- a The Concept of Science and Technology = Science comes from the Latin word Scientia ‘or scire meaning ‘knowledge’. * According to (Bhagat, 2018) Science is defined as a systematic knowledge based on facts, observations and experimentations. * It is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of jestable explanations and predictions about the Universe. :ee ... cont'd. = It is ihe study of nature ond behavior of ihe physical and natural wo-id through scientific methods. ™Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era-and in many historical civilizations. During the Classical antiquity, science was known as ‘Natura! Philosophy’ — the Precursor of naiuralscience. ~~3 ..cont'd. + In Classical antiquity, science was concemed with knowledge about the working of natural things which‘ led to the development of complex abstract thought. * For examples, construction of complex calendars, dams and dikes and buildings such as Pyramids. Metallurgy and Vinca culiure were all known in prehistory. Vinca culture was the -~ earliest known producer of bronze-like alloys.See -..coni'd. : = Transition from natural Philosophy to scientific revolution began in the 16" C as new ideas ond Giscoveries departed ‘from Previous. Greek 7 conceptions and traditions, » Scientific methods soon prayed a grater role in knowledge creation and until 19! C-many of institufional and’ professional features of science began lo take shape,Branches of Science. 7 = Physical Sciences — deals with inorganic materials which ore materials that are noi living. People who work in the field of physical science can uncover new discoveries obout how matter works and oiher universal phenomena, Physical sclences includes physics, astronomy and chemlstry ' » Earth Sciences - field of natural sciences that deals with the moterials of ihe earth and its atmosphere. Earh sclences Includes meteorology, geology, oceanography ond environmental sclence,- cont'd, » Life Sciences — branch of science involves the study of organic things - living organism. The field of life science can help people understand the world including plants, animals and human biology. It includes biology, ecology and agriculture.> The Concept of Technology ' , ™ Technology is the collection of techniques and processes used in the production of goods or : services or the accomplishment of objectives such as scientific investigation. = It includes methods, systems ‘and devices which are the results of scientific knowledge being used for practical purposes. : ys: e pes ty i ton..cont’d, Technology can be both material and immaterial, crealed by the oroplication. of mental and physical effort in order to achieve “some value. , In this sense technology can simply referred to jools ond mgchines thal may be used jo sclve eal world problems, } also includes virtual technology such as computer software.HISTORIOGRAPHY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY... i | Bp Historiography - - refers to the act of writing history of something. Consideéfing this definition therefore historiography of science and jechnology is concerning with the monner in which- science and technology have been “written historically. i | ;...cont'd. There are various ways of analysing the historiography of science and technology. Among those methods of inquiry, there is siudying ihe history of science and technology ‘by using perspectives e.g Momist, bourgeois'e. or neo-Maniist, liberalist, ncfionclist etc. ™=The~historiography can also be siudied by examining various periods in writing the historiography of science and iechnology for example in 17!" c.18"" c, 19!" c, 20th c, e.t.cMARXIST HISTORIOGRAPHY oF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOG' 7 = The Concept of Marxism | | + Marxism - a general te which cover the various theories and ideas dssociated with or based on the work or ir ditions ‘of Karl Marx . (1818-1883), Marx ihought f himself as the. Newton of the social realm. : * He sought "the paar laws ‘of motion" of : industrial sociely thal would explain all cultural - development, Including dhe production of scientific Ideas and iechndlogl ical art facts....cont'd. =There are prominent varieties of Marxism who have devoted their time to discuss the historiography of science and technology which are, historical materialism, communism and humanistic Marism. All these three impose specific frame works on the contemporary practice....cont'd. foe = HISTORICAL MATERIALISM «This is the earliest variety of Marxism drawn from Mam's writing from the late 1840 on wards. According to them stages in social and cultural evolution depend on changes in the economic structure. «The laws of social evolution in historical materialism were developed as challenges to laws of human evolution in Daminism. eeLo ... cont'd. \ = Hisicrical materialists argued that scientific and ~~ 1echnological arl-facts are rooted in economic processes controlied by the bourgeoisie. Some of the famous Maiericlist historiography of science and technology: are found in the work by Boris Hessen, Nokolay Bukhatin and John Desmond Bernal\v ..contd. “. y \c = According to Hessen, there is the correlation between problems in economics, technology and science. Cerlain e¢onomic demands or needs are coreélated with certain technical problems or developments, which in jum are correlated with fields of scientific study. Economics is scid to present demands, which pose technical problems, which generate scientific problems. - i\é ..conid. .. f = For examples: Hessen notes that ihe furher development of trade (merchant capital) depended on improved transport and the most efficient means of transport for goods was naturally by water. This thus, set transport the following technica! problems.