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ETHNOZOOLOGY
ANIMALS IN OUR LIVES

Edited by

Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves

Departamento de Biologia
Universidade Estadual da Paraíba
Campina Grande, Brazil

Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque

Departamento de Botânica
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco
Recife, Brazil
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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 Contents

List of Contributors xi Quantification 31

A Theoretical Framework 33
Applied Zooarcheology 39
Conclusion 40
1. Introduction: Animals in Our lives
References 42
R6MULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES AND ULYSSES PAULINO
ALBUQUERQUE

4. Studying Ethnozoology in Historical

ln rroducr ion
Documents
Investigating Animals and Their Interactions
MARIA FRANCO TRrNDADE MEDEIROS AND R6MULO ROMEU
With Humans 3
N6BREGA ALVES
Why This Book? 4
Acknowledgments 6
Introduction 45
References 6
Historical R eco rd s of the Relationships Between
Human Society and Animals 46
2. Ethnozoology: Conceptual How Can Ethnozoological rnformation Be Found
and Historical Aspects in Histori cal Documents? 46
Investigming the Historical Implications of Human
RQMULO R OM W NQSRWA ALV!;S. wEDSON
MEDEIROS SILVA SOUTO AND ULYSSES Exploitation of Fauna 47
PAULINO ALBUQUERQUE Whaling in Brazil 49
Reflection on Historical Ethnowology 51
lnrrocluction 9 References 52
Historical Consider;nions About Human
and FmlOCl Interactions II
The Origin and HisLOry of Erhnozoology 13
5. Imaginary Zoology: MysteriOUS Fauna
Ethnozoology: What Are [he Marching Orders! 17 in the Reports of Ancient Travelers
Final Considerations 18 and Chroniclers
References 19 KLEBER DA SILVA VIEIRA, WASHINGTON LUIZ SILVA VIEIRA
AND ROMULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES

3. Zooarcheology: Investigating Past

Introduction 53
Interactions Between Humans and Other A Garden in the Ori!:!l1t 54
Animals Something More in Song of the Muses 56
STEVE WOLVERTON AND LISA NAOAOKA The Gifts of the Nile 61
A World of Imagination and Fantasy 66
]mroduction 25 A Look at Paradise 68
Data Quality 26 References 69
Taphonomic Analysis 30 Further Reading 70

v
vi co TENTS

6. Ethnotaxomy as a Methodological Tool Fishing: Importance, Impacts, and

Socio�Environmental Concerns 134
for Studies of the lchthyofauna and Its
Ethnozoology and Its Role in Fishery Studies 137
Conservation Implications: A Review
References 142
JOSE DA SILVA MOURAo AND MARCIO LUll VARGAS
BARBOSA FlLHO
9. Animal Domestication and
Introduction 71 Ethnozootechny
Hi�toric<ll Aspects of Ethnotaxonomy 73 ANGELO GIUSEPPE CHAVES ALVES, MARIA NORMA R IBERO.
The Hierarchlzation of Erhnoraxonomy 75 J ANAINA KELLI GOMES ARANDAS AND R6MULO ROMEU
Applicarion of the Berl inian Mood 77 N6BREGA ALVES

Analogies Between Folk and Scientific

Introduction IS]
Taxonomic Class.ification Systems 84
Taming and Domestication 152
Correspondence Between G eneric Folk Taxa
Historical Aspects of Domesticltion 153
and Scientific Species 90
Theories on Domestication 154
FinaL Considerations 91
Intra.�pecific D iversity of lives(Ock Specie!) 157
References 91
Ethnozootechny or Erhnozoology? 161
Conclusion 162
7. The Importance of Hunting in References 163
Human Societies Further Reading 165
R6MULOROMEU N6BREGA ALVES, WEDSON MEDELROS
SILVA SOUTO, HUGO FERNANDES.FERRERA,DANDARA 10. Wild Fauna on the Menu
MONALlSA MARIZ BEZERRA, RAYNNER RILKE DUARTE
R6MULO ROMEU NOBREGA ALVES AND
)i ARBOZA AND WASHINGTON LUIZ SILVA VIE.IRA NATHALIE VAN VLIET

Introduction 95 Introduction 167

Brief History of Hunting 96 Freshwater and Marine Animals Used as Food 168
Moti v ation to Hunt: Beyond Meat 98 Rept iles and Amphibians Served on the Menu 171
Hunting Techniques 102 Challenges and Opportunities for Wild Animals to
Traps 107 Continue w Feed Humans 179
Importance and Implications of Hunting 109 Zootherapeutic Uses and Sanitary Concern1i L81
Final Consideration 112 Conclusions: The Future of Wild Animal Foods 184
References 112 References 184

8. People and Fishery Resources: II. Insects as Human Food

A Multidimensional Approach ARNOLD VAN HUI S

MARCIA FREIRE PINTO, TACYANA PEREIRA RIBE IRO

OLIVEIRA, LUIZ ALVES ROCHA AND R6MULO ROMEU
Introduction 195
NOBREGA ALVES H;"ory 196
Nomenclature of Edible Insects 197
Introduction 119 Importance of Edible Insects in D iets 198
When Did Humans Start Fish ing ! A Brief Totems and Taboos 200
His(Qrlc�lln{rQduc{ion 120 Harvesting Practices 201
Fishing and Fisheries Dehnitions ] 22 Cender Partlcipation in Collection and Marketing 204
Fishery Resources and Their Uses 124 Habitat Destruction 104
Fishery Resources as Food-And for What Else! 125 Agricultural Pests as Food 205
A Brief Overview of Fishing Gears Medidool Uses 206
and Techniques t26 From Harvesting and Semidomestication to Farming 207
Animals Used in Fisheries.: An Ancient Traditional Conclusions 208
Techntque Still Used Today 130 References 209
 CONTENTS vii

12. Current Levels, Recent Historical Trends, Animals in Symbolism 293

Final Remarks 298
and Drivers of Wildmeat Trade in the Amazon
Reference::i 298
Tri-Frontier Region Between Colombia, Peru,
and Brazil
16. Fauna at Home: Animals as Pets
NATHALIE VAN YUET, JESSICA MORENO. JUAN ITA GOMEZ,
ROMUL O ROMEU N6BREGA A LVES AND LUIZ A LVES ROCHA
LAURANE L'HARIOON, UNOON NEVES DE AQUINO, FRANQJIS
SANDRIN, LILIANA VANEGAS AND ROBERT NASI
Introduction 303

lnrroduction 215 Animals Kept as Pets 304

Wildmeat Trade in the Tri�Frontier Region Between Why Do Humans Keep Pets! J11
Brazil, Colombia, and Peru 216 Problems Associated With Keeping Pets 314
Comempordl)' Wildmeat Trade Volumes in the Tri�Frontier Final Remarks J 17

Region Between Brazil. Colombia. and Peru 224 References 317

Will the Demise of Wildmea t Take Place in the
TTi-Frontier Between Peru, Brazil, and 17. What About the Unusual Soldiers?
Colombia� 227 Animals Used in War
References 230 ROMULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES AND RAYNNER RILKE
Further Reading 231 DUARTE BARBOZA

