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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

OX F O R D S T U D I E S O N T H E R OM A N E C O N OM Y

General Editors

A L A N B O W M A N    A N D R E W W I L S O N
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

OX F O R D S T U D I E S O N T H E R OM A N E C O N OM Y
This innovative monograph series reflects a vigorous revival of interest in
the ancient economy, focusing on the Mediterranean world under Roman rule
(c.100 bc to ad 350). Carefully quantified archaeological and documentary data
are integrated to help ancient historians, economic historians, and archaeologists
think about economic behaviour collectively rather than from separate perspectives.
The volumes include a substantial comparative element and thus will be of interest
to historians of other periods and places.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

Coin Hoards and

Hoarding in the
Roman World
Edited by
J E R OM E M A I R AT, A N D R EW W I L S O N ,
and
C H R I S HOWG E G O

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 13/04/22, SPi

1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
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First Edition published in 2022
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

Contents

List of Figures  vii

List of Tables  xiii
List of Contributors  xv

PA RT I . A P P R OAC H E S

1. Introduction: Coin Hoards and Hoarding in the Roman World 3

Chris Howgego and Andrew Wilson
2. Simplifying Complexity  23
Kris Lockyear

PA RT I I . R E G IO NA L S T U D I E S

3. Hoarding in Roman Britain: An Archaeological and

Contextual Approach 55
Eleanor Ghey
4. Hoarding in Burgundy, France: Micro-­Study of a Region 68
Antony Hostein and Pierre Nouvel, with the collaboration
of Bernadette Soum and Ludovic Trommenschlager
5. Coin Hoards of the Gallic Empire 89
Jerome Mairat
6. The Interface between East and West in Hoards from Southern
Greece and Macedonia 111
Athena Iakovidou and Sophia Kremydi
7. Coin Hoards from Roman Dacia 130
Cristian Găzdac
8. Third-­Century Hoards of Roman Provincial Coins from
Moesia Inferior197
Ivan Bonchev
9. Coin Hoarding in Roman Palestine: 63 bc–ad 300 208
Joshua Goldman
10. Roman Coin Hoards from Egypt: What Next? 221
Thomas Faucher
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

vi Contents

PA RT I I I . L O N G EV I T Y O F C I R C U L AT IO N

11. The Imperial Afterlife of Roman Republican Coins and the

Phenomenon of the Restored Denarii237
Bernhard E. Woytek
12. Hoarding of Denarii and the Reforms of Nero and
Septimius Severus 273
Kevin Butcher and Matthew Ponting
13. Coin Supply and Longevity of Circulation: Three Case Studies
from Hoards in North-­West Europe 282
Benjamin D. R. Hellings
14. The End of the Small Change Economy in Northern Gaul in
the Fourth and the Fifth Centuries ad294
Johan van Heesch
15. Forms of largitio and ‘Denominations’ of Silver Plate in
Late Antiquity: The Evidence of Flanged Bowls 313
Richard Hobbs

Index 335
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List of Figures

1.1. Distribution of all hoards entered into the Coin Hoards of the
Roman Empire Project database, as at 2 August 2021 (n = 15,805). 12
2.1. Map of late Roman mints (triangles) and hoards (circles) in the
minimal dataset. N.B. the location of the Bulgaria hoard is inexact. 31
2.2. (a): two variables from the minimal dataset plotted as a simple
scattergram. (b): re­placing the two axes of A with a single axis. 33
2.3. (a): the ‘default’ three-­dimensional scattergram in the rgl package in R.
(b): the scattergram rotated to a particularly poor viewpoint.
(c): the scattergram rotated to a more optimal viewpoint. 35
2.4. (a): Triangular graph (also known as a ternary diagram) for three mints
in the minimal example. (b): A single-axis graph for the three mints created
by dropping the points down from the triangular graph. 36
2.5. Map from CA of just three mints from the minimal dataset. The dash-­dot
line joins the three mints to emphasize the similarity between this
and Fig. 2.4. 37
2.6. Map from the CA of the minimal example. 38
2.7. Map of the hoards from CA of hoards closing ad 350–4. 43
2.8. Map of the mints from CA of hoards closing ad 350–4. 44
2.9. Quantity of coins minted in Trier in hoards in the second dataset. 46
2.10. Map of late Roman mints (triangles) and hoards (circles) closing ad 350–4. 46
3.1. Method of discovery of hoards from 1800 to 2009, showing hoards
found during archaeological investigation, by metal detector or other
methods (including during agricultural and building work). 58
3.2. Dated Roman hoards per mill by Reece period of latest coin, excluding
Iron Age hoards, (black), and Walton’s British mean without Richborough
(Walton 2012) (grey). 62
4.1. The ager Aeduorum.71
4.2. Territory of Noyer-­sur-­Serein (Yonne): map of rural settlements,
(a) early third and (b) fourth century ad.73
4.3. The rural settlements (villas) in the centre-­east of Gaul: a typology. 78
4.4. Distribution map of the hoards found in the centre-­east of Gaul. 80
4.5. Chronological classification of hoards found in the rural settlements
of the centre-­east of Gaul. 82
5.1. Distribution map of the gold coins of Postumus: hoards and isolated finds. 90
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viii List of Figures

5.2. Distribution map of the gold coins of the successors of Postumus: hoards
and isolated finds. 91
5.3. Distribution map of the denarii and quinarii of the Gallic emperors:
hoards and isolated finds. 93
5.4. Distribution map of hoards containing bronze coins of Postumus.
(Source: material recorded in Hollard (1992) with the following additions:
Saint-­Lyé-­la-­Fôret, Bourg-­Bland, and the Ardennes hoards.) 95
5.5. Distribution map of hoards and inscriptions found in Hispania
(hoards larger than 100 coins with a terminus post quem
between 260 and 280). 101
7.1. Roman Dacia. 131
7.2. Distribution map of hoards closing under Hadrian. 132
7.3. Hoards closing under Hadrian: entries per year of reign. 132
7.4. Distribution map of hoards closing under Antoninus Pius. 133
7.5. Hoards closing under Antoninus Pius: entries/year of reign. 134
7.6. Distribution map of hoards closing under Marcus Aurelius. 137
7.7. Hoards closing under Marcus Aurelius: entries/year of reign. 138
7.8. Distribution map of hoards closing under Commodus. 140
7.9. Hoards closing under Commodus: entries/year of reign. 141
7.10. Distribution map of hoards closing under Septimius Severus. 142
7.11. Hoards closing under Septimius Severus: entries/year of reign. 142
7.12. Distribution map of hoards closing under Elagabalus and
Severus Alexander. 144
7.13. Hoards closing under Elagabalus: entries/year of reign. 145
7.14. Hoards closing under Severus Alexander: entries/year of reign. 146
7.15. Hoards closing under Balbinus: entries/year of reign. 147
7.16. Distribution map of hoards closing under Balbinus and Gordian III. 148
7.17. Hoards closing under Gordian III: entries/year of reign. 149
7.18. Distribution map of hoards closing under Philip I. 152
7.19. Hoards closing under Philip I: entries/year of reign. 153
7.20. Distribution map of hoards closing under Trajan Decius and
Trebonianus Gallus. 157
7.21. Hoards closing under Trajan Decius: entries/year of reign. 158
7.22. Hoards closing under Trebonianus Gallus: entries/year of reign. 159
7.23. Distribution map of hoards closing under Valerian, Gallienus,
and Aurelian. 161
7.24. The sole hoard (Olteni) closing under Valerian: entries/year of reign. 161
7.25. Hoards closing under Gallienus: entries/year of reign. 162
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List of Figures ix