\ cont'd. ® According to John Desmond science could best contribute to material benefit of humanity if / scientisis were in charge of social policy as they ‘ were in Soviet Union. ! * By contrast in the United States, he obstructed capitalism= ‘development of’ science and technology by instituting competitive funding practices.1g -cont'd. = COMMUNIST MARXIST This kind of Marxism was developed by V.I. Lenin ond later Joseph Stalin. According to this type of Manism the state can accelerate historical change. Communists impose strict political control over science and technology. Communist economic policy dictate: and decide the scientific development would lead to technological innovation with tegard to the quality of life.NS | a ..coni'd. = HUMANISTIC MARXISM * Based principally on man|s economic and philosophic manuscript of 1844 discovered in © 1935 ihat focuses on the plight or dilemma of human alienation/divisidon fnd the possible venues for human development, especially for emoncipation/liberation |from the restrictions imposed by alienation.as ..coni'd, =To humanistic Marxism, the unfolding. of humanily relationship jo the natural world is a more importance jfhon the historical development of technology or ihe laws of social evolution. . * The major concem is how, science .and iechnology’ can free human being from cevelopment restrictions tather than its historical development. (ler more read John Hebron the Hisloriegrephy al modem science p.g 48)..cont'd. | | | Marxism are a) There is connection | ween economic interests and technical projects = General arguments of the b) lt is shown that the techni al projects involve technological problem. c) Wf is shown that the! technical problems correspond to fields of study'in sclence. !22 ...cont'd. G} li is also asserted that scientists were motivated by economic or technical interest to solve the technology problem and therefore also to study the corresponding fields of science. . Reod olso (Bon's Hessen el.al, The Social and Economic Roots of The Scientific Revolution Pg.5:ANALYSIS OF HISTORIOGRAPHY BASING ON TIME/PHASES i » Historiography of science & Usually doted in the early sixiles or ihe 20" c. For example in 1965 Gerd Buchdal reporting a revolution in Historiography of science “refering to Innovative studies of Thomas Kuhn ond Joseph Agassi. | « He suggested that these two schglars had inaugurated jhe sub discipline by distinguishing clearly between the history and historiography of sci¢nce as they argued that, historiographical views greatly influence the writing of the history of science. y i |—— TIME AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF SCIENCE » By 1837 scholars of science were concentrating much in writing about scientific revolution of 17!4 C. But the development of the distinct academic discipline of history of science and technology did not occur until the early 20" C, Their main concern was about the changing role of science during the same period of time. This period was dominated by the work of Williora Whewell's in his. book “History of the Inductive Science"....cont'd. = By 1930's this was the period for development of our modern understanding Of science. The major issue which dominated this period was.the role of wars in development of science and technology. + ff was during this period the philosophy battle which is now known as “the science of wars” was being set. This period was dominated by the works of Boris HESSEN e.g the Social and Economic Rools of the Newton ‘Frinclpia’26 “yr ..cont'd. = By 1940's during this period the major focus in lisictiography was on the rise of big science. This mainly occurred after the WWII. This period was dominated by the work of-both Varnevar Bush and the James Conant (President-Harvard University : These two encouraged the study of the History of science as a way, of improving general knowledge about how science worked cnd why if was esseniial to maintain a large scientific work force.Qt . Contd: = By 12960’s during this period most of histories of science were about different forms of much of Progress showing science as a_ iriumphant movement foward truth.2B THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE SOCIETY Generally: sclence and technology can play an important role in making the economic, environmental and social dimensions of the development process more sustainable. Science and jechnology’ are the main drives of produciivily in all sectors. a) In manufacturing; .Sclence, and technology have led to production of more sophisticated material which are accessed ai both high quality and quaniily29 ..cont'd, —b) In agriculture the use of technological materials such as pesticides, herbicides, and combine ’ harvesters has increased both quality and quantity of products. Technology facilities irrigation c) Environmentally; sclence and provide the answer for managing resources and reducing pollution, addressing climate change ond preserving biodiversity, .example use of renewable energy like solar and water gases instead of charcoal» . technology206 — TT > -.-cont'd, ; qd) Market; Technology facilities accessibility to market for agriculture Products €) Socially; Science and technology help to i reduce and conirol diseases Gnd safeguard our of general life. . f) In education; Science ond technology have increased accessibility of knowledge through online courses and moierials. TH\ . cont'd. g) On state power; Science and technology play various roles with tegard to state power Development of science and technology is a symbol of economic Power of the siate. Many states would like to develop theif level of science and technology in order to stabilize their power,3a de eee eee -. cont'd. h) Science and technology js essential in maintenance of slate sovereignty for example a well-developed stale in terms of miliiary . technology is able lo defend ifs Power agoinst - internal and external enemies €.g. the case of USASH ..cont'd. i) State cultural power-is also maintained and spread through science and technology to day. For instance, Westem states cultural have over whelmed mosi of weak national culture including Africa.