Introduclion 323
13. Animals and Human Health: Where
Brief History 324
Do They Meet?
Fauna Used in War and Their Functions 325
ROMULO RQ.'o.1EU N6HREGA ALVES A N D tAMARA Final Remarks 335
DA SliVA POLICARPO
References 335

lnrroducrion 233
Biotherapy 240
18. The Ethnozoological Role of
Conclusions 251 Working Animals in Traction and
References 25 I Transport
ROMULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES

14. Use and Commercialization of Animals

Introduction 339
as Decoration
A Brief History of the Use of \'(!orking Animals
ROMULO ROMEU N 6 BREGA ALVES, ELLORI LAisE SILVA
for Traction and Transport 340
MOTA AND THELMA LUCIA PEREIRA DIAS
Working Animals and TIleir Uses 341
lmroduction 261 The Welfare of Working Animals 346
The Main Taxa and Derived Products Used for Final Remarks 347
Decoration 263 References 348
Conclusions 273
References 273 19. Wildlife Attractions: Zoos and
Aquariums
15. The Role of Animals in Human Culture R6MULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES AND
R6MULO ROll.'IEU N6BREGA ALVES AND RAYNNER RILKE WALTER LECHNER
DUARTE BARBOZA
Introduction 351
lmroduction 277 Brief History of Zoos and Aquariums 352
Animals in Religious Practices 278 Zoos and Aquariwns: Tourism and Emetminmem 354
Animals in Mythology 281 Zoos and Aquariums as Scientific and Educational
Animals in Art and Lite rat ure 286 In:>titutions 354
viii co TENTS

The Role of Zoos and Aquariums in Animal Why Are Some Anima ls Ugly? 449
Conservation 357 \,(!hy Certain Harmless Animals Are Considered
The Controversial Debate on the Role of Zoos Ugly? 451
and Aquariums 358 \Vhy Certain Anima.b Are Con�idered Cute! 452
Final Remarks 359 The Role of Colors in Attitudes Toward Ani m als 453
Reference� 359 Rarity and Attitudes To\....ard Animals 454
Gender Differences in Preferences for Animals 454
20. From Roman Arenas to Mov i e Screens: Developmental Aspects and Correlates With
Animal A ttirudes 455
Animals in Entertainment and Sport
Companion Animals 456
R6MULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES AND
RAYNNER RILKE DUARTE BARBOZA. In.fluences of Keeping Anitn(l is (IS Pets on Attitudes
Toward Animals 456
introduction 363 Influences or Mear Consumption on At tirudes Toward
Using Animals as Entertainment 365 Animals 457
Conclusion 379 Human Emo tion s and Animal Conservar.ion 457
References 380 A[titude Change: The Role of Education 458
Conclusion 459
2t. Animals as Ethnozooinclicatocs of Acknowledgmcnts 459
Reference� 459
Weather and Climat e
Funher Reading 466
ROMULO ROMEU NOBREGA ALVES AND RAYNNER RILKE
DUARTE I)ARBOZA
24. The Role of Ethnozoology in
Introduction 383 Animal Studies
Invertebrates 387 ROMULO ROMEU NOBREGA ALVES AND SERGIO DE FARIA
Vertebrates 4lO LOPES
Final Remar ks 416
References 416 Introduction 467
Use of Traditional Knowledge in Ecologicalfloological
Studies 468
22. Understanding Human-Wildlife
How Can Local Ecological Knowledge Help in Faunistic
Conflicts and Their Implications
Surveys and Taxonomic Studies? 469
DEN1SE FRElTAS TORRES, EDUAROO SlLVA OLiVE1RA AND
Discovering New Species Through Ethnozoological
ROMULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES
Studies 472
LEK as Source of Scientific Insights 472
Introduction 421
Relevance of local Ecological Knowledge in
The Prlncipai Taxa Involvcd in Conflicts 422
Factors That Lead to Conflict 424 Studies on the Conservation and Management
of Fauna 474
Implications for Conservacion of Species 435
Final Remarks 475
Prop osals for Confhct Mitigation 436
References 475
Final Considerations 440
References 440
25. Ethnozoology and Animal Conservation

23. Biological Preclispositions and Individual R6MULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES, JOSIVAN SOARES SILVA,
LEONARDO DA SILVA CHAVES AND ULYSSES PAULINO
Differences in Human Attitudes Toward ALBUQUERQUE
Animals
PAVOL PROKOP AND CHRISTOPH RANDLER Introduction 481
The Role of Ethnobiology Ln Biodiverslty
How Does Evolution Shape Human Artitudes to Conserv<lt'ion 482
Animals? 447 Human Influence on Animal Biodiversity 483
Coevolution With Snakes Enhances Visual Attention to The Role of Ethnozoo logy in Animal Consclvation 486
Dangerous Sti muli 448 Final Considerations 491
Aesthetic Preferences for Animals 449 References 492
 CONTENTS ix

26. The Use of Traditional Ecological 27. Ethnozoology: An Overview and Current
Knowledge in the Context of Participatory Perspectives
Wi ldlife Management: Examples R6MULO ROMEU N6BREGA ALVES, jOS[VAN SOARES SILVA,
LEONAF.DO DA SlLVA CHAvES ANO ULYSSES }'AULINO
From Indigenous Communities in Puerto
ALBUQUERQUE
Narino, Amazonas-Colombia
NATHALIE VAN VLIET, LAURANE L'HARIOON, JUANITA Introduction 513
GOMEZ, LILIANA VANEGAS, FRANc;GIS SANDRIN AND Col leering Data Concerning Ethnozoological
ROBERT NASI Publications 514
Global Scientific Production in Erhnozoo[ogy 515
lntroduction 497
Final Considerations 519
Study Site 498
References 520
TabcxJs and Beliefs Affecting the Use of Wildlife 501
Monitoring \Vildlife Populations Using a Traditional
Practice to Imitate the Animals 504 Index 523
Discussion and Conclusions 509
Acknowledgments 510
References 510
 List of Contributors
Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque Universidade
Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Ângelo Giuseppe Chaves Alves Universidade
Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Janaina Kelli Gomes Arandas Universidade
Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Márcio Luiz Vargas Barbosa Filho Universidade
Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Raynner Rilke Duarte Barboza Universidade
Estadual da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil
Dandara Monalisa Mariz Bezerra Instituto Federal
de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia da Paraíba,
Itabaiana, Brazil
Leonardo da Silva Chaves Universidade Federal
Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
José da Silva Mourão Universidade Estadual da
Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil
Thelma Lúcia Pereira Dias Universidade Estadual
da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil
Hugo Fernandes-Ferreira Universidade Estadual
do Ceará, Quixadá, Brazil
Juanita Gomez Fundación SI, Bogotá, Colombia
Laurane L’haridon Fundación SI, Bogotá, Colombia
Walter Lechner University of Vienna, Vienna,
Austria
Sérgio de Faria Lopes Universidade Estadual da
Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil
Jessica Moreno Fundación SI, Bogotá, Colombia
Ellori Laíse Silva Mota Universidade Estadual da
Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; Universidade
Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Lisa Nagaoka University of North Texas, Denton,
TX, United States
Robert Nasi Center for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia
xi
Lindon Neves de Aquino Universidad Federal do
Amazonas, Benjamin Constant, Brazil
Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves Universidade
Estadual da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil
Eduardo Silva Oliveira Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Tacyana Pereira Ribeiro Oliveira Universidade
Estadual da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
Marcia Freire Pinto Universidade Estadual do
Ceará, Limoeiro do Norte, CE, Brazil
Iamara da Silva Policarpo Universidade Federal da
Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Pavol Prokop Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia;
Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
Christoph Randler Didaktik der Biologie, Tübin­
gen, Germany
Maria Norma Ribeiro Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Luiz Alves Rocha California Academy of Sciences,
San Francisco, CA, United States
François Sandrin Fundación SI, Bogotá, Colombia
Josivan Soares Silva Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Wedson Medeiros Silva Souto Universidade
Federal do Piauí (UFPI), Teresina, Brazil
Denise Freitas Torres Universidade Federal Rural
de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
Maria Franco Trindade Medeiros Universidade
Federal de Campina Grande, Cuité, Brazil
Arnold van Huis Wageningen University,
Wagenin­gen, The Netherlands
Nathalie van Vliet Center for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia
Liliana Vanegas Fundación SI, Bogotá, Colombia
xii List of Contributors

