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Reframing
Postcolonial Studies
Concepts, Methodologies, Scholarly Activisms
Edited by David D. Kim
 Reframing Postcolonial Studies

“This timely volume confronts the legacies of post-colonial thinking as a set of

material and textual practices. Looking at museums, public monuments, statues,
literary texts, languages and artworks, it questions the vexed legacies of colonial
culture, as well as the theoretical and critical literature that has sought to under-
stand it. From the vantage point of the ‘post’ post-colonial (as a temporal as well
as theoretical construction), successive authors look at specific instances and medi-
ations of Imperial Europe’s global ambition: the way poetry and fiction imagine
potential pasts, the way video and film redress the harm of history, the way prov-
enance and particularity complicate the politicisation of heritage. Drawing on
urban theory, art history, literary analysis, environmental humanities and linguis-
tics, the book is ambitious and wide-ranging, asking us what it is to live creatively
and critically with the residues of colonial appropriation and sedimentation while
in open dialogue with the subjects who still live in its wake.”
—Tamar Garb, Durning Lawrence Professor in History of Art,
University of College London, UK

“The attention of postcolonial studies has moved to decolonizing the colonial

archive: to the institutions that house objects, artworks, materials, even bodies culled
from the colonized world, to the corporations and universities that profited from
slavery and colonialism, and to the statues in the public sphere that even today com-
memorate the racist history of colonial plunderers. Reframing Postcolonial Studies
addresses the urgent issues that Black Lives Matter has raised with respect to every-
day material practices and the frameworks in which our knowledge and cultural heri-
tage are conceptualized and stored. The book points urgently to the many ways in
which our society must reinvent itself to enable equitable justice for all.”
—Robert J. C. Young, Julius Professor of English and Comparative Literature,
New York University, USA
 David D. Kim
Editor

Reframing
Postcolonial Studies
Concepts, Methodologies, Scholarly Activisms
Editor
David D. Kim
Department of European Languages
and Transcultural Studies
University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles, CA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-52725-9    ISBN 978-3-030-52726-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52726-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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To Our Teachers and Students,
Past, Present, and Emerging
 Acknowledgments

Reframing Postcolonial Studies is the product of an intensely collaborative

project, which has taken nearly three years to complete. It contains the
signatures of many different interlocutors whose contributions have been
invaluable for reframing the following discussions. First of all, I owe the
contributors my utmost gratitude. All of them were excited to join this
volume from the beginning. It has been an immense privilege to learn
from our regular exchanges both in person and via email. Second, I wish
to thank Megan Laddusaw, Christine Pardue, and Arun Prasath at Palgrave
Macmillan. Their prompt and thoughtful guidance throughout the edito-
rial process has been outstanding. I could not have asked for a more sup-
portive place to publish this book. Third, I had the fortune to receive
Viola Ardeni’s meticulous editorial assistance in the beginning of this proj-
ect. Last but not least, my sincere gratitude goes to the anonymous
reviewer whose encouraging and thought-provoking comments on the
book proposal and the final manuscript have enriched the book in both
profound and subtle ways. In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic
whose lasting devastation has yet to be assessed, acknowledging the
unwavering support of these colleagues surely has a new special mean-
ing for me.

May 2020 David D. Kim

vii
 Contents

1 Introduction: Action! On Reframing Postcolonial

Patrimony  1
David D. Kim

Part I Conceptual Vigilance  41

2 Unlocking the Future: Utopia and Postcolonial Literatures 43

Bill Ashcroft

3 On the Wings of the Gallic Cockerel: Ahmed Benyahia

and the Provenance of an Algerian Public Sculpture 69
Susan Slyomovics

4 Bibliodiversity: Denationalizing and Defrancophonizing

Francophonie 93
Dominic Thomas

Part II Hybrid Methodologies 111

5 Kinships of the Sea: Comparative History, Minor

Solidarity, and Transoceanic Empathy113
Emmanuel Bruno Jean-François

ix
x Contents

6 Re-charge: Postcolonial Studies and Energy Humanities135

Upamanyu Pablo Mukherjee

7 From Cecil Rhodes to Emmett Till: Postcolonial

Dilemmas in Visual Representation157
Afonso Dias Ramos

Part III Action-Based Scholarships 189

8 Research in Solidarity? Investigating Namibian-German

Memory Politics in the Aftermath of Colonial Genocide191
Reinhart Kössler

9 Postcolonial Activists and European Museums215

Katrin Sieg

10 Frantz Fanon in the Era of Black Lives Matter249

Frieda Ekotto

11 Afterword261
Graham Huggan

Index269
 Notes on Contributors

Bill Ashcroft is a renowned critic and theorist, a founding exponent of

postcolonial theory, and the co-author of The Empire Writes Back (1989),
the first text to offer a systematic examination of the field of postcolonial
studies. He is the author and co-author of 21 books and over 200
articles and chapters, variously translated into six languages. He also
serves on the editorial boards of ten international journals. His latest
work is Utopianism in Postcolonial Literatures (2016). He is an Emeritus
Professor at the University of New South Wales and a fellow of the
Australian Academy of the Humanities.
Frieda Ekotto is Lorna Goodison Collegiate Professor in the Departments
of Afroamerican and African Studies, Comparative Literature and
Francophone Studies at the University of Michigan. She is the author
of ten books, the most recent scholarly monograph being What Color
is Black? Race and Sex across the French Atlantic (2011). Her early
research traced interactions between philosophy, law, literature, and
African cinema, and she works on LGBT issues, with an emphasis on
West African cultures within Africa as well as in Europe and the
Americas. She received the Nicolàs Guillèn Prize for Philosophical
Literature in 2014 and the Benezet Award for excellence in her field
from Colorado College in 2015. In 2017, she co-produced the feature-­
length documentary Vibrancy of Silence: A Discussion with My Sisters,
which premiered at the University of Michigan. That year, she also received

