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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13
Preface
F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

edition, was written to provide students from any aca
demic major with a basic knowledge of Earth’s natural features
Features
Comprehensive View
and the processes that affect them. The book also considers
human impacts on the environment and how environmental
of the Earth System
processes affect people. The essential content of introductory Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, introduces
physical geography is presented in a clear, condensed style and all major aspects of the Earth system, identifying physical phe
is an excellent format for courses that follow either the semes nomena and natural processes and stressing their characteris
ter or quarter system. tics, relationships, interactions, and distributions. The text cov
Earth is a complex system driven by interactions among ers a wide range of topics, including weather, climate, the
many factors that include climate, weather and the atmo atmosphere, water, the solid Earth, landforms, and our planet’s
sphere, organisms and their communities, water, landforms, living environments. With only 17 chapters, this textbook pro
and soils. Physical geography concerns understanding Earth vides beginning geography students with a thorough introduc
as an integrated system, how it functions, and how it varies tion to the essential content of physical geography.
over space and time. This knowledge is crucial for making
informed decisions about the use and preservation of Earth’s
natural environments and resources. Our interactions with
Engaging Graphics
the environment can benefit or endanger our own living Because studying geography is enhanced with visual aids, the
conditions as well those of future generations. The more we text includes a wide array of illustrations and photographs that
know about the Earth system and how it operates, the more help the concepts come alive. Locator maps accompany
effective we can be in working toward preservation, steward selected photographs to provide a spatial context and help stu
ship, and sustainability. At the college level, physical geogra dents identify the feature’s location on Earth. Clear and simple
phy is an ideal science course for students who would like to diagrams illuminate important concepts, and environmental
make informed decisions that consider environmental limits system illustrations provide a broad view of the features,
and possibilities as well as people’s wants and needs. inputs, and outputs of certain environmental systems, such as
Recognition of geography’s importance to society as a storms, glaciers, rivers, the flow of underground water, or the
major field of inquiry has grown along with environmental moving of continents by plate tectonics.
awareness. Geographic knowledge, skills, and techniques are
increasingly valued in the workplace. Physical geographers use Clear Explanations
the latest technological advances to observe, study, map, and
measure features and processes and their interactions as parts The text uses a clear narrative style to explain the processes,
of the Earth system. They work on modeling environmental physical features, and events that occur within, on, or above
responses and interactions. Physical geographers analyze digi Earth’s surface. The writing style, examples, and illustrations
tal images from satellites and aircraft and employ mapmaking facilitate rapid comprehension, making the study of physical
techniques (cartography), geographic information science geography meaningful and enjoyable.
(GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), and other tools for
environmental analysis and problem solving. Introduction to the
Fundamentals of Physical Geography’s focus on relevance
is supported by explanations of geographic tools and meth
Geographer’s Tools
ods. Practical applications that use geographic data, maps, Digital technologies have revolutionized our abilities to study
and satellite images, and numerous landscape photographs Earth’s natural processes and environments. A full chapter is
that illustrate important themes and examples are provided devoted to maps, digital imagery, and other data used by geo
in the textbook. Related activities along with the text mate graphers. Illustrations throughout include maps and images
rial encourage spatial thinking and give students opportu with descriptions and assessments of the environmental attri
nities to really apply the geographic knowledge they are butes shown in the scenes. There are also introductory discus
acquiring. sions of many techniques that geographers use for displaying
vii
viii Preface
and analyzing environmental features and processes, including ways of communicating those findings are continually being
remote sensing, geographic information systems, cartography, developed, and we work to incorporate those that are appro
and global positioning systems. priate for an introductory text.
Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

The text encourages students to think, conceptualize, hypoth As authors, we seek to include coverage of physical geographic
esize, and interact with the subject matter of physical geogra topics that will spark student interest. This involves relating recent
phy. Activities at the end of each chapter can be completed environmental concerns, findings, and natural disasters, examin
either individually or as a group and were designed to engage ing the conditions that led to those events, and explaining their
students and promote active learning. Review questions rein relation to physical geography. Some examples of recent natural
force concepts and prepare students for exams; practical appli disasters include deadly outbreaks of tornadoes; terrible wildfires
cation assignments require active solutions, such as sketching a in Colorado, California, and Texas; and serious drought or flood
diagram, performing calculations, or exploring geographic fea ing in many areas. The devastating earthquake-generated tsuna
tures using Google Earth. Questions following many figure mis in Japan and South Asia, as well as hurricane and storm dam
captions prompt students to either think beyond or use the age in the United States, continue to be discussed in terms of
map, graph, diagram, or image and give further consideration human impacts and how to avoid, or at least minimize, such
to the aspect presented. Detailed learning objectives at the tragic events in the future. Throughout the text, we cover the haz
beginning of the chapters provide a means for assessing com ards as well as the beauty of Earth’s natural processes.
prehension of the material. We continue to take an Earth systems approach, which is
reinforced throughout the text with examples and illustrations
at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. The concept of scale
Three Unique Perspectives in atmospheric processes has been given a stronger emphasis
Feature boxes appear in the chapters to illustrate three major than in the first edition. More attention is given to unusual
scientific perspectives of physical geography. Through a spa- weather conditions, and sections on the greenhouse effect and
tial perspective, physical geography focuses on understanding global climate change have been expanded. We have enhanced
and explaining the locations and distributions of natural phe discussions of the potential and predicted impacts of global
nomena. Our discipline also uses a physical science perspec- warming on multiple aspects of the Earth system, including
tive, which applies the knowledge and methods of the natural glaciers and sea level.
and physical sciences using the scientific method and systems Many other sections contain new or expanded material.
analysis. Through an environmental perspective, physical These include examples of human interactions with the envi
geographers consider impacts, influences, and interactions ronment (Chapter 1); a new topographic map interpretation
between human and natural components of the environment, exercise and an example of mapping with lasers, called lidar
that is, how the environment influences human life and how (Chapter 2); using solar energy (Chapter 3); the urban heat
humans affect the environment. island (Chapter 4); upper air circulation (Chapter 5); tornado
chasers (Chapter 6); introduced exotic species, such as Bur
mese pythons (Chapter 9); measurement of seismic waves
Map Interpretation Series (Chapter 10); a new topographic map interpretation exercise
Developing map interpretation skills is a priority in physical on volcanic landforms (Chapter 11); sensitive soils and the
geography, and this text includes activities based on full-color interplay of people and slope processes (Chapter 12); the
maps, generally printed at their original scale. These activities nature of springs (Chapter 13); flood hazards (Chapter 14);
help students develop valuable map-reading skills and rein differences between humid- and arid-region streams (Chapter
force the topical material presented. The map interpretation 15); recent dramatic changes in glaciers (Chapter 16); and tsu
features can be incorporated into lab activities and they can namis and changes in global sea level (Chapter 17).
help link lectures to the textbook and to practical applications.
These include end of chapter topographic map and image
examples and the weather map interpretation.
Enhanced Illustration Program
Topics that were revised or expanded required including many
new figures and updating others, including photographs, satel
New in This Edition lite images, and maps, often with detailed invitations for inter
Revising Fundamentals of Physical Geography for a second edi pretation by students. This edition has many new or improved
tion involved thoughtful consideration of the input from graphs, maps, and diagrams, and about 150 new photographs.
many reviewers and adopters. Not only is our planet ever- Three new activities in the Map Interpretation series deal
changing, but so are the many ways that we observe, measure, with reading topographic maps (Chapter 2), a comparative
and analyze Earth’s characteristics and environments and the analysis of weather maps and corresponding satellite images
processes that affect them. New scientific findings and new (Chapter 4), and volcanic terrain (Chapter 11).
Preface ix
New Features To Integrate the Illustrations