Kleber da Silva Vieira Universidade Estadual da Steve Wolverton University of North Texas,
Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; Universidade Denton, TX, United States
Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Washington Luiz Silva Vieira Universidade Fed­
eral da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction: Animals in Our Lives
Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves1, Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque2
1Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; 2Universidade Federal de Pernambuco,
Recife, Brazil

INTRODUCTION and wolves). This situation most likely reflects

We are animals, and as such share certain
fundamental biological features with a huge
diversity of other animal species, which link
them to us through an intricate network of
ecological and evolutionary relationships. As
a natural part of the fauna living on earth, we
have interacted with the animals around us
throughout our shared coexistence, establishing
multiple interrelationships since the origin of
our species.
From our long history of coexistence with
animals emerges a plethora of complex and
multidimensional relationships, which certainly
precede any recorded historical evidence. The
first testimonies of these relationships are found
in the earliest rock paintings and engravings,
such as the cave paintings in Lascaux, France,
where most of the paintings depict animals such
as bisons, horses, mammoths, ibex, deer, lions,
aurochs, bears, and wolves. As pointed out by
Tedesco (2000), these depictions of animals rep-
resent both species that would have been hunted
and eaten (such as bison and deer) and those
that were feared predators (such as bears, lions,
a scenario of interactions between humans and
fauna that occurred at a time when humans were
both predators and prey. Furthermore, it is likely
that animals were represented in these paintings
because of supernatural/spiritual connections
established between these animals and humans
(Hurn, 2012).
Independent of the inspiration to represent
animal images in prehistoric paintings, and later
in other visual works produced by humans, the
abundance of representations of fauna clearly
indicates their relevance to mankind, and is evi-
dence of the wide range of roles they played in
human life since the beginning of their shared
history. This relevance is explicit in the earliest
written documents, as evidenced by the large
number of reports on animals in books, letters,
bestiaries, and other various past documents.
Important human activities involving animals,
such as hunting, fishing, and domestication,
­represent practices that have perpetuated them-
selves over time as forms of subsistence crucial to
humanity, and are recognized as having a ­significant
influence on human evolution, both cultural
and physical. The dynamic character of human