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

an Honorary Degree from Colorado College and in 2018 was given the
Zagora International Film Festival of Sub-Sahara Award for her work in
African cinema.
Graham Huggan is Chair of Commonwealth and Postcolonial
Literatures in the School of English at the University of Leeds, UK. His
work straddles three fields: postcolonial studies, tourism studies, and envi-
ronmental humanities, and much of his research over the past three
decades has involved individual and collaborative attempts to cross the
disciplines (literary/cultural studies, anthropology, biology, geography,
history). His most recent published book is Colonialism, Culture, Whales:
The Cetacean Quartet (2018), and he is working on a co-written study
of modern British nature writing. Other publications include The
Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins (2001), Postcolonial
Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment (2010, co-authored with
Helen Tiffin), and the sole-edited Oxford Handbook of Postcolonial
Studies (2013).
Emmanuel Bruno Jean-François is Assistant Professor of French and
Francophone Studies, and Comparative Literature at Pennsylvania State
University. He is the author of Poétiques de la violence et récits francophones
contemporains (Poetics of Violence and Contemporary Francophone
Narrative, 2017). His articles have appeared in scholarly journals such as
the PMLA, the International Journal of Francophone Studies, Nouvelles
études francophones, and Lettres romanes. He has recently co-edited a spe-
cial issue of Contemporary French and Francophone Studies, titled “Mapping
Francophone Postcolonial Theory,” and a special issue of Cultural
Dynamics on “The Minor in Question.” Jean-François is working on
a second monograph, titled Indian Ocean Creolization: Empires and
Insular Cultures. It focuses primarily on contemporary literatures and
expressive cultures from the Mascarene Archipelago.
David D. Kim is an associate professor in the Department of European
Languages and Transcultural Studies at the University of California, Los
Angeles. He is the author of Cosmopolitan Parables: Memory and
Responsibility in Contemporary Germany (2017), as well as the co-editor
of Imagining Human Rights (2015), The Postcolonial World (2017),
Globalgeschichten der deutschen Literatur (2021), and Teaching German
Literature of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries (2023). His digi-
tal humanities project is called WorldLiterature@UCLA. He is working
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

on two major projects, one of which explores the notion of beastly

citizenship, the other Hannah Arendt’s relationship with non-Jewish
alterity. His research has been supported, among others, by the
American Council of Learned Societies.
Reinhart Kössler is a sociologist and former director of the Arnold-­
Bergstraesser-­Institut in Freiburg, Germany. He is also a professor in the
Department of Political Science at the University of Freiburg, as well as an
associate professor in the Department of Sociology at the Freiburg
University of Education. His research interests include theory of society,
sociology of global relations, institutional pluralism, and memory politics.
His regional focus is southern Africa where he has worked recently on
ethnicity and postcolonial reconciliation. Books include In search of sur-
vival and dignity. Two Traditional Communities in Southern Namibia
Under South African Rule (2005); The Long Aftermath of War.
Reconciliation and Transition in Namibia, ed. with A. du Pisani and
W. Lindeke (2011); Gesellschaft bei Marx, with Hanns Wienold (2013);
Namibia and Germany. Negotiating the Past (2015); Völkermord – und
was dann? Die Politik der deutsch-namibischen
Vergangenheitsbearbeitung (2017).
Upamanyu Pablo Mukherjee is Professor of English and Comparative
Literary Studies at the University of Warwick. His areas of research cover
from Victorian to imperial, colonial, and contemporary cultures, postco-
lonial theory, crime fiction, travel writing, comparative and world literary
systems, as well as environmental theory and literature. His publications
include, among others, Combined and Uneven Development: Towards a
New Theory of World-Literature (2015), Natural Disasters and Victorian
Imperial Culture: Fevers and Famines (2013), Postcolonial Environments:
Nature, Culture and Contemporary Indian Novel in English (2010), and
Crime and Empire: Representing India in the Nineteenth-Century (2003).
Afonso Dias Ramos is an Art Histories Fellow at the Forum
Transregionale Studien (2018–2019) in Berlin, Germany, affiliated with
the Freie Universität Berlin. He is investigating ongoing controversies
around colonial-era monuments and artworks worldwide. He received his
PhD in History of Art from University College London. He has previ-
ously studied at the Universidade Nova de Lisboa and the Université
Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV). He is the co-editor of Photography in Portuguese
Colonial Africa (2019). His articles have been published in journals
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

such as New Global Studies, Journal of Contemporary History, Object,

Lobby, The Burlington Magazine, and Oxford Art Journal.
Katrin Sieg is Graf Goltz Professor and Director of the BMW Center for
German and European Studies at Georgetown University where she is also
affiliated with the Department of German. She is the author of three
monographs on German and European theater, performance, cin-
ema, and popular culture. In addition, she has written articles in the
areas of feminist, postcolonial, and critical race studies. She is com-
pleting Decolonizing German and European History at the Museum,
forthcoming with the University of Michigan Press. Her book Ethnic
Drag: Performing Race, Nation, Sexuality in West Germany (2002) won
two prizes in theater studies.
Susan Slyomovics is a distinguished professor in the Departments of
Anthropology and Near Eastern Languages and Cultures at the University
of California, Los Angeles. Her publications include The Merchant of Art:
An Egyptian Hilali Epic Poet in Performance (1988); The Object of Memory:
Arab and Jew Narrate the Palestinian Village (1998); The Walled Arab
City in Literature, Architecture and History: The Living Medina in the
Maghrib (editor, 2001); The Performance of Human Rights in Morocco
(2005); Clifford Geertz in Morocco (editor, 2010); and How to Accept
German Reparations (2014). Her research project is on the fates of French
colonial statues and monuments in Algeria.
Dominic Thomas is Madeleine L. Letessier Professor and Chair of the
Department of European Languages and Transcultural Studies at the
University of California, Los Angeles. He is also “European Affairs
Commentator” for CNN. He is the author and editor of books, as well as
journals, on African and European culture, globalization, history, and
politics, including Black France (2007), Museums in Postcolonial Europe
(2010), La France noire (2011), Francophone Sub-­ Saharan African
Literature in Global Contexts (2011), Africa and France (2013), Racial
Advocacy in France (2013), Colonial Culture in France since the Revolution
(2014), Francophone Afropean Literatures (2014), Afroeuropean
Cartographies (2014), The Invention of Race (2014), The Charlie Hebdo
Events and Their Aftermath (2016), Vers la guerre des identités (Towards
the War of Identities, 2016), The Colonial Legacy in France (2017), Global
France, Global French (2017), Sexe, race et colonies (2018), and Visualizing
Empire (2020). He edits the Global African Voices series at Indiana
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