with the Written Text
Understanding Map Content
The photographs, maps, aerial and satellite images, scientific
Thematic maps have the ability to present a great deal of visualizations, block diagrams, graphs, and line drawings
geographic data in graphic form. The goal of the Under- clearly illustrate important concepts in physical geography.
standing Map Content is to help students understand the Text discussions are strongly linked to the illustrations,
information, geographic/spatial representations, and data encouraging students to examine them in graphic form and
presented in thematic maps. Students are encouraged to visualize physical processes and phenomena. Some examples of
answer questions based on map content. This opportunity topics that are clearly explained by integrating visuals and text
for practice will increase students’ appreciation for the include map and image interpretation (Chapter 2), the seasons
amount of useful information contained in a thematic map and Earth’s energy budget (Chapter 3), wind systems (Chapter
and enhance their ability to analyze and comprehend the 4), storms (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9), plate tectonics
geographic data and spatial relationships presented within (Chapter 10), river systems (Chapter 14), glaciers (Chapter 16),
thematic maps. These activities encourage true map under and coastal processes (Chapter 17).
standing and illustrate the usefulness of map interpretation
skills not only for studying geography but also throughout
our daily lives. To Communicate the Nature
of Geography
Thinking Geographically The nature of physical geography and its three major scientific
Most chapters dealing with Earth surface processes and land perspectives (spatial, physical, and environmental) are dis
forms include map activities in the Map Interpretation series. cussed in Chapter 1. In subsequent chapters, all three perspec
These continue in this edition with full-size topographic map tives are stressed. For example, location is a dominant topic in
excerpts presented at the end of the chapters on volcanoes, Chapter 2 and remains an important theme throughout the
solutional topography (karst), rivers, desert landforms, gla text. Spatial distributions are emphasized as the elements of
ciers, and coasts. These chapters also include new landscape weather and climate are discussed in Chapters 4 through 6.
image interpretation activities in the Thinking Geographi- The changing Earth system is a central focus in the text and
cally series. Students are asked to interpret a landscape image, featured in Chapters 1, 8, 16, and 17. Characteristics of climate
which features a scene related to the chapter content. These regions and their associated environments are presented in
offer practice in looking closely at and visually evaluating a Chapters 7 and 8. Spatial interactions are demonstrated in dis
landscape to recognize the geographic features present, inter cussions of weather systems (Chapter 6), soils (Chapter 9),
pret their significance, assess how they may be related, and and volcanic and tectonic activity (Chapter 11). Karst (Chapter
think about how the landforms and landscapes developed. 13), arid (Chapter 15), glacial (Chapter 16), and coastal (Chap
ter 17) landforms covary with specific environmental variables,
such as soluble rock (karst), past or present climates (karst,
arid, glacial), or the interface of land, sea, and air (coastal).
Fundamentals of Feature boxes in every chapter present interesting and impor
Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.
Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

To Meet the Academic Needs of Introductory Physical Science
of the Student Courses
In content and style, Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Sec Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, offers a full
ond Edition, was written specifically to meet the needs of stu chapter on the scientific tools and methodologies of physical
dents, the end users of this textbook. Students can use the geography. Earth as a system and the natural processes affecting
knowledge and understanding obtained through the text and physical phenomena beneath, at, and above Earth’s surface are
its activities to help them make informed decisions involving examined in detail. Use of the scientific method and scientific
the environment at the local, regional, and global scale. The explanations are stressed. End-of-chapter questions include
book also considers the needs of beginning students or those interpreting graphs of environmental data (or graphing data for
with little or no background in the study of physical geogra study), quantitative analysis, classification, calculating environ
phy or other Earth sciences. Examples from throughout the mental variables, and hands-on map interpretation. Models
world illustrate important concepts and help students bridge and systems are frequently cited in discussions of important
the gap between theory and practical application. concepts, and scientific classification is presented in several
x Preface
chapters. Some of these topics include air masses, tornadoes, What Will You Find?
and hurricanes (Chapter 6); climates (Chapters 7 and 8); bioge ■■ Simplicity at every step. A desktop-inspired interface features
ography and soils (Chapter 9); water resources (Chapter 13); riv drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools that take you
ers (Chapter 14); and coasts (Chapter 17). through content creation and management with ease.
Physical geography plays a central role in understanding ■■ Full-featured test generator. Create ideal assessments with
environmental aspects and issues, human–environment interac your choice of 15 question types (including true/false, mul
tions, and approaches to environmental problem solving. The tiple choice, opinion scale/likert, and essay). Multi-language
students in this course include the professional geographers of support, an equation editor and unlimited metadata help
tomorrow. Spreading the message about the importance, rele ensure your tests are complete and compliant.
vance, and career potential of geography in today’s world is ■■ Cross-compatible capability. Import and export content
essential to the strength of geography at educational levels from into other systems.
pre-collegiate through university. Fundamentals of Physical Geog-
raphy, Second Edition, seeks to reinforce that message. Instructor Companion Website Everything you
need for your course in one place! This collection of book-
specific lecture and class tools is available online via www.
Ancillaries cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint presen
tations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and more.
Instructors and students alike will greatly benefit from the
comprehensive ancillary package that accompanies this text.
Student Resources
Instructor Resources Global Geoscience Watch Use Global Geosci
ence Watch to stay current in your course. Updated several
Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a times a day, this resource gives you access to the latest in
day, the Global Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for formation from trusted academic sources, news outlets, and
classroom discussion and research projects for all things geosci magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary
ence. Broken into the four key course areas (Geography, Geol sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more. The Global
ogy, Meteorology, and Oceanography), instructors can easily Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for all your re
get to the most relevant content available for their courses. search needs.
Instructors and their students will have access to the latest
information from trusted academic sources, news outlets, and Geology CourseMate Make the most of your study
magazines. You will also receive access to statistics, primary time by accessing everything you need to succeed in one place.
sources, case studies, podcasts, and much more. Read your textbook; take notes; review flashcards; watch vid
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Geology CourseMate Cengage Learning’s Geology online with CourseMate. Log in or purchase access at www
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CourseMate goes beyond the book to deliver what your stu can be applied to the everyday problems in the world around
dents need. Learn more at cengage.com/coursemate. you. Lab Manual lessons help build valuable skills such as map
reading, map and graph interpretation, three-dimensional think
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Cognero™ A flexible, online system that allows you to:
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■■ create multiple test versions in an instant Acknowledgments
■■ deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom or wherever
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Second Edition, would
you want
not have been possible without the encouragement and assis
tance of editors, friends, and colleagues from throughout the
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Preface xi
Sarkisian, Content Developer; Stefanie Beeck, Media Interstate Park–New Jersey Section; Justin Wilkinson, Earth
Developer; and Victor Luu, Product Assistant. Sciences, NASA Johnson Space Center; Hajo Eicken, Alfred
Photos courtesy of: Rainer Duttmann, University of Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research; U.S. Fish
Kiel; Richard Earl, Texas State University; Dan Satterfield, and Wildlife Service; Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge;
WOBC, Salisbury, MD; Erin Himmel/National Park Service; Philippe Rekacewicz, UNEP/GRID-Arendal World Atlas of
Delphine Farmer, Colorado State University; Lynn Betts/ Desertification. Greg Nadon, Ohio University, L. Michael Tra
NRCS; Melissa Gabrielson, Chuck Young, and Fred Broer passo, Western Kentucky University.
man, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bob DeGross. Everglades Colleagues who reviewed this text and related Physical
National Park; J. Good, National Park Service; Michael Geography editions include Peter Blanken, University of Colo
McCollum/McCollum Associates; Jason Neely, Polar Field rado; J. Michael Daniels, University of Wyoming; James
Services; Christoph W. Borst and Gary L. Kinsland, University Doerner, University of Northern Colorado; Richard Earl,
of Louisiana at Lafayette; VORTEX II/Sean Waugh, NOAA/ Texas State University; Ryan Fogt, Ohio University; Greg Gas
NSSL; Michael Studinger, NASA; John Shea. FEMA; USGS ton, University of North Alabama; Chris Houser, University
Alaska Volcano Observatory, D. Josefczyk; National Scenic of West Florida; Paul Hudson, University of Texas; Debra
Byways/Digital Library; Sasan Saatchi NASA/JPL-Caltech; Morimoto, Merced College; Alan Paul Price, University of
Wind Cave National Park; Emily Petersen; Parv Sethi; Martha Wisconsin; Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University; and
Moran, White River National Forest; Mark Muir, Fishlake Richard W. Smith, Harford Community College.
National Forest; National Park Service, Cape Cod National The comments and suggestions of all of the previously
Seashore; Mark Reid, USGS; Dawn Endico; Gary P. Fleming, mentioned individuals have been instrumental in developing
Virginia Natural Heritage Program; Tessy Shirakawa, Mesa this text. Countless others, both known and unknown, deserve
Verde National Park; Bill Case, Chris Wilkerson, and Michael heartfelt thanks for their interest and support over the years.
Vanden Berg, Utah Geological Survey; Center for Cave and Despite the painstaking efforts of the reviewers, there will
Karst Studies, Western Kentucky University; Hari Eswaran, always be questions of content, approach, and opinion associ
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; Richard ated with the text. The authors wish to make it clear that they
Hackney, Western Kentucky University; David Hansen, Uni accept full responsibility for all that is included in Fundamen-
versity of Minnesota; Susan Jones, Nashville, Tennessee; Bob tals of Physical Geography, Second Edition.
Jorstad, Eastern Illinois University; National Agricultural
Imagery Program/Texas Natural Resources Information Sys James F. Petersen
tem; Parris Lyew-Ayee, Oxford University, UK; L. Elliot Jones, Dorothy Sack
U.S. Geological Survey; Anthony G. Taranto Jr., Palisades Robert E. Gabler
Brief Contents
1 Physical Geography: Earth Environments and Systems 1
2 Representations of Earth 21
3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75
5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101
6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127
7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