Ethnozoology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809913-1.00001-6 1 © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. ANIMALS IN OUR LIVES
activities involving animals, from the oldest to the
most contemporary, has resulted in a diversifica-
tion of human–animal interactions. Certainly what
we are today has been profoundly influenced
by the relationships established with animals
throughout our shared history with them.
From a utilitarian perspective, today, as in
the past, humans have long exploited animal
products to provide food and materials for mak-
ing tools, feed, ornaments, medicines, fertilizer,
and income, as well as providing agricultural,
transport, entertainment, companionship, and
religious services (Alves, 2012; Alves et al.,
2016; Alves and Rosa, 2013; Bowman, 1977;
Figueirêdo et al., 2015; Fitter, 1986). Reinforcing
the utilitarian value of fauna, Plous (1993)
points out that animal products are also found
in the streets of our modern day cities (e.g., in
asphalt binders), in the cars we drive (e.g., in
brake fluid, upholstery, and car wax), in the
walls of our homes (e.g., sheetrock and wallpa-
per adhesive), on kitchen and bathroom floors
(e.g., in ceramic tiles, linoleum, and floor wax),
in toiletries (e.g., perfume, deodorants, soap,
and cosmetics), and in a variety of paints, plas-
tics, textiles, and machinery oils. Domestic ani-
mals provided energy used in a wide range of
services for people (Alves, 2016). Wild-caught
species have also been tamed for various pur-
poses other than predation, such as alarms
for protection, fighting, and as guards, pets,
and pack and draught animals (Alves et al.,
2013; Fernandes-Ferreira et al., 2012; Gilmore,
1950; Roldán-Clarà et al., 2014; Serpell, 1996;
Svanberg and Ståhlberg, 2012). It is clear that
human dependence or codependence on fau-
nal resources has intensified over time (Alves,
2012; Alves and Souto, 2015).
In addition to their utilitarian value, ani-
mals have had a pronounced participation in
the cultural practices and religious beliefs of
humankind (Adeola, 1992; Alves et al., 2012a;
Kemmerer, 2011; Olupona, 1993). Many myths,
proverbs, and stories have been generated from
human–animal relationships and passed down
from generation-to-generation through oral tra-
ditions (Allaby, 2010; Alves et al., 2017, 2012b).
Culture guides our attitudes toward animals
(Alves et al., 2014; Shanks, 2002), which are
also shaped by many other factors, including
our experiences with them (perhaps as farmers,
hunters, fishermen, pet owners, or experiment-
ers), exposure to biological science, religious
beliefs, philosophical presuppositions, and
psychological factors, such as our capacity for
empathy (Shanks, 2002).
Human interest in animals represents a
characteristic of all societies, from those resid-
ing in the most isolated locations to those in
the most urbanized areas of the world. Due to
thousands of years of cohabitation, a strong
interdependence exists between humans and
other animal species (Alves and Souto, 2015;
De Waal, 2009), which generates harmonic and
conflictual relationships that can be predatory,
competitive, parasitic, mutualistic, and com-
mensal (Baenninger, 1995). In modern societ-
ies, our relationship with animals increasingly
consolidates human control over fauna, with a
view to optimizing the use of faunal resources.
Thus, there is an intensification of human inter-
ference in the lives of all animals with which
humans interact. An example of this is that
humans have been responsible for the extinc-
tion of several species, while on the other hand
they have promoted the geographical spread
of several others. In some of these cases, intro-
duced species become pests, creating problems
that affect entire ecosystems. It is clear, there-
fore, that humans are agents that cause impacts
that affect not only the species with which
they interact directly, but others that are indi-
rectly associated. The pronounced influence
of humans and their impacts on the environ-
ment characterizes the geological epoch we
live in, the Anthropocene, which has increas-
ingly placed the animal world under growing
pressure.
 Investigating Animals and Their Interactions With Humans
This scenario makes the need to understand
the complexities of the relationships between
humans and other animals increasingly evident,
not only from biological and ecological perspec-
tives, but also from historical, social, cultural,
economic, psychological, and sociological con-
texts. Of course, because of the complexity of
human–animal interactions, this understanding
involves different academic disciplines, espe-
cially within the social and biological sciences.
Ethnozoology, the theme of this book, arises as
a discipline that can provide important contri-
butions and serve as a bridge enabling dialogue
between the different academic fields interested
in this subject.
INVESTIGATING ANIMALS AND
THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH
HUMANS
As discussed above, fauna have been of
great significance to humans throughout his-
tory. Consequently, they represent one of the
themes with which most people have the great-
est familiarity, interest, or contact (Springer
and Holley, 2012). Humans of all societies have
always attempted to understand animals by
generating a fundamental basis of zoological
knowledge by interacting/exploring faunas,
which have played a crucial role in the evolu-
tion of the human species since its emergence.
The earliest humans must have had, and passed
on, knowledge about animals to increase their
chances of survival, which likely included
unsystematic knowledge of animal ecology and
anatomy. With domestication of fauna, and the
consequent possibility of better observing them,
people learned more.
From our ancient and constant interest in
fauna emerged the field of zoology, one of
the first areas of research of the natural world
made by humankind (Springer and Holley,
2012). In addition to information about the
3
animals themselves, zoology and natural sci-
ence enthusiasts were also interested in the
potential uses of animals for humans, in partic-
ular the species that were targeted or hunted,
as well as the knowledge that native peoples
had of the fauna in general. An example of
this is evident in the narratives of ancient
naturalists who always included information
of ethnozoological interest in their writings,
among them Linnaeus, Darwin, and Lamarck
(Moreira, 2002; Ståhlberg and Svanberg, 2014).
This perspective would be the preface for the
emergence of academic disciplines that seek to
investigate the different aspects of the interac-
tions between animals and humans.
Such interactions are dynamic and multi-
faceted, which makes it impossible to investi-
gate them through a single area of knowledge.
Consequently, several academic disciplines
related to the areas of social and biological
sciences have sought to investigate the sub-
ject, among which are anthropology, sociology,
psychology, history, archeology, ethnography,
economics, geography, literature, philosophy,
zoology, ecology, and conservation biology. As
a result, several books have been published,
especially in the last decades, which have
focused on human–animal interactions in gen-
eral (Baky, 1980; Bowman, 1977; Gross and
Vallely, 2013), as well as more specific treat-
ments such as the utilitarian aspect of fauna,
including for medicinal purposes (Alves and
Rosa, 2013), as pets (Pręgowski, 2016; Wilson
and Turner, 1997), and in service in war (Cooper,
2000; Kistler, 2011; van Vliet, 2007). Some of
these publications addressed the social and cul-
tural importance of animals (Allaby, 2010; De
Mello, 2016; Kalof, 2007; Kalof and Resl, 2007;
Malamud et al., 2007); while others focused on
interactions with some specific groups of wild
(Dore et al., 2017; Kothari, 2007; Marcum, 2007;
Morris and Morris, 1965; Tidemann and Gosler,
2010; Waller, 2016) or domestic (Clutton-Brock,
2007, 2012) animals, to cite a few examples.
4 1. ANIMALS IN OUR LIVES
These, and many other themes, have also been
the focus of a growing number of articles pub-
lished in numerous scientific journals, including
those in the area of ethnobiology (Ethnobiology
and Conservation, Journal of Ethnobiology,
Ethnobiology Letters and Journal of Ethnobiology
and Ethnomedicine), those particularly devoted
to the examination of different aspects of the
relationship between human beings and other
animals (e.g., Anthrozoos; Between the Species;
Humanimalia; Journal of Applied Animal Welfare
Science, Politics and Animals; Society & Animals),
and several others in areas such as medicine
and biodiversity conservation (e.g., BioScience,
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Biodiversity and
Conservation, Conservation Biology, Ecology and
Society, Fish and Fisheries, etc.). This entire arse-
nal of publications reinforces the fact that ani-
mals represent one of the subjects that most
attract the attention of human beings. It is not
possible to understand our biological and cul-
tural evolution without examining how animals
have, and continue to, affect human societies,
and vice versa, highlighting the importance of
research investigating the connection between
animals and human beings (Alves, 2017; Alves
and Souto, 2015). Ethnozoology, the theme
of this book, joins the different research areas
seeking to contribute to the understanding
of the complexity and implications of fauna-
human interactions. As pointed out by Alves
(2017), “Ethnozoology is a hybrid discipline
that has been structured with elements from
both the natural and social sciences, as it seeks
to understand how humans have perceived and
interacted with faunal resources throughout his-
tory.” Together with ethnobotany, ethnozool-
ogy forms part of the larger body of science of
ethnobiology, which has been increasingly rec-
ognized in recent years, especially considering
that the world is facing a potentially massive
loss of wildlife due to anthropogenic activities
(Alves and Albuquerque, 2012). It is ironic that
as people impact the ecosystems on which they
depend, conserving diversity will increasingly
depend on active human involvement (Probst
and Crow, 1991). Thus, as humans are the source
of problems, as well as the hope for solutions
(Saunders, 2003), it is essential to incorporate
human dimensions into practices aiming at the
conservation of fauna, and in this regard, ethno-
zoology has a great contribution to offer.
WHY THIS BOOK?
Our history is full of indications of the cru-
cial role that animals have played in human life,
resulting in connections that have been debated
for centuries by various areas of research, and
which have contributed to understanding
animal–human relationships from different
perspectives. In this scenario, ethnozoology
arises as a dynamic and cross-disciplinary area
of research that can provide important contri-
butions and serve as a bridge between the dif-
ferent academic fields that seek to investigate
human-animal interactions. In this perspec-
tive, ethnozoology has attracted researchers
from diverse fields of study, which has resulted
in a visible increase in the number of publica-
tions on the subject in the last decades.
Despite major advances in ethnozoology,
there is still a worldwide lack of textbooks
that can serve as references for its teaching.
Currently, some books have appeared that
have filled gaps in ethnobiology for teach-
ing and research (Ethnobiology, Ethnobotany,
Ethnopharmacology, etc.) (Albuquerque and
Alves, 2016; Albuquerque et al., 2014; Anderson
et al., 2012; Cunningham, 2001; Heinrich and
Jäger, 2015), but there is no single book pub-
lished in English specifically on ethnozoology.
Recognizing this need, Ethnozoology: Animals in
Our Lives represents the first book about this dis-
cipline and provides discussions regarding the
key themes of human–animal interactions and
their implications.
Following this Introduction, Chapter 2 pro-
vides an overview of ethnozoology as a field
 Why This Book?
of study, focusing on its importance, conceptu-
alization, and history, highlighting the role eth-
nozoology plays as a discipline focusing on the
relationships between animals and humans.
These interactions are known to be very old
according to research in zooarcheology and his-
torical ethnozoology, themes of Chapters 3 and 4,
respectively. Chapter 5 discusses the fabulous
fauna documented in the reports of ancient trav-
elers and chroniclers and in medieval bestiaries,
describing what the authors call “imaginary zool-
ogy.” Chapter 6 deals with a theme of historical
importance in the field of ethnobiology, ethnotax-
onomy. The following chapters deal with three
of the major human activities involving animals,
hunting (Chapter 7), fishing (Chapter 8), and ani-
mal domestication (Chapter 9). Subsequent chap-
ters address the use of animals as food, one of
the most fundamental uses of fauna by humans.
Chapter 10 discusses the importance and diver-
sity of uses of wild animals and the sources of
food; and Chapter 11 brings an overview of the
practices of harvesting and eating insects in dif-
ferent parts of the world. Reinforcing the impor-
tance of fauna for alimentary purposes, Chapter
12 presents an analysis of the trade in wildmeat
sales in the Amazon Tri-frontier region between
Peru, Brazil, and Colombia. In Chapter 13, a
discussion is presented on the intimate relation-
ships between human and animal health, giving
examples of the importance of multidisciplinary
studies in understanding these connections. An
overview of published scientific literature on the
use and commercialization of animals for decora-
tive purposes is the subject of Chapter 14, while
Chapter 15 discusses the significance of animals
in the principal human cultural manifestations
of art, literature, symbolism, music, mythology,
and religion. Chapter 16 addresses one of the
closest human-animal relationships that of ani-
mals as pets. The following chapters are devoted
to the use of animals in military activities
(Chapter 17) and to perform transport and trac-
tion services (Chapter 18). Animals kept in zoos
and aquariums are the subject of Chapter 19.
5
Chapter 20 discusses the role of animals in
entertainment and sport. Chapter 21 brings an
interesting, but still little explored, ethnozoologi-
cal theme, the use of fauna as predictors of cli-
matic and weather events, addressing the role
of animals as forecasters. Chapter 22 discusses
the complex interactions of conflict between
humans and animals and Chapter 23 focuses
on the biological influences of human attitudes,
as well as on the role of education in forming
children’s attitudes and perceptions of living
creatures. Chapter 24 discusses the importance
of local ecological knowledge as a source of sci-
entific insights and complementary academic
research. Chapter 25 discusses the implications
of human actions on fauna and the role of eth-
nozoology from a perspective of conservation of
animal diversity. In this same vein, Chapter 26
describes two examples of how traditional eco-
logical knowledge may be incorporated in more
formal management plans for wildlife. Finally,
Chapter 27 presents a global view of scientific
production in ethnozoology and its advances,
trends, and future perspectives.
We believe that this book, Ethnozoology:
Animals in Our Lives, significantly expands the
knowledge base of ethnozoology by covering
a wide range of interactions between humans
and animals. Furthermore, we believe it dem-
onstrates the importance of inter and cross-
disciplinary approaches for increasing our
understanding of the coexistence of humans
and other animals. This book will be of value
to researchers, students, educators, conserva-
tionists, wildlife managers, and policymakers,
as well as the general public, with interests in a
wide range of areas of science, including zool-
ogy, biology, ethnobiology, conservation biology,
ecology, anthropology, and sociology, among
other related academic disciplines. We also hope
that this book will stimulate further research in
this fascinating field, thus contributing to the
collective understanding of the multidimen-
sional context of interactions between humans
and animals, an increasingly pressing need since
6 1. ANIMALS IN OUR LIVES
today, perhaps more than at any other time in
human history, we are faced with the challenge
of finding forms of exploitation that minimize
the impact on animal species; an increasingly
clear necessity in the context of animal conser-
vation, as well as human survival.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Kristi A.S. Gomez (Senior Acquisitions
Editor at Elsevier/Academic Press) and Patricia Gonzalez
(Editorial Project Manager/Animal & Plant Sciences/
Elsevier) for entrusting us with the edit of this book and for
her constant support.
Special thanks are due to contributors to the book, for
their enthusiasm, support, and quality work.
Thanks are also due to CNPq (Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico), for providing us
with research productivity scholarships, which helped for
the development of our studies on the Ethnobiology.
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 C H A P T E R