7.26. Hoards closing under Aurelian: entries/year of reign. 163

7.27. Graphs of the distribution of mints. (a) Severus to Trebonianus Gallus;
(b) Valerian and Aurelian 165
8.1. The province of Moesia Inferior and its three regions as defined in
this chapter. 199
8.2. Hoards closing in the reigns of Gordian III and Philip the Arab
(ad 238–49). 200
8.3. Percentage of coins in hoards closing in the reigns of Gordian III and
Philip the Arab, by mint or area of issue, for the whole province and
by region, excluding the un­attrib­uted coins (as Table 8.1). 201
8.4. Hoards closing between the reigns of Trajan Decius and Gallienus
(ad 249–68). 203
8.5. Percentage of coins in hoards closing between the reigns of Trajan
Decius and Gallienus (ad 249–68), by mint or area of issue, for the
whole province and by region, excluding the unattributed coins
(as Table 8.3). 204
8.6. Hoards closing between the reigns of Claudius Gothicus and Diocletian
(ad 268–305). 205
9.1. Chronological distribution of coin hoards from Roman Palestine. 216
9.2. Quantities of hoarded coins, classified by metal, unadjusted. 217
9.3. Quantities of hoarded coins, classified by metal, adjusted by excluding
hoards of over 500 coins. 218
10.1. Discovery date of the coin hoards of the Roman Empire: total (black)
and Egypt (light grey). (Source: CHRE database, April 2017.) 222
10.2. Number of hoards from Roman Egypt by date of deposition. 226
10.3. Number of coins in hoards from Roman Egypt by date of deposition. 227
10.4. Numbers of coins in hoards from Roman Egypt by metal. 227
11.1. Octavian, cistophorus; RIC Augustus 476: Roma Numismatics 17
(28 March 2019), no. 627 (11.69 g, 12 h, 30 mm). © Roma Numismatics Ltd. 240
11.2. Octavian, aureus; RIC ‒ (NC 159, pp. 169ff.): British Museum,
reg. no. 1995,0401.1 (7.95 g, 12 h, 18 mm). © The Trustees of the
British Museum.241
11.3. Mark Antony, denarius; RRC 544/23: CNG Triton 23 (14 January 2020),
no. 631 (3.77 g, 5 h, 17 mm). © Classical Numismatic Group, LLC. 248
11.4. Gallienus, antoninianus; not in the reference works (NC 162, pp. 346ff.):
British Museum, reg. no. 2000,0402.1 (1.70 g, 12 h, max. 21 mm).
© The Trustees of the British Museum. 254
11.5. Roman Republic (anonymous), quadrigatus; RRC 28/3: CNG Triton 22
(8 January 2019), no. 780 (6.65 g, 5 h, 22 mm). © Classical Numismatic
Group, LLC. 255
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x List of Figures

11.6. Trajan, restored denarius; Woytek 2010, no. 801: Tkalec 23 October 1998,
no. 154 (3.22 g, 19 mm). © A. Tkalec AG. 257
11.7. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, restored denarius; RIC Marcus
Aurelius 443: CNG 114 (13 May 2020), no. 903 (2.76 g, 12 h, 19.5 mm).
© Classical Numismatic Group, LLC. 259
11.8. Anonymously restored denarius (struck under Hadrian), RIC Augustus
208 (RN 174, pp. 183ff.): Saint-­Omer, Musée de l’Hôtel Sandelin, collection
numismatique (3.59 g, 12 h, max. 22 mm). © CNRS, Centre Ernest
Babelon, Orléans. 260
13.1. Percentage of non-­hoarded gold coin finds by issue period in North-­West
Europe.284
13.2. Percentage of hoarded Neronian aurei by closing period in
North-­West Europe. 285
13.3. Percentage of Neronian aurei in hoards by closing period in
North-­West Europe (ad 54–192).286
13.4. Eastern denarii as a percentage of denarii struck ad 193–6/7 found
in hoards from Roman Britain with a minimum of 20 denarii struck
ad 193–6/7, by t.p.q. Data: Howgego (2002). 289
13.5. Eastern denarii as a percentage of denarii struck ad 193–6/7 found
in hoards from Roman Germany with a minimum of ten denarii struck
ad 193–6/7, by t.p.q. Data: Hellings (2016). 289
13.6. Percentage of Domitianic denarii in hoards by closing period in
North-West Europe. 290
13.7. Percentage of Vespasianic denarii in hoards by closing period in
North-West Europe. 291
13.8. Percentage of Domitianic denarii, dated to one year, for all closing
periods in hoards from North-West Europe. 292
14.1. The coins from the excavations of the site of the ‘cathedral’ of Tongeren.
(Data: van Heesch, Ben Amar, and Stroobants 2017). 296
14.2. Tongeren, the coins from the dark earth. Imitations of the Gallic
Empire are assigned to the period ad 275–94. 298
15.1. Detail from the congiarium scene on the Arch of Constantine, showing the
distribution of largesse in the form of coins to senators. Photo: C. Faraglia,
Neg. D-­DAI-­Rom 1 32.11, reproduced by kind permission of the Deutsches
Archäologisches Institut, Rom. 314
15.2. Examples of silver flanged bowls of the second half of the fourth century:
a plain bowl from the Hoxne treasure (left) and a decorated bowl from
the Mildenhall treasure (right). Reproduced with the kind permission
of the Trustees of the British Museum.325
15.3. A page from the Notitia Dignitatum showing possible flanged bowls
filled with coins. Bodleian MS. Canon. Misc. 378, fol. 42v, reproduced by
kind permission of The Bodleian Libraries, The University of Oxford.327
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List of Figures xi