Climate Regions 153
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

Change 191
9 Biogeography and Soils 223
10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283
12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313
13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341
14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363
15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393
16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421
17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449
xii
Contents
1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32
Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

Thematic Maps 35
Systems 1 Topographic Maps 36
The Study of Geography 2 Modern Mapmaking 37
Physical Geography 3 Geographic Information Systems 37
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Using Vertical
Technology, Tools, and Methods 3
Exaggeration to Portray Topography 39
Major Perspectives in Physical Geography 5
Remote Sensing of the Environment 40
The Spatial Perspective 5
Digital Imaging and Photography 40
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Natural Regions 7
Specialized Remote Sensing 41
The Physical Science Perspective 8
Multispectral Remote Sensing 42
The Environmental Perspective 9
Map Interpretation: Topographic Maps 44
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective:
Human–Environment Interactions 10
Models and Systems 13 3 Solar Energy and
Systems Analysis 14
How Systems Work 14
Atmospheric Heating 47
Equilibrium in Earth Systems 15 The Earth–Sun System 48
The Earth in Space 16 Insolation, Sun Angle, and Duration 49
Earth’s Movements 16 The Seasons 50
Physical Geography and You 18 Latitude Lines Delimiting Solar Energy 53
Passive Solar Energy, an Ancient Concept 54
2 Representations Variations of Insolation with Latitude 55
of Earth 21 Characteristics of the Atmosphere 56
Composition of the Atmosphere 56
Maps and Location on Earth 22
Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere 59
Earth’s Shape and Size 22
Energy Interactions 60
Globes and Great Circles 24
Energy Transfer Processes 60
Latitude and Longitude 24
Water, Energy, and Heat 61
The Geographic Grid 25
Earth’s Energy Budget 62
Parallels and Meridians 26
Heating the Atmosphere 62
Longitude and Time 26
Earth’s Energy Balance 63
The International Date Line 26
Air Temperature 64
The U.S. Public Lands Survey System 27
Temperature and Heat 64
The Global Positioning System 29
Short-Term Variations in Temperature 64
Maps and Map Projections 30
Vertical Temperature Distributions 66
Advantages of Maps 30
Controls of Surface Temperature 68
Limitations of Maps 31
Surface Temperature Distributions 70
Examples of Map Projections 31
Annual Temperature Changes 73
xiii
xiv contents
4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105
Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

Humidity 106
Atmospheric Pressure 76 Atmospheric Moisture Sources 107
Air Pressure, Altitude, and Elevation 77 Evaporation Rates 107
Cells of High and Low Pressure 77 Potential Evapotranspiration 108
Horizontal Pressure Variations 78 Condensation, Fog, and Clouds 109
Mapping Pressure Distribution 78 Condensation Nuclei 109
Wind 79 Fog 109
Pressure Gradients and Wind 79 Clouds 111
Wind Terminology 79 Adiabatic Heating and Cooling 113
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Instability and Stability 113
Harnessing the Wind’s Energy 80
Precipitation Processes 114
The Coriolis Effect and Wind 81
Forms of Precipitation 115
Cyclones, Anticyclones, and Wind Direction 82
Factors Necessary for Precipitation 116
Global Pressure and Wind Systems 83 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
A Model of Global Pressure 83 The Lifting Condensation Level 118
A Model of Atmospheric Circulation 84 Precipitation Distributions 122
Conditions within Latitudinal Zones 85 Distribution over Time 122
Trade Winds 85 Latitudinal Distribution 122
Subtropical Highs 85 Precipitation Variability 124
Westerlies 85
Polar Winds 86
Seasonal Variations in Pressure and Wind 86 6 Air Masses and Weather
Latitudinal Migration with the Seasons 88 Systems 127
Longitudinal Variations in Pressure and Wind 89
Air Masses 128
Upper Air Winds and Jet Streams 89
Air Mass Modification and Stability 128
Regional and Local Wind Systems 90
North American Air Masses 129
Monsoon Winds 90
Fronts 131
Local Winds 92
Cold Fronts 131
Thinking Geographically 94
Warm Fronts 131
Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions 94
Stationary and Occluded Fronts 132
Ocean Currents 94
Atmospheric Disturbances 133
El Niño 97
Anticyclones and Cyclones 133
El Niño and the Southern Oscillation 97
Middle-Latitude Cyclones 134
North Atlantic Oscillation 98
Hurricanes 138
Snowstorms and Blizzards 143
5 Humidity, Condensation, Thunderstorms 143
and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

Tornado Chasers and Tornado Spotters 144
The Hydrologic Cycle 103 Tornadoes 146
The Water Budget 104 Weather Forecasting 149
Map Interpretation: Weather Maps 150
contents xv
5 years later
7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207
Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

The Recent Ice Age: The Pleistocene 208
Mesothermal Climate Methods for Revealing Past Climates 208
Regions 153 Causes of Climate Change 210
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Climate Change
Classifying Climates 154 and Its Impact on Coastlines 214
The Thornthwaite System 155 Global Warming 216
The Köppen System 156 Future Climates 218
Climate Regions 160 Recommendations for the Future 219
Climographs 161
Climate and Vegetation 161
Humid Tropical Climate Regions 164 9 Biogeography and
Tropical Rainforest and Tropical Monsoon Soils 223
Climates 164
Ecosystems 224
Tropical Savanna Climate 169
Ecosystem Components 224
Arid Climate Regions 171
Trophic Structure 225
Desert Climates 172
Energy Flow and Biomass 226
Desertification 176 Productivity 226
:: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Invasive
Steppe Climates 176
Exotic Species: Burmese Pythons 228
Mesothermal Climate Regions 178
Ecological Niche 229
Mediterranean Climate 179
Succession and Climax Communities 231
Humid Subtropical Climate 183
Succession 231
Marine West Coast Climate 185
The Climax Community 232
Environmental Controls 233
8 Microthermal, Polar, and Climatic Factors 234
Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Biogeography 236
Regions: Climate Soil and Topography 238
Change 191 Natural Catastrophes 238
Biotic Factors 238
Microthermal Climate Regions 192
Human Impact on Ecosystems 239
Humid Microthermal Generalizations 192
Soils and Soil Development 240
Humid Continental Climates 192
Major Soil Components 240
Subarctic Climate 197
Soil Characteristics 242
Polar Climate Regions 200
Development of Soil Horizons 245
Tundra Climate 200
Factors Affecting Soil Formation 246
Ice-Sheet Climate 202
Parent Material 247
Human Activity in Polar Regions 203
Organic Activity 247
Highland Climate Regions 204
Climate 247
The Nature of Mountain Climates 205
Land Surface 249
Adaptation to Highland Climates 206
Time 249
xvi contents
Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