University Press, which focuses on translations of African literature into

English. He has also translated works by Aimé Césaire, Sony Labou Tansi,
Alain Mabanckou, Emmanuel Dongala, and Abdourahman Waberi. He
was elected to the Academy of Europe in 2015. He has held fellowships,
residencies, and visiting professorships in Australia, France, Germany,
Mali, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Still image from We Live in Silence Chapter One (Image
courtesy of Kudzanai Chiurai and Goodman Gallery) 7
Fig. 1.2 Still image from We Live in Silence Chapter Seven (Image
courtesy of Kudzanai Chiurai and Goodman Gallery) 7
Fig. 2.1 Palestine Postcard 1936 (1936) 55
Fig. 2.2 Amer Shomali, Visit Palestine (2009) 56
Fig. 2.3 Larissa Sansour, Nation Estate (2012) 58
Fig. 3.1 Photo of Youcef Zighoud, original sepia-toned, date unknown
(Wikipedia Commons) 73
Fig. 3.2 Statue of Youcef Zighoud, August 20, 1970, inauguration in
Constantine (Reproduced by permission of Ahmed Benyahia,
personal archives of Ahmed Benyahia) 74
Fig. 3.3 The war memorial of 1922, Constantine, Algeria Caption:
“Coq de la Victoire” (Photo Agence Jomone, Algiers, circa
1957, no. 105, author’s collection) 76
Fig. 3.4 Emptied plinth of the French war memorial
(Photograph by Ahmed Benyahia. Reproduced by permission
of Ahmed Benyahia) 86
Fig. 3.5 Zighoud Youcef statue in Constantine’s Martyr’s Cemetery,
February 2020 (Photograph by Ahmed Benyahia. Reproduced
by permission of Ahmed Benyahia) 87
Fig. 5.1 Nirveda Alleck, The Migrant’s Tale (2017) (Photograph by
Nirveda Alleck) 119
Fig. 9.1 TheExhibitionist.org website banner 234
Fig. 9.2 TheExhibitionist.org website banner 235

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction:
Action! On Reframing Postcolonial Patrimony

David D. Kim

…the newcomer possesses the capacity of beginning something

anew, that is, of acting.
—Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Arendt 1958, p. 9)
...the traditional material is transformed to fit a prevailing new
situation, or hitherto unnoticed or neglected potentialities inherent in that
material are discovered in the course of developing new patterns of action.
—Karl Mannheim, The Problem of Generations
(Mannheim 1952, p. 295)

Which understanding of our postcolonial patrimony is calling us to

action now?
At first glance, there appears to be an endless number of possible
answers to this momentous question, not least because it presupposes a
globally dispersed, heterogeneous “we” in solidarity. A straightforward
reply is also confounded because of the polarizing dispute that has arisen

D. D. Kim (*)
Department of European Languages and Transcultural Studies,
University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
e-mail: dkim@humnet.ucla.edu

© The Author(s) 2021 1

D. D. Kim (ed.), Reframing Postcolonial Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52726-6_1
2 D. D. KIM

in the field between Marxist “revolutionary” thinkers and poststructuralist

“revisionary” theorists (Huggan 2013). For these reasons alone, singling
out one received legacy on which our rich body of scholarships and their
responses to the world might converge seems impossible. And yet, a cer-
tain horizon of expectations and aspirations may be discernible after all,
one that distinguishes a critical renewal of tradition from a mere contesta-
tion of the old on some untrodden territory. Reframing Postcolonial
Studies has originated in a collective action to examine this prospect, as we
bear the weight of our intellectual inheritance at the onset of another piv-
otal decade for the future of common humanity.
Except for anthropological investigations and multidirectional intersec-
tions between Holocaust memory and decolonization, the matter of pat-
rimony has figured only peripherally in postcolonial studies. However, the
time is now to concentrate on this topic because it runs through the latest
major rearrangements of the field. Several developments account for this
sea change. With the natural progression of time, there is an allegedly self-­
evident reason in various parts of the world for bringing the process of
postcolonial detachment to an end once and for all. With the biological
succession of generations, various affective and ideological attachments to
the heritage of imperialism are being broken, destabilized, or reformed
not necessarily for the better. At the same time, a new generation of post-
colonial artists, writers, thinkers, and activists has come of age, contesting
such self-centered claims and differentiating itself from formative prede-
cessors—the ones credited with decolonization and, thereafter, with the
establishment of postcolonial studies—with a critical consciousness of
inheritance and legacy. What is reframing postcolonial studies today stems
from the conflict and solidarity in this acute “non-simultaneity”
(Ungleichzeitigkeit), as several generations respond similarly, differently,
and relationally to colonial fantasies and postcolonial resurrections (Bloch
1962, p. 104).1
Given the international and multidisciplinary scope of the field, it is
essential to understand to what extent this dynamic process mounts a
response to the most pressing concerns in the world, including racism,
sexism, nationalism, public health, inheritance, war, and sustainability. The
main task involves challenging the times, as they are dictated by oppressive
cultural, economic, political, and religious forces, and engendering alter-
native linkages of past, present, and future. Such transformative action is
only possible when scholars, teachers, students, activists, artists, writers,
and filmmakers recalibrate their vocabularies, which have been important
 1 INTRODUCTION: ACTION! ON REFRAMING POSTCOLONIAL PATRIMONY 3

for the field, in light of the latest postcolonial struggles. For this “concept-­
work” to be effective, they need to be invested in methodological innova-
tion and open up postcolonial criticism to incisive political activism (Stoler
2016, p. 17). Without such critical and creative coordination, postcolonial
inheritance would survive mostly as a self-absorbed academic discipline
without much worldly impact. That is the reason why this volume seeks to
close the loop by taking a fresh look at the three parts of contemporary
postcolonial studies: living concepts, cross-disciplinary methodologies,
and bold intersections of scholarship and activism. The following investi-
gations examine how they have recently changed through individual and
cooperative efforts to decolonize museums and public spaces marked by
colonial signposts, to cultivate community organization and transversal
affinity in times of political, ecological, and pandemic crises, and to redress
questions of reconciliation, reparation, repatriation, or retribution in pur-
suit of “a truly universal humanism” (Shih 2008, p. 1361).
To be sure, the force of “reconstructive intellectual labor” has been
transforming the field since the very beginning (Gilroy 1993, p. 45).2
With gripping references to Négritude intellectuals, other African, African
American, Indian, Australian, Canadian, and Caribbean writers, as well as
West European thinkers, the first generation of critics gave rise during the
1980s and early 1990s to postcolonial theory, which changed the aca-
demic landscape primarily in anglophone countries.3 The impetus behind
a second, more global postcolonial wave a decade later was again this inde-
fatigable sense of self-reflexivity, as more and more academics and activists,
discontent with “Europe” as “the sovereign, theoretical subject of all his-
tories,” shifted their focus from conceptual dichotomies, political imposi-
tions, and literary analyses to ambivalent translations, subversive
displacements, and material reconsiderations (Chakrabarty 1992, p. 1).4
After the field had become established first in departments of English, his-
tory, and comparative literature at North American, British, Indian, and
Australian universities, this subsequent wave reshuffled the field beyond its
concentric constellation by applying conceptual, methodological, and his-
torical findings to other cultural, disciplinary, linguistic, and national con-
texts, and by interrogating theoretical formulations with historical inquiries
into different places of alterity. In addition to scrutinizing analytic terms
whose “insight” was not deemed to travel “well across adjacent disciplines
and scholarly fields,” scholars, students, artists, and activists worked more
deliberately on non-Western, Indigenous, early modern, and minor
European ways of knowing (Scott 2005, p. 389). Their collective action,
4 D. D. KIM