15.4. The upper panel of the venatio consular diptych showing a possible
flanged bowl being held by the central seated consul. Reproduced with the
kind permission of the National Museums Liverpool (World Museum).328
15.5. The insides of beads on four flanged bowl in the Mildenhall treasure: all
show the same die flaw, proving they were struck using the same die set,
except one (upper left) which must have used a different die set.
Reproduced with the kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum.330
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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

List of Tables

2.1. The ‘minimal’ dataset. 30

2.2. Numbers of coins of two mints in the hoards: (a) numbers of coins;
(b) expressed as per mill. 32
2.3. Numbers of coins of three mints in the hoards: (a) numbers of coins;
(b) expressed as per mill. 34
2.4. Diagnostic statistics from the CA of the minimal example. 39
2.5. Hoards closing ad 350–4. 42
2.6. Diagnostic statistics from the CA of hoards closing ad 350–4. 45
4.1. Hoards and gold finds discovered in the ager Aeduorum (current state
of research, July 2017). 74
4.2. Discovery date of hoards found in the ager Aeduorum (current state
of research, July 2017). 75
4.3. Hoards and gold finds (in parentheses) discovered in the ager
Aeduorum: t.p.q. and chronology (current state of research, July 2017). 75
4.4. Volume and chronological classification of hoards with a t.p.q.
between ad 250 and 330 found in rural settlements of
centre-­east Gaul (P. Nouvel). 83
4.5. Distribution of hoards with a t.p.q. between ad 250 and 330 according
to their number of coins and the category of rural settlements where
they were found (P. Nouvel). 84
5.1. Hoards of over 100 coins from the Iberian peninsula with a terminal
date between ad 260 and 280. 99
5.2. Inscriptions of Gallienus and Postumus from the Iberian peninsula. 100
5.3. Proportions of coins from the Gallic Empire and the Central Empire in
selected hoards dated ad 260–74. Coins in the name of Postumus but
minted at Milan are included among the coins of the Central Empire, as
their place of minting and fabric make them closer to the coins of
Gallienus and Claudius II than to the pre-­268 coins of Postumus. 103
6.1 The movement of local coins (ad 193–268). 118
6.2. Unpublished bronze hoards from the cemetery of Sindos. 123
7.1. The distribution of mints for coins from hoards in Dacia. 164
8.1. Percentage of coins in hoards closing in the reigns of Gordian III and
Philip the Arab, by mint or area of issue, for the whole province and
by region, excluding the un­attrib­uted coins. 200
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xiv List of Tables

8.2. Percentage of coins in hoards closing in the reigns of Gordian III and
Philip the Arab, by province of issue, for the whole province and by
region, including the unattributed coins. 201
8.3. Percentage of coins in hoards closing between the reigns of Trajan Decius
and Gallienus (ad 249–68), by mint or area of issue, for the whole
province and by region, excluding the unattributed coins. 202
8.4. Percentage of coins in hoards closing between the reigns of Trajan Decius
and Gallienus (ad 249–68), by province of issue, for the whole province
and by region, including the unattributed coins. 203
10.1. Number of coins in Ptolemaic and Roman hoards from Egypt. 228
11.1. Structural overview of the restored coinages of the Principate.  261
13.1. Percentage of gold by issue period of coin and closing period of hoard,
from hoards in northwest Europe (ad 54–192). 288
14.1. Coins from the stratified context US 1006 in Tournai, dated ad 470–570
(28 coins, of which 18 are identified). Data: van Heesch (2012: 71–2). 299
14.2. Burials with coins from the Rue Perdue in Tournai (im. = imitation).
Data: van Heesch and Weinkauf (2016). 300
14.3. Roman burials with coins, second half of the fourth century. Data:
Lallemand (1966a; 1966b); van Heesch (1992). 301
15.1. Imperial largitio and possible largitio vessels, in ascending order of weight. 317
15.2. Flanged bowls, decorated and undecorated, in ascending order of weight.
The weights preceded by a ? indicate uncertainty over the intended
weight attribution if less than 85% of the intended weight (see discussion
in main text). 324
15.3. Flanged bowls with beaded rims, grouped by average bead size. 329
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

List of Contributors

Kevin Butcher, Professor, Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of

Warwick. His research interests include the Roman monetary economy, monetary history,
coin finds and coin circulation, Roman provincial coinage, and Hellenistic and Roman
Syria. Recent publications include: The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the
Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan (with Matthew Ponting, Cambridge, 2014); Regional
History and the Coin Finds from Assur. From the Achaemenids to the Nineteenth Century
(with Stefan Heidemann, Wiesbaden, 2017); Debasement. Manipulation of Coin Standards
in Pre-modern Monetary Systems (ed., Oxford, 2020).

Ivan Bonchev, Director, Pax Romana Ltd. He has a particular interest in the Roman coin-
age of Lower Moesia, and wrote his doctoral thesis on The monetary circulation of Moesia
inferior from the beginning of the 2nd century AD to the end of the 3rd century AD (as
referred to from the Bulgarian evidence) (University of Oxford, 2018).
Thomas Faucher, Archaeologist and numismatist, researcher at the Centre d’Études
Alexandrines (CNRS) in Alexandria, Egypt. He works on the economy of Graeco-Roman
Egypt, focusing primarily on Ptolemaic and Roman coinages, and is Director of the French
Archaeological Mission in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Recent publications include:
Money Rules! The Monetary Economy of Egypt, from Persians until the Beginning of Islam
(ed., Cairo, 2020); Samut Nord. L’exploitation de l’or du désert Oriental à l’époque ptolé-
maïque (ed. with B. Redon, Cairo, 2020).

Cristian Găzdac, Professor of Security Studies, University of Cluj-Napoca and Researcher

1st class Romanian Academy. His research interests include the security studies, cultural
heritage protection, ancient numismatics. He is a member of the Coin Hoards of the
Roman Empire Project, University of Oxford. Recent publications include: Wealthy or not
in a time of turmoil? The Roman Imperial Hoard from Gruia (Mehedinti County, Romania),
(with Marian Neagoe, Oxford, 2018); Counterfeiting for Hoarding? The Roman Hoard Ulpia
Traiana Sarmizegetusa 2006 (with Ovidiu Oarga, Cluj-Napoca, 2020); Group and
Individual Tragedies in Roman Europe. The Evidence of Hoards, Epigraphic and Literary
Sources (ed., Cluj-Napoca, 2020).