Laterization 250 Tensional Tectonic Forces 289
Podzolization 250 Shearing Tectonic Forces 290
Calcification 251 Relationships between Rock Structure and
Regimes of Local Importance 252 Topography 291
Soil Classification 252 Thinking Geographically 292
Ecosystems and Soils: Critical Natural Earthquakes 292
Resources 252 Measuring Earthquake Size 292
Earthquake Hazards 294
10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

the Distribution of Earthquake Intensity 296
Tectonics 255 Igneous Processes and Landforms 298
Volcanic Eruptions 298
Earth’s Planetary Structure 256
Volcanic Landforms 299
Core 257
Plutonism and Intrusions 306
Mantle 258
Distribution of Tectonic and Volcanic
Crust 258
Activity 306
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 259
Map Interpretation: Volcanic Landforms 310
Minerals 260
Rocks 261
Igneous Rocks 261 12 Weathering and Mass
Sedimentary Rocks 263
Metamorphic Rocks 267
Wasting 313
The Rock Cycle 268 Nature of Exogenic Processes 314
Thinking Geographically 269 Weathering 316
Plate Tectonics 269 Physical Weathering 316
Seafloor Spreading and Convection Currents 270 Chemical Weathering 320
Tectonic Plate Movement 272 Variability in Weathering 321
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Paleomagnetism: Climate Factors 322
Evidence of Earth’s Ancient Geography 276 Rock Type 323
Hot Spots in the Mantle 276 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Growth of Continents 277 Expanding and Contracting Soils 324
Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Differential Weathering and Erosion 326
Mass Wasting 328
11 Tectonic and Volcanic Materials and Motion 329
Processes and Slow Mass Wasting 330
Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

Landforms and Geomorphology 284 Weathering, Mass Wasting, and the
Tectonic Forces, Rock Structure, and Landscape 338
Landforms 286
contents xvii
13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384
Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Stream Hazards 385
Nature of Underground Water 342 Importance of Rivers and Lakes 387
Subsurface Water Zones and the Water Table 343 Quantitative Fluvial Geomorphology 389
Groundwater Storage and Movement 344 Map Interpretation: Fluvial Landforms 390
Springs 346
Using Groundwater Resources 347
Wells 347 15 Arid Region Landforms
Reducing Reserves 348 and Eolian Processes 393
Groundwater Quality 349
Surface Runoff in the Desert 394
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Acid Mine Drainage 350
Water as a Geomorphic Agent in Arid
Lands 396
Geothermal Water 350
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Erosion 397
Landform Development by Subsurface Water
Arid Region Landforms of Fluvial Deposition 400
and Solution 352
Wind as a Geomorphic Agent 404
Karst Landforms 353
Wind Erosion and Transportation 405
Limestone Caverns and Cave Features 356
Wind Deposition 407
Sand Dunes 407
Map Interpretation: Karst Topography 360
Types of Sand Dunes 409
14 Fluvial Processes and Dune Protection 411
Landforms 363 :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Off-Road
Vehicle Impacts On Desert Landscapes 412
Surface Runoff 364 Loess Deposits 412
The Stream System 366 Landscape Development in Deserts 414
Drainage Basins 366 Map Interpretation: Desert Basin Landforms 418
:: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: Drainage Basins
as Critical Natural Regions 368
Drainage Density and Drainage Patterns 370 16 Glacial Systems and
Flow Properties 371 Landforms 421
Stream Discharge 371
Stream Energy 373 Glacier Formation and the Hydrologic
Fluvial Processes 375 Cycle 422
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:
Stream Erosion 375
Glacial Ice Is Blue! 424
Stream Transportation 375
Types of Glaciers 424
Stream Deposition 376
Moving Ice as a Geomorphic Agent 426
Channel Patterns 379
How Glaciers Flow 426
Fluvial Landscapes 380
Glacial Erosion and Sediment 427
Features of the Upper Course 380
Alpine Glaciers 427
Features of the Middle Course 381
Equilibrium and the Glacial Budget 428
Features of the Lower Course 381
Erosional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 430
Deltas 383
Depositional Landforms of Alpine Glaciation 432
Base-Level Changes and Tectonism 384
xviii contents
Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

Existing Continental Glaciers 436 Coastal Erosional Landforms 459
Pleistocene Glaciation 437 Coastal Deposition 460
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciation 438 Coastal Depositional Landforms 462
Thinking Geographically 439 Types of Coasts 465
Depositional Landforms of Continental Islands and Coral Reefs 468
Glaciation 439 Thinking Geographically 469
Glacial Lakes 443 Change over Time 471
Periglacial Landscapes 444 Map Interpretation: Passive-Margin Coastlines 472
Map Interpretation: Alpine Glaciation 446
Appendix A SI Units 475
17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

Appendix C The Köppen Climate Classification
and Landforms 449 System 479
The Coastal Zone 450 Appendix D The 12 Soil Orders of the Natural
Origin and Nature of Waves 451 Resource Conservation Service
Tides 451 (NRCS) 482
Tsunamis 453 Appendix E Understanding and Recognizing Some
Wind Waves 454 Common Rocks 485
Waves in Shallow Water 455 Glossary 491
Wave Breaking 455 Index 505
:: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective: Tsunami
Forecasts and Warnings 456
Wave Refraction and Littoral Drifting 458
Author Biographies
James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

State University–San Marcos, Texas. He is a broadly trained physical geographer
with strong interests in geomorphology and earth science education. He enjoys
writing about topics relating to physical geography for the public, particularly en
vironmental interpretation, and has written a landform guidebook for Enchanted
Rock State Natural Area in central Texas and a number of field guides. He is a
strong supporter of geographic education, having served as president of the Na
tional Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) in 2000 after more than
15 years of service to that organization. He has also written and served as a senior
consultant for nationally published educational materials at levels from middle school through university
and has led many workshops for geography teachers. In 2011, he was awarded the George J. Miller
Distinguished Service Award for distinguished service to geographic education, the highest honor given
by the NCGE.
Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Athens, Ohio, is a physical geographer who specializes in geomorphology. Her re
search emphasizes arid region landforms, including geomorphic evidence of pa
leolakes, which contributes to paleoclimate reconstruction. She has published
research results in a variety of professional journals, academic volumes, and Utah
Geological Survey maps and reports. She also has research interests and publica
tions on the history of geomorphology and the impact of off-road vehicles. Her
work has been funded by the National Geographic Society, NSF, Association of
American Geographers (AAG), American Chemical Society, and other sources.
She is active in professional organizations, having served as chair of the AAG Geomorphology Specialty
Group, chair of the AAG History of Geography Specialty Groups, and in several other offices for the
AAG, Geological Society of America, and History of Earth Sciences Society. She enjoys teaching and
research, and has received the Outstanding Teacher Award from Ohio University’s College of Arts and
Sciences.
Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Professor Gabler has taught geography at Hunter College, City of New York;
Columbia University; and Western Illinois University, in addition to 5 years in
public elementary and secondary schools. At times in his career at Western Illinois
he served as chair of the Geography and Geology Department, chair of the
Geography Department, and director of International Programs for the university.
He received three University Presidential Citations for teaching excellence and
university service, served two terms as chair of the Faculty Senate, edited the
Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical Society, and authored numerous articles in state
and national periodicals. He is a past president of the Illinois Geographical Society, former director of
coordinators and past president of the National Council for Geographic Education, and the recipient of
the NCGE George J. Miller Distinguished Service Award.
xix
Physical Geography: Earth
Environments and Systems 1
:: Outline
The Study of Geography
Major Perspectives in
Physical Geography
Models and Systems
The Earth in Space
Physical Geography
and You
“The Blue Marble,” lunar