enhanced by professional organizations, libraries, and other university-led

initiatives, interrogated “canonical knowledge systems”—even those
within the relatively young field—and fruitful results came directly from
far-reaching exchanges across “disciplinary boundaries and geographical
enclosures” between literary scholars, historians, and colleagues in neigh-
boring areas of study such as anthropology, geography, sociology, art his-
tory, gender, film, translation, performance and Holocaust studies, and,
more recently, international human rights, as well as environmental, digi-
tal, and urban humanities (Gandhi 1998, p. 42; Prakash 1995, p. 12).5
Roughly four decades in the making, then, the vibrant character and
diversity of postcolonial studies have been energized by a tireless spirit of
“reenactment” (Prakash 1995, p. 11). This reconstructive dynamism has
been instrumental in posing a strong opposition to skeptics who believe
that to live well in postmodernity is to bid farewell to postcolonial remains.6
With incisive investigations of archival conventions, governmental records,
photographs, paintings, films, maps, performances, memoires, travel-
ogues, letters, oral traditions, digital databases, and literary narratives,
postcolonial critics have kept their original spirit alive by revealing “inter-
related histories of violence, domination, inequality, and injustice,” as well
as “the hidden rhizomes of colonialism’s historical reach” beyond the
transitional period of independence, especially in the lives of women and
children, victims of war, racialized ethnic minorities, people with disabili-
ties, and working-class families (Young 2012, p. 20). Alarmed by “the
duress” with which imperial formations continue to accrue in postmoder-
nity, they reaffirm arguably the most foundational lesson in postcolonial
studies that the post in postcolonial is irreducible to a temporal marker
(Stoler 2016, p. 7).7 Having identified earlier blind spots in anglocentric
literary and historical approaches to colonialism, contemporary postcolo-
nial projects illuminate how heterogeneous and interconnected illiberal
democracies are at an international scale, and why these unequal societal
structures are built upon the ruins of past imperial regimes.8
More recently, this work has engaged a new generation of critics, art-
ists, and activists who draw upon the trailblazing oeuvres of anticolonial-
ism, the political imaginaries of the Bandung period, and later postcolonial
criticisms to reshape the world in tune with their own anxiety, courage,
hope, curiosity, enthusiasm, and grievance. They are exemplifying what
Hannah Arendt calls “action.” She argues that this capacity, which comes
with the status of being “newcomers and beginners,” is inherent to each
generation and connotes both the right and the ability “to take an
 1 INTRODUCTION: ACTION! ON REFRAMING POSTCOLONIAL PATRIMONY 5

initiative, to begin (as the Greek word archein, ‘to begin,’ ‘to lead,’ and
eventually ‘to rule,’ indicates), to set something into motion (which is the
original meaning of the Latin agere)” (Arendt 1958, p. 177).9 Although
Arendt falls short of specifying how this beginning owes itself to what
precedes it, it is useful here for conceptualizing how the lessons of past
colonial, decolonial, and postcolonial activities are being reframed in cur-
rently transformative debates and community-based organizations. A
combination of old and new action works up and down generational lines
to revitalize resilient, forward-looking initiatives in reparative justice.
Reframing Postcolonial Studies consists of carefully selected case studies
that shed light on this action. Written by scholars of different generations,
the eleven chapters show how, under contemporary historical conditions,
preceding models of creativity, scholarship, and activism offer indispens-
able points of orientation as well as frustrating limits. They interrogate
how current intellectual endeavors are informed by individual and
community-­based actions outside of the academy and they demonstrate to
what extent conceptual, methodological, and activist concerns are pivotal
for contemporary postcolonial interventions. As far as I know, Reframing
Postcolonial Studies is the first volume whose rationale is formulated in
such explicitly intergenerational, future-oriented terms.10 The tripartite
organization of this volume is applicable to any scholarly topic or academic
discipline, so long it seeks to intervene in the world, but as the contribu-
tors make clear in their individual and mutually resonating case studies,
conceptual vigilance, methodological deliberation, and scholarly activism
acquire new strengths when different generations come together to reflect
on their conjoined inheritance and legacy and take action in pursuit of a
more reassuring future. Instead of being content with the truism that
every generation wrestles with its inheritance and heritage, this compen-
dium illuminates without trying to be comprehensive how foundational
concepts, hybrid methodologies, and scholarly activisms are subjected to
renewed scrutiny in the latest communication between postcolonial
scholar-citizens.

Postcolonial Patriarchy, Inclusive Patrimony

Perhaps it is best to explain at this point the motivation behind the follow-
ing collaborative undertaking, as well as the value of its tripartite organiza-
tion. Several experiences and inspirations come to my mind, but one of
them stands out above all else because it hits closest to home, so to speak.
6 D. D. KIM

In the summer of 2019, my home institution—the University of California,

Los Angeles—celebrated its centennial and the rhetoric of honoring its
past accomplishments, both communal and academic, with the call for
charting an even bolder future during the next 100 years was pervasive on
campus. It was during this period of mostly self-congratulatory festivities
that the Fowler Museum, affiliated with the university, showcased a very
different example of what it meant to look back in order to move forward.
The museum was dedicated to exploring “global arts and cultures with
emphasis on Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Indigenous Americas” and,
during these hot dry months typical for southern California, it exhibited a
tripartite installation, titled Inheritance: Recent Video Art from Africa
(Fowler Museum 2020). One of the three artworks was called We Live in
Silence and it projected onto a large wall screen a 37-minute-long series of
seven “chapters” where mostly black actresses portrayed different stages of
modern African history (We Live in Silence n.d.).
Visitors were asked to sit down in a completely dark room on one of
two wooden benches whose tilted orientation toward the screen seemed
to transform the cinematic production into a church-like catacomb.
Indeed, what unfolded before their eyes was hardly reassuring. It was full
of contradictions, as things familiar and foreign, historical and fabricated,
grotesque and peaceful, religious and secular commingled, thereby refract-
ing the direction of what was commonly known about Africa’s moderniza-
tion or “development” and what European Enlightenment had prophesied
about modernity (Spivak 2018). Much of this estrangement in Bertolt
Brecht’s sense of Verfremdungseffekt came from the lead character—a
young black woman—who occasionally looked into the camera and
directly addressed the audience. The video captured her radical transfor-
mation, beginning with her violent, rape-like subjugation to white colo-
nial rule and Christianity (see Fig. 1.1), and ending with her splendid
coronation in an independent nation, as the rest of society was falling
apart (see Fig. 1.2).
The final chapter showed in slow motion how the black protagonist—
now a suit-wearing man—sat like an apathetic, narcissistic despot on a
throne in the middle of a long dining table, while young women dressed
in elegant black or white clothes were joining him in the festivity. They
were celebrating the beginning of a new political era. In the foreground,
though, the scene could not be any more different: a car was burning
upside down; a fanatic black pastor was blessing a small congregation of
Another random document with
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make a purer vegetable product. The substance has quite a large
field but it is not intimately connected with the packing business.
Cotton Seed Stearine.—This is a purchasable product and is
used at times as a substitute for oleo stearine.
Lard Oil.—The production of lard oil used in compounding
lubricating oils and illuminating oils is still carried on to some extent.
The process consists of graining the oils in graining tanks or in
seeding trucks similar to oleo oil graining trucks.
Pressing.—The lard cooled to a temperature of 40° F. is placed in
cloth wrapper arranged so that all oil is strained through the wrapper.
The solid substance contained in the wrapper is lard stearine used to
harden pure lard.