2
Ethnozoology: Conceptual and Historical
Aspects*
Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves1, Wedson Medeiros Silva Souto2,
Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque3
1Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Campina Grande, Brazil; 2Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI),
Teresina, Brazil; 3Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil

INTRODUCTION Hunting is one of oldest known human activ-

Extremely close connections have existed
between humans and animals throughout his-
tory (Alves, 2012; Kalof, 2007; Kalof and Resl,
2007). Humans have always attempted to
understand animals, enslave them, and cap-
ture their strength and power (Holley, 2009).
Archeological researchers have determined
that humans have consumed a wide variety
of fish, mollusks, birds, mammals, reptiles,
and amphibians for at least 1500 years (Emery,
2007; Foster and James, 2002; Hamblin, 1985;
Kyselý, 2008; Masson, 1999; Masson and
Peraza Lope, 2008; McKillop, 1984, 1985; Pohl,
1976, 1981) and perhaps as many as 4000 years
(Jorgenson, 1998). Other evidence of ancient
human–animal relationships can be seen in
rock paintings that depict wild animals such
as bison, horses, and deer being hunted by
human figures.
ities, and animals have been hunted for utilitar-
ian reasons, as well as for defense against large
predators (Alves, 2012). Similarly, the impor-
tance of fishing for mankind has a long his-
tory. Faunal-derived products are used in many
ways, especially as food, but also as clothing and
tools, and for medicinal and magic and religious
purposes (Alvard et al., 1997; Alves et al., 2007,
2009, 2012a,; Inskip and Zimmermann, 2009;
Léo Neto et al., 2009; Prins et al., 2000). This
enduring relationship of dependence has also
contributed to the formation of affective links
with certain animals, and many species are kept
as pets, especially birds and mammals, and now,
reptiles and amphibians too (Alves et al., 2010d,
2012b; Franke and Telecky, 2001; Hoover, 1998).
These relationships with animals go beyond
simple utilitarian considerations; for there have
been strong supernatural relationships between
the worlds of humans and animals since remote

* This chapter represents a revised and updated version of the article “Alves RRN, Souto WMS (2015) Ethnozoology:
A Brief Introduction. Ethnobiology and Conservation 4:1–13.”