astronauts’ view of Earth:
an oasis of life in the
vastness of space.
NASA
2 C H A P T E R 1 • P H Y S I C A L G E O G R A P H Y: E A R T H E N V I R O N M E N T S A N D S Y S T E M S
:: Objectives
When you complete this chapter you should be able to: ■■ Conceptualize Earth as a system of interacting parts that respond to
■■ Explain physical geography as a discipline and profession that con- both natural and human-induced processes.
siders both the natural world and the human interface with the natu- ■■ Discuss several interactions between humans and their environ-
ral world. ments, including examples that are advantageous and others that are
■■ Understand how geographic information and techniques are directly detrimental or risky.
applicable in many career fields. ■■ Recognize how knowledge of physical geography invites better un-
■■ Describe the three major perspectives of physical geography: the derstanding of our environment.
spatial perspective, the physical science perspective, and the envi-
ronmental perspective.
In 1972, as the last astronaut mission to the moon was on its spatial science (the science of locational space) because it
way, the three crew members looked back to photograph a spec- includes analyzing and explaining the locations, distributions,
tacular view of Earth. Seeing our planet surrounded by the patterns, variations, and similarities or differences among phe-
emptiness of space illustrated the fact that life on Earth depends nomena on Earth’s surface.
on self-contained environmental and natural resources that are Geographers study the processes that influenced Earth’s land-
not limitless. Today, it is said that more people have seen this scapes in the past, how they continue to affect them today, how
photograph than any other in history. This iconic Earth image landscapes and environments might change in the future, and the
continues to be an internationally known symbol for environ- significance or impact of these changes. Geography is distinctive
mental awareness, and it has increased our concern for conserv- among the sciences by virtue of its definition and central purpose,
ing our planet’s resources and environments. and it can involve studying any topic related to the scientific anal-
Viewed from far enough away to see an entire hemi- ysis of natural or human processes on Earth (■ Fig. 1.1).
sphere, Earth is beautiful and intriguing. From this perspective
we can begin to appreciate the big picture, a global view of our
planet’s physical geography. If we look carefully, we can recog- PHYSICAL SCIENCE
nize geographic patterns shaped by the processes that make
Geology
our world dynamic and ever changing. Characteristics of the
gy Bio
oceans, atmosphere, landmasses, and evidence of life, revealed olo log
or y
by vegetated regions, are apparent. e te Geomorphology
M
From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

and almost limitless. In contrast, viewing the big picture reveals Climatology Biogeography
Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the
Pe
y
no m
do
geogr
vast dark emptiness of space. Except for the external addition of ical ap
logy
ys h
Astro
Mathematical Soils
energy from the sun, our planet is a self-contained system that
Ph
Geography Geography
has all the requirements to sustain life. The nature of Earth and Environment
its environments provide the life-support systems for all living Geography
People
things. It is important to gain an understanding of the planet Social Political
nce
Socio
Geography Geography
that sustains us, and learn about the components and processes Hu
hy
Scie
ma p
that operate to change or regulate the Earth system. Learning n geogra
logy
© Cengage Learning
ical
the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

lit
Economic Cultural
Po
answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

and processes interact to develop the environmental diversity on Historical
Ec g
our planet is the goal of a course in physical geography.
y
on Geography
om olo
op
i cs thr
An
Histor y
The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE
Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

related to other disciplines and share some of their interests.
Geography refers to the examination, description, and expla- Geographers apply their own unique perspectives and
nation of Earth—its variability from place to place, how places approaches to these areas of study.
and features change over time, and the processes responsible What advantage might a geographer have when working with
for these variations and changes. Geography is often called the other physical scientists seeking a solution to a problem?
THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 3
© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
■ FIGURE 1.2 Physical geographers study the elements and processes that affect natural environments.
These include rock structures, landforms, soils, vegetation, climate, weather, and human impacts. This is in
the White River National Forest, Colorado.
What physical geography characteristics can you observe in this scene?
Geographers are also interested in how to divide areas Earth’s surface landscapes. Biogeographers study plants, ani-
into meaningful regions, which are areas identified by dis- mals, and environments, examining the processes that
tinctive characteristics that distinguish them from surround- influence, limit, or facilitate their characteristics, distribu-
ing areas. Physical, human, or a combination of factors can tions, and changes over time. Many soil scientists are geogra-
define a region. Regional geography concentrates on the char- phers who map and analyze soil types, determine the
acteristics of a region or of multiple regions. suitability of soils for certain uses, and work to conserve
soil resources.
Geographers are also widely involved in the study of
Physical Geography water bodies and water resources, including their processes,
Physical geography encompasses the processes and features movements, impacts, quality, and other characteristics. They
that make up Earth, including human activities where they can serve as hydrologists, oceanographers, or glaciologists. Many
interface with the environment. Geographers generally take a geographers also function as water resource managers, working
holistic approach, meaning that they often consider both the to ensure that lakes, watersheds, springs, and groundwater
natural and human phenomena that are relevant to understand- sources are adequate in quantity and quality to meet human
ing aspects of our planet. Physical geographers are concerned and environmental needs.
with nearly all aspects of Earth and are trained to view a natural Like other scientists, physical geographers typically apply
environment in its entirety, as well as how it functions as a unit the scientific method as they seek to learn about aspects of
(■ Fig. 1.2). Most physical geographers focus their expertise on Earth. The scientific method involves seeking the answers to
one or two specialties. For example, many meteorologists and cli- questions and determining the validity of new ideas by objec-
matologists have studied geography. Meteorologists are interested tively testing all pertinent evidence and facts that affect the
in the processes that affect daily weather, and they forecast issue being studied (■ Fig. 1.3). Using the scientific method,
weather conditions. Climatologists are interested in regional cli- new ideas or proposed answers to questions are only accepted
mates, the averages and extremes of long-term weather data, as valid if they are clearly supported by the evidence.
understanding climate change, climate hazards, and the human
and environmental impacts of climate.
Geomorphology is the study of the nature and develop-
Technology, Tools, and Methods
ment of landforms and is a major subfield of physical geog- The technologies that are used for learning about the physical
raphy. Geomorphologists are interested in understanding geography of our planet are rapidly changing. The abilities of
variations in landforms and the processes that produce computer systems to capture, process, model, and display
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Title: Sandi
Kertomuksia Joelta
Author: Edgar Wallace
Translator: Erkki Valkeala
Release date: December 11, 2023 [eBook #72377]
Language: Finnish
Original publication: Jyväskylä: K. J. Gummerus Oy, 1923
Credits: Sirkku-Liisa Häyhä-Karmakainen and Tapio Riikonen
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANDI ***

SANDI
Kertomuksia Joelta
Kirj.
EDGAR WALLACE
Suomentanut (»Sanders of the River»)
Erkki Valkeala
Jyväskylässä, K. J. Gummerus Osakeyhtiö, 1923.
SISÄLLYS:
Kuninkaan kasvatus
Kivenpitäjät
Monrovian Bosambo
Unelias mies
Erityiskirjeenvaihtaja
Tanssikivet
Kauniiden unien metsä
Akasavalaiset
Paholaismetsä
Mlinon rakkaus
Poppamies
Yksinäinen
Näkijä
Sodan koirat
KUNINKAAN KASVATUS
Komissaari Sanders oli niin huokeasti siirtynyt läntiseen Keski-

Afrikkaan, ettei hän oikein osannut sanoa, milloin hän oli tullut
takamaihin. Jo paljon ennen kuin Britannian hallitus oli määrännyt
hänet pitämään isällistä huolta noin neljännesmiljoonasta
ihmissyöjästä, jotka kymmenen vuotta aikaisemmin olivat
suhtautuneet valkoisiin miehiin niinkuin me suhtaudumme
sarvikuonoon, hän oli tavannut basutot, tsulut, ringot, pondot,
matabele-, masona-, barotse- ja betsuana-kansat ynnä hottentotit.
Sitten uteliaisuus ja viehätys veti häntä pohjoiseen ja länteen päin, ja
hän tapasi angolakansan, vielä pohjoisempana Kongon väen,
lännessä masai-kansan ja saapui lopuksi kääpiöheimojen kautta
alueelleen.
Kaikkien näiden heimojen eroavuudet ovat vain Sandersin

kaltaisten miesten tiedossa.
Väri ei merkitse paljoakaan, vaikkakin toiset ovat ruskeita ja toiset

keltaisia ja muutamat — vaikka harvat — sysimustia. Eroavuus on
luonteessa. Tsulut olivat miehiä ja basutot olivat miehiä, vaikka
heidän vakava luottamuksensa oli lapsellista. Fetsiä päässään
pitävät mustat miehet olivat ovelia, mutta luotettavia, kun taas
Kultarannikon ruskeahkot miehet, jotka puhuivat englantia ja
sanoivat toisiaan »herroiksi», olivat Sandersin kauhistus.
Elettyään niin kauan suurten lapsien keskuudessa hän oli tietenkin

tullut jonkin verran samanlaiseksi kuin he, lapselliseksi. Kerran
Lontoossa hänelle tehtiin kepponen, ja vain hänen luontainen
suorasukaisuutensa pelasti hänet naurettavasta pälkähästä. Kun
näet kultaaja näytti hänelle raskasta metalliharkkoa, hän vei tämän
suoraa päätä poliisiasemalle ja syytti miestä luvattomasta
kultakaupasta. Sanders tiesi, että harkko oli kultaa, mutta hän ei ollut
varma, oliko se saatu rehellisin keinoin. Hänen hämmästyksensä,
kun hän huomasi »kullan» olevan lehtikultaa, oli liikuttava.
Sandersista voidaan sanoa, että hän oli valtiomies, mikä merkitsee