FIG. 158.—FILTER PRESS FOR LARD OR OLEO OIL.

Graining.—After the fats have been washed they should be drawn

into trucks or tierces and placed in a room where there is good
ventilation, and kept there for about two days, giving the acid fumes
an opportunity to pass off; the fat will then be found to be lowered to
about 80° F. and should then be removed to a room that is
refrigerated. After remaining in this temperature three or four days
the fats will be found to be crystallized, or grained, and of about the
temperature of the rooms. It is then ready to go to press.
Pressing Temperatures.—The usual pressing temperatures for
the several kinds of commodities pressed are as follows:

Tallow 58° to 65° F.

Prime steam lard 48° to 50° F.
Neatsfoot oil 45° to 48° F.

These and the temperature of the room, however, are subject to

variations.
No. 2 Lard Oil.—A lower quality of lard oil is made from hog
greases. These are made from condemned hogs, catch basin
skimmings and similar sources. The methods are similar to those
used for No. 1 lard oil, except that the former is treated as an edible
product and the latter as inedible.
The extracted stearine is sold or used for soap purposes.
Cold Test-Oil.—It is not customary to speak of any particular cold
test of cotton or grease oils; however, in case of pure lard oil,
pressed, it would have a cold test of about 42° F. Pure neatsfoot
would have a cold test of about 45° F. In case colder degree oils are
desired, either pure lard or neatsfoot, it would be necessary to make
the lard colder than above; as to neatsfoot oil, if it is desired to make
a 30° F. test, it would be best to make two pressings. First chill stock
to a temperature of 42° F., pressing it in a room at 45° F. and then
take the oil that is made in this way, refrigerating it in a room at 32° F.
and pressing it at a temperature of 32° F.
Treatment for Lard Grease.—Before pressing the low grade
greases it is necessary to wash with sulphuric acid to eliminate the
impurities, such as water, lime soaps, albuminous matters and
ordinary dirt. Shallow wooden vats are ordinarily used for this
purpose, the vats being of greater width than depth, as the acid
water settles best in a shallow receptacle. Where a comparatively
small amount of work is to be done an ordinary wooden vat made
out of good sound pine, with three-inch staves and well bolted
together, is all that is necessary, but where the work is continuous
these wooden vats should be lined with ten-ounce lead, as the acid
very soon destroys the vats.
Washing Methods.—The method of washing with the sulphuric
acid is as follows: Into the wooden or lead-lined vat run clear water
to the amount of about 10 to 15 per cent of the weight of the grease
to be treated, and when the water is in, add one per cent of sulphuric
acid to the fat to be washed, the acid to be 66-degree density. It is
important that the water be put in first, for if the acid is put into the
tank first and the water afterwards run in, an explosion is liable to
occur on account of the intense heat generated by the absorption of
the water by the acid. In case of an explosion the acid is liable to be
thrown on the attendants. After the water and acid have been mixed,
add grease, turn on steam and boil until the fat and acid show clear;
at first it will be muddy or cloudy. Usually a boiling of twenty to thirty
minutes is sufficient. This work should be done on the top floor of the
building, or some place where there is ample room for the escape of
the vapor, as the fumes of the acid are very strong and are injurious
to the building. After the boiling is finished, allow the tank to settle
ten to twelve hours, draw off the acid water from the bottom, and if
the same is clear and clean it shows that the fat had little foreign
substance and the solution can be used over again. If it shows a
great deal of foreign matter in the solution it should be run away.
All pipes leading from such treating vats should be of lead. It is
also necessary that the pipes in the vats be of perforated lead coils,
as iron pipes would very soon be destroyed.
Filtration.—At times, for bleaching purposes, and especially on low
grade greases, it is usual to refine and bleach the oil. The amount of
fullers earth to be used in filtering depends upon the condition of the
oil to be filtered. With prime steam lard no fullers earth should be
used; it is simply filtered through clean press cloths. In the case of
lard oils and tallow oils, the color of the oil desired must also
determine the amount of fullers earth to be used, no set rule as to
the amount to be used in every case being practicable.
Every manufacturer of these different grades of oils has his own
grades and standards established, to which the lard refiners usually
work, and the amount of bleaching, etc., which is necessary for each
individual lot should be governed by the knowledge of the operator,
rather than by any set rules.
In the pressing of these articles the oils generally run from 40 to 52
per cent of stock, the balance being stearine, the percentage of oil
obtained varying according to the temperature at which it is pressed,
and according to the relative market prices for oils and stearines.
 CHAPTER XXIV.
SMOKE HOUSE
Smoking Meats — Nomenclature — Soaking — Smoking — Gas Smoking —
Temperatures — Treatment After Smoking — Trolley System —
Canvased Meats — Shrinkage — Wrapping — White Wash — Dried Beef
— Packages — Skipper Fly.