Eleanor Ghey, Curator: Iron Age and Roman Coin Hoards at the British Museum. She
works on Iron Age and Roman coin hoards reported under the Treasure Act 1996 in
Britain and was a researcher on the British Museum and University of Leicester AHRC-
funded coin hoard project, with research interests in the Iron Age to Roman transition and
the archaeology of deposition and sacred space. Recent publications include: Iron Age and
Roman Coin Hoards in Britain (with Roger Bland et al., Oxford, 2020) and Hoards: Hidden
History (London, 2015).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

xvi List of Contributors

Joshua Goldman, independent scholar. His research interests include the archaeology of
the Roman Levant, coin circulation in the Roman Empire, and the analysis of coin hoard
evidence. As a graduate student at the University of Oxford, he contributed to the Coin
Hoards of the Roman Empire Project, collecting coin hoard data from the Levant with an
emphasis on the region of Roman Palestine.

Johan van Heesch, former Head of Coins and Medals at the Royal Library of Belgium
(KBR). He is ‘emeritus professor with formal duties’ and teaches numismatics at the uni-
versities of Leuven (KU Leuven) and Louvain-la-Neuve (UCLouvain). His main research
topic is the coinage of the Roman Empire.
Benjamin D. R. Hellings, is the Jackson-Tomasko Associate Curator of Numismatics at
the Yale University Art Gallery. His research interests include the quantification of ancient
coin production and the Roman economy, the circulation and use of ancient coins, and the
use of numismatic ‘big data’ for research and teaching. His most recent publications
include ‘A linked frontier? Denarius finds within and beyond the frontier’ (in Alexsanderia.
Studies on Items, Ideas, and History. Dedicated to Professor Alexander Bursche on the
Occasion of his 65th Birthday, eds R. Ciołek and R. Chowaniec, Wiesbaden, 2021) and
‘Further considerations on the circulation of Augustan bronze coins in the Roman north-
west’ (in Detur Dignissimo. Studies in honour of Johan van Heesch, eds. F. Stroobants and
C. Lauwers, Brussels, 2020).

Richard Hobbs, Senior Curator of Romano-British and late Roman collections, the British
Museum. His research interests include the role of silver plate in elite societies in late
Antiquity, the material culture of Roman Britain, and the use of coinage at Pompeii. Recent
publications include: ‘Uses of decorated silver plate in Imperial Rome and Sasanian Iran’
(in Imagining the Divine: Exploring Art in Religions of Late Antiquity across Eurasia, eds.
J. Elsner and R. Wood, 2021) and The Mildenhall Treasure: Late Roman Silver Plate from
East Anglia (British Museum, 2016).

Antony Hostein, Directeur d’études at l’École Pratique des Hautes Études Paris Sciences et
Lettres Research University, France (EPHE-PSL). He studied Ancient history at the
University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, and taught there as an Associate Professor
before taking up his post at l’EPHE. His fields of research are Roman history and numis-
matics. He is the author of La cité et l’empereur (Paris, 2012) and Roman Provincial Coinage,
vol. 9: From Trajan Decius to Uranius Antoninus (AD 249–254) (with Jerome Mairat,
London and Paris, 2016).

Chris Howgego, Keeper of the Heberden Coin Room in the Ashmolean Museum and
Professor of Greek and Roman Numismatics in the University of Oxford. His current
research focuses on Roman hoards and hoarding, and on the coinage of Roman Egypt. He
is a Director of the Coin Hoards of the Roman Empire Project and of Roman Provincial
Coinage Online. He is also an editor of the series Roman Imperial Coinage and Roman
Provincial Coinage. He is the author of Ancient History from Coins (London, 1995), cur-
rently available in six languages, and has written widely on Roman coinage and history.

Athena Iakovidou, Research Associate, Academy of Athens. Her research interests include
Greek and Roman provincial coinage, numismatic circulation, iconography of the archaic
and classical periods, and digital humanities. Recent publications include: ‘The Battleground
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

List of Contributors xvii

of Humanities Data: Handling Multidisciplinarity and Diversity’ (with G. Chrysovitsanos

et al. in DARIAH Annual Event: Humanities Data. Warsaw, 2019); ‘Corinth and Athens:
Numismatic Circulation from the Late Republic to the High Empire’ (with S. Kremydi
in Fides. Contributions to Numismatics in Honor of Richard B. Witschonke. American
Numismatic Society, 2015); and ‘Nike in the Coinage of Epirus and the Adjacent Areas’ (in
Numismatic History and Economy in Epirus during Antiquity, Athens, 2013).

Sophia Kremydi, Research Director, Institute of Historical Research, National Hellenic

Research Foundation. Her research interests focus on Hellenistic and Roman provincial
coinages, numismatic circulation and coin hoards, history, coinage and institutions of
ancient Macedonia. Recent publications include: The ‘Autonomous’ Coinages under the
late Antigonids, (ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 79, Athens, 2018); and Les Alexandres après Alexandre.
Histoire d’une monnaie commune (edited with M.-Chr. Marcellesi, ΜΕΛΕΤΗΜΑΤΑ 81,
Athens, 2020).

Kris Lockyear, Senior Lecturer, Institute of Archaeology, University College London. His
interests include archaeological field methods, especially geophysical survey, the applica-
tion of multivariate statistical methods to archaeological problems, using coinage evidence
to study past societies, and the archaeology of Hertfordshire. He is currently leading the
community archaeology project to survey the Roman city of Verulamium. Recent publica-
tions include ‘Under the Park. Recent Geophysical Surveys at Verulamium (St Albans,
Hertfordshire, UK)’ (with Ellen Shlasko, Archaeological Prospection 2017), ‘Mind the Gap!
Roman Republican coin hoards from Italy and Iberia at the end of the second century BC’
(Numismatic Chronicle 2018) and Archaeology in Hertfordshire: Recent Research (ed.,
Hatfield, 2015).
Jerome Mairat, Collections Manager, Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum,
University of Oxford. He has a particular interest in Roman provincial coinage and the
coinage of the Gallic Empire. His publications include: Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. 3:
Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian (AD 98–138) (with Michel Amandry, Andrew Burnett, William
Metcalf, Laurent Bricault, and Maryse Blet-Lemarquand, London and Paris, 2015), and
Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. 9: From Trajan Decius to Uranius Antoninus (AD 249–254)
(with Antony Hostein, London and Paris, 2016).