sitä, että hänen mielessään ei ihmishengellä ollut vakiintunutta
arvoa. Kun hän näki sivistyksen puussa kuihtuneen lehvän tai näki
ohdakkeen kasvavan »kukkiensa» joukossa, hän poimi sen pois
pysähtymättä ajattelemaan, oliko sillä ehkä oikeus elää. Kun mies,
olipa hän päällikkö tai orja, oli esimerkillään saattanut maan rauhan
vaaraan, kävi Sanders käsiksi häneen. Vielä elävän sukupolven
aikana isisiläiset sanoivat häntä Ogani Isisiksi, joka merkitsee
»pientä teurastuslintua», ja totta puhuen Sanders olikin siihen aikaan
nopea hirttämään. Hän hallitsi kolmensadan mailin päässä
sivistyksen liepeiltä eläviä ihmisiä. Toiminnan arkuutta tai
rangaistuksen toimeenpanon lykkäämistä, jompaakumpaa näistä
kahdesta olisivat nuo ihmiset, joilla ei ollut voimaa tehdä
johtopäätöksiä, ei halua pyytää anteeksi eikä taipumusta erityiseen
armeliaisuuteen, luulleet heikkoudeksi.
Maassa, joka sijaitsee Togo-maan rajoilla, ymmärretään

rangaistuksella kipua tai kuolemaa, ei muuta.
Kerran muuan hupsu komissaari nousi vastavirtaa Akasavaan —
joka on maan nimi — ja kokeili siveellisellä rangaistuksella.
Oli syntynyt kiihkeä jupakka. Muutamat Akasavan miehet olivat

käyneet joen yli Ochorin puolella varastamassa naisia ja vuohia, ja
luullakseni oli kaksi miestä tapettu, mutta se on toinen asia. Vuohet
ja naiset elivät ja huusivat äänekkäästi kostoa. He huusivat niin
kovaa, että se kuului päämajaan asti, ja komissaari Niceman — se ei
ollut hänen nimensä, mutta se kelpaa tähän — meni katsomaan,
mistä ääni aiheutui. Hän tapasi Ochorin kansan suuttuneena, mutta
vielä enemmän peloissaan.
— Jos, sanoi heidän puhujansa, — he haluavat palauttaa

vuohemme, niin pitäkööt naiset, sillä vuohet ovat arvokkaita.
Komissaari Nicemanilla oli sitten pitkä, pitkä palaver, neuvottelu,

joka kesti päivän toisensa jälkeen, Akasavan miesten ja heidän
päällikkönsä kanssa, ja lopuksi siveellinen saarna vaikutti: miehet
lupasivat tiettynä päivänä ja tietyllä tunnilla, kun kuu oli
neljänneksessä ja vuorovesi tarpeeksi korkealla, palauttaa naiset ja
myös vuohet.
Niin herra Niceman palasi päämajaan ihaillen itseään rajattomasti

ja kirjoittaen kyvyistään ja hallitustaidostaan sekä alkuasukkaiden
tuntemuksestaan pitkän raportin, joka on myöhemmin julkaistu
Sinisessä Kirjassa 7943-96 (Africa).
Tapahtui, että herra Niceman heti sen jälkeen meni kotiin

Englantiin, ja niinpä hän ei kuullut Ochorin väen vihaa ja kiukkua,
kun nämä eivät saaneet naisiaan eivätkä vuohiaan. Sanders, joka
kymmenellä hausasotilaalla ja malarianpuuskalla varustettuna
työskenteli Isisi-joen tienoilla, sai heliosanoman:
»Menkää Akasavaan ja lopettakaa se kirottu naisjupakka. —
Hallitus.»
Sanders kokosi sälynsä, nautti 25 grainia kiniiniä ja jättäen kesken

hyvän työnsä — hän haeskeli Mbeliä, poppamiestä, joka oli
myrkyttänyt erään ystävän — meni maan poikki Akasavaan.
Aikanaan hän tuli kylään ja kohtasi päällikön.
— Miten on naisten laita? hän kysyi.
— Keskustelemme siitä, sanoi päällikkö. — Kutsun päämiehet ja

neuvonantajat.
— Älä kutsu ketään, sanoi Sanders lyhyesti. — Lähetä

varastamasi naiset ja vuohet takaisin Ochoriin.
— Herra, sanoi päällikkö, — täyden kuun aikana, tapamme

mukaan, kun vuorovesi on tarpeeksi korkealla ja kaikki merkit ja
paholaiset ovat suotuisia, täytän käskysi.
— Päällikkö, sanoi Sanders naputtaen toisen mustapuuarkkua

kävelykepillään, — kuu ja joki, paholaiset tai jumalat, nuo naiset ja
vuohet menevät takaisin Ochorin kansalle auringon laskiessa, tai
minä sidon sinut puuhun ja pieksän sinut verille.
— Herra, sanoi päällikkö, — naiset palautetaan.
— Ja vuohet, sanoi Sanders.
— Vuohet, sanoi päällikkö, — ovat kuolleet, tapettu pitoihin.
— Sinä herätät ne henkiin, sanoi Sanders.

— Herra, luuletko minua taikuriksi? kysyi Akasavan päällikkö.
— Luulen sinua valehtelijaksi, sanoi Sanders puolueettomasti, ja

palaver oli päättynyt.
Samana yönä naiset ja vuohet palasivat Ochoriin, ja Sanders

valmistautui lähtöön.
Hän kutsui päällikön erilleen, koska ei tahtonut häväistä häntä ja

vähentää hänen valtaansa kansan keskuudessa.
— Päällikkö, sanoi hän, — matka Akasavaan on pitkä, ja minulla

on paljon työtä. Toivon, ettet sinä pakota minua enää saapumaan
tänne.
— Herra, sanoi päällikkö tosissaan, — en toivo enää näkeväni

sinua.
Sanders hymyili salaa, kokosi kymmenen hausaansa ja meni

takaisin
Isisi-joelle jatkamaan Mbelin etsimistä.
Monestakaan syystä se ei ollut hauskaa etsintää, ja oli myös syitä

luulla Isisin kuninkaan itsensä suojelevan murhaajaa. Tälle tiedolle
saapui vahvistus eräänä aamuna, kun Sanders Suurelle joelle
leiriytyneenä oli aamiaisella nauttien säilykemaitoa ja paahdettua
leipää. Saapui kiireesti Sato-Koto, kuninkaan veli, hyvin
järkyttyneenä, sillä hän oli paossa kuninkaan vihaa. Hän lateli julki
kaikki uutiset, jotka eivät liikuttaneet Sandersia vähääkään. Mutta se,
mitä hän kertoi kuninkaan luona oleskelevasta poppamiehestä, oli
todella mielenkiintoista, ja Sanders lähetti päämajaan viestin, ja kun
se oli sinne saapunut, päämajasta lähetettiin hra Niceman — joka oli
aikanaan palannut Lontoosta — moraalisella saarnalla taivuttamaan
Isisin kuningasta.
Kokoamistamme todisteista käy ilmi, että kuningas ei ollut

hellämielinen. On epäämätön totuus, että Nicemanin pää, pistettynä
seipääseen kuninkaan majan eteen, todisti kuninkaan ylevää
luonnetta.
Neljä sotalaivaa purjehti Simonstownista ja yksi Sierra Leonesta,

ja vajaassa kuukaudessa kuningas, joka oli tappanut vieraansa,
toivoi, ettei olisi sitä tehnyt.
Päämaja lähetti Sandersin selvittämään sotkun poliittista puolta.
Eräs meriupseeri näytti hänelle, mitä oli jäljellä kuninkaan kylästä.
— Luulen, sanoi tämä mies, — että teidän on kaivettava jostakin

uusi kuningas, olemme melkein tappaneet edellisen.
Sanders nyökkäsi.
— En aio pukeutua surupukuun, hän sanoi.
Ei ollut vaikeata löytää tarjokkaita avoimeen virkaan. Sato-Koto,