Ethnozoology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809913-1.00002-8 9 © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
10 2. CONCEPTS IN ETHNOZOOLOGY
times (Alves, 2012). All human cultures have
mythologies, and all of them show close integra-
tion and connections with animals, and totemic,
ancestral, or mythological (imaginary) animals
or animal-gods have been present throughout
human history (Allaby, 2010; Alves et al., 2012a).
Interactions between humans and ani-
mals have given rise to activities such as fish-
ing and hunting, which are among the most
ancient human practices, and they continue to
play important roles in the survival and evolu-
tion of humanity (Alves, 2012). The domestica-
tion of animals is another excellent example of
the relevance of the animals in human history.
This process allowed early human societies to
enrich their diets with regular sources of meat
and milk. Later, certain domesticated animals
provided new sources of muscular energy as
pack and mounted animals or for the traction of
plows and wagons—thus, multiplying the pro-
ductive capacity of men, as well as their spatial
mobility (Ribeiro, 1998).
From a historical perspective, the domestica-
tion of biological resources resulted in extremely
important modifications of human lifestyles,
allowing populations to abandon nomadic
practices (carried out since the very beginning
of human evolution), become sedentary, and
occupy certain territories where plants could be
cultivated and animals domesticated. This situ-
ation progressively decreased the previous com-
plete human dependence on gathering activities,
hunting, and fishing (Alves, 2016), although
these activities have perpetuated and still con-
tribute significantly to human food supplies.
The connection between animals and humans
dates back to thousands of years, and cultures
all over the world have developed characteris-
tic ways of interacting with their regional fauna
over time. Animals have played a wide range
of roles in human life from the earliest days of
recorded history, resulting in many kinds of
interactions with other animals, including inter-
actions that are predatory, competitive, para-
sitic, mutualistic, and commensal (Baenninger,
1995). The variety of interactions (both past and
present) that human cultures maintain with ani-
mals is the subject matter of ethnozoology, a dis-
cipline that has its roots as deep within the past
as the first relationship between humans and
other animals. Sax (2002) noted that human atti-
tudes about animals evolved long before their
first attempts to represent them in the arts and
history, and only much later did people begin
to study them scientifically. As such, the origin
of traditional zoological knowledge, one of the
focal points of the study of ethnozoology, can
be thought of as coinciding with the origin of
humans and with the first contacts between our
species and other animals.
The existence of interrelationship between
humans and animals has a wide variety of impli-
cations, depending on the perspective adopted.
On one hand, there are many human societies
that promote a deep respect for animals, as these
creatures are important actors in their spiri-
tual traditions due to their utilitarian or spiri-
tual value. Societies in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America frequently established sacred localities
with inherent spiritual or religious significance,
and they were frequently also natural sanctu-
aries of biodiversity. Many traditional cultures
still consider certain animal species sacred and
foster their conservation (even though that is
not their primary motivation) (McNeely, 2001).
On the other hand, animals and animal organs
are universally utilized in many different ways
by human groups, and anthropogenic activities
can exert great direct or indirect influence on
the local fauna (especially target species), and
these interactions must be taken into account
when conservation actions are being considered
(Alves et al., 2008, 2010b, 2010f).
The conservation of natural resources and
biodiversity is indispensable, not only to pre-
serve genetic diversity but also to guarantee
the subsistence of large numbers of humans
throughout the world (Alves and Souto, 2010),
and it will not be possible to create meaning-
ful animal conservation strategies without
 Historical Considerations About Human and Fauna Interactions
considering the interaction of humans with
animals—the focus of ethnozoological stud-
ies (Alves, 2012). As such, the present chapter
discusses numerous conceptual and historical
aspects of ethnozoology–a discipline that seeks
to investigate the complex but important inter-
relationship between humans and the animals
with which we share this earth.
HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
ABOUT HUMAN AND FAUNA
INTERACTIONS
Rock paintings and archeological inscrip-
tions provide clear evidence of the antiquity
of interactions between humans and other
animals (Baker, 1941; Martínez, 2008; Russell,
2012), representing important records of how
the first humans related to their regional faunas.
Ancient cave paintings often contain animal
and/or human figures and show interactions
between them—indicating the utilitarian and
symbolic importance of animals dating back to
prehistorical times (Alves et al., 2010g; Martínez,
2008; Russell, 2012). Although rock paintings
and archeological inscriptions can be consid-
ered the first human–fauna interaction records
(see Baker, 1941), written documents have more
precisely recorded information about the inter-
action of ancient humans groups with their
regional fauna and their uses of those animals
(Alves and Souto, 2015). In every ancient culture
with a written language, people have recorded
useful knowledge about animals, plants, and
environments (Svanberg et al., 2011).
Animals were linked to people in many ways
in the cultural conceptions of the time, and
contributed to defining royal institutions, as
well as solidifying emergent cosmologies that
linked humans to celestial orbs, the earth, and
the gods. These views were preserved in hiero-
glyphs, papyrus documents, and other records
left behind by ancient civilizations (Alves and
Souto, 2015). In ancient Egypt, for example, royal
11
hunts of wild bulls were well documented dur-
ing the reign of Amenophis III during the later
part of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 3300 BC)
when these animals apparently became locally
extinct (Dodd, 1993). These Old World civiliza-
tions had (often exaggerated) beliefs that certain
species of animals shared important characteris-
tics with humans, and cattle, horses, and snakes,
for example, became symbols that were closely
associated with power/domination or libido/
fertility (Dodd, 1993).
The antiquity in the use of medicinal animals
is another important evidence recorded in his-
torical texts (Alves et al., 2013b). Some of these
texts have been preserved (Svanberg et al., 2011),
such as Assyrian, Egyptian, and Greek histori-
cal documents, which bear witness to extensive
knowledge about how animal and plant prod-
ucts could be utilized (MacKinney, 1946; Raven,
2000). Our understanding of Egyptian medi-
cine and pharmacology, for example, is based
on inscriptions on monuments and graves and
papyrus rolls, the most important one being the
Papyrus Ebers. It is thought to have been writ-
ten around 1550 BC (Lidgard, 2005) and includes
800 or more prescriptions comprising various
herbs, animals, and minerals; a considerable
number contain matter derived from, both wild
and domestic, insects, reptiles, and fish (Alves
et al., 2013b; MacKinney, 1946).
While animals and humans have shared a
very long history, and humans have been accu-
mulating knowledge for untold generations
about the fauna with which they interact, the
origin of ethnozoology (like many other aca-
demic disciplines) is more closely linked to the
naturalists and explorers who spread out about
the world starting in the 16th century. Until
the beginning of the 19th century, most of our
knowledge concerning the world’s biota, includ-
ing its fauna, was derived from the reports of
naturalists and explorers who recorded infor-
mation about activities such as hunting and
fishing (Alves, 2017; D’Ambrosio, 2015). These
documents include the works of naturalists who
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A book of
martyrs
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Title: A book of martyrs

Author: Cornelia A. P. Comer

Release date: October 13, 2023 [eBook #71872]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1896

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK OF

MARTYRS ***
 THE IVORY SERIES

Each, 16mo, gilt top, 75 cents

AMOS JUDD. By J. A. Mitchell

Editor of “Life”

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[Arthur T. Quiller-Couch]

THE SUICIDE CLUB

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By E. W. Hornung

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By Harriet Prescott Spofford

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By George W. Cable

ONE OF THE VISCONTI

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A BOOK OF MARTYRS
By Cornelia Atwood Pratt

Other Volumes to be announced

A BOOK OF MARTYRS
When first they mixed the Clay of Man and clothed
His Spirit in the Robe of Perfect Beauty,
For Forty Mornings did an evil Cloud
Rain Sorrows over him from Head to Foot;
And when the Forty Mornings passed to Night,
There came one Morning-Shower—one Morning-Shower
Of Joy—to Forty of the Rain of Sorrow!
And though the better Fortune came at last
To seal the Work, yet every Wise Man knows
Such Consummation never can be here!

From the Persian of Jàmi.