Pierre Nouvel, Professor of Archaeology at the University of Bourgogne, Dijon (France).

He holds his degrees from Bourgogne and Franche-Comté Universities. His research inter-
ests include ancient material culture and settlement patterns in Gaul from the Iron Age to
Late Antiquity. He has published numerous articles on these fields in journals such as
Gallia and the Revue archéologique de l’Est.

Matthew Ponting, Senior Lecturer in Archaeological Materials, Department of Archaeology,

Classics and Egyptology at the University of Liverpool. His research interests include
archaeometallurgy in its broadest sense, especially non-ferrous and precious metals, the
production of ancient coinage, and the evolution of copper-based alloys in the Hellenistic
to early medieval Near East. Recent publications include: The Metallurgy of Roman Silver
Coinage: From the Reforms of Nero to the Reform of Trajan (with Kevin Butcher, Oxford,
2014); ‘Pretia Victoriae or just an occasional bonus? Analysis of Iron Age lead artefacts
from the Somerset Lake Villages’ (Oxford Journal of Archaeology 37, 2018).
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

xviii List of Contributors

Bernadette Soum, Archaeologist and numismatist at the Institut national de recherches

archéologiques préventives (INRAP), France. Her particular interests are the archaeological
contexts of numismatic finds of the Roman imperial period in Gaul, and she has published
on sites and assemblages from the region around Autun and the Côte d’Or.

Ludovic Trommenschlager, PhD student, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris Sciences
et Lettres Research University, (UMR ANHIMA) and Université de Lille, France. His
research interests include archaeological field survey, numismatics of the Roman empire,
and Gallia Belgica. Recent publications include: ‘Le monnayage issu de phases de
démantèlement : un cas complexe à interpréter’ (with G. Brkojewitsch, M. Legagneux, and
S. Marquié, Journal of Archaeological Numismatics, Volume 5–6, 2016: 95–110), ‘Le trésor
de Saint-Germain-lès-Arpajon’ (ed. V. Drost, Trésors monétaires 29, Bibliothèque nationale
de France, 2020), ‘La villa romaine de Grigy à Metz (Moselle)’ (ed. G. Brkojewitsch, supplé-
ment Gallia, 65, 2021).

Andrew Wilson, Professor of the Archaeology of the Roman Empire, University of Oxford.
His research interests include the economy of the Roman empire, ancient technology,
ancient water supply and usage, Roman North Africa, and archaeological field survey.
With Alan Bowman, he co-directs the Oxford Roman Economy Project, and with Chris
Howgego, he co-directs the Coin Hoards of the Roman Empire Project. Recent publications
include: The Economy of Pompeii (ed. with Miko Flohr, Oxford, 2017); Trade, Commerce,
and the State in the Roman world (ed. with Alan Bowman, Oxford, 2018); Recycling and
Reuse in the Roman Economy (ed. with Chloë Duckworth, Oxford, 2020).

Bernhard E. Woytek, Deputy Head of the Department of Classical Studies, Austrian

Archaeological Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences. His main research interests
are Roman numismatics, ancient economy, and the history of classical studies in the
early modern period. Publications include: Arma et nummi. Forschungen zur römischen
Finanzgeschichte und Münzprägung der Jahre 49 bis 42 v. Chr. (Vienna, 2003); Die
Reichsprägung des Kaisers Traianus (98–117) (2 vols, Vienna, 2010); Infrastructure and
Distribution in Ancient Economies (ed., Vienna, 2018); Ars critica numaria. Joseph Eckhel
(1737–1798) and the Transformation of Ancient Numismatics (ed. with Daniela Williams,
Vienna, 2021).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 08/04/22, SPi

PART I

A PPROACH E S
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Desserts
Dessert adds a touch that gives a good dinner its final, satisfying
note.
Before using the dessert recipes in this bulletin, refer to the section
on ingredients and measurements (p. 16).
Cake recipes in this publication generally need to be adapted for
use in high-altitude areas. Write to your State Experiment Station or
contact your county extension agent for information on baking cakes
in your area.
For pies and cakes, use pans of the size specified.
To grease pans for cakes, coat lightly with unsalted fat or oil. Then
sprinkle lightly with a little flour. Tip pan from side to side to coat
evenly; then shake out excess flour.
In recipes that call for greased and floured cakepans, you may use
a wax paper lining if you prefer. Cut wax paper to fit the bottom of the
pan. Then grease the paper lightly.

Pastry
8- or 9-inch pastry shell
1 cup flour
½ teaspoon salt
⅓ cup shortening
About 2 tablespoons cold water
Mix flour and salt thoroughly. Mix in fat only until mixture is
crumbly.
Add a little water at a time, blending lightly. Dough should be just
moist enough to cling together when pressed.
 Shape dough into a ball. Roll out on a lightly floured surface or
between two sheets of waxed paper. Fit carefully into piepan. Lift
edges and smooth out air bubbles. For baked pastry shell, trim
pastry, leaving about 1 inch around the edge. Fold edge under and
shape into an upright rim.
Prick bottom and sides well with a fork. Bake at 450° F. (very hot
oven) 12 to 15 minutes, or until golden brown.
Variation
Two-crust pie.—Double the recipe. Form dough into two balls, one
slightly larger than the other. Roll out larger ball of dough and fit into
piepan. Roll out remaining dough for top crust; make several slits in
crust to let steam escape during baking. Put filling into pastry-lined
pan. Top with second crust. Fold edges of crusts under and press
together to seal. Bake as directed in pie recipe.

Apple pie
8-inch pie, 6 servings
Pastry for 2-crust 8-inch pie (above)
5 cups pared, sliced tart apples
⅔ cup sugar
1 tablespoon cornstarch
½ teaspoon cinnamon
1 or 2 tablespoons butter or margarine, if desired
Prepare unbaked pastry.
Mix dry ingredients lightly with apples in a bowl. Put filling into
pastry-lined pan. Dot with fat, if desired. Top with second crust.
Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) for 40 to 60 minutes, or until filling
bubbles and the crust is golden brown.
Note: If fruit is sweet, decrease amount of sugar; if unusually tart,
increase sugar.
Variations
 Blueberry pie.—Use 3 cups fresh blueberries instead of apples.
Omit cinnamon and increase cornstarch to 3 tablespoons. Sprinkle
fruit with 2 tablespoons lemon juice. Bake 50 to 60 minutes.
Cherry pie.—Instead of apples, use 1 can (1 pound) pitted red
sour cherries, water pack. Do not drain. Omit cinnamon. Increase
cornstarch to 2 tablespoons. Add ⅛ teaspoon almond extract and a
few drops of red food coloring, if desired. Bake 40 to 45 minutes.
Peach pie.—Use 3 cups fresh sliced peaches instead of apples.
Use only ¼ teaspoon cinnamon. Bake 40 to 50 minutes.