kuolleen kuninkaan veli, ilmoitti olevansa halukas ottamaan vastaan
viran melko nopeasti.
— Mitä te sanotte, kysyi laivastoa johtava amiraali.
— Sanon ei, vastasi Sanders arvelematta. — Kuninkaalla on

poika, yhdeksänvuotias, kuninkuus on hänen. Sato-Koto saa
toistaiseksi olla sijaishallitsija.
Ja niin se asia oli järjestetty Sato-Koton nyreästi suostuessa. Uusi
kuningas löytyi metsästä naisten joukosta, ja hän yritti vastustella,
mutta Sanders talutti hänet korvasta kylään.
— Poikani, sanoi hän ystävällisesti, — miksi ihmiset sanovat

sinua?
— Peteriksi, herra, vikisi potkiva poika, — valkoisten miesten

tapaan.
— Hyvä, sanoi Sanders, — sinä olet nyt kuningas Peter. Hallitse

tätä maata viisaasti ja tarkoin tapojen ja lakien mukaan. Sinä et saa
tehdä pahaa kenellekään, et häväistä ketään, et saa tappaa, et
käydä sotaa etkä vahingoittaa mitään, joka tekee elämän elämisen
arvoiseksi, ja jos sinä rikot tätä vastaan, Herra sinua varjelkoon!
Siten tehtiin kuningas Peter itsevaltiaaksi Isisissä, ja Sanders meni

takaisin päämajaan pienen merisotilas- ja hausa-armeijansa kanssa,
sillä Mbeli, poppamies, oli tapettu kylää valloitettaessa, ja Sandersin
työ oli loppunut.
Isisin kylän valloittaminen ja nuoren kuninkaan kruunaaminen

kerrottiin Lontoon lehdissä, eikä siinä ollut mitään unohdettu.
Mukanaolleet erityiskirjeenvaihtajat olivat kuvanneet sen niin, että
monet iäkkäät naiset itkivät ja moni nuori nainen sanoi: »Kuinka
kaunista!» ja kuvausten synnyttämät moninaiset tunteet johtivat
siihen, että nti Clinton Calbraith, joka oli maisteri ja hyvin kaunis,
lähetettiin paikalle. Hän tuli orvon kuninkaan »äidiksi», holhoojaksi ja
ystäväksi. Hän maksoi itse matkansa, mutta kirjat ja koulutarvikkeet,
jotka täyttivät kaksi laatikkoa, oli ostettu erään lastenlehden
kustannuksella. Sanders tapasi hänet maihinnousupaikalla uteliaana
näkemään, miltä valkea nainen näyttää.
Sanders antoi hänen käytettäväkseen majan ja lähetti erään
rannikkolaiskirjurin vaimon häntä kaitsemaan.
— Niin, nti Calbraith, sanoi Sanders sinä iltana ruokapöydässä, —

mitä te haluatte tehdä Peterille?
Neiti silitti kaunista poskeaan miettiväisesti.
— Alamme aivan yksinkertaisilla asioilla — oikealla lastentarhalla,

ja hiljalleen siitä ylöspäin. Opetan hänelle aakkosia, hieman
kasvioppia — hra Sanders, te nauratte.
— En, en nauranut, kiirehti Sanders rauhoittamaan häntä. —

Minun kasvoni aina näyttävät siltä — hm… illalla. Mutta sanokaa,
osaatteko te kieltä, suahelia, bomongoa, ringiä?
— Se käy vaikeaksi, sanoi neiti miettiväisesti.
— Saanko antaa neuvon? kysyi Sanders.
— Miksei.
— Niin, opetelkaa kieli. — Neiti Calbraith nyökkäsi. Menkää kotiin

ja opetelkaa sitä. — Neiti rypisti kulmiaan. — Se vie tieltä
suunnilleen kaksikymmentäviisi vuotta.
— Herra Sanders, sanoi hän ylhäisesti, — laskette leikkiä — teette

pilaa minusta.
— Taivas varjelkoon! sanoi Sanders tyynesti, — olisinko minä

todella niin sukkela.
Kertomuksen loppu, mikäli se koskee nti Clinton Calbraithia, oli se,

että hän meni Isisiin, oli siellä kolme päivää ja tuli takaisin
kauhuissaan.
— Hän ei ole lapsi, sanoi hän kauhistuneena, — hän on pieni…

pieni paholainen.
— Sitä minäkin, sanoi Sanders syvällisesti.
— Kuningas? Se on kamalaa! Hän asuu multamajassa ja kulkee

alastomana.
Jos olisin sen tiennyt!
— Luonnon lapsi, sanoi Sanders. — Ette luullut näkevänne

sellaista?
— En tiedä, mitä luulin, mutta en voinut olla kauempaa, se oli

mahdotonta.
— Siltä näyttää, sanoi Sanders itsekseen.
— Tietysti tiesin, että hän oli musta, jatkoi neiti, ja minä tiesin
sen… se oli aivan kauheaa.
— Tosi on, rakas neiti, sanoi Sanders, — että Peter ei ollut niin
ihana kuin te kuvittelitte, hän ei ollut jalo, kirkassilmäinen lapsi, hän
elää likaisesti — eikö niin?
Tämä ei ollut ainoa yritys kasvattaa Peteriä. Kuukausia

jälkeenpäin, kun neiti Calbraith oli mennyt kotiin ja oli toimeliaasti
kirjoittamassa kuuluisaa kirjaansa »Yksin Afrikassa, kirj.
Englantilaisnainen», Sanders kuuli toisesta kasvatusotteesta. Kaksi
etiopialaista lähetyssaarnaajaa oli tullut Isisiin takateitä. Etiopialaisen
lähetysseuran muodostavat kristityt mustat miehet, jotka
yksinkertaisesti perustaen uskontunnustuksensa Pyhään Sanaan
saarnaavat tasa-arvoisuuden evankeliumia. Musta mies on
arkipäivinä yhtä hyvä kuin valkoinenkin, mutta sunnuntaisin jopa
parempikin, jos hän kuuluu Reformeerattuun etiopialaiseen kirkkoon.
He tulivat Isisiin ja pääsivät heti kansan suosioon, sillä heidän

puheensa miellytti sangen suuresti Sato-Kotoa ja kuninkaan
neuvonantajia.
Sanders lähetti hakemaan lähetyssaarnaajia. Ensi kerralla he

kieltäytyivät tulemasta, mutta toisella kerralla he tulivat, sillä
Sandersin lähettämä sanoma oli lyhyt ja jyrkkä.
— Emme ymmärrä teidän menettelynne luonnetta, sanoi toinen.

— Se tuntuu olevan ristiriidassa toimittamamme asian vapauden
kanssa.
— Ymmärrätte minua paremmin, sanoi Sanders, joka tunsi

miehensä, — kun sanon teille, että en salli teidän saarnaavan
harhaoppeja kansani keskuudessa.
— Harhaoppeja, hra Sanders! sanoivat neekerit värisevin äänin.

— Se on vakava syytös.
Sanders otti paperin pöytänsä laatikosta; keskustelu tapahtui

hänen työhuoneessaan.
— Sinä ja sinä päivänä, hän sanoi, — te puhuitte tätä, tätä ja tätä.
Toisin sanoen hän syytti heitä tasa-arvoisuuden rajan ylittämisestä

ja siirtymisestä poliittisen kiihotuksen alueelle.
— Valheita, sanoi vanhempi kahdesta empimättä.

— Totta tai valhetta, sanoi Sanders, — te ette enää mene Isisin
alueelle.
— Tahdotteko jättää pakanat pimeyteen? kysyi lähetyssaarnaaja.