Smoking Meats.—The smoking of meats is an ancient method of

preserving for future use. In the smoking process which drys the
meat and to some extent impregnates it, a preservative result is
brought about, and meats which are smoked can be carried for quite
a long period of time without becoming unfit for food. Notably a
Virginia ham. The old style developed in Virginia was to smoke the
ham for a month or six weeks. The ham, dried to about 75 per cent
of its original weight and in this form hung in a moderately dry place,
would be edible at the end of twelve months.
Nomenclature.—The naming of meats has grown up among the
trade and it is understood that the prefix, “bacon,” as applied to
meats indicated the same to be dry salted, when smoked. Whereas,
when used as a suffix it indicates a sweet pickled cure. For example,
“Bacon Bellies” means dry salted, smoked bellies; while “Breakfast
Bacon” means sweet pickle cured, smoked meats.
Soaking Meats.—Before meats are placed in the smoke house,
they are soaked in fresh water. This is done to remove the surplus
salt, making the meat more palatable; and to give it a better
appearance. If it is not properly soaked the salt forms a white crust
on the surface. Meat over-soaked becomes “water-logged” and often
becomes water-sour when exposed to the heat for smoking, also
moulds quickly after smoking, hence it is essential that this part of
the work receives careful attention.
The best results from soaking are obtained by using soaking water
at a temperature of 65° F. A soaking schedule that will be found to
give excellent results is as follows:

THE TIME REQUIRED TO SOAK MEATS.

Hams at full cured age
Bellies, 8-10 lbs., 20 days
Bellies, 10-12 lbs., 25 days
Bellies, 12-16 lbs., 30 days
Dry salt meats
2 hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
1¹⁄₂ hrs. (3 min. for each day older)
¹⁄₂ hrs. (except bellies, two hours)

If meats still show salt after smoking change water once, as the
fresh water will take up salt rapidly. It will be found better to change
water than to soak longer. Mildly cured bacon is washed to remove
salt on surface, and not soaked. Thorough washing of all meats with
a stiff brush is done before hanging. “Bacon” or dry salted meat is
not soaked.
Smoking.—After the meats are washed and hung in the smoke
house, they should be allowed to dry about three hours, or until they
stop dripping, for if the smoke is applied while the meats are still
dripping, wherever one piece of meat is subjected to the dripping of
another, the smoke fails to take effect, giving the meats a striped and
discolored appearance. The meat, thoroughly dry, fire should be built
in the smoke house with either hickory, maple or oak wood (partially
green being preferred) and the temperature brought up from 112° to
118° F., and maintained until the surface of the meat has become
thoroughly dried and has a partially glazed appearance. As soon as
this effect is noticed, which will be in five to eight hours, hardwood
sawdust should be added, which will form a dense, penetrating
smoke. At the same time the temperature should be gradually
increased in the smoke house, or brought up to from 115° to 120° F.
A pile of sawdust, quantity depending upon the size of the smoke
house used, should be raised in the center of the house and a few
burning brands of wood laid around it. These will cause the sawdust
to ignite and a small fire, producing a great deal of smoke, will result
therefrom. If the sawdust is put on a fire already burning much of the
sawdust will go up through the house in the form of a light ash, which
is deposited upon the meat, injuring its appearance.
A house of sweet-pickle meats should be smoked for about
twenty-four to thirty hours, to get good results, and be allowed to
stand for twelve hours with the ventilators open, to give the meat a
chance to thoroughly cool off before discharging.
Gas Smoking.—The growing scarcity and consequent increased
cost of wood is forcing many packers to use gas and sawdust for
smoking. With this system the use of sawdust and gas is made in
combination, the gas being burned by slow delivery through a
perforated pipe, and the sawdust banked nearby to burn with a
creeping fire. The use of steam coils for heating the house is a
valuable assistance particularly if exhaust steam is available for use.
Temperatures.—The following temperatures will be found to give
very satisfactory results in smoking and while it will be found
impossible to adhere to them absolutely, it is advisable to do so as
closely as possible during the smoking period:

3 hours in smoke 107° F.

6 hours in smoke 114° F.
9 hours in smoke 116° F.
12 hours in smoke 118° F.
15 hours in smoke 119° F.
18 hours in smoke 118° F.
21 hours in smoke 120° F.
24 hours in smoke 118° F.
27 hours in smoke 119° F.
30 hours in smoke 115° F.

It should be the aim to have the house at a temperature of 118° F.

after twelve hours, and it should be held at that if possible. Meats
thus handled will be found to have a light amber color which
indicates a light smoke, whereas a dark amber would indicate a
heavy smoke. The color of the meats should be regulated by the
requirements of the trade. Lighter meats, such as fancy bacon,
should be hung on the upper floors with the hams nearer the fire.
Treatment After Smoking.—When meats are finished smoking
the fire should be put out, the house opened up, giving it a free
circulation of air, and the meats allowed to thoroughly dry and cool
before being removed. Smoked meats should be handled as little as
possible, for every time they are handled or piled on trucks, it
detracts from their appearance. They become greasy and soon lose
their bright, attractive appearance. After being cooled, the meat
should not be handled until inspected and packed for shipment,
thereby preserving a very desirable appearance, as well as reducing
the cost of labor in operation.
Trolley System.—Originally meats were hung from nails in beams
or from cross sticks suspended from beams, the smoke house being
an open shaft. Many devices have been originated for saving time in
taking meats in and out of smoke, and various forms of racks
operated on overhead rails have been devised. Some sort of
arrangement of this kind is a necessity.
A trolley storage space is usually arranged near to the packing
space and meats packed direct from the trolley. It is usual to make a
complete inspection out of smoke and pass the hams to the storage
trolley, graded, wiped and ready for packing.
Canvased Meats from Weight.—Canvased meats are usually
sold on packed weight, cloth included. The gain in weight usually
pays for all cost involved and somewhat better, as the test below
indicates:

CANVASING 1,031 HAMS.

325 yards sheeting at 4⁷⁄₈c $15.84
3³⁄₄ yards Andover twine at 30c 1.12
274 yards paper at 1³⁄₄c 4.32
One man three hours at 17¹⁄₂c per hour .52
Sewing at $1.10 11.34
Cost of canvasing $33.14
445 pounds wash at 2.1c $ 9.34
1,031 labels at $1 per 1,000 1.03
Eight men two hours twenty-eight min., seven men thirty-five 4.11 $14.48
min.
Total actual cost $47.62
Weight before canvasing 10,550 lbs.
Weight after canvasing 11,041 lbs.
Weight after washing 11,486 lbs.