Vanilla cream pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
3 tablespoons cornstarch
¼ cup sugar
½ teaspoon salt
2 cups milk
2 egg yolks, beaten
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
1 teaspoon vanilla
½ cup whipping cream
1 tablespoon confectioner’s sugar
Prepare, bake, and cool pastry shell.
Mix cornstarch, sugar, and salt in heavy saucepan. Gradually stir
in milk.
Cook over moderate heat, stirring constantly, until thickened.
Simmer 1 minute longer.
Stir a little of the hot mixture into egg yolks; then stir yolks into
remaining hot mixture. Cook 1 minute longer, stirring constantly. Stir
in fat and vanilla.
Set saucepan in cold water to cool. Stir frequently. Change water
occasionally.
 Pour filling into pastry shell. Chill thoroughly.
Before serving, whip cream until stiff and beat in confectioner’s
sugar. Spread over pie.
Notes: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.
Use whipped dessert topping instead of whipped cream, if desired.
Variations
Coconut cream pie.—Stir ½ to 1 cup shredded coconut, as
desired, into the hot filling with fat and vanilla.
Banana cream pie.—Slice 2 bananas into pie shell before adding
filling.
Chocolate cream pie.—Increase sugar to ¾ cup. Cut 1½ ounces
bitter chocolate into cream filling after adding milk.

Graham cracker crust

8- or 9-inch pie
⅓ cup butter or margarine
2 tablespoons sugar
1¼ cups graham cracker crumbs
Stir fat and sugar together in a saucepan over low heat until fat is
melted. Blend in cracker crumbs. Press evenly into piepan. Chill.

Pecan pie
9-inch pie, 8 servings
1 unbaked 9-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 cup pecan halves
3 eggs, beaten
½ cup sugar
1 cup dark corn sirup
¼ teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon vanilla
¼ cup melted butter or margarine
Prepare unbaked pastry shell. Spread nuts in bottom of pastry
shell.
Combine remaining ingredients and pour over nuts. Bake at 375°
F. (moderate oven) 30 to 40 minutes, or until the filling appears set
when the pie is gently moved.

Pumpkin pie
8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 unbaked 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 cup canned pumpkin
½ teaspoon cinnamon
¼ teaspoon ginger
¼ teaspoon nutmeg
⅛ teaspoon cloves
1 cup milk, half-and-half, or evaporated milk
½ cup sugar
1 egg, slightly beaten
½ teaspoon salt
Prepare unbaked pastry shell.
Blend pumpkin and spices thoroughly. Stir in remaining
ingredients; mix well. Pour into pastry shell.
Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) about 1 hour. Pie is done when a table
knife inserted in center comes out clean. Filling may be soft but will
set on cooling.

Quick meringue-topped pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 baked 8-inch pastry shell (p. 64)
1 package (3 to 4 ounces) pudding and pie filling mix, any flavor
2 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
¼ cup sugar
Prepare pastry shell.
Make pie filling according to package directions. Cool filling
slightly; then pour into baked pastry shell.
Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until soft peaks
form. Add sugar gradually, beating constantly, and continue beating
until stiff peaks form.
Pile meringue on pie while filling is still warm. Bake at 350° F.
(moderate oven) 15 to 20 minutes, or until lightly browned.
Note: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.

Lemon chiffon pie

8-inch pie, 6 servings
1 8-inch graham cracker crust (p. 65) or baked pastry shell (p. 64)
1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin
¼ cup cold water
3 egg yolks
½ cup lemon juice
½ teaspoon grated lemon rind
¾ cup sugar
3 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
Prepare graham cracker crust or pastry shell.
Soften gelatin in cold water. Beat egg yolks slightly. Add juice, rind,
and half the sugar. Cook over low heat, stirring constantly, until
mixture begins to thicken, 10 to 15 minutes.
Add gelatin; stir until dissolved. Chill until mixture begins to
thicken.
 Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until soft peaks
form. Slowly add remaining sugar, beating constantly until stiff. Fold
into chilled mixture.
Pour into crust and chill until firm.
Note: Use only clean, sound-shelled eggs in this recipe.
Variation
Lime chiffon pie.—Use ½ cup lime juice and ½ teaspoon grated
lime rind in place of lemon. Add a few drops of green food coloring to
dissolved gelatin before chilling.

Fruit delight pie

9-inch pie, 8 servings
1 9-inch graham cracker crust (p. 65)
1 envelope whipped dessert topping mix
1 package (8 ounces) cream cheese, at room temperature
¼ cup confectioner’s sugar
¼ teaspoon vanilla
½ cup chopped pecans
1 cup canned blueberry, peach, or cherry pie filling
Make graham cracker crust.
Prepare whipped dessert topping according to package directions.
Beat in cream cheese, sugar, and vanilla until smooth. Stir in nuts.
Pour into pie shell. Top with pie filling. Chill at least 3 hours before
serving.

Spiced prune cake

Two 8- or 9-inch layers
1 package spice cake mix (for 2-layer cake)
1¼ cups drained, pitted, and chopped cooked prunes
 Prepare cake batter according to package directions. Thoroughly
mix prunes into cake batter. Pour batter into two greased and floured
8- or 9-inch layer cakepans.
Bake according to package directions but increase baking time by
10 minutes. Cool cake a few minutes before removing from the pans.
When cool, frost with creamy white frosting (p. 69).

Velvety white cake

Two 8-inch layers
2 cups cake flour
1¼ cups sugar
1 tablespoon baking powder
1 teaspoon salt
½ cup softened butter or margarine or shortening
1 cup milk
4 egg whites, unbeaten
1 teaspoon vanilla
¼ teaspoon almond extract, if desired
Mix dry ingredients well. Add fat and half of the milk; beat until
creamy. Add remaining milk, egg whites, and flavoring; beat until
creamy.
Pour into two 8-inch greased and floured layer cakepans. Bake at
375° F. (moderate oven) 25 to 30 minutes, or until the cake surface
springs back when touched lightly. Cool cake for a few minutes
before removing from the pans. When cool, frost as desired.