A BOOK OF MARTYRS
BY
CORNELIA ATWOOD PRATT

CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS

NEW YORK, 1896
 Copyright, 1896, by
Charles Scribner’s Sons

TROW DIRECTORY
PRINTING AND BOOK BINDING COMPANY
NEW YORK
 NOTE
Of the stories in this volume, “Witherle’s Freedom” and “Serene’s
Religious Experience” were first published in The Century Magazine;
“A Consuming Fire,” “Hardesty’s Cowardice” and “The Honor of a
Gentleman” in Harper’s Weekly; “At the End of the World” in The
Independent. Thanks are due the publishers of these periodicals for
permission to reprint the stories here.
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Witherle’s Freedom, 1
Serene’s Religious Experience; an Inland Story, 19
An Instance of Chivalry, 45
A Consuming Fire, 71
An Unearned Reward, 89
Hardesty’s Cowardice, 111
“The Honor of a Gentleman,” 131
Rivals, 153
At the End of the World, 165
 WITHERLE’S FREEDOM
His little world was blankly astonished when Witherle dropped out
of it. His disappearance was as his life had been, neat, methodical,
well-arranged; but why did he go at all?
He had lived through thirty-seven years of a discreetly conducted
existence with apparent satisfaction; he had been in the ministry for
fifteen years; he had been married nearly as long; he was in no sort
of difficulty, theological, financial, or marital; he possessed the favor
of his superiors in the church, the confidence of his wife, and he had
recently come into a small fortune bequeathed him by a great-aunt.
Every one regarded him as very “comfortably fixed”—for a minister.
Of all the above-enumerated blessings he had divested himself
methodically, as a man folds up and lays aside worn garments. He
resigned his charge, he transferred his property to his wife, and
wrote her a farewell note in which he said, in a light-hearted way
which she mistook for incoherence, that she would never see him
again. These things done, he dropped out of the sight of men as
completely as a stone fallen into a pond.
His friends speculated and investigated, curiously, eagerly,
fearfully, but to no purpose. What was the motive? Where had he
gone? Had he committed suicide? Was he insane? The elders of the
church employed a detective, and the friends of his wife took up the
search, but Witherle was not found. He had left as little trace
whereby he could be followed as a meteor leaves when it rushes
across the sky.
Presently, of course, interest in the event subsided; the church got
a new minister; Witherle’s wife went back to her own people; the
world appeared to forget. But there was a man of Witherle’s
congregation named Lowndes who still meditated the unsolved
problem at odd moments. He was a practical man of affairs, with the
psychological instinct, and he found the question of why people do
the things that they do perennially interesting. Humanity from any
point of view is a touching spectacle; from a business standpoint it is
infinitely droll. Personally Lowndes was one of the wholesome
natures for whom there are more certainties than uncertainties in life,
and he felt for Witherle the protecting friendliness that a strong man
sometimes has for one less strong. He advised him as to his
investments on week-days, and listened patiently Sunday after
Sunday, as the lesser man expounded the mysteries of creation and
the ways of the Creator, sustained by the reflection that Witherle was
better than his sermons. He did not consider him an interesting man,
but he believed him to be a good one. When Witherle was no longer
at hand, Lowndes counselled and planned for his wife, and
otherwise made himself as useful as the circumstances would
permit. He felt sorry for Witherle’s wife, a nervous woman to whom
had come as sharp an upheaval of life as death itself could have
brought about, without the comfort of the reflection that the Lord had
taken away.
Fate, who sometimes delivers the ball to those who are ready to
play, decreed that, in May, about a year after Witherle’s
disappearance, Lowndes should be summoned from the
Pennsylvania village where he lived to one of the cities of an
adjoining State. His business took him along the dingy river-front of
the town. Crossing a bridge one evening toward sunset, he stopped
idly to note the shifting iridescent tints that converted the river for the
hour into a heavenly water-way between the two purgatorial banks
lined with warehouses and elevators black with the inexpressibly
mussy and depressing blackness of the soot of soft coal. His glance
fell upon a coal-barge being loaded at the nearest wharf. He leaned
over the rail, wondering why the lines of the figure of one of the
workmen looked familiar to him. The man seemed to be shovelling
coal with a peculiar zest. As this is a species of toil not usually
performed for the love of it, his manner naturally attracted attention.
While Lowndes still stood there pondering the problematical
familiarity of his back, the man turned. Lowndes clutched the rail. “By
Jove!” he said, excitedly, for he saw that the features were the
features of Witherle. Their expression was exultant and illuminated
beyond anything ever vouch-safed to that plodding gospeller. Moving
along the bridge to a point just above the barge, he took out his
watch and looked at it. It was nearly six o’clock.
The next fifteen minutes were exciting ones for Lowndes. His mind
was in a tumult. It is no light matter to make one’s self the arbiter of
another man’s destiny; and he knew enough of Witherle to feel sure
that the man’s future was in his hands. He looked down at him
dubiously, his strong hands still clutching the rail tensely. For a
minute he felt that he must move on without making his presence
known, but even as he resolved, the clocks and whistles clamorously
announced the hour.
When the men quitted their work, the man whom Lowndes’s eyes
were following came up the stairs that led to the bridge. As he
passed, Lowndes laid a hand lightly on his shoulder.
“How are you, Witherle?” he said.
The man stared at him blankly a second, recoiled, and his face
turned livid as he shook off the friendly hand. The other men had
passed on, and they were alone on the bridge.
“I’m a free man,” said Witherle, loudly, throwing back his
shoulders. “Before God, I’m a free man for the first time in my life.
What do you want with me?”
“Don’t rave,” said Lowndes, sharply. “I sha’n’t hurt you. You
couldn’t expect me to pass you without speaking, could you?”
“Then you weren’t looking for me?” asked Witherle, abjectly.
“I have business on hand.” Lowndes spoke impatiently, for he did
not enjoy seeing his old friend cower. “I am here for the Diamond Oil
Co. I was crossing the bridge just now, when I saw a man down
there shovelling coal as if he liked it; and I delayed to look, and saw
it was you. So I waited for you. That is all there is of it. You needn’t
stop if you don’t wish.”
Witherle drew a deep breath. “My nerves aren’t what they were,”
he said, apologetically. “It played the mischief with them to—” He left
the sentence hanging in the air.
 “If you weren’t going to like the results, you needn’t have gone,”
observed Lowndes, in an impartial tone. “Nobody has been exactly
able to see the reasons for your departure. You left the folks at home
a good deal stirred up.”
“What do they say about me there?”
Lowndes hesitated. “Most of them say you were crazy. Your wife
has gone back to her people.”
“Ah!”
Lowndes looked at the man with a sudden impulse of pity. He was
leaning against the rail, breathing heavily. His face was white
beneath the soot, but in his eyes still flamed that incomprehensible
ecstasy. He was inebriate with the subtle stimulus of some
transcendent thought. But what thought? And what had brought him
here? This creature, with his sensitive mouth, his idealist’s eyes, his
scholar’s hands, black and hardened now but still clearly
recognizable, was at least more out of place among the coal-heavers
than he had been in the pulpit. Lowndes felt mightily upon him the
desire to shepherd this man back to some more sheltered fold. The
highways of existence were not for his feet; not for his lips the “Song
of the Open Road.” He did not resist the desire to say, meditatively:
“You have no children——”
“God in His mercy be praised for that one blessing!” Witherle
muttered. But Lowndes went on as if he did not hear:
“But you might think of your wife.”
“I have thought of her—too much. I thought about everything too
much. I am tired of thinking,” said Witherle. “I wonder if you
understand?”
“Not in the least.”
Witherle looked about him restlessly. “Come where we can talk—
down there on that pile of boards. I think I’d like to talk. It is very