It will be noted from the previous test that there was a gain of 936
pounds in canvasing these hams, at a cost of $5.09 per 100 pounds.
As hams always sell at a much higher price than this, the difference
would represent the profit in this operation.
Shrinkage.—Shrinkage of smoked meats is a matter tangible in
dollars and cents. Meats for prompt consumption, such as those
smoked and distributed from a branch house, can be smoked for
less than meats smoked at the parent house for shipment via
carload or local freight.
The aim is to smoke out the meat as near green weights as
possible, the amount of shrinkage depending largely upon the
requirements at points to which meats are to be shipped and the
conditions to which they are to be subjected. For instance, hams and
shoulders which are to be used for immediate consumption should
smoke out 98¹⁄₂ to 100 per cent green weight, whereas meats which
are to be held for some length of time after being smoked, or which
are intended for a warmer climate, will smoke out from 95 to 97 per
cent of the green weight.
Meats, which are to be consumed immediately and not shipped to
a warm climate, may carry more moisture and hence show less
shrinkage. At the same time they have a much finer and more
attractive appearance. This is a matter to which an owner or
manager of a smoke house must necessarily give minute and close
attention in order to obtain the best results. Perhaps as important a
point as any, is when the condition of the meats as to dryness is
concerned. Meats should be shipped promptly when in condition and
not allowed to remain in the smoke house awaiting disposition.
The following table shows the result of tests on 1,136 pounds of
meat hung in smoke house for seven consecutive days, temperature
of smoke house about 90° F.
 Lbs.
Weight when fully smoked 1,136
24 hours later 1,129
24 hours later 1,121
24 hours later 1,114
24 hours later 1,108
24 hours later 1,105
24 hours later 1,100
Thirty-six pounds shrinkage
in seven days’ hanging.

Wrapping Smoked Meats.—Fancy meats, now almost entirely

distributed in wrappers of paper or cloth, should be well cooled
before wrapping. A piece of cheese cloth is wrapped over the butt,
and absorptive paper folded next, usually doubled at the butt, with an
outer covering of parchment paper. The neatness and appearance of
the package must be considered and naturally the package should
be kept clean.
For some trade, meats are sewn in burlap. Others are covered
with whitewash solution, or yellow wash. Meats put out in such
manner are usually intended for distant shipment and should be
harder smoked. Canvassed or white-washed meats are paper
wrapped, same as fancy meats, before covering with the outer bag.
White-Wash.—The following recipe can be used for making white-
wash:

1,200 pounds floated barytes.

90 pounds flour.
140 pounds water.
63 pounds white ham wash glue.
1 teaspoon blueing.

The glue should be cooked and strained through a piece of cloth

before being added to the solution, as there is liable to be more or
less sediment in the glue, which should be removed, after which mix
with the flour; let stand about twelve hours, then add the barytes,
using hot water in mixing. After it is mixed add the blueing.
 This material should be put in a tub, held at a temperature of 90°
to 100° F., into which the canvassed meats are to be immersed. After
being dipped they are hung up over the tub while an attendant rubs
his hand over them, taking off the surplus material which has
adhered to the package, and at the same time forcing the wash into
the openings of the cloth. They should next be brushed over with a
heavy paint brush, smoothing off the surface, and then hung in a dry-
room to dry. After being allowed to hang for eight to ten hours, until
the wash is thoroughly dry and has hardened, they are ready for
shipment.
Yellow Wash for Meat Canvas.—This is practically the same as
white wash, except that a chrome yellow color is used, and the
mixture will have a yellow instead of a white shade when finished.
Handle same as white wash for meats. A formula for yellow wash is
given as follows:

1,200 pounds floated barytes.

210 pounds whiting.
195 pounds water.
114 pounds lemon yellow.
35 pounds joiner’s glue.

This is used at a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. As all meats

canvassed are sold gross weight, the barytes is added to give an
additional weight to the meats which are canvassed.
A dry room in which meats can be dried by forced draft from fan is
a valuable adjunct for quick deliveries.
Smoking Dried Beef.—Dried beef is an article which has to be
smoked heavier, dried more, than pork hams, and unless the
moisture is well evaporated the time it may be kept will be short. An
approved method for handling dried beef is as follows:
Steam coils should be placed at the top and also at the bottom of
the smoke house. The steam should be turned on until the
temperature of house is between 130° and 140° F. After the meat
has hung in this temperature about thirty hours, a light fire should be
started, by using two or three sticks of wood, and plenty of hard
wood sawdust scattered close to the fire, so as to form a dense
smoke. It is very essential that dried beef should have a strong
smoked flavor. Steam should be kept on the house all the time the
beef is being smoked and it will require eighty to ninety hours under
these conditions to bring the beef out in the best condition.
Beef can be smoked in a regular house, but it takes much longer
and it cannot be handled as satisfactorily as with steam heat in
connection with the smoking process.
After the meat is sufficiently smoked the house should be allowed
to cool off, and the meat to hang for about twenty-four hours before
being handled. It is then ready for packing and shipping. Dried beef
thus handled will shrink about 38 to 33 per cent from the cured
weight to the smoked weight.
The following test will show the shrinkage on 100 pieces of dried
beef hams, also the shrinkage each twenty-four hours after:

SHRINKAGE ON DRIED BEEF.

100 pieces, cellar weight 1,184 lbs.
After smoking 85 hours 812 lbs.
24 hours later 806 lbs.
24 hours later 793 lbs.
24 hours later 781 lbs.
24 hours later 762 lbs.
24 hours later 755 lbs.
24 hours later 750 lbs.

Packages.—The packing of meats for shipment is best done in

open type barrels or crates. Fancy meats should not be packed to
exceed one hundred pounds per box so as not to injure the shape.
Skipper Fly.—The skipper, the larvae in the life cycle of a fly is the
one pest needing close watching in a smoke house. This fly does not
attack either green or salted meats, but will select a piece of pork
ham in preference to a beef ham. The fly lays an egg which hatches
to a larvae, and this is the disgusting form in which it is the enemy of
sweet-smoked meats.
The preventive seems to be such as windows and doors finely
screened, regular “gassing” with sulphur fumes and ample light. It is
claimed by some that if smoke houses are well lighted, for instance
as a show room, the skipper fly will not frequent them since it prefers
darkness for the egg laying period.
There is no known chemical agent that can be used without
conflicting with pure food laws that will destroy the egg once
deposited. A fly lays upward of thirty eggs during the life cycle of
about two weeks, consequently it multiplies rapidly.
 CHAPTER XXV.
DOMESTIC SAUSAGE
Meats and Handling — Arrangement of Department — Curing Meats —
Cooler for Ground Meats — Grinding and Stuffing Room — Smoke
House — Cook Room — Dry Hanging Room — Cooler — Smoking
Temperature — Cooking Time — Shrinkages — Pickle-Cured Products
— Dry-Cured Meats — Packing — Casings and Spices — Sausage
Cereals — Sausage Formulas — Bologna Varnish — Boiled Ham.