Gingerbread
6 to 9 servings
½ cup shortening
½ cup brown sugar, packed
1 egg
½ cup molasses
1½ cups flour
½ teaspoon salt
¾ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon ginger
½ teaspoon cinnamon
½ cup boiling water
Beat shortening and sugar until creamy. Add egg and molasses;
beat well.
Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Add to molasses mixture
alternately with boiling water. Beat after each addition.
Pour batter into a greased 8- by 8- by 2-inch baking pan. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 35 to 40 minutes. Serve warm.

Upside-down cake
6 servings
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
½ cup brown sugar, packed
6 drained canned peach halves
6 drained maraschino cherries, halved
12 pecan halves
1 recipe quick coffee cake batter (p. 62)
Melt fat in a 9-inch layer cakepan over low heat. Sprinkle brown
sugar over fat. Arrange fruit and nuts in sugar mixture.
Prepare coffee cake batter and pour over fruit; spread evenly.
Bake at 350° F. (moderate oven) 30 to 40 minutes.
Loosen cake from sides of pan and invert on serving plate. Allow
to cool 5 minutes before removing pan.
Variations
Use 12 canned apricot halves or 6 canned pineapple slices or 1
cup of drained canned crushed pineapple for the fruit.
Timesaver
 Instead of quick coffee cake batter, use a 1-layer package of cake
mix, prepared by package directions.

Cherry cobbler
6 servings
½ recipe sweet biscuit dough (p. 60)
⅔ cup sugar
2 tablespoons cornstarch
1 can (1 pound) pitted red sour cherries, water pack
⅛ teaspoon almond extract
Few drops red food coloring
1 tablespoon butter or margarine
Make biscuit dough but do not roll out.
Blend sugar and cornstarch in a 1-quart saucepan. Gradually stir
in cherries. Cook over moderate heat until thickened and clear,
stirring constantly. Remove from heat. Add flavoring, food coloring,
and fat. Pour into a 1½-quart casserole.
Drop biscuit dough by spoonfuls onto hot cherry mixture. Bake at
425° F. (hot oven) 15 to 20 minutes, or until filling bubbles and
topping is lightly browned.
Timesaver
Quick cherry cobbler.—Use 1 can (1 pound 5 ounces) cherry pie
filling. Heat to boiling and stir in 1 tablespoon butter or margarine.
For biscuit topping, combine 1 cup packaged biscuit mix and 1
tablespoon sugar. Add ⅓ cup milk and 1 tablespoon melted butter or
margarine; stir until moistened. Drop by spoonfuls onto hot cherry
filling and bake as directed.

Chocolate cake
Two 8-inch layers
1¾ cups cake flour
1⅓ cups sugar
1 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon baking soda
½ cup softened butter or margarine
1 cup milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
2 eggs
2 or 3 ounces (2 or 3 squares) unsweetened chocolate, melted
Mix dry ingredients well. Add fat and half of the milk; beat until
creamy. Mix in remaining milk, vanilla, and eggs. Add chocolate;
beat until creamy.
Pour into two 8-inch greased and floured layer cake pans. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 30 to 35 minutes, or until the cake surface
springs back when touched lightly. Cool cake a few minutes before
removing from the pans. When cool, frost with creamy chocolate
frosting (this page).
Note: For a loaf cake, use a greased and floured 9- by 12-inch
cakepan. Bake about 40 minutes.

Creamy white frosting

For 8-inch layer cake or 9- by 12-inch loaf cake
About 2½ cups confectioner’s sugar
⅓ cup softened butter or margarine
3 tablespoons milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
Beat about 2 cups of the sugar with all other ingredients until
frosting is creamy and smooth. Beat in enough of the remaining
sugar for a frosting that will spread evenly. Spread on cooled cake.
Variation
Creamy chocolate frosting.—Mix in 1 or 2 ounces (1 or 2 squares)
of melted chocolate. Or increase milk to ¼ cup and use ⅓ cup
cocoa. Beat until creamy and smooth.

Caramel-nut frosting
For 8-inch layer cake or 9- by 12-inch loaf cake
½ cup butter or margarine
1 cup brown sugar, packed
¼ cup milk
2 cups confectioner’s sugar
⅔ cup finely chopped pecans or walnuts
½ teaspoon vanilla
Nut halves, as desired
Combine, fat, brown sugar, and milk. Cook over medium heat,
stirring constantly, only until mixture boils and sugar is dissolved.
Cool slightly.
Beat confectioner’s sugar into cooked mixture until frosting
reaches spreading consistency. Add chopped nuts and vanilla; mix
well.
Spread on cooled cake. Garnish with nut halves.

Orange bavarian cream

6 servings
1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin
¼ cup cold water
¾ cup orange juice
2 tablespoons lemon juice
½ teaspoon grated orange rind
⅓ cup sugar
¼ teaspoon salt
1 cup whipping cream
1 cup fresh orange sections, cut in pieces
 Soften gelatin in water. Combine fruit juices, orange rind, sugar,
and salt; heat to simmering. Dissolve gelatin in hot mixture. Chill until
mixture begins to thicken.
Whip cream only until stiff. Fold whipped cream and orange
sections into gelatin mixture. Pour into a 1-quart mold and chill until
firm.

Oatmeal cookies
3 to 4 dozen cookies
1 cup flour
1¼ teaspoons baking powder
½ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
½ cup shortening
1 cup brown sugar, packed
1 egg
¾ teaspoon vanilla
1½ cups quick-cooking rolled oats
Mix flour, baking powder, soda, and salt. Beat shortening and
sugar until creamy. Beat in egg and vanilla. Blend in flour mixture.
Stir in rolled oats. Chill.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Place about 2
inches apart on an ungreased baking sheet. Bake at 350° F.
(moderate oven) 10 to 15 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variations
Raisin-oatmeal cookies.—Add ½ cup raisins with the oats.
Coconut- or nut-oatmeal cookies.—Add ½ cup flaked coconut or ½
cup chopped nuts with the oats.
Orange-oatmeal cookies.—Add 2 tablespoons orange juice and 1
teaspoon grated orange rind to shortening and sugar mixture. Add ½
cup raisins and ½ cup chopped nuts with the oats. Chill dough
thoroughly; drop from teaspoon onto baking sheet.