simple when once you understand it.”
 He led the way to the opposite end of the bridge, and down an
embankment to a lumber-pile at the water’s edge. Up the river the
May sun had gone down in splendor, leaving the water crimson-
stained. Witherle sat down where he could look along the river-
reaches.
“Hold on a minute, Witherle. Don’t talk to me unless you are sure
you want to.”
“That’s all right. There’s nothing much to tell. I don’t seem to mind
your understanding.”
Witherle was silent a minute.
“It is very simple,” he said again. “This is the way I think about it.
Either you do the things you want to do in this world or else you
don’t. I had never done what I wanted until I left home. I didn’t mean
to hurt anybody by coming away in that style, and I don’t think that I
did. I’d rather not be selfish, but life got so dull. I couldn’t stand it. I
had to have a change. I had to come. The things you have to do you
do. There was a Frenchman once who committed suicide and left a
note that said: ‘Tired of this eternal buttoning and unbuttoning.’ I
know how he felt. I don’t know how other men manage to live.
Perhaps their work means more to them than mine had come to
mean to me. It was just dull, that was all, and I had to come.”
Lowndes stared. Truly it was delightfully simple. “Why, man, you
can’t chuck your responsibilities overboard like that. Your wife——”
“When I was twenty-one,” interrupted Witherle, “I was in love. The
girl married somebody else. Before I met my wife she had cared for
a man who married another woman. You see how it was. We were
going to save the pieces together. As a business arrangement that
sort of thing is all right. I haven’t a word to say against it. She is a
good woman, and we got on as well as most people, only life was
not ecstasy to either of us. Can’t you see us tied together, snaking
our way along through existence as if it were some gray desert, and
we crawling on and on over the sand, always with our faces bent to
it, and nothing showing itself in our way but the white bones of the
men and women who had travelled along there before us—grinning
skulls mostly? Can’t you see it?”
Looking up, he caught an expression in Lowndes’s eyes the
meaning of which he suspected. “Oh, you needn’t be afraid,” he
added, hastily, “that this is insanity. It’s only imagination. That’s the
way I felt. And my work was only another long desert to be toiled
through—with the Sphinx at the end. I wasn’t a successful preacher,
and you know it. I hadn’t any grip on men. I hadn’t any grip on myself
—or God. I couldn’t see any use or any meaning or any joy in it. The
whole thing choked me. I wanted a simpler, more elemental life. I
wanted to go up and down the earth and try new forms of living, new
ways of doing things, new people. Life—that was what I wanted; to
feel the pulse of the world throb under my touch, to be in the stir, to
be doing something. I was always haunted by the conviction that life
was tremendous if only you once got at it. I couldn’t get at it where I
was. I was rotting away. So when that money was left me it came
like a godsend. I knew my wife could live on that, and I didn’t think
she’d miss me much, so I just came off.”
“And you like it?”
The man’s eyes flamed. “Like it? It’s great! It’s the only thing there
is. I’ve been from Maine to California this year. I wintered in a
Michigan lumber-camp—that was hell. I was a boat-hand on the
Columbia last summer—that was heaven. I worked in a coal-mine
two months—a scab workman, you understand. And now I’m at this.
I tell you, it is fine to get rid of cudgelling your brains for ideas that
aren’t there, and of pretending to teach people something you don’t
know, and take to working with your hands nine hours a day and
sleeping like a log all night. I hadn’t slept for months, you know.
These people tell me about themselves. I’m seeing what life is like.
I’m getting down to the foundations. I’ve learned more about
humanity in the last six months than I ever knew in all my life. I
believe I’ve learned more about religion. I’m getting hold of things.
It’s like getting out on the open sea after that desert I was talking
about—don’t you see? And it all tastes so good to me!” He dropped
his head into his hands, exhausted by the flood of words he had
poured rapidly out.
 Lowndes hesitated long before he spoke. He was reflecting that
Witherle’s exaltation was pathological—he was drunk with the air of
the open road.
“Poor little devil!” he thought. “One might let alone a man who
finds ecstasy in being a coal-heaver; but it won’t do.”
“Life is big,” he admitted, slowly; “it’s tremendous, if you like; it’s all
you say—but it isn’t for you. Don’t you see it is too late? We’re all of
us under bonds to keep the world’s peace and finish the contracts
we undertake. You’re out of bounds now. You have got to come
back.”
Witherle stared at him blankly. “You say that? After what I’ve told
you? Why, there’s nothing to go back for. And here—there is
everything! What harm am I doing, I’d like to know? Who is hurt?
What claims has that life on me? Confound you!” his wrath rising
fiercely, “how dare you talk like that to me? Why isn’t life for me as
well as for you?”
This Witherle was a man he did not know. Lowndes felt a little
heart-sick, but only the more convinced that he must make his point.
“If you didn’t feel that you were out of bounds, why were you afraid
of me when I came along?”
The thrust told. Witherle was silent. Lowndes went on: “Bread isn’t
as interesting as champagne, I know, but there is more in it, in the
long run. However, that’s neither here nor there—if a man has a right
to his champagne. But you haven’t. You are mistaken about your
wife. She was all broken up. I don’t pretend to say she was
desperately fond of you. I don’t know anything about that. But,
anyhow, she had made for herself a kind of life of which you were
the centre, and it was all the life she had. You had no right to break it
to pieces getting what you wanted. That’s a brutal thing for a man to
do. She looked very miserable, when I saw her. You’ve got to go
back.”
Witherle turned his head from side to side restlessly, as a sick man
turns on the pillow.
 “How can I go back?” he cried, keenly protesting. “Don’t you see
it’s impossible? I’ve burned my ships.”
“That’s easy enough. You went off in a fit of double consciousness,
or temporary insanity, or something like that, and I found you down
here. It will be easy enough to reinstate you. I’ll see to that.”
“That would be a lie,” said Witherle, resolutely.
Lowndes stared at him curiously, reflecting upon the
fastidiousness with which men pick and choose their offenses
against righteousness, embracing one joyously and rejecting another
with scorn.
“Yes; so it would. But I have offered to do the lying for you, and
you are off your head, you know.”
“How?” demanded Witherle, sharply.
“Any man is off his head who can’t take life as it comes, the bad
and the good, and bear up under it. Suicide is insanity. You tried to
commit suicide in the cowardliest way, by getting rid of your
responsibilities and saving your worthless breath. Old man, it won’t
do. You say you’ve learned something about religion and humanity—
come back and tell us about it.”
Witherle listened to his sentence in silence. His long lower lip
trembled.
“Anything more?” he demanded.
“That’s all. It won’t do.”
The man dropped his head into his hands and sat absolutely still.
Lowndes watched the river growing grayer and grayer, and listened
to the lapping of the water against the lumber, remembering that one
of the poets had said it was a risky business tampering with souls,
and matter enough to save one’s own. The reflection made him feel
a little faint. What if Witherle had a right to that life in spite of
everything—that life for which he had given all?
Witherle lifted his head at last. “You are sure my wife was broken
up over it?” he demanded, despairingly.
 “Sure.”
Witherle cast one longing glance across the darkening river to the
black outlines of the barge. There, ah, even there, the breath of life
was sweet upon his lips, and toil was good, and existence was worth
while.
“I thought no soul in the world had a claim on me. Curse duty! The
life of a rat in a cage!” he cried. “Oh, Lord, I haven’t the head nor the
heart for it!”
The words were bitter, but his voice broke with compliance. He
rose to his feet and stretched out his arms with a fierce gesture, then
dropped them heavily by his side.
“Come on,” he said.
Lowndes, watching him with that curious, heart-sickening
sympathy growing upon him, was aware that he had seen the end of
a soul’s revolt. Rightly or wrongly, Witherle’s freedom was over.