Introductory.—There is probably no department where there is

more diversity of methods than in the sausage room. The business
of sausage making is an old one, and was largely developed in
Europe, where on account of the low wages and the high prices for
meats it was necessary to make the cheaper meat products into an
edible article. The gradually increasing value of meats in the United
States makes the same conditions paramount.
In the operation of packing houses the cutting of meats into many
parts so as to supply the various purchasers with what they require,
makes a comparatively large amount of wholesome meat product,
equally nutritious with porter house steak, but not quite so tender or
pleasing to the taste. Cheek meat, hearts and various trimmings are
wholesome as a porterhouse, but not so delectable, at least, in their
original condition; hence, the art of sausage making consists in
taking these products and making from them a palatable, wholesome
and less costly article.
Meats and Handling.—Sausage is made in such varieties that
there are a multitude of ingredients in a multitude of forms. Primarily
beef and pork trimmings are the broad classes, but of these there
are many forms, each of different physical properties. Hearts and
cheeks are, for example, the toughest part of the animal organism,
and these usually find their way to the sausage room. On the other
hand the parts of hams and shoulders used are equally delicate with
the meats so conserved, but are of necessity relegated to the
sausage room on account of their shape as a trimming. It is the
skillful manipulation of these various meats that makes for the real
results in this department. Too frequently, the sausage department is
regarded as a necessity, like the tank house, to put things through.
The most successful operators are those who regard the department
otherwise, and many good and successful businesses have been
builded on the sausage department as a basis; not by trying to make
sausage to retail at five cents per pound, extravagantly speaking.
Arrangement of Department.—This department becomes quite
comprehensive in its scope in large establishments requiring:
Refrigerated space for curing fresh meats.
Cooler for curing meats after ground.
Grinding and stuffing room.
Smoke houses.
Cook room.
Dry hanging room for smoked sausage.
Cooler for sausage other than smoked sausage.

Curing Meats.—In certain sausages cured meats are a necessity,

in others they can be used without detriment, while there still remain
others in which cured meats are positively bad. Therefore exactly
how to handle the meats so as to have them available for use in
proper form becomes a matter of concern. Formerly when
preservatives, like borax and boracic acid could be used, many
products were put into cure with a preservative of saltpetre, borax,
boracic acid, sugar and salt, and kept sufficiently mild to be
acceptable, but the pure food laws abolishing the use of
preservatives have changed conditions. The result is that sausage
products should be cured like hams and frozen when cured or frozen
before curing and carried in this form until wanted. However, quite a
large space should be provided near the sausage department for
curing products.
Cooler for Ground Meats.
—In close proximity to the sausage room is provided a shelving
room arranged for placing ground fresh spiced meats for curing
processes; spiced completely and ready for stuffing. Meats can be
held in this manner and stuffed, smoked, cooked and packed rapidly
as the exigencies of shipping demand. This enables the maker to
shorten the time between himself and the consumer, most necessary
for a successful business.
Grinding and Stuffing Room.—This should be a well lighted and
well ventilated room. Here the grinding equipment and stuffing tables
are located. The principal equipment needed are “Enterprise” type
grinders, silent cutters, mixer and back fat choppers, with a spice
mill.

FIG. 159.—DEVICE FOR RUNNING SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE.

Mechanical cutters are expected to be an aid to teeth and

therefore they should be made to perform their part by being fitted
with sharp knives to do the cutting. Choppers are only necessary in
making summer sausage although some manufacturers prefer to
rock their fancy breakfast sausage.
Smoke Houses.—The management of sausage smoke houses
for ordinary sausage vary considerably. Figs. 159 and 160 with
description illustrate one of the sliding carriage types. The smoke
house carriage is made of angle irons and is run on a track which is
supported by vertical columns. The outside tracks can be raised to
any height desired to match the tracks in the smoke house. The
sausage is hung on this carriage and run into the smoke house, and
when it is sufficiently smoked the carriage can be drawn out on the
movable rails, the sausages taken off, others put in their place and
the operation repeated.
This device necessitates a carriage for each set of tracks in the
smoke house. Later practice tends toward the use of some sort of
cage—operated from overhead rails; the sausage department being
arranged with rails near to the stuffing tables. Extending to the
smoke houses, thence to the cook boxes and on to the hanging
rooms. This arrangement is so familiar that it does not require further
description. The tracks are made in such form and size as to fit the
houses and usually conform to one of the types illustrated.

FIG. 160.—DETAIL OF SMOKE HOUSE CARRIAGE.

The modern houses are built of brick, about 54 inches in width,

which will allow, clear of the frame, two to four inches. In depth the
houses vary and can be from ten to sixteen feet. Where possible,
they should be built on a corresponding level to the cook rooms and
grinding rooms, so as to avoid the necessity of using elevators. This
brings the fire pit within a reasonable distance, which is a decided
advantage for high temperature smoke houses.
Smoke house compartments for summer or dried sausage can be
from two to three stories and should be built exclusively of brick, as it
has been shown by numerous experiments with sheet iron and iron
lined houses that these are not a success for smoking all kinds of
sausage. The draft of the house is, of course, regulated by
ventilators at the top.
Better results are obtained by the use of tin clad wood center
doors than by the use of plate iron doors.
FIG. 161.—DIAGRAM SMOKE HOUSE SAUSAGE STACK.
 In smoking domestic sausage, it is always preferable to use hard
wood, never to put green or unsmoked sausage into a cold smoke
house, the house should be warmed by first building a fire in it, in
case it has not been recently used. In hot weather or in the summer
time this is not so important, as smoke houses then are sufficiently
warm at all times. In cool weather or during the winter, the smoke
house should either be kept warm by constant usage or by warming
up before using in case the house is empty and has become cold.
The fire should not be over eight feet from the cage.
Cooking Time.—To successfully manufacture sausage it should
be cooked properly. The following schedule gives the time and
temperature of cooking different kinds of sausage, forming the
“Cooking Schedule” referred to in many of the foregoing formulas:

COOKING SCHEDULE FOR SAUSAGE.

Temperature
Time Time degrees
Kind of sausage hours minutes Fahrenheit
Long Bologna ... 30 160
Large Bologna 2 ... 160
Round Bologna ... 20 155
Bag Bologna 2 ... 160
Bologna in weasands ... 45 155
Knoblauch ... 20 160
Leona Bologna long ... 40 155
Leona Bologna large 2 ... 160
Regular Frankfurts ... 7 160
Vienna Frankfurts ... 7 160
High grade Frankfurts ... 7 160
Blood 2 ... 200
Tongue 2 ... 200
Liver ... 30 160
Minced ham 4 ... 150
Berlin ham 2 ... 170
Head cheese ... 45 180
Cooked pressed ham 2 30 180