe drifted down to the very spot where the seal
had sunk, and Polargno looked down into the deep green water,
thinking he might see it coming up. But it rose in an entirely different
place, on the other side of the boat, and at quite a distance.
Polargno was by no means sure of his aim in making such a long
throw; but, putting himself into the attitude he had seen experienced
harpooners assume, he sent the harpoon whizzing through the air
with a straight, steady motion that carried it with a wide sweeping
curved line into the back of the seal, just above the tail.
Down into the water went the animal with a rush that made
Polargno’s canoe reel and dance. If it had been a small whale, or
even a sea-lion, that the boy had undertaken to capture in this
fashion, it would have dragged down the canoe, harpoon, rope, and
all, leaving to Polargno the pleasant task of swimming home and
telling the news. But the seal was not quite strong enough for this,
though it did its best; and, each time that it rose to the surface after
“sounding,” Polargno wound the line tighter and tighter around the
strong supports to which it was fastened. In this way he brought the
seal nearer and nearer the canoe. By the time its strength was pretty
well spent it had so short a line that it could dive only a few feet
below the surface. And then Polargno began to wonder how he
should get it to the shore when it was dead. It would be too heavy a
body for him to manage alone, and there was no one in sight on the
shore to whom he could call for help. He did not wish to cut the body
adrift, for then he was not likely to get it again.
Suddenly there flashed into his mind a brilliant thought. The seal
should take itself to the shore, and take him too! He seated himself
firmly in the boat, and took up the paddle. With this he hit the seal a
whack on the side, and, in darting away to the opposite direction
from the blow, the animal headed for the shore. It could not dive, but
it made a grand rush through the water, drawing the boat swiftly
along. A few such rushes brought it to the shore. Whenever it made
a turn to the right or left, the paddle reminded it to keep the straight
path. Polargno had never heard of Neptune’s chariot with its dolphin
steeds, and was therefore unconscious that he was working out a
poetical idea, but he was very proud of the success of his stratagem,
especially as it possessed an element of danger. If his charger had
taken it into its head to back against the boat, and to give it a blow
with its tail, it would have stove it in, and if it had given Polargno a
whack at the same time it would probably have killed him. But the
seal was too weak from loss of blood, or too ignorant to think of any
such revenge, and rushed upon the beach at last, dragging
Polargno’s boat up with such violence that he was shot out of it in a
twinkling.
He fell upon the soft sand and was not hurt. When he stood upon
his feet he found that his father, and one of the neighbors had come
to the shore to look after the boats, and had witnessed the last part
of his extraordinary journey. He was very glad of this, for he had
thought his story would not be believed in the village.
The seal was soon killed, and yielded a good deal of oil and
blubber.
After this, the people of the village looked upon Polargno as a very
clever and brave fellow, and they laughed at him no more about the
trick the fox had played him.

AFTER THEM CAME THE WHALING SHIPS.

In due course of time, the whales came up, and, after them came
the whaling ships. There were whales enough for both the
Esquimaux and the whalers. The former laid in large supplies for
winter use, and the latter loaded their ships with oil. But the fishing
was so very good that one of the whalers staid rather late for such a
very northern latitude. From time to time the captain had resolved to
go, but a fresh temptation in the shape of a big whale would induce
him to defer his departure; and the last of September found the ship
still cruising about in that latitude.

FROZEN UP.
By that time the whales were gone, and the vessel was full, and
they were really on the point of departure, when, unfortunately, there
came upon them a few days of excessively cold weather that was
very unusual so early in the season. In a short time the bay was
frozen, and the vessel tightly enclosed in the ice. The sailors now
began seriously to fear that they would have to winter in that dreadful
climate, when, to their joy, the weather moderated somewhat, and
the ice broke up. They soon found, however, that this condition of
things was worse than the other, for there was great danger of the
ship being crushed by the huge masses of loose ice that pressed
upon it on every side. The crew worked hard to save the ship, but it