Peanut butter cookies

4 to 5 dozen cookies
1 cup shortening
1 cup peanut butter
1 cup granulated sugar
1 cup brown sugar, packed
2 eggs
1 teaspoon vanilla
2½ cups flour
½ teaspoon salt
¾ teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon baking powder
Beat shortening and peanut butter until creamy. Gradually add
sugars, beating thoroughly after each addition. Beat in eggs and
vanilla.
Mix remaining ingredients and blend into peanut butter mixture.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Place about 2
inches apart on an ungreased baking sheet. Flatten each cookie.
Criss-cross top of each cookie with a fork, if desired.
Bake at 375° F. (moderate oven) 10 to 15 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variation
Top-hat cookies.—Roll balls of dough in granulated sugar before
placing on baking sheet. Do not flatten. Bake 10 minutes; then
remove from oven and press a milk chocolate candy kiss into center
of each cookie. Return to oven and bake 2 to 5 minutes longer, or
until cookies are done.

Molasses snaps
3 to 4 dozen cookies
¾ cup shortening
1 cup brown sugar, packed
2 eggs
¼ cup molasses
2¼ cups flour
2 teaspoons baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
½ teaspoon cloves
1 teaspoon cinnamon
1 teaspoon ginger
½ cup chopped nuts, if desired
½ cup raisins, if desired
Beat shortening and sugar until creamy. Beat in eggs and
molasses.
Mix dry ingredients and stir in raisins and nuts, if used. Stir flour
mixture into molasses mixture.
Drop dough from a teaspoon onto a lightly greased baking sheet;
space cookies about 2 inches apart. Bake at 375° F. (moderate
oven) 10 to 12 minutes, or until set but not hard.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.

Chocolate sparkles
5 to 6 dozen cookies
1 cup softened butter or margarine
1¼ cups sugar
2 eggs
2 ounces (2 squares) unsweetened chocolate, melted
½ teaspoon vanilla
2⅔ cups flour
2 teaspoons cream of tartar
1 teaspoon baking soda
½ teaspoon salt
¼ cup sugar
Beat fat and 1¼ cups sugar until creamy. Beat in eggs; add melted
chocolate and vanilla.
Mix flour, cream of tartar, soda, and salt. Stir into chocolate
mixture; blend well. Chill dough.
Shape dough into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Roll balls in ¼
cup sugar and place about 2 inches apart on an ungreased baking
sheet. Bake at 400° F. (hot oven) 8 to 10 minutes.
Remove from baking sheet while warm.
Variations
Cinnamon-sugar cookies.—Omit chocolate. Roll balls of dough in
a mixture of ¼ cup sugar and 1 tablespoon cinnamon; bake as
directed.
Chocolate chip cookies.—In place of 1½ cups granulated sugar,
use ½ cup granulated sugar and 1 cup brown sugar. Beat sugars
with butter or margarine. Omit the chocolate. Stir ⅔ cup chopped
nuts and 1 package (12 ounces) chocolate chips into the dough.
Drop dough from a teaspoon onto an ungreased baking sheet and
bake as directed.

Apple crisp
6 servings
2 tablespoons granulated sugar
¼ teaspoon cinnamon
4 cups pared, sliced tart apples
¼ cup water
½ cup flour
⅛ teaspoon salt
¼ teaspoon cinnamon
¼ teaspoon nutmeg
⅓ cup brown sugar, packed
3 tablespoons softened butter or margarine
Mix granulated sugar with ¼ teaspoon cinnamon; sprinkle over
apples and mix lightly. Spread apples in a greased 8- by 8- by 2-inch
baking pan. Sprinkle with the water.
Blend flour, salt, cinnamon, nutmeg, and brown sugar. Mix in fat to
make a crumbly mixture. Spread over apples. Bake uncovered at
350° F. (moderate oven) 40 minutes or until lightly browned and
apples are tender.

Baked apples
6 servings
6 large baking apples
6 tablespoons sugar
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
Cinnamon, as desired
½ cup water
Wash and core apples. Pare apples one-third of the way down or
slit the skin around the apple about half-way down.
Place apples in a baking dish. Put sugar and butter or margarine
in the center of each apple. Sprinkle with cinnamon. Pour the water
around apples to prevent sticking.
Bake uncovered at 400° F. (hot oven) until tender, 45 minutes to 1
hour.
Variation
Cranberry-baked apples.—Omit the sugar, fat, and cinnamon.
Combine ¾ cup chopped raw cranberries, ½ cup sugar, and 3
tablespoons chopped nuts. Stuff apples with this mixture before
baking.

Brownies
16 brownies
2 ounces (2 squares) unsweetened chocolate
⅓ cup shortening or oil
1 cup sugar
2 eggs, slightly beaten
1 teaspoon vanilla
⅔ cup flour
½ teaspoon baking powder
½ teaspoon salt
½ cup chopped nuts
Melt chocolate and fat together over low heat. Cool slightly. Mix
sugar with eggs.
Stir chocolate mixture into eggs gradually. Add vanilla.
Mix dry ingredients, stir in nuts, and add to chocolate mixture.
Spread batter in a greased 8-inch square baking pan. Bake at
350° F. (moderate oven) 25 to 30 minutes or until crust is shiny and
brownies begin to shrink from pan. Cool in pan. Cut into 2-inch
squares.
Variation
Chewy brownies.—Follow directions above, but omit baking
powder.

Baked custard
6 servings
4 eggs, slightly beaten
⅓ cup sugar
¼ teaspoon salt
3 cups hot milk
1 teaspoon vanilla
Nutmeg, as desired
 Combine eggs, sugar, and salt. Stir in the milk gradually. Add
vanilla.
Pour into custard cups. Sprinkle with nutmeg. Set cups in a pan of
hot water.
Bake at 325° F. (slow oven) 30 to 40 minutes, or until the tip of a
knife inserted in the center comes out clean.

Raisin-nut bread pudding

6 servings
2 cups milk
1 tablespoon butter or margarine
¼ cup brown sugar, packed
1 teaspoon cinnamon
½ teaspoon nutmeg
½ teaspoon vanilla
2 egg yolks, slightly beaten
4 slices bread, cut in 1-inch cubes
½ cup raisins
½ cup slivered almonds
2 egg whites
¼ teaspoon salt
Heat milk. Stir in fat, sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, and vanilla.
Stir a little of the milk mixture into egg yolks; then stir yolks into
rest of milk mixture. Add bread cubes, raisins, and half the nuts.
Beat egg whites until foamy. Add salt and beat until stiff but not
dry. Fold egg whites into pudding mixture. Pour into greased 1-quart
casserole. Sprinkle top with rest of nuts. Place casserole in pan of
hot water.
Bake at 325° F. (slow oven) 1¼ to 1½ hours, or until the tip of a
knife inserted in the center comes out clean.

Quick ice cream desserts