— Onko kantamamme kynttilä liian valoisa?
— Ei, sanoi Sanders, — mutta hiukan liian kuuma.
Siten hän toimeenpani etiopialaisten siirron heidän tärkeimmän

työnsä näyttämöltä, mistä sitten tehtiin välikysymys Englannin
parlamentissa.
Sitten saapui Akasavan päällikkö — vanha ystävä kasvattamaan

kuningas Peteriä. Akasava rajoittuu tämän kuninkaan alueisiin, ja
päällikkö tuli antamaan hänelle opastusta sotilaallisissa asioissa.
Hän tuli rumpujen soidessa ja toi lahjoina banaaneja ja suolaa.
— Olet suuri kuningas! sanoi hän unisilmäiselle pojalle, joka istui

valtaistuimella katsellen häntä suu ihmetyksestä ammollaan.
— Kun sinä käyt, maa vapisee sinun jalkojesi alla, mahtava joki,
joka vyöryy alas suureen veteen, jakautuu sinun käskystäsi, metsän
puut vapisevat ja pedot hiipivät piiloon, kun sinun voimasi lähtee
rajojen ulkopuolelle.
— O, ko, ko! sanoi mairiteltu kuningas.
— Valkoiset miehet pelkäävät sinua, jatkoi Akasavan päällikkö. —

He värisevät ja kätkeytyvät sinun äänesi kuullessaan.
Sato-Koto, joka seisoi kuninkaan vieressä, oli käytännön mies.
— Mitä tahdot, päällikkö? kysyi hän keskeyttäen kohteliaisuudet.

Silloin päällikkö kertoi hänelle pelkurien maasta, jossa oli maan
aarteita, vuohia ja naisia, paljon.
— Miksi et ota niitä itse? huomautti sijaishallitsija.
— Koska minä olen orja, sanoi päällikkö, — Sandin orja, ja hän

löisi minua. Mutta sinua, herra, joka olet suuri, kuninkaitten päämies,
Sandi ei voi lyödä sinun suuruutesi tähden.
Seurasi neuvottelu, joka kesti kaksi päivää.
— Minun on tehtävä jotakin Peterille, kirjoitti Sanders lähiaikoina

hallitukselle. — Se pikku pentele on lähtenyt sotapoluille onnetonta
Oclioria vastaan. Olisin hyvilläni, jos lähettäisitte minulle sata miestä,
konekiväärin ja kimpun rottinkia; luulen, että minun täytyy ruveta
kasvattamaan Peteriä itse.
*****
— Herra, enkö puhunut totta? sanoi Akasavan päällikkö

voitonriemuisesti. — Sandi ei ole tehnyt mitään. Me olemme
hävittäneet Ochorin kylän, ottaneet heidän kalleutensa, ja valkea
mies on mykkä sinun suuruutesi edessä! Odotetaan täysikuuta, ja
minä näytän sinulle toisen kylän.
— Olet suuri mies, sanoi kuningas, — ja jonakin päivänä rakennan

sinulle majan palatsini varjoon.
— Sinä päivänä, sanoi päällikkö ylevästi, — minä kuolen ilosta.
Kun kuu oli kutistunut ja kadonnut ja tullut takaisin hopealla

siveltynä möhkäleenä itäiselle taivaalle, kokoontuivat Isisin sotilaat
varustettuina keihäin ja leveäteräisin miekoin, ingola yllään ja multaa
hiuksissaan.
He tanssivat suuren tanssin valtavan tulen loimossa, ja kaikki

naiset seisoivat ympärillä taputtaen käsiään tahdissa.
Kesken tämän saapui sanantuoja kanootilla, tuli kuninkaan luo ja

sanoi:
— Herra, päivän matkan päässä täältä on Sandi; hänellä on

mukanaan sata sotilasta ja messinkitykki, joka sanoo:'Ha-ha-ha-ha!'
Hiljaisuus vallitsi joukossa, kunnes sen keskeytti Akasavan

päällikön ääni.
— Luulen, että minun on mentävä kotiin, sanoi hän. — Tuntuu

kuin olisin sairas, ja nyt on myös se aika vuodesta, jolloin minun
vuoheni saavat vohlia.
— Älä pelkää, sanoi Sato-Koto julmasti. — Kuninkaan varjo kätkee

sinut, ja hän on niin voimakas, että maa vapisee hänen jalkainsa
alla, mahtavat vedet jakautuvat hänen astuakseen, ja vieläpä valkeat
miehetkin pelkäävät häntä.
— Vaikkakin, epäsi päällikkö, — mutta minun täytyy mennä, sillä

minun nuorin poikani on sairastumaisillaan kuumeeseen, ja hän
kaipaa minua koko ajan.
— Jää, sanoi sijaishallitsija, eikä hänen äänestään voinut erehtyä.
Sanders ei tullut seuraavana päivänä, eikä vielä seuraavanakaan.

Hän liikkui vitkaan, kulkien maita myöten, joissa monet
väärinkäsitykset odottivat selvitystään. Kun hän saapui lähetettyään
sanantuojan edeltä käsin tulostaan ilmoittamaan, oli kylä rauhan
toimissa.
Naiset hienonsivat viljaa, miehet tupakoivat, pikkulapset leikkivät

ja pitivät ääntä kaduilla.
Hän pysähtyi kylän laitaan pääkatua hallitsevalle kukkulalle ja

lähetti hakemaan sijaishallitsijaa.
— Miksi minun täytyy haettaa sinut? hän kysyi. Miksi kuningas

pysyy kylässä, kun minä saavun? Tämä on häpeä.
— Herra, sanoi Sato-Koto, — eihän ole soveliasta, että suuri

kuningas alentuisi niin paljon.
Sanders ei ollut huvittunut eikä vihainen. Hän oli tekemisissä

kapinaa hautovien ihmisten kanssa, eivätkä hänen omat tunteensa
merkinneet mitään maan rauhan rinnalla.
— Näyttää siltä, kuin kuninkaalla olisi ollut huonoja neuvonantajia,

hän sanoi, ja Sato-Koto kumarsi vaivalloisesti.
— Mene ja käske kuningas tulemaan — sillä minä olen hänen

ystävänsä.
Sijaishallitsija meni, mutta palasi vähän ajan päästä yksin.
— Herra, hän ei tahdo tulla, sanoi hän härkäpäisesti.
— Sitten minä menen hänen luokseen.
Majansa edessä istuva kuningas Peter tervehti herra komissaaria

alasluoduin katsein.

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Fundamentals of Physical Geography

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F undamentals of Physical Geography, now in its second

Focus on Student Interaction New and Revised Text

New Features To Integrate the Illustrations

Physical Geography— tant examples of each perspective.

Four Major Objectives To Fulfill the Major Requirements

3 Solar Energy and Atmospheric Heating 47

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, and Circulation 75

5 Humidity, Condensation, and Precipitation 101

6 Air Masses and Weather Systems 127

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

9 Biogeography and Soils 223

10 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 255

11 Tectonic and Volcanic Processes and Landforms 283

12 Weathering and Mass Wasting 313

13 Water Resources and Karst Landforms 341

14 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 363

15 Arid Region Landforms and Eolian Processes 393

16 Glacial Systems and Landforms 421

17 Coastal Processes and Landforms 449

1 Physical Geography: Properties of Map Projections 32

Earth Environments and Map Basics 33

4 Atmospheric Pressure, Water in the Atmosphere 105

Winds, and Circulation 75 Saturation and the Dew Point 106

and Precipitation 101 :: Geography’s Physical Science Perspective:

7 Climate Classification: Climate Change 207

Tropical, Arid, and Past Climates 207

Highland Climate :: Geography’s Spatial Perspective: The Theory of Island

Soil-Forming Regimes and Classification 250 Compressional Tectonic Forces 287

10 Earth Materials and Plate :: Geography’s Environmental Perspective: Mapping

Geologic Time and Paleogeography 278 Structural Weaknesses 324

Landforms 283 Fast Mass Wasting 331

13 Water Resources and Thinking Geographically 384

Karst Landforms 341 Rivers, Lakes, and People 385

Continental Glaciers 434 Coastal Erosion 459

17 Coastal Processes Appendix B Topographic Maps 477

James F. Petersen James F. Petersen is professor of geography at Texas

Dorothy Sack Dorothy Sack, professor of geography at Ohio University in

Robert E. Gabler During his nearly five decades of professional experience,

Models and Systems

The Earth in Space

“The Blue Marble,” lunar

From a human perspective, Earth might seem immense

Earth’s fragile nature: a spherical island of life surrounded by the

the relevant questions to ask is an important step toward finding

answers and explanations. Understanding how Earth’s features Geography Geography

The Study of SOCIAL SCIENCE

Geography ■ FIGURE 1.1 Geography has many subdivisions that are

© Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

Author: Edgar Wallace

Translator: Erkki Valkeala

7 Climate Classification: Tropical, Arid, and Mesothermal

8 Microthermal, Polar, and Highland Climate Regions: Climate

* START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANDI *