oc lab file

SWAMI KESHVANAND INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
MANAGEMENT& GRAMOTHAN, JAIPUR
ECL-02
LABORATORY MANUAL
COURSE NAME- OPTICAL COMMUNIATION LAB
COURSE CODE- 7EC4-23
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Optical Communication Lab
S.NO. LIST OF CONTENTS Pg.No.

1. Vision, Mission, Quality Policy of Institute 3
2. Vision, Mission of department 3
3. Program Educational Objectives (PEO’S), PO’s, PSO’s & CO’s 4-5
4. CO_PO_PSO mapping 6
5. RTU syllabus 7
6. List of Experiments 8
7. Beyond curriculum experiments & mapping with PO,PSO 8
8. DO’s and Don’ts 9
9. Safety measures 10
10. Introduction of lab 11
Hardware based experiment
Exp: 1 To set up Fiber Optic Analog and fiber Optic Digital link. 21
Exp: 2 Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture. 25
Exp: 3 Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic 31
optical fiber.
Exp:4 Study and measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, 35
LDR and Laser diode.
Exp:5 OTDR Measurement of Fiber Length, Attenuation and 49
Dispersion Loss.
Software based experiment
Exp:6 Design and simulate of single and multimode transmission 63
in optical fiber system.
Exp:7 Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis 77
using Eye diagram and measure the value of Q-factor &
BER of optical signals.
Exp:8 Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide 83
structure use in optical fiber communication.
Exp:9 Design and simulate the Dispersion compensators 91 fiber
for optic com
Exp:10 Design and calculate the power budget for optical 99
communication link.
Exp:11 Design and simulate the DWDM and WDM techniques use 105
in optical communication.
Exp:12 Simulate the Fiber Bragg Grating for Compensation of 113
Dispersion in single mode fiber
BEYOND CURRICULUM EXPERIEMNTS
Exp:13 Plot Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication Link 121
Exp:14 To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser 125
Department of ECE Page 2

Vision of the Institute

To promote higher learning in advanced technology and industrial research to make our
country a global player
Mission of the Institute

To promote quality education, training and research in the field of Engineering by
establishing effective interface with industry and to encourage faculty to undertake
industry sponsored projects for students
Quality Policy of the Institute

“We are committed to ‘achievement of quality’ as an integral part of our institutional
policy by continuous self-evaluation and striving to improve ourselves.”
Institute would pursue quality in:
 All its endeavors like admissions, teaching-learning processes, examinations,

extra and co-curricular activities, industry-institute interaction, research &
development, continuing education and consultancy.
 Functional areas like teaching departments, Training and placement cell, library,
administrative office, accounts office, hostels, canteen, security services,
transport, maintenance section and all other services.
Vision and Mission of Department

Vision of the Department: To evolve the department as a center of excellence in the
field of Electronics & Communication Engineering for enriched education, higher
learning, research and development.
Mission of the Department: To empower students by imparting quality education in
Electronics and Communication Engineering for better employability and preparing them
to be competent in dealing with industrial and societal challenges

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

1. The graduates will be able to pursue successfully in the relevant fields and
advance in their profession.
2. The graduates may excel in pursuing higher education and life-long learning.
3. Graduates will be able to hold high ethical standards and work effectively
in multidisciplinary teams with strong management and team work skills.
Program Outcomes (POs)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, nature science, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/Development of Solution: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental consideration.
4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problem: Use research-based knowledge
and methods to conduct experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Cerate, select, and apply appropriate technique, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tool including predication and modeling to
complex engineering activity with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibility relevant to the professional engineering practices.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental context, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, or leader and as
a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply theses to one’s work, as s
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
Program Specific Outcomes(PSO’s)

1. Understand principles and applications of electronic components, circuits and
devices.
2. Develop proficiency in Electronics and Communication Engineering to enhance
employability skills.
Course Outcome:
CO1: Recall analog and digital link, propagation loss, numerical aperture for
optical fiber communication
CO2: Analyze the optical system performance using Eye diagram ,Q-factor &
BER of optical signals
CO3: Calculate the losses with and without OTDR..
CO4: Analyze single mode, multimode fiber, optical waveguides, dispersion
compensators, WDM, optical link power budget.
CO5: Measure the characteristics of fibre optic LEDs, LDR and Laser Diode.

Mapping of Course Outcomes with POs and PSOs:
CO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO 1 3 3 1 3 2 - - - 3 3 - 3 2 2
CO 2 3 2 2 3 3 - - - 3 3 - 3 3 3
CO 3 3 3 1 3 2 - - - 3 3 - 3 2 2
CO 4 3 2 2 3 3 - - - 3 3 - 3 3 3
CO 5 3 2 1 3 2 - - - 3 3 - 3 2 2
Level 3 3 2 3 3 - - - 3 3 - 3 3 3
3: Strongly 2: Moderate 1: Weak

RTU Syllabus
Practical hrs – 2 Class: B.Tech. IV Yr. VII Sem. Branch: ECE
External Marks: 20 Internal Marks: 30 Total Marks: 50
Syllabus
SN Contents
1 Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.
Hardware based experiment;
1 To set up Fiber Optic Analog and fiber Optic Digital link.
2 Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture.
3 Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.
4 Study and measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, LDR and Laser
diode.
5 OTDR Measurement of Fiber Length, Attenuation and Dispersion Loss.
Software based experiment;
6 Design and simulate of single and multimode transmission in optical fiber
system.
7 Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis using Eye
diagram and measure the value of Q-factor & BER of optical signals.
8 Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in
optical fiber communication.
9 Design and simulate the Dispersion compensators for fiber optic
communication.
10 Design and calculate the power budget for optical communication link.
11 Design and simulate the DWDM and WDM techniques use in optical
communication.
12 Design and simulate the Fiber Bragg grating and find its transmission
characteristics and optical band-gap.

List of Experiments
SN Contents
Hardware based experiment;
1 To set up Fiber Optic Analog and fiber Optic Digital link.
2 Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture.
3 Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.
4 Study and measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, LDR and Laser
diode.
5 OTDR Measurement of Fiber Length, Attenuation and Dispersion Loss.
Software based experiment;
6 Design and simulate of single and multimode transmission in optical fiber
system.
7 Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis using Eye
diagram and measure the value of Q-factor & BER of optical signals.
8 Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in
optical fiber communication.
9 Design and simulate the Dispersion compensators for fiber optic
communication.
10 Design and calculate the power budget for optical communication link.
11 Design and simulate the DWDM and WDM techniques use in optical
communication.
12 Simulate the Fiber Bragg Grating for Compensation of Dispersion in
single mode fiber.
Beyond Curriculum Experiments:
13 Plot Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication Link
14 To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser

Experiments beyond RTU syllabus:
7EC4-23. a – Plot Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication Link
7EC4-23. b – To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser
Beyond PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO

syllabus 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
7EC4- 3 3 1 3 2 - - - 3 3 - 3 2 2
23.a
7EC4- 3 3 3 3 3 - - - - 3 - 3 3 1
23.b

Lab Ethics:
DO’S
1. Student should discuss about the theoretical and practical aspect of the experiment
which is allotted to him according to rotor chart, with the teacher. He should come to
the lab with learning about the allotted practical prior .
2. Student should get the record of previous experiment checked before starting the new
experiment.
3. Read the manual carefully before starting the experiment.
4. Before starting the experiment, get kit checked by the teacher.
5. Before switching on the power supply, get the circuit connections checked.
6. Get your readings and radiation pattern checked by the teacher.
7. Apparatus/all components must be handled carefully.
8. Maintain strict discipline.
9. Keep your mobile phone switched off or in vibration mode.
10. Students should get the experiment allotted for next turn, before leaving the lab.
DON’TS
1. Do not touch or attempt to touch the mains power supply wire with bare hands.
2. Do not overcrowd the tables.
3. Do not tamper with equipment’s.
4. Do not leave the lab without permission from the teacher.
5. For any changes on experimental trainer kit, call for technical assistant of teacher’s
help.

Safety Measures
 Do not operate the instrument if you suspect any damage within.
 The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
 For your Safety:
 Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this product.
 Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your country.
 Ground the Instrument : This product is grounded through the protective earth
conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric shock the grounding conductor
must be connected to the earth ground. Before making connections to the input
terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly grounded.
 Observe Terminal Ratings : To avoid fire or shock hazards, observe all ratings and
 marks on the instrument.
 Use only the proper Fuse : Use the fuse type and rating specified for this product.
 Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
 Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
 Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
 Keep the product dust free, clean and dry

Introduction of Lab
The purpose of this laboratory is to study different aspects of optical fiber like A/D link,
propagation loss, numerical aperture, optical power bending loss, characteristics of fibre
optics, LEDs, LDR, laser diode, OTDR measurement, design, study and simulation of
various optical fibers, its parameters and applications.
Optical Communication laboratory course flow process:
To start with this laboratory session, initially all students are told to study basics of optics
and trained to use the apparatus like ST2501, ST2502, ST2506, ST2510. Thorough
understanding of these is mandatory for proceeding with the courseware. Hardware
experiments will be performed on ST2501, ST2502, ST2506, ST2510. Experiments like
numerical aperture can be performed on virtual lab. Also the design aspects of antennas
are carried out through optisystem software. Instructions to the students are given in the
start of this document which they are advised to read before they start conducting
experiments
Introduction to optical communication

Fiber optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place
another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed in
the 1970s, fiber-optic communication systems have revolutionized the
telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the
Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers
have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks in the developed
world.
Fig. no.1: Optical Fiber

The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps:
Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the
fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical

signal, and converting it into an electrical signal. Communication may be broadly defined
as the transfer of information from one point to another. Before Fiber Optics came along,
the primary means of real time data communication was electrical in nature. It was
accomplished by using copper wire or by modulating information on to an
electromagnetic wave that acts as a carrier for the information signal. All these methods
have one problem in common the communication had to be over a straight-line path.
While, in Fiber Optic Communication, the optical wave propagates inside the fiber and
acquires the shape of the fiber. Fiber Optics provides an alternative means of sending
information over significant distances using light energy. Light as utilized for
communication has major advantages because it can be modulated at significant higher
frequencies than electrical signals. That is till 1870, when an Irish physicist John Tyndall
carried out a simple experiment. He filled a container with water and shone light into it.
In the dark room he pulled the bung from the opposite end of the container. The light
shone out in the direction of the curved path of the water. The light was guided and a new
science was born called Fiber Optics. This was achieved due to the refraction property of
the light, which made it possible to get the light reflected inside the optical fiber with
certain approaching angles within desired threshold and continuing the process within the
cable till the optical wave reached the other end and thus the light propagated inside the
optical fiber.
Introduction to Optical Fiber: An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts
as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The
field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of
optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic
communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to
electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in
bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces.
Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors
and fiber lasers.

Fig. no. 2: Optical Fiber Communication System
Fibre optics has been fabricated from materials that transmit light and are made from a
bundle of very thin glass or plastic Fibers enclosed in a tube. One end is at a source of
light and the other end is a camera lens, used to channel light and images around the
bends and corners. Fiber optics has a highly transparent core of glass, or plastic encircled
by a covering called "cladding". Light is stimulated through a source on one end of the
Fiber optic and as the light travels through the tube, the cladding is there to keep it all
inside. A bundle of Fiber optics may be bent or twisted without distorting the image, as
the cladding is designed to reflect these lighting images from inside the surface. This
Fiber optic light source can carry light over mass distances, ranging from a few inches to
over 100 miles. There are two kinds of Fiber optics. The single-mode Fiber optic is used
for high speed and long distance transmissions because they have extremely tiny cores
and they accept light only along the axis of the Fibers. Tiny lasers send light directly into
the Fiber optic where there are low-loss connectors used to join the Fibers within the
system without substantially degrading the light signal. Then there are multi-mode which
have much larger cores and accept light from a variety of angles and can use more types
of light sources. Multi-mode Fiber optics also uses less expensive connectors, but they
cannot be used over long distances as with the single-mode Fiber optics. Fiber optics has

a large variety of uses. Most common and widely used in communication systems, Fiber
optic communication systems have a variety of features that make it superior to the
systems that use the traditional copper cables. The uses of fiber optics with these systems
use a larger information-carrying capacity where they are not hassled with electrical
interference and require fewer amplifiers then the copper cable systems. Fiber optic
communication systems are installed in large networks of Fiber optic bundles all around
the world and even under the oceans. Many Fiber optic testers are available to provide
you with the best Fiber optic equipment.
Intoduction for harware kits:

1. Technical Specifications ST 2501 Optical Fiber Communication Kit
Transmitter : One Fiber Optic LED having peak wave length of emission 660 nm.
Receiver : One Fiber Optic Photo Detector.
Modulation Techniques :
● Direct Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation.
● Frequency Modulation /Demodulation.
● Pulse Width Modulation /Demodulation.
Clock : Crystal Controlled - 4.096 MHz.
Drivers : Analog & Digital
A.C. Amplifiers : 1 Number
Comparator : 1 Number
PLL Detector : 1 Number
Analog Bandwidth : 350 KHz
Digital Bandwidth : 2.5 MHz
Function Generator : 1 KHz Sine Wave (Amplitude adjustable) 1 KHz Square Wave
(TTL)
Voice Link : Fiber Optic Voice Link using built-in microphone &speaker
Switched Faults : Four in Transmitter & Four in Receiver
Fiber Optic Cable : Connector Type- Standard SMA
Cable type : Step Indexed Multimode PMMA plastic cable.
Core Refractive Index : 1.492
Clad Refractive Index : 1.406

Numerical Aperture : ³ 0.5

Acceptance angle : ³ 60 degree
Fiber diameter : 1000 microns (0.001 millimetres)
Outer Diameter : 2.2 mm
Fiber Length : 0.5 m & 1.0 m
Test Points : 29 in numbers
Interconnections : 2 mm Sockets
Power Supply : 110-220± 10%; 50/60 Hz
Power Consumption : 3 VA (approximately)
Dimensions : W 326 × H 52 × D 252 (mm)
Operating Condition : 0-400C, 80% RH
Weight : 1Kg. (approximately)
Fig. no.3: ST 2501 Optical Fiber Communication Kit
2. Technical Specifications ST 2502 Optical Fiber Communication Kit

Transmitter : 2 in number, fiber optic LED having peak wave length of emission 660 nm
& 950 nm (Optional LASER Source)
Receiver : 2 in number, fiber optic photo (-) detector
Modulation Techniques :
1. direct amplitude modulation & demodulation
2. Frequency modulation / demodulation
3. Pulse width modulation / demodulation
Drivers : Analog & digital for both channels separately
Comparator : 2 Nos.
AC Amplifiers : 2 Nos.
Clock : Crystal controlled - 4.096 MHz
PLL Detector : 1 No
Filters : 2 Nos, Low Pass Filter
Analog Band Width : 350 KHz
Digital Band Width : 2.5 MHz
Function Generator : 1. 1 KHz Sine wave (Amplitude adjustable)
2. 1 KHz Square wave (TTL)
Voice Link : Fiber Optics voice link using microphone & speaker (built in)
PC-PC Communication : Using two channels through RS232 interface.
RS 232 Port : 9 Pin D- type connector
Baud Rate : 19200 baud
Switched Faults : Four in transmitter & four in receiver
Fiber Optic Cable : Connector type standard SMA (sub miniature assembly) duly-
polished fiber at both end for maximum transmission & perfect round spot for numerical
aperture measurement
Cable type : Step indexed multimode PMMA plastic cable
Core Refractive Index : 1.492
Clad Refractive Index : 1.406
Numerical Aperture : Better than 0.5
Acceptance angle : Better than 60 degrees
Fiber Diameter : 1000 microns
Outer Diameter : 2.2 mm
Fiber Length : 0.5 m & 1 m
Inter connections : 2 mm sockets
Test Points : 50 nos.

Power Supply : 110-220V, ± 10%, 50 / 60 Hz

Power Consumption : 4.5 VA (approximately)
Interconnections : 2 mm Banana sockets
Test points : 50 Nos.
Dimensions (mm) : W 326 x H 52 x D 525
Weight : 2.5 Kg. (approximately)
Fig. no.4: ST 2502 Optical Fiber Communication Kit

3. Description of Transmitter Unit of ST 2506 Laser Fibre Optics Kit
The LASER controller and driver circuit facilitates study of LASER diode characteristics
in the automatic current control and automatic power control modes, selectable through
the toggle switch provided on the module. Intensity modulation with analogue or digital
signals is through Vin. The optical intensity/carrier level is settable by the knob marked
set IF. The LD current and the monitor photo detector current are monitored on the leads
marked VL and VM. Optical power is coupled to an optical fiber using the terminal SMA
connectors. In the case of free space communication the output from the module links to
the RX Unit through a line-of-sight path.

Description of Receiver Unit

Scientech 2506 RX Unit comprises two parts
a) The optical power meter, and
b) The linear detector
Fig. no.5: ST 2506 Laser Fibre Optics Kit

The Optical Power Meter converts the optical power incident at the port marked FO PIN
through an SMA terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of the optical power Po in
decibels referred to a milli watt. The two wires marked Po, are connected to the 0-2000 m
V range of the DMM. The optical power, in decibels, is given by DMM Reading/ 10 in
decibels referred to 1mw. As an example, if the meter reading is -193 then the optical
power Po is -193/10 dBm, or simplified,-19.30 dBm. For higher sensitivity, in some
experiments, one may use the 0-200.0 mV range of the DMM. In such cases too, the
DMM reading has to be divided by 10. As an example, if the DMM reading in the 0-
200.0mV range is -133.5 then the optical power, Po, is read as -13.35 dBm. The Optical
Power meter section can be used in experiments involving other equipment too. The
linear detector is activated through the port marked FO PT. The detector receives a
LASER (any optical) signal and demodulates the intensity modulated signal on the
carrier. For continuous wave light, a DC voltage proportional to the intensity results The
SMA connector facilitates coupling to an optical fiber.

4.Technical Specifications ST 2510 LED Radition Pattern Trainer Transmitter:

Wavelength (nm) : 565 nm (For Green light)
LED Rotation : 0 -360 degree with resolution of 1 degree
Transmitter circuitry : LED mast
Wavelength (nm) : 700 nm (For Red light)
Wavelength (nm) : 430 nm (For Blue light)
Receiver:
Wavelength (nm) : 940 nm
Receiver circuitry : Silicon phototransistor & Zero adjustment circuit.
General Specifications:
Power supply : 230V +/- 10%, 50 Hz
Dimensions (mm) : W325 ´ H90 ´ D255
Weight : 1.5 Kg (approximately)
Fig. no. 6: ST 2510 LED Radition Pattern Trainer

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Experiment no.-1
Aim: To set up Fiber Optic Analog and Fiber Optic Digital link.
Apparatus Required: ST2502 trainer with power supply cords
Components Required: Optical Fiber cable, Cathode ray oscilloscope with

necessary connecting probe.
Theory:
Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements: a transmitter, an optical
fiber and a receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form
and then transforms it into optical energy containing the same information. The
optical fiber is the medium which takes the energy to the receiver. At the receiver,
light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as fed to the
transmitter.
Transmitter: Fiber optic transmitters are composed of a buffer, driver and optical
source. The buffer provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the
transmitter and the electrical system the data. The driver provides electrical power to
the optical source. Finally, the optical source converts the electrical current to the
light energy with the same pattern. Commonly used optical sources are laser beams
and LED. The simple driver circuit is shown below.
The transmitter section comprises of Function Generator (which generates input
signals that are going to be used as information to transmit through optical fiber),
frequency modulator, pulse width modulator block.
The output voltage is 1KHz square wave signal. The modulator section accepts the
information signal and converts it into suitable form of transmission through fiber
optic cable.

Fig.no.1 A simple drive circuit for binary digital transmission consisting a common
emitter saturating switch.
The Fiber Optic Link: Emitter and Detector circuit on board form the fiber optic link.
This section provides the light source for the optic fiber and the light detector at the far
end of the fiber optic links. The optic fiber plugs into the connectors provided in this part
of the board. Two separate links are provided.
The Receiver: The comparator circuit, LPF, phase locked loop, AC amplifier circuit for
receiver on the board. It is able to undo the modulation process in order to recover the
original information signal.
Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable
Source Emitter Detector Circuit

(Sinusoidal Circuit CRO
(Photo Diode)
Signal) (LED)
Fig. no.1.1: Fiber Optic Link

Procedure:-
1. Connect the power supply to the board.

2. Ensure that all switched faults are off.
3. Make the following connections.
 Connect the Function generator 1KHz sine wave (for analog link) and
1KHz square wave (for digital link) output to emitter‟s input.
 Connect the Fiber optic cable between emitter output and detector‟s input.
 Detector‟s output to CRO.
4. On the board, switch emitter‟s driver to analog mode (for analog link).
5. Switch ON the power.
6. Observe the input to emitter with the output from CRO and note that the two
signals are same.
7. Repeat step 4,5,6 for digital link.
Fig.no.1.2: Fiber Optic Link connection diagram

Observation:
Type of link Input Output Loss of

Voltage(V) Voltage(V) Voltage(V)
1.Analog Link
2.Digital Link
Results :
1. Input voltage is of analog link is……….volts and for digital link is….volts
2.Output voltage of analog link received is…….volts and for digital link is….volts
3.Analog and digital link has been observed and there is low loss while the signal
propagates in optical link
Discussion:-
1. What is fiber optic and what are optc fiber parameter?

2. What is a light guide?
3. How many kinds of fibers are there?
4. What are fiber optics made of? Are there different qualities of fiber optics?
5. What are the methods of optical parameter measurement?

Experiment no.-2
Aim: Measurement of propagation loss and numerical aperture.
Apparatus Required:ST2502 trainer with power supply cords/ Vitual lab
Components Required: Optical Fiber cables, Numerical Aperture measurement

Jig/Paper & Scale, CRO.
Theory:
Propagation loss: Attenuation is loss of power during transit light pulse loses some
of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber usually
specified in decibels per kilometer for commercially available fibers attenuation
ranges from 1dB/Km for premium small core glass fibers of over 2000dB/Km for a
large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In common usage,
discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement for loss in a fiber
is made by taking the logarithmic ratio of input power ( ) to the output power ( ).
Calculation for propagation loss
α(dB) = 10 : where α is loss in dB/meter.
OR
= (L1+L2) : L1= length of shorter cable (0.5m)
= received voltage at 0.5m
: L2= length of longer cable (1m)

= received voltage at 1m
hence; α =…. Nepers/m : (1 neper= 8.686dB)
Procedure :-
1. Make the following connections.

 Connect the Function generator 1KHz sine wave to emitter‟s circuit by a
4mm lead.
 Connect the 0.5m Fiber optic cable between emitter output and detector‟s
input.
 Connect detector’s output to CRO.
Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable (1m and

1.5 m)

(Sinusoidal Circuit
(Photo Diode) CRO
Signal) (LED)
Fig.no.2.1: Propagation Loss
2. Switch ON the power.

3. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5V/Div and adjust 4-6 Div. Amplitude by using
cross x 1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator block at input of
emitter.
4. Observe the output signal from detector on CRO.
5. Adjust the amplitude of received signal as those of transmitted one with the help of
gain adjust pot in ac amplifier block. Note the amplitude and name it as .
6. Now replace the previous fiber optic cable with 1m cable without disturbing any
previous setting.
7. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier obne socket.
Note this value and name it as
8. Calculate propagation (attenaution) loss with the help of formula
(b) Numerical Aperture: The numerical aperture refers to maximum angle at which the
incident on fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted along the fiber. The
cone formed by rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance
of fiber. if light ray should strike the fiber end within this cone of acceptance it will be
transmitted properly else it is refracted out of fiber. It is very important that the optical
source be properly aligned with the cable and the distance from the launched point &
cable can be properly selected to ensure the maximum amount of optical power is
transferred to the cable. this can be done by a Jig.

Fig.no.2.2 (a): Principle of calculating NA with Jig and scale

OR
Fig.no.2.2 (b): Principle of calculating NA (virtual lab)
Calculation for numerical aperture (NA):
NA= =sin
where: W= width of concentric circles (mm)

L=distance between screen and fibre(mm)

Procedure (for numerical aperture) :-
1. Connect the frequency generator's 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1
circuit.
2. Adjust its amplitude at 5Vpp.
Block Diagram:
Fig.no. 2.3: Numerical Aperture Measurement
3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and the
other end to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen
facing the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4. Hold white screen with concentric circles (10,15,20,25mm diameter) vertically at
a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with the 10mm
circle
5. Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the
spot and compute the numerical aperture according to formula.

Fig.no. 2.4: Numerical Aperture jig connection diagram

OR
Procedure for numerical aperture (Virtual Lab):-
(https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/basics-of-physics/exp/numerical-aperture-measurement/index.html)
1. Open simulation tab

2. Click on all the components and they will be arranged on the workspace given
3. Start the experiment. An optical source will be illuminated.
4. Select the type of cable, glass cable or optical cable.
5. Vary the distance ‘L’(mm) and diameter ‘D’ (mm will be calculated in message
box. Each shift of L will produce different D
6. Copy all the values of D and L in data-table
7. Click on “Draw the graph” and apply formula of NA given above and then verify.
Observation:
1. For Propagation loss: received voltage =…volts

received voltage =…volts

hence; α =…. Nepers/m
2. For numerical aperture
Table 2.1
W (mm) L(cm) NA
10
15
20
25
OR
Paste the observation window of Numerical aperture simulated in virtual lab
Results:
1. As length of optical fiber increases, propagation loss increases which is calculated to
be is……………….neper/meter.
2.NA is dependent on the width and length. Hence, for W=…....L……NA…..
OR
Percentage error of NA produced in virtual lab is…………
Discussion:-
1. Define propagation loss. What is its unit?
2. Explain single and multi-mode fiber.
3. Explain the condition to satisfy total internal reflection.
4. what do you mean by refractive index?
5. Define critical angle.
6. Numerical aperture depends upon……….

Experiment no.-3
Aim: Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.
Apparatus Required: ST2502 trainer with power supply cords.
Components Required: Optical Fiber cables, mandrel, CRO.
Theory:
Micro Bending: A problem that often occurs in cabling of the optical fiber is the
twisting of the fiber core axis on a microscopic scale within the cable form. This
phenomenon, known as micro bending result from small lateral forces exerted on
the fiber during the cabling process and it causes losses due to radiation in both
multimode and single mode fiber.
Fig.no.3.1: Micro Bending in Optical Fiber

Macro bends : The light propagates down the optic fiber solely because the
incident angle exceeds the critical angle. If a sharp bend occurs, the normal and the
critical angle move round with the fiber. The incident ray continues in a straight line
and it finds itself approaching the core - cladding boundary at an angle less than the
critical angle and much of light is able to escape.

Fig.no. 3.2 Macro Bending in Optical Fiber

Procedure :-
1. Connect Power Supply cord to the main power plug & to Scientech 2502.
2. Make the connections as shown in next figure 3.3.
3. Function Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input socket of emitter Circuit
via 4 mm lead.
4. Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter output and detectors input.
5. Connect Detector output to amplifier input socket via 4mm lead.
6. Switch ‘On’ the Power Supply of the TechBook and Oscilloscope.
7. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V/ Div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by
using X 1 probe with the help of variable pot in Function Generator Block at
input of Emitter.
8. Observe the output signal from detector (TP8) on CRO.
9. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the
help of gain adjusts potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude
and name it V1 .
10. Wind the fiber optic cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC
amplifier output on CRO, it will be gradually reducing, showing loss due to
bends.

Fig.no. 3.3: Mandrel connection diagram
Observation:
1. Loss of Voltage(V) without mandrel/before bending

Table no.3.1:
LINK Input Output Voltage Loss

Voltage(V) Voltage(V) (V)
Analog
Link

2. Loss of Voltage(V) with mandrel/after bending

Table no.3.2:
Link Input Voltage(V) Output Voltage

Voltage(V) Loss(V)
Analog
Link
Results :
1. Loss of voltage of analog link is………. volts without mandrel
2. Loss of voltage of analog link is………. volts with mandrel
Discussion:-
1. What is the reason of bending losses?
2. What is core and cladding?
3. What is the function of cladding?

Experiment no.-4
Aim: Study and measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, LDR and Laser
Diode.
Apparatus Required: ST2510 trainer On board DC power supply, Transmitter

Assembly, Receiving Assembly, Goniometer (Circular scale graduated in degrees
for LED rotation)
Components Required: LEDs (Red, Green, Blue), DMM
THEORY: a) Light-emitting diode (LED)

It is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent narrow spectrum light when
electrically biased in the forward direction. This effect is a form of
electroluminescence. The color of the emitted light depends on the chemical
composition of the semi conducting material used. A LED is a special type of
semiconductor diode. Like a normal diode, it consists of a chip of semi conducting
material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a structure called a p-n
junction. Charge carriers - electrons and holes flow into the junction from electrodes
with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy
level, and releases energy in the form of a photon as it does so. The light emitted at a
p-n junction is proportional to the bias. Electroluminescence occurs when minority
carriers recombine with carriers of the opposite type in a diode's band gap. The
wavelength of the emitted light varies primarily due to the choice of semiconductor
materials used, because the band gap energy varies with the semiconductor. An LED
is a device which converts electrical energy into light. It emits light by spontaneous
emission. When the minority charge carriers recombine radiatively with the majority
charge carriers, photons are emitted. This is the basic light generation process in
semiconductor.

Fig.no: 4.1: Red LED
LEDs composed of a combination of GaAsP (Gallium arsenide phosphide) and INP

(indium phosphate) cover the wavelengths from the 1300 to 1550nm band and are the
ones usually used in optical fiber communication systems. The surface emitting LEDs
emit the light in a direction perpendicular to the pn – junction plane and hence, to the
surface, allows more efficient coupling to the optical fiber. Edge-emitting LEDs have a
relatively small beam divergence, and thus are capable of launching more optical power
into a given fiber than are the conventional surface emitting LEDs. Because of the form
of its radiant pattern, a surface emitting LED is more suitable to use with a multimode
fiber, while an Edge emitting LED can be used with a single mode fiber.
Wave length of Different colours of LED:
Procedure :-
1. Connect the LED mast in the left BNC female of the board i.e. Transmitter side as
shown in figure 4.2 A.

2. Connect the phototransistor mast in the right BNC female of the board i.e.
receiver side as shown in figure 4.2 B.
3. Insert Blue LED in LED mast such that longer lead goes to positive terminal and
shorter lead goes to negative terminal indicated on the mast. Longer lead indicates
anode of LED and shorter lead indicates cathode of LED.
4. Put LED in out of phase with respect to phototransistor i.e. 180 degree .
5. Turn ‘On’ the power supply of the trainer.
6. Connect digital voltmeter in between socket A and ground.
7. Adjust potentiometer so that the output voltage at socket A is approximately zero.
8. Put LED in same phase with respect to phototransistor i.e. 360/0 degree.
9. Connect digital voltmeter in between socket B and ground.
10. Measure output voltage at Socket B with respect to ground.
11. Rotate LED with few degrees and measure voltage change in output.
12. Repeat this process for full 360 degree rotation.
13. When LED and phototransistor are in phase then output voltage is maximum, and
if both are out of phase then output voltage is minimum.
14. Tabulate the results in the following manner.
15. Repeat the procedure from 1 to12 point with green LED and Red LED.
16. Plot the graph between input angle Vs output voltage.
Fig.no.4.2: Connector Diagram

Fig.no. 4.2.a: Connector Diagram Fig.no. 4.2 b: Connector Diagram
Fig.no. 4.2.c: Connector Diagram
Observation:
Table 4.1
S.No. Input Angle Output Voltage (V) Output Voltage Output Voltage
Rotation for Green LED (V) for Red (V) for Blue
(theta) LED LED
1 0
2 10
4 20
… 360

Results: Plot Radiation intensity pattern of all three LEDs v/s Beam angle.
Fig. 4.3 Radiation Intensity pattern of LED

B) LDR
Apparatus Required: ST2506
Components Required: LDR, Bread Board, DMM (2), Connecting wires, Optical
source
Theory: LDR - A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a

light-controlled variable resistor which offers resistance in response to the ambient
light.
 The resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light increases, and vice versa.
 In the absence of light, LDR exhibits a resistance of the order of mega-ohms
which decreases to few hundred ohms in the presence of light.
 Active infrared sensors employ both infrared source and infrared detectors. They
operate by transmitting energy from a LED or laser diode.
 The LED or laser diode illuminates the target, and the reflected energy is focused
onto a detector. Photoelectric cells, Photodiode or phototransistors are generally
used as detectors.
 These sensors are used as reflective opto-sensors which are either intensity based
or use modulated IR.
Fig.no. 4.4: Schematic of LDR Fig.no.4.5: Circuit Diagram
Procedure:-
1. As per the circuit given attach an LDR on breadboard..

2. Next, attach a Digital multimeter (DMM) set at “R” ohms in parallel to LDR.
3. Next, again attach a DMM set at “V” which is in-turn connected to Laser Diode
kit ST2506.
4. Then, illuminate an optical source/ optical fiber on LDR, through a Laser Diode
kit ST2506.
5. Change the voltage/ Intensity/Illumination from variable pot given in ST2506 and
observe voltage/intensity/illumination reading from DMM. Note it.
6. In response to step 5, observe the resistance in DMM, which was attached, as in
step 2 above. Note it.
7. Plot a graph for “Resistance v/s Illumination” for all changes of
voltage/intensity/illumination.
Observation: Table 4.2
S.n. Voltage/ Resistance

Intensity/Illumination
……
Results: From the plot it is revealed that the resistance decreases as the intensity of
incident light increases.

Fig. no.4.6: LDR optical characteristics

C) LASER DIODE
Apparatus Required: ST 2506 Laser Fiber Optics
Components Required: Digital Multi-meters, optical cable
Theory: Laser diode- LEDs and LASER Diodes are the commonly used sources in
optical communication systems, whether the system transmits digital or analogue
signals. In the case of analogue transmission, direct intensity modulation of the
optical sources is possible provided the optical output from the source can be varied
linearly as a function of the modulating electrical signal amplitude. LEDs have a
linear optical output with relation to the forward current over a certain region of
operation. It may be mentioned that in many low-cost, short-haul and small
bandwidth applications. LEDs at 660nm, 850nm, and 1300nm are popular. While
direct intensity modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is achieved by
fm modulating the base-band signal prior to intensity modulation. LASER Diodes
are used in telecom, data com and video communication applications involving high
speeds and long hauls. All single mode optical fiber communication systems use
LASERs in the 1300nm and 1550 nm windows. LASERs with very small line
widths also facilitate realization of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) for
high density communication over a singe fiber. The inherent properties of LASER
diodes that make them suitable for such applications are high coupled optical power
into the fiber (Typically greater than 1 mW), high stability of optical intensity, small
line-widths (less than 0.05 nm in special devices), high speed (several GHz) and
high linearity (over a specified region suitable for analogue transmission). Special
LASERs also provide for generation/ amplification of, optical signals within an
optical fiber. These fibers are known as erbium doped fiber amplifiers; LASER
diodes for communication applications are available in the wavelength regions
650nm, 780nm, 850nm, 980nm, 1300nm and 1550nm. Even though a variety of
LASER diode constructions are available there are a number of common features in
all of them. We have selected a very simple device (650nm/2.5 mw) to demonstrate
the functioning of a LASER diode.

Specifications of typical LASER diode at 650 nm are summarized below.
A LASER diode has a built in photo detector, which one can employ to monitor the
optical intensity of the LASER at a specified forward current. This device is also
effectively utilized in designing an optical negative feedback control loop, to stabilize
the optical power of a LASER in the steep lasing region. The electronic circuit scheme
that employs the monitor photodiode to provide a negative feedback for stabilization of
optical power is known as the Automatic Power Control Mode (APC). If a closed loop
employs current control alone to set optical power then this mode is called the
Automatic Current Control Mode (ACC). The disadvantage of ACC scheme is that the
optical power output may not stable at a given current due to the fact that small shifts in
the lasing characteristics occur with temperature changes and ageing. The disadvantage
of the APC is that the optical feedback loop may cause oscillations, if not designed
properly.
Fig.no. 4.7: Schematic of a LASER diode Operation (ACC Mode)

Procedure :-
Fig.no.4.8: Schematic of a LASER diode connections
Procedure with Block Schematic for Po vs IF experiments:
1. Connect the 2 meter PMMA FO cable (cable 1) to TX Unit and couple the LASER
light to the power meter FO PIN on the RX Unit as shown. Select ACC mode of
operation.
2. Set DMM 1 to the 2000 mV range. On the RX side connect the wires marked Po to it.
Turn it on. The power meter is now ready for use. Po = (reading)/10 dBm. It required
change the DMM range to 200mV.
3. Set DMM2 to the 200.0 mV range and connect it between the wire VL and ground on
the TX unit. IF = VL /100.
4. Adjust the SET IF on the TX knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce IF
to zero. The power meter reading will normally be below -40dBm or out of range.
5. Slowly turn the SET IF knob clockwise to increase IF and Po, Note IF and Po
readings. Take closer reading prior to and above the LASER threshold of LASER Diode.
6. Plot the graph Po vs IF on a semi log graph sheet. Determine the slopes prior to lasing
and after lasing. Record the LASER threshold LASER Diode current.

Observation: Plot the graph Po vs IF on a semi log graph sheet through the following
Table 4.3
Results:
Fig.no.4.9: Laser Diode- optical characteristics
From the above Table and graph it is seen that the LASER optical output does not
increase appreciably for IF below the threshold LASER Diode current Ith. Above Ith, Po
increases steeply Po is very steep. The LASER threshold LASER Diode may be
determined from the graph or by recording closer readings.

Discussion:-
1. On what parameter the color of LED depends?
2. How the light is emitted from LED?
3. When Electroluminescence occurs?
4. Wavelength of emitted light depends on which factors?
5. Which type of emission is employed for LED?
6. How does an LDR work?
7. Why does LDR resistance increase?
8. How many types of LDR are there?
9. What are the applications of LDR?
10. What is the optical source effect on LDR?
11. What is fiber optics?
12. What are the sources used in optical communication?
13. What are the characteristics of laser radiation?
14. What is the principle used in fiber optic communication system?
15. How does a laser diode work?


Experiment no.-5
Aim: OTDR Measurement of Fiber Length, Attenuation and Dispersion

Loss.
Apparatus Required: OTDR
Components Required: Unknown length of two different types of fibers connected

together with three splices (two fusion splices and one mechanical splice). The fiber
types are: 50m multimode GI (orange) and 62.5m multimode GI (gray).
Theory: The definition of an "OTDR" stands for Optical Time Domain

Reflectometer which is a fiber optic instrument used to characterize, troubleshoot
and maintain optical telecommunication networks. OTDR testing is performed by
transmitting and analyzing pulsed laser light traveling through an optical fiber. The
measurement is said to be unidirectional as the light is insert at extremity of a fiber
optic cable link. Using information obtained from the resultant light signature
reflected or scattered back to the point of origin, the OTDR acts as an optical radar
system, providing the user with detailed information on the location and overall
condition of splices, connections, defects and other features of interest.
Working: An OTDR contains a laser diode source, a photodiode detector and a

highly accurate timing circuit (or time base). The laser emits a pulse of light at a
specific wavelength, this pulse of light travels along the fiber being tested, as the
pulse moves down the fiber portions of the transmitted light are reflected/refracted
or scattered back down the fiber to the photo detector in the OTDR. The intensity of
this returning light and the time taken for it to arrive back at the detector tells us the
loss value (insertion and reflection), type and location of an event in the fiber link.
The OTDR tests the optical fibre link that contains multiple splices and connections
that can be subject to failure. The optical return loss (ORL) and reflectance can be
used to diagnose conditions where more loss than expected is occurring at a specific
location in the fiber run. The total fiber attenuation can also be assessed, since the
amount of backscatter provides an indication of this value. These same principles
are used to calculate distance measurements that are invaluable when repair,
troubleshooting or maintenance needs arise. The end of the fiber link or a fiber break
will be detectable through Fresnel reflection, since a break or unterminated fiber end
is also a change in material media (glass to air).
Block Diagram:
Fig.no.5.1: Light is returned to the photo detector through a number of mechanisms

in OTDR.
Specifications of OTDR
1. OTDR Trace- The reflected light is traced on the display screen of the
reflectometer. The figure below represents the trace of the reflected power on the
screen of OTDR:

Fig.no. 5.2: Representation of trace of OTDR
As we can see that in the above figure that the y-axis represents the optical power level of
the reflected signal. While the x-axis represents the distance between the measurement
points of the fiber link. Now, on observing the trace of the OTDR, we can list the
features of the reflected wave:
1. The positive spikes in the trace are the result of Fresnel reflection at the joints of
the fiber link and the imperfections in the fiber.
2. The shifts in the curve are due to losses that occur due to fiber joints.
3. A deteriorated tail in the curve is the outcome of Rayleigh scattering. As Rayleigh
scattering is the result of fluctuations in the refractive index of the fiber and is the
major reason for the attenuation of the signal inside the fiber.
2. OTDR Dead Zone- The dead zone is the distance in the fiber cable at which the defects
cannot be measured properly. In case a very major portion of the transmitted signal is
reflected then the received power at the photodetector is highly greater than the
backscattered power level. This saturates the OTDR with the light and hence it needs
some duration to overcome the saturation. In this recovery duration, the reflectometer is
unable to detect the backscattered reflection. Thereby leading to generate a dead zone in
the trace of OTDR.

3.Dynamic range: This is basically the difference between the backscattered optical
power at the front connector and the peak of the noise level at the other end of the fiber.
By evaluating the dynamic range one can get an idea about the maximal measured loss
inside the fiber link and the time needed for such a measurement.
4.Measurement range: The measurement range is nothing but provides the distance up
to which splice or connection points can be detected by the OTDR. Its value relies on the
width of the transmitted pulse and the attenuation.
Figure 5.3 shows an imaginary OTDR trace of an optical fiber link in which three
different types of fibers are connected together to form the entire link. This
arrangement is not very common in practice, but some existing links use more thanone
fiber type. The reason we know that three different types of fibers exist in the link (whose
OTDR scan is shown in Figure 5.3) is because there are three distinct straightlines (due to
Rayleigh scatter) with different slopes. The first line segment has aslightly larger slope
than the second straight line segment. This means fiber 1 isslightly lossier than fiber 2.
Therefore, they must be different types of fibers.From the trace, we also know that the
lengths of fibers 1, 2 and 3 are , , respectively. We already know how to
find the fiber’s attenuation in dBper unit length by finding the slope of each straight line
segment, since we did this in the previous experiment. The splice between fibers 1 and 2,
located at z= is nonreflective because of the sudden decrease in the reflected power
without a spike. Non-reflective event can be due to either a good splice, fiber break or
fiber bends. We can find the loss of this splice, simply by calculating the difference in the
power levels before and after the splice . The joint between fibers 2 and 3, located
at z= is reflective because of the sudden increase (with a spike) in the reflected power
(if the sudden increase has no spike, then it must be interpreted as a non-reflective event).
The joint between fibers 2 and 3 could be due to either a poor splice or a connector. The
loss due to this joint can be calculated as before i.e. . The trace also shows a
reflective fiber’s end at z= . This is due to light reflection at the glass/air interface
(Fresnel reflection) at the fiber’s end. If desired, the fiber’s end can be made non-
reflected. This can be done by immersing the fiber’s end into an index-matched fluid (a

fluid that has the same refractive index as glass) to minimize Fresnel reflection.
Alternatively, it is also possible to wrap the fiber’s end several times around a tight bend
to produce a nonreflective end. The tight bend causes large power loss, without reflection.
In this manner, the light reaching the un-terminated fiber’s end becomes too weak to
detect.
Fig.no.5.3: An Imaginary OTDR Trace of an Optical Fiber Link Consisting of Three

Different Fiber Types Spliced Together. The OTDR Trace Shows the Locations of the
Reflective Events, the Non-Reflective Events and the Link’s End .
The OTDR trace shown in Figure 5.3 assumes that the three fibers used in the link
have the same Rayleigh scattering coefficients. Rayleigh scattering coefficient is
related to the fraction of power scattered due to Rayleigh scatter.
For instance, suppose fiber 2 has a significantly higher Rayleigh scattering coefficient
than fibers 1 and 3, then the OTDR scan of Figure 1 may be modified to the one shown
in Figure 2. The OTDR trace due to Rayleigh scatter from fiber 2 appears as power gain.
In this link, it is impossible to have optical power gain, because the system does not
have optical amplifiers. The sudden rise in power is simply due to the higher percentage

of power scattered from fiber 2. In reality the optical power in fiber 2 is less than the
optical power in fiber .
Fig.no.5.4: Sudden Rise in the Scattered Power when Fiber 2 has a higher Rayleigh
Scattering Coefficient than Fiber 1 and Fiber 3
When two fibers with different Rayleigh scattering coefficients are joined together,
the joint loss cannot be calculated using the difference in power and . The
only way to compute the joint loss in this case is by first knowing the Rayleigh
scattering coefficient of the two fibers. Unfortunately, we do not know the values of
the Rayleigh scattering coefficients for the fiber types used in the experimental link.
To summarize: when two different fiber types are joined together, the joint loss
cannot be computed from the OTDR trace, unless the Rayleigh scattering coefficients
of the two fibers are known

Result: We have successfully studied OTDR working principles and characteristics.
Discussion:-
1. Is the end of the link reflective or non-reflective? If it is reflective, what can you
do
to make it non-reflective?
2. In some cases, it is possible to immediately know if the link has more one type of
fiber (without finding the fiber loss in dB/km).


Introduction to Optisystems
Global Parameters
1. Opening the global parameters dialog

To open the global parameters dialog, perform the following action.
Action
 Double-click in the Project layout window.
 The Layout Parameters dialog opens (see Figure 1).
OR
 Select Layout > Parameters from the Menu tool bar.
 The Layout Parameters dialog opens (see Figure 1)
2. Editing global parameters
To edit global parameters, perform the following procedure.
1.Double-click in the Project layout. The Layout Parameters dialog box appears
(see Figure 1).
2 Select or clear global parameters as required.
Fig.no. 1: Layout Parameters dialog

When you create a new design, you must define the global simulation parameters. These
parameters are critical to the simulation. They show the speed, accuracy, and memory
requirements for a particular simulation during the system design stage. It is important to
understand what the global parameters are, because they have an impact on all the
components that use these parameters (see Figure 2)
Fig.no. 2: Global parameters relationships
Time spacing = 1 / Sample rate = Time window / Number of samples
Frequency spacing - 1 / Time window - Sample rate / Number of samples
Time window = Sequence length * Bit period - Sequence length / Bit rate
Number of samples - Sequence length * Samples per bit - Time window * Sample rate

3. Simulation parameters
Fig 3: Simulation parameters
Simulation window
Specifies the setup mode for entering the parameters that define the main simulation
parameters:
• Set bit rate: Allows you to enter the Bit rate. This is the default mode — you can easily
set up the simulation using typical parameters such as Bit rate, Sequence length, and
Samples per bit.
• Set time window: Allows you to enter the Time window value
• Set sample rate: Allows you to enter the Sample rate
The parameter Bit rate recalculates based on these parameters.
Reference bit rate- If this parameter is enabled, when you select Set time window or Set
sample rate in the Simulation window, it will find the closest Time window or Sample
rate without changing the Bit rate.

Bit rate- The value of the global bit rate is in bits per second. All components can access
this parameter (see Figure 4). The global bit rate can affect components such as Bit
sequence generators because components that require this parameter use is as a
default value. An expression relative to this bit rate value is used to define the default
value for the bandwidth or cutoff frequency of most electrical filters. When you change
this global parameter, you can change the bit rate setting of all modules in the design
simultaneously.
Fig.no. 4: Global parameter Bit rate
Time window -Specifies in seconds the Time window of the simulation. OptiSystem
shares the parameter Time window with all components. This means that each
component works with the same Time window. Since the Time window defines the
frequency spacing in the frequency domain, the sampled signal will always have the same
frequency spacing. This parameter is best expressed in terms of the sequence length and
the bit rate used during the simulation. It affects all components.

Sample rate- Specifies the frequency simulation window or simulation bandwidth in Hz

(see Figure 5). It can affect components such as pulse generators and optical sources
that generate signals at different sample rates. It is often convenient to operate all
modules in the design at the same sample rate. This can be done easily by using this
global parameter. The default parameter for all components requiring sample rate is
referred to as the global sample rate. When you change this global parameter, you
can change the sample rate setting of all modules in the design simultaneously.
Fig.no.:5 Global parameter sample rate Fig.no.: 6 Global parameter Sequence length
Sequence length- The length of the bit sequence in number of bits. It must be a power of
two
Samples per bit- Number of samples for bit used to discretize the sampled signals. It
must be a power of two.
Number of samples: This read-only parameter shows the number of samples calculated
by the product of Sequence length and Samples per bit.

Fig.no.7: Global parameter iterations Fig.no 8: Global parameter signals
Iterations-Number of signal blocks generated by each simulation. It mainly affects

transmitters and components used in bidirectional simulations and in network ring
design. By increasing the parameter iterations a component will repeat the previous
calculation until the number of calculations is equal to the iterations. Refer to the
tutorial lesson: Working with multiple iterations.
Initial Delay- This parameter forces a component to generate a null signal at each output
port. It affects all components and it is mainly used in bidirectional simulations. The user
does not have to add delays at the component input ports if using this parameter.
Refer to the tutorial lesson: Working with multiple iterations.
Parameterized
Defines whether the signal output will be sampled signals (disabled) or parameterized
signals (enabled). It can affect components such as optical sources and optical pulse
generators.

Synchronize-Defines whether bit rates will be recalculated in order to make sure that the
number of samples and the number of bits are both power of two numbers. It can affect
components such as pulse generators, decoders and BER analyzers
Noise parameters
Convert noise bins- Selects whether noise within a sampled band's frequency range is
added to the sampled signal or represented separately as noise bins. The default value is
disabled, which means the noise propagate is separated from the signals. It can affect the
Erbium doped fiber amplifiers and the photo detectors
Fig.no 9: Global parameter noise
Spatial Effects Parameters- The spatial effects parameters affect the components that
generate spatial modes, where the discretization space and the level of the discretization
should be defined. The number of points per spatial mode is defined as the product of the
number of points in the X and Y coordinates.

Fig.no. 10: Global spatial effects parameters
 Space Width X- This is the space for the X coordinate.

 Space Width Y- This is the space for the Y coordinate.
 Grid Spacing Width X- The grid spacing for the X coordinate. The space width
divided by the grid spacing gives the number of points in the X coordinate.
 Grid Spacing Width Y- The grid spacing for the Y coordinate. The space width
divided by the grid spacing gives the number of points in the Y coordinate
Signal Tracing Parameters- OptiSystem allows for fast estimation of power and noise
at each output port. This estimation is calculated every time a signal is sent to the
component output port. The signal tracing parameters allow the user to control the
calculation and presentation of the results.
 Calculate Signal Tracing-Defines if the signal will be traced.

 Power Unit- The units used to display the results (dBm, W or mW).
 Frequency Unit-The units used to display the results (Hz, m, THZ or nm).
 Decimal Places-The number of decimal places to use when displaying the results.
 Sensitivity-The minimum output power that the calculation can detect.
 Resolution-The spectral resolution bandwidth of the calculation.
 Calculate Noise Floor-Defines if the noise floor will be calculated using
interpolation.
This is an important parameter when the noise is added to the signal.

 Interpolation Offset-The interpolation offset from the signal channel center
frequency used to estimate the noise floor.
Fig.no.10: Global signal tracing parameters


Experiment No-6
Aim: Design and simulate single and multimode transmission in optical fiber
system.
Software Required: Opti-system (a module of Opti-wave)
Configuration Required: 64 bit system with windows7 or 8 or 10
Theory:
1. Single mode optical fiber- Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with
a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode
Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will
propagate typically 1310nm or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode
fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-
mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode
fiber.Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times
more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a
much smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually
eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing
the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable
type. Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order
bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to
1320nm.
2. Multi-mode optical fiber- Multimode cable is made of of glass fibers, with a
common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component
(the most common size is 62.5). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which
promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower
cost. Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds over medium
distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel
through the cable’s core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core
diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater

than 3000 feet [914.4 ml), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the
receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission.
Difference between multimode and single mode fiber? Multimode fiber has a
relatively large light carrying core, usually 62.5 microns or larger in diameter. It is
usually used for short distance transmissions with led based fiber optic equipment.
Single-mode fiber has a small light carrying core of 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It
is normally used for long distance transmissions with laser diode based fiber optic
transmission equipment. Multimode fiber will allow transmission distances of up
to about 10 miles and will allow the use of relatively inexpensive fiber optic
transmitters and receivers. There will be bandwidth limitations of a few hundred
MHz per Km of length. Consequently, a 10 mile link will be limited to about 10
to 30 MHz. For CCTV this will be fine but for high speed data transmission it may
not be. Single-mode fiber on the other hand will be useful for distances well in
excess of 10 miles but will require the use of single-mode transmitters (which
normally use solid-state laser diodes). The higher cost of these optical emitters
mean that single-mode equipment can be anywhere from 2 to 4 times as expensive
as multimode equipment.
Fig.no.6: Difference between single and multimode optical fiber

Procedure :-
Set the global parameters. For multimode simulations, there are additional parameters
that will define the space window for the transverse mode profiles. These parameters are
the Space width X and Y and the Grid spacing X and Y, and are available in the global
parameters window. Click layout and then Parameters. (figure 1)
Fig.no.6.1: Global parameters: Spatial effects tab

1. Use the default parameters, except for the bit rate, that should
be changed to 10 GB/s
2. In the global parameters dialog box, change the parameter Bit rate to 10e9. The
Time window parameter should be 1.28e-8 s (Figure 2).

Fig.no.6.2: Global parameters: simulation parameters tab

3. After setting the global parameters, start adding the components to design the
basic multimode transmitter. From the component library drag and drop the
following component in to the layout:
 From "Default/Transmitters Library/Optical Source", drag and drop the "CW
Laser" into the layout.
 From "Default/Transmitters(multimode) Library/Multimode(mode generator)",
drag and drop the "Multimode-Generator" component into the layout.
 From "Default/Visualizers(multimode) Library/(visualizers)Optical/", drag and
drop the "Spatial Visualizer" into the layout.

Fig.no.6.3: Multimode transmitter
4. Spatial effects tab- The spatial effects tab is available for all the spatial optical
sources, transmitters and pulse generators, as well as for the transverse mode
generator components. One of the main parameters of the spatial effects tab is the
Power ratio array. This array is a string list with the power ratios for each mode.
 For example, entering a list of 4 values will allow the user to also specify
the properties of a particular mode type for each of these values.
 Open the parameters of the “Multimode Generator” component.
 In the spatial effects tab, for the Power ratio array parameter, enter the
following values: 1 2 3 4.
 Notice that the parameter Pol. X LP index array will automatically
increase the number of values for the LP index pairs for the generated
modes (Figure 6.4).
 In the spatial effects tab, for the Pol. X LP index array parameter, enter the
following values: 0 0, 2 2, 3 0, 3 1. This means the multimode generator
will generate 4 spatial modes per polarization.

Fig.no. 6.4: Multimode transmitter

5. Running the simulation and analyze the results:
 Go to the File menu and select Calculate.
 You can also press Control+F5 or use the calculate button in the toolbar.
 After you select Calculate, the calculation dialog box should appear.
 In the calculation dialog box, press the Play button. The calculation should
perform without errors.
6. In order to see the results, double click the Spatial visualizer.

Using the spatial visualizer, you can see the profile of each mode presented at the
visualizer input port.
7. The user can select the polarization (X or Y), the format (Polar
or Rectangular) and the graph (Power, Phase, Real or Imaginary part).
Additionally, the sum of the modes can be displayed, as well as the weighted sum
(Figure 6.5).

8. Observe that the spatial dimensions of the graphs are the same as defined by the
global parameters Space width X and Y.
9. In order to browse through the modes that are available at the input port, change
the
mode number parameter and press <Enter>. The visualizer will recalculate the
graphs and present the individual mode at the parameter mode index.
10. Figure 6.6 presents the real values using rectangular format for each available
mode at the input port.
11. The combination of the CW Laser and the Multimode Generator component can
be
replaced by the Spatial CW Laser component (figure 6.7):
 From "Default/Transmitters Library/Optical Source", drag and drop the
"Spatial
CW Laser" into the layout.
 In the Spatial CW Laser parameters, use the same parameter values of the
spatial effects tab from the Multimode Generator. Run the simulation
again.
 The results from the spatial visualizer will be the same as presented in
Figure 6.5 and Figure 6.6
Fig.no.6.7: Multimode transmitter using a Spatial CW Laser

Observation:
Fig.no.6.5: Spatial visualizer can display-Individual, Sum and Weighted sum of modes
Result:
Fig.no.6.6: Spatial visualizer displays the real part of the individual modes for each
mode index

Discussion:
1. What is optical transmitter?
2. How does an optical transmitter work?
3. What are the main elements of an optical transmitter?
4. What is the difference between single mode and multimode step index fiber?
5. Why is single mode better than multimode?


Experiment No-7
Aim: Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis using Eye
diagram and measure the value of Q-factor & BER of optical signals
Configuration Required: windows7,8,10 and 64 bit
Theory: Similar to the multimode transmitter, where a ready-to-use spatial

component from the library, or build new spatial components by combining the spatial
and no-spatial components were used, OptiSystem has also different multimode
receiver components. So an optical system network is introduced for performance
analysis.
 Eye diagram is a measure of the distortion of the signal. Eye diagram summarize
the effect of ISI by showing the response of 0 and 1. We start with an ideal
rectangular pulse and then distortion of the signal due to channel effects (e.g. ISI,
channel dispersion etc.) causes distortion in the ideal rectangular signal causing it
to change shape from rectangle to elliptical eye shape. The opening of the eye tells
you whether you can still distinguish between 1 and 0 based on threshold
detection mechanism.
Fig.no.7: An Eye Diagram

 The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit (the
reactance) to the energy dissipated (the resistance) during each cycle of oscillation
meaning that it is a ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth and the higher the
circuit Q, the smaller the bandwidth, Q = ƒr /BW.
 The BER is calculated by comparing the transmitted sequence of bits to the
received bits and counting the number of errors. The ratio of how many bits
received in error over the number of total bits received is the BER.
 The optical system of Figure 7.1 is almost ideal, because we do not have any
major losses or misalignments between the transmitter and receiver. The spatial
connector is ideal and there is only a small loss.
 After analyzing ideal case, longitudinal shift in the optical field using the spatial
connector component is introduced to visualize the effects of misalignment
between the transmitter and receiver.
Procedure:
1. Using the same previous global parameters, start adding the components to design
an optical system.
2. From "Default/Transmitters Library/Optical Transmitters", drag and drop the
"Spatial Optical Transmitter" into the layout.
3. For the Transmitter, change the parameter Pol. X. spot size (Spatial effects tab) to
15.
4. From "Default/Receivers Library/Optical Receivers", drag and drop the "Spatial
Optical Receiver" component into the layout.
5. For the Receiver, change the parameter Thermal noise (Noise tab) to 5e-22
W/Hz.
6. From "Default/Visualizers Library/Electrical", drag and drop the "BER Analyzer"
into the layout.
7. From "Default/Visualizers Library/Optical", drag and drop two of the "Optical
Time
Domain Visualizer" into the layout.
8. Set all the parameters of the spatial connector to 0.

9. From "Default/Passives Library/Optical/Connectors/", drag and drop the "Spatial

Connector" into the layout.
10. From "Default/Visualizers Library/Optical", drag and drop the "Spatial
Visualizer"
into the layout.
11. Run the simulation and after the simulation is finished observer the results from
the
BER Analyzer.
Fig.no.7.1: An optical system using the spatial transmitter and receiver
Procedure (PART II): In order to visualize the effects of misalignment between the
transmitter and receiver, we will apply a longitudinal shift in the optical field using the
spatial connector component.
1. Using OptiSystem parameter sweep feature, apply a spatial shift from 0 to 20

in the optical signal.
2. For the Spatial connector, change the mode of the parameter X shift to Sweep.
3. Set the total number of sweep iterations to 10.
4. In the parameter sweep dialog box, use a linear spread for the parameter X shift
from 0 to 20 μm (Figure 7.3).
5. Run the simulation. The simulation will run 10 times, one for each value of the X
shift parameter.
6. At the end of the calculation, we can browse the results selecting the current
sweep iteration, or we can visualize the results of Q-Factor versus X shift using
the report page.
7. Select the report page. Drag and drop a 2D graph into the report.
8. From the Project Browser, select the Spatial Connector and drag and drop the
parameter X shift into the X-axis of the graph.
9. From the Project Browser, select the BER Analyzer and drag and drop the result
Max. Q Factor into the Y-axis of the graph (Figure 7.4)
Observation:
1. Figure 7.2 presents the eye diagram for the system of Figure 7.1, observe the
back-toback value of the Q factor.
Fig.no.7.2: BER Analyzer displaying the eye diagram of the ideal optical system

2. The parameter sweep dialog box says that the linear spread for the parameter X
shift from 0 to 20 μm (Figure 7.3).
Fig.no.7.3: Using parameter sweep for the connector parameter X shift from 0 to 20 μm

Fig.no.7.4: Combining parameters and results after using report page
Result:
1. The value of Q-factor of optical signals is 32.4535 for ideal optical system.
2. The value of BER of optical signals is 2.41651e-231 for ideal optical
system.
3. Figure 7.4 says, the value of Q is decreasing. This is because the optical field is
being shifted outside of the photodetector active area, centered at (0,0) with a
width of 10.
Discussion:
1. What is BER? Explain its significance.

2. What is the use of quality factor?
3. What are the various forms of digital coding techniques?
4. Define RZ, NRZ, Manchester coding
5. What does the opening of eye diagram mean?

Experiment no.-8
Aim: Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in
optical fiber communication
Theory: An optical waveguide is a spatially inhomogeneous structure for guiding

light, i.e. for restricting the spatial region in which light can propagate. Usually, a
waveguide contains a region of increased refractive index, compared with the
surrounding medium (called cladding). However, guidance is also possible, e.g., by
the use of reflections, e.g. at metallic interfaces. Optical fibers allow the transmission
of light over long distances, e.g. for optical fiber communications. Optical fibers can
be used to transmit light and thus information over long distances. Fiber-based
systems have largely replaced radio transmitter systems for long-haul optical data
transmission. They are widely used for telephony, but also for Internet traffic, long
high-speed local area networks (LANs), cable TV (CATV), and increasingly also for
shorter distances within buildings. In most cases, silica fibers are used, except for
very short distances, where plastic optical fibers can be advantageous.
1. Linear fiber- These fiber bundles contain 7 fibers arranged in a line configuration
(linear) at both ends. Linear-to-linear fiber bundle cables are ideal for increasing the
coupling efficiency into spectrometers and other optical devices that have an entrance
slit.
Fig.no. 8.1: Linear propagations in multimode fiber

2. Parabolic Index fiber- In fiber optics, a graded index is an optical fiber whose
core has a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance from the
optical axis of the fiber. Because parts of the core closer to the fiber axis have a
higher refractive index than the parts near the cladding, light rays follow sinusoidal
paths down the fiber. The most common refractive index profile for a graded-index
fiber is very nearly parabolic. The parabolic profile results in continual refocusing of
the rays in the core, and minimizes modal dispersion. Multi-mode optical fiber can be
built with either graded index or step index.
Fig.no.8.2: Graded Index fiber
Procedure (Linear waveguide):
Using the same previous global parameters, start adding the components to design an
optical system.
1. From "Default/Transmitters Library/Optical transmitter", drag and drop the

"Spatial optical transmitter" into the layout.
2. From "Default/optical fiber library/multimode", drag and drop the “linear
multimode fiber” into the layout.
3. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/optical” drag and drop the “Optical power
meter” component into the layout.
4. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/optical” drag and drop the “spatial visualizer”
component into the layout.

6. From "Default/visualizer library/electrical", drag and drop the “oscilloscope

visualizer” component into the layout.
7. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/electrical” drag and drop the “Electrical power
8. Simulate the layout, select power of CW laser to be 500dBm.
9. Keep changing length of linear MMF and, and for different lengths of linear
multimode fiber observe readings in optical power meter and electrical power
meter to study linear waveguide. Record them.
Fig.no.8.3: An optical system using linear waveguide in linear multimode fiber
Procedure (Parabolic waveguide): Using the same previous global parameters, start
adding the components to design an optical system.
1. From "Default/Transmitters Library/Optical sources", drag and drop the "Spatial

CW laser" into the layout.
2. From "Default/optical fiber library/multimode", drag and drop the “Linear
multimode fiber” into the layout.
3. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/optical” drag and drop the “Optical power
4. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/optical” drag and drop the “spatial visualizer”
component into the layout.


6. From "Default/ visualizer library/electrical", drag and drop the “oscilloscope
visualizer” component into the layout.
7. From “Default/ Visualizer Library/electrical” drag and drop the “Electrical power
8. Simulate the layout, select power of spatial optical transmitter to be 500dBm.
9. Keep changing length of linear MMF and, and for different lengths of linear
multimode fiber observe readings in optical power meter and electrical power
meter to study linear waveguide. Record them.
Fig.no.8.4: An optical system using parabolic waveguide in parabolic-index multimode

fiber

Observation:
Table 8.1:
Linear Fiber
S.no. Power W(power meter) dBm(power meter)
1. Optical
2. Electrical
Parabolic Fiber
S.no. Power W(power meter) dBm(power meter)
1. Optical
2. Electrical
Fig.no.8.5:(a) Linear multimode fiber simulation output from oscilloscope visualizer

Fig.no.8.5(b): Linear multimode fiber simulation output from oscilloscope visualizer
Fig.no.8.6(a): Linear multimode fiber simulation output from spatial visualizer
Fig.no.8.6 (b) Parabolic Index multimode fiber simulation output from oscilloscope
visualizer (c) Parabolic Index multimode fiber simulation output from spatial visualizer
Result: We have successfully studied and simulated the linear and parabolic
waveguide structure use in optical fiber communication.
Discussion:
1. What is multimode fiber?

2. What is singlemode fiber?
3. What materials are used in fiber optics?
4. Which light is used in optical Fibre?
5. How many types of fiber optics are there?


Experiment No.-9
Aim: Design and simulate the Dispersion compensators for fiber optic communication.
Software Required: Optiwave – Optisystem
Theory: Dispersion is defined as the spreading of light pulse when they travel along the
fiber. Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both digital and
analog transmission along optical fibers.
Fig.no.9.1: Pulse broadening in optical fiber (dispersion)
Types of Dispersion: There are two different types of dispersion in optical fibers. The
types are intramodal and intermodal dispersion.
Intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion- occurs in all types of fibers.
a. Material dispersion- the index of refraction of material change with the wavelength
b. Waveguide dispersion- the index change across the wavelenght means different
wavelength have different delay.
Intermodal or modal dispersion – occurs in multimode fiber. Intermodal

dispersion (also called modal dispersion) is the phenomenon that the group velocity of

light propagating in a multimode fiber (or other waveguide) depends not only on the
optical frequency (→ chromatic dispersion) but also on the propagation mode involved.
Fig.no.9.2: Dispersion mechanism

The total chromatic dispersion is a combination of the material and waveguide dispersion.
For silica glass, the material dispersion is dominating and the zero dispersion value occurs
approximately at 1300 nm.
Fig.no.9.3: Chromatic dispersion consisting of both material dispersion and waveguide

dispersion.

A dispersion compensating module (or DCM) is used to compensate the

cumulative dispersion in a single mode fiber.
Dispersion compensation essentially means canceling the chromatic dispersion of some

optical element(s). However, the term is often used in a more general sense of dispersion
management, meaning the control the overall chromatic dispersion of some system. The
goal can be, e.g., to avoid excessive temporal broadening of ultrashort pulses and/or the
distortion of signals. Dispersion compensation is applied mainly in mode-locked lasers
and in telecommunication systems, but also sometimes in optical fibers transporting light
e.g. to or from some fiber-optic sensor.
Fig.no.9.4: Use of dispersion compensating fiber
Procedure:
1. Go to optisystem software and add a new project/layout.
2. Open component library, select default.
3. From default, select transmitter library, select bit sequence, select user defined
sequence generator.
4. From default, select transmitter library, pulse generator, select optical, add optical
Gaussian pulse generator.
5. From default, select optical fiber library, add optical fiber or SMF (set length to be
10km which can be varied too)
6. From default, select filters, select optical, select FBG, add ideal dispersion
compensation FBG

7. From default, select visualizer library, select optical, add optical time domain
visualizer. Add it three times as in circuit after optical Gaussian pulse generator,
after optical fiber or SMF and to ideal dispersion compensation FBG.
8. From default, select visualizer library, select optical, add optical spectrum
analyzer. Add it three times as in circuit after optical Gaussian pulse generator,
after optical fiber or SMF and to ideal dispersion compensation FBG.
9. Drag all this component and connect as per figure.
Optisystem Design
Fig.no.9.5: Layout for dispersion compensation with ideal dispersion component in

OptiSystem
Observations:
1. The following shape was generated in the Optical Gaussian pulse generator with
an initial 12.5 ps pulse and global parameters of a 40 Gb/s bit rate and a 0.5 times
bit slot. Initial gaussian pulse- The pulse was launched in 10 km SMF. The
following shape was generated in the Optical Gaussian pulse generator.
Fig.no.9.6: Initial gaussian pulse

2. The pulse was launched in 10 km SMF. As a result of this propagation, the width
of the pulse increases approximately four times.
Fig.no.9.7: Gaussian pulse after 10 km propagation in SMF

3. After 10 km propagation in SMF, the accumulated dispersion is 160 ps/nm. In
order to compensate for this accumulated dispersion, the corresponding option
Dispersion in the Main tab of the Ideal Dispersion Compensation component is
fixed as – 160 ps/nm. The central frequency and corresponding bandwidth (in this
case ~ 3 times the bit rate) has to be properly chosen.

Fig.no.9.8: Parameters of Ideal Dispersion Compensation component
4. The result of dispersion compensation performed with the Ideal Dispersion

Compensation component is shown in Figure 9.9.
Fig.no.9.9: Pulse after dispersion compensation with Ideal Dispersion Compensation

component

Result: We have shown in this experiment that how to use an Ideal Dispersion
Compensation component in OptiSystem for dispersion compensation. As we could
expect, an exact compensation of accumulated dispersion was achieved.
Discussion:
1. What is dispersion in optical fiber communication?

2. Describe ISI in optical fiber communication?
3. What is chromatic dispersion?
4. How does differential attenuation of modes reduces intermodal pulse broadening
on a multimode optical link?
5. Does Digital transmission is more likely to be affected by modal noise?


Experiment no.-10
Aim: Design and calculate the power budget for optical communication link.
Configuration Required: windows7, 8, 10 and 64 bit
Theory:
The purpose of power budgeting is to ensure that the optical power from the transmission
side to receiver is adequate under all circumstances. Power budget refers to the amount of
loss a data link can tolerate while maintaining proper operation. In other words, it defines
the amount of optical power available for successful transmitting signal over a distance of
optical fiber. Optical power budget is measured by dB, which can be calculated by
subtracting the minimum receiver sensitivity from the minimum transmit power:
Fig.no.10.1: Optical fiber communication link
Critical Elements Involved In Calculating Power Budget - When performing power

budget calculation, the basic items that determine general transmission system
performance are shown in below figure.

Fig.no.10.2: Optical fiber link basic items that determine the performance of transmission
system
Fiber loss: fiber loss impacts greatly on overall system performance, which is expressed
by dB per kilometer. The total fiber loss is calculated based on the distance × the loss
factor (provided by manufacturer).
Connector loss: the loss of a mated pair of connectors. Multimode connectors will have
losses of 0.2-0.5 dB typically. Single-mode connectors, which are factory made and
fusion spliced on will have losses of 0.1-0.2 dB. Field terminated single-mode connectors
may have losses as high as 0.5-1.0 dB.
Number and type of splices: Mechanical splice loss is generally in a range of 0.7 to 1.5
dB per connector. Fusion splice loss is between 0.1 and 0.5 dB per splice. Because of
their limited loss factor, fusion splices are preferred.
Power margin: power budget margin generally includes aging of the fiber, aging of the
transmitter and receiver components, additional devices, incidental twisting and bending
of the fiber, additional splices, etc. The margin is needed to compensate for link
degradation, which is within the range of 3 to 10 dB.
Example: the system contains the transmitter and receiver, the optical link contains
optical amplifier, 4 optical connectors, and 5 splices. The following table presents
attenuation or gain of each component.

Tx power: 3dBm
Connector loss: 0.15dB
Splice loss: 0.15dB
Amplifier gain: 10dB
Fiber optic loss: 0.2 dB/km
Fig.no.10.3: Optical link connection
So, the total attenuation of this link PL is the sum of:
Fiber optic loss: (30 km + 50 km) ×0.2dB/km = 16 dB
Attenuation of connectors: 4×0.15 dB = 0.60 dB
Attenuation of splices: 5×0.15 dB = 0.75 dB
So PL = 16 Db + 0.60 Db + 0.75 Db = 17.35 dB
The total gain of the link is generated by optical amplifier, which is 10 dB in this case.
So PG = 10 dB
Considering link degradation, power margin should be calculated as well. A good safety
margin PM = 6 dB.
To select the receiver’s sensitivity at the end of the optical path,
Ptx – Prx < PL – PG + PM

Prx > Ptx – PL + PG – PM
Prx > 3 dBm – 17.35 dB +10 dB – 6 dB
Prx > -10.35 dB
The receiver should provide sensitivity better than -10.35 dBm. With data centers
migrating to 40G, 100G, 200G, and even 400G, fiber link performance becomes more
important than ever before. Understanding the link power budget will help you optimize
your fiber link design as well. In addition, high-performance cables, quality transceivers,
and high-performance installation practices also assist to ensure better link performance.
Procedure:
1. Go to optisystem software and add a new project/layout.

2. Open component library, select default.
3. From default, select transmitter library, select bit sequence generator, add pseudo
random bit sequence generator.
4. From default, select transmitter library, pulse generator, select electrical, add NRZ
pulse generator.
5. From default, select optical source, add CW laser
6. From default, select filters, select optical, select FBG, add ideal dispersion
compensation FBG
7. From default, select modulator, add Mach Zender modulator analytical
8. From default, select passive library, select optical, select attenuator, add optical
attenuator.
9. From default, select receiver library, select photodetectors, select attenuator, add
photodiode.
10. From default, select filter library, select electrical, add low pass filter (Bessel
filter/ Butterworth filter)
11. From default, select visualizer library, select electrical, add BER analyzer (data
recovery)
12. From default, select visualizer library, select optical, add optical power meter
visualizer. Add it three times as in circuit after CW laser, MZ modulator, optical
attenuator.
13. Drag all this component and connect as per figure.
Optisystem Design:
Fig.no.10.4: Optisystem design to calculate the power budget for optical communication
link.
Calculation: System Design – Power Budget shows a system designed considering a

receiver with -30 dBm sensitivity and an external modulated transmitter with output
power of -3 dBm.
Using a system margin of 0 dB the total loss allocated for the channel will be:
Channel Loss = System Margin + Receiver Sensitivity + Transmitter power

Channel Loss = 30 – 3 = 27 dB
For a typical fiber attenuation of 0.25 dB/km, the maximum distance we can propagate in
this system is 108 km. In this case, we are not including dispersion effects that will limit
the system performance.
Result: We have shown in this experiment that how to calculate the power budget for
optical communication link for better link performance.
Discussion:
1. What is optical link budget?

2. How do you calculate optical power budget?
3. What are the factors to be considered in link power budget?
4. What is the unit of optical power?
5. Why is system margin provided?

Experiment no.-11
Aim: Design and simulate the DWDM and WDM techniques use in optical
communication.
Theory: Multiplexing- a process where multiple analog message signals or digital data
streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. Optically it is classified as
1. Time division multiplexing

2. Wavelength division multiplexing
3. Dense Wavelength division multiplexing
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique of multiplexing multiple optical

carrier signals through a single optical fiber channel by varying the wavelengths of laser
lights. WDM allows communication in both the directions in the fiber cable. In WDM,
the optical signals from different sources or (transponders) are combined by a
multiplexer, which is essentially an optical combiner. They are combined so that their
wavelengths are different. The combined signal is transmitted via a single optical fiber
cable. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer splits the incoming beam into its components
and each of the beams is send to the corresponding receivers. WDM is also known as
optical FDM or OFDM. The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied
to an optical carrier, which is typically described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-
division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier which is more often described by
frequency. This is purely convention because wavelength and frequency communicate the
same information

Fig.no.11.1: WDM Network
Categories of WDM: Based upon the wavelength, WDM can be divided into two
categories −
1. Course WDM (CWDM): CWDM generally operates with 8 channels where the
spacing between the channels is 20 nm (nanometers) apart. It consumes less
energy than DWDM and is less expensive. However, the capacity of the links, as
well as the distance supported, is lesser.
2. Dense WDM (DWDM): In DWDM, the number of multiplexed channels much
larger than CWDM. It is either 40 at 100GHz spacing or 80 with 50GHz spacing.
Due to this, they can transmit the huge quantity of data through a single fiber link.
DWDM is generally applied in core networks of telecommunications and cable
networks.
 The gain-flattened erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is a key component in
long haul multichannel lightwave transmission systems such as the Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (WDM). One difficulty in implementing a WDM system
including EDFA’s is that the EDFA gain spectrum is wavelength dependent.
 In a WDM system, the EDFA does not necessary amplify the wavelength of the
channels equally. EDFA in a WDM system are often required to have equalized
gain spectra in order to achieve uniform output powers and similar signal-noise
ratios (SNR). However, there are several methods in designing a flat spectral gain
EDFA such as by controlling the doped fiber length and the pump power.
Procedure (for 2 channel WDM): In optisystem software and add a new project/layout.
Open component library, select default. From default:

10. Select transmitter, select bit sequence generator, add user defined bit sequence
generator (2 times).
11. Select transmitter, pulse generator, select electrical, add NRZ pulse generator (2
times)
12. Select transmitter, optical sources, add CW laser (2 times).
13. Select visualizer, electrical, add oscilloscope visualizer. (2 times)
14. Select transmitter, select modulator, add Mach Zehnder modulator (optical)
15. Select visualizer library, select optical, add spectrum analyzer (5 times)
16. Select WDM library, select MUX, select WDM MUX (2x1)
17. Select multimode library, select optical, add linear multimode fiber
18. Select passive library, select optical, select attenuator, add optical attenuator.
19. Select WDM, select demux, add WDM demux (1x2)
20. Select receiver, select photodetector, pin diode (2 times)
21. Select filter library, select electrical, add low pass Butterworth filter (2 times)
22. Select visualizer library, select electrical, add oscilloscope visualizer. (2 times)
23. Drag all these component and connect as per figure and simulate.
Fig.no.11.2: Project Layout for 2 channel WDM

Since the key mechanism for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
implementation in optical network systems is gain flatness of Erbium-Doped Fiber
Amplifier (EDFA). The main objective of this is to correct the non-uniformity in the gain
for every single channel so that the amplitude gain of the Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM) arrangement can be equalized. The project layout for the gain
optimization is shown in below figure 11.3
Procedure (for 8 channel WDM): In optisystem software and add a new project/layout.
Open component library, select default. From default:
1. Select transmitter, select optical transmitter, add WDM transmitter.

2. Select WDM library, select MUX, select WDM MUX (8x1)
3. Select optical fiber, add bidirectional optical fiber/ erbium doped fiber
4. Select visualizer, select optical, compare, add DWDM (dual port WDM analyzer)
5. Select visualizer library, select optical, add spectrum analyzer (3 times)
6. Select visualizer, select optical, add power meter.
7. Select transmitter, select optical, add pump laser.
8. Drag all these component and connect as per figure and simulate
Fig.no.11.3: Project Layout for 8 channel for EFFA Gain optimization

Observation:
1. From layout 1: Two inputs are taken at different frequency of 1550 nm and 1555
nm are shown layout design. When design is multiplexed (WDM) and transmitted
using the optical fiber at the receiver both the signal is separated and has been
observe during the optical spectrum analyzer-3 and 4 respectively.
Fig.no.11.4: Output-port-1 of Fig.no.11.5. Output
WDM Demux (1550 nm) port-2 of WDM Demux (1555 nm)
2. From layout 2: The Gain and Noise Figure can be optimized by varying EDFA’s
length and pump power at a constant input power. The computed results of Gain
and noise figure for 1m length of EDF and the pump power of 120 mW is shown
in below table and the output of spectrum analyzer. Which show the variation of
gain and noise figure with the input wavelength.

Fig.no.11.6: Results of Gain and noise figure (1m length EDF) and the pump power of
120 mW
Fig.no.11.7: Results of Variation in Gain and Noise figure with the input wavelength
Result: We have shown in this experiment that how to use a WDM and the EDFA Gian
optimization of WDM.
In WDM and DWDM systems by multiplexing, a stream of wavelength channels can

simultaneously amplify to a desired power level where the amplification of any particular

channel is dependent on the signal wavelength, the number of signals present in the
system and the input signal powers.
Discussion:
1. What is multiplexing in optical fiber?

2. What is WDM? Explain different types of WDM
3. Explain Basics of Optical Amplifier. Explain EDFA.
4. Explain two main components which form fiber optic communication system.
5. How many channels are supported by DWDM?


Experiment no.-12
Aim: Simulate the Fiber Bragg Grating for Compensation of Dispersion in single mode
fiber.
Software Required: Optiwave–Optisystem
Configuration Required: Windows7,8,10 and 64 bit
Theory: A fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is a type of distributed Bragg reflector constructed
in a short segment of optical fiber that reflects particular wavelengths of light and
transmits all others. This is achieved by creating a periodic variation in the refractive
index of the fiber core, which generates a wavelength-specific dielectric mirror. Hence a
fiber Bragg grating can be used as an inline optical fiber to block certain wavelengths or it
can be used as wavelength-specific reflector.
Fig.no.12.1: A Fiber Bragg Grating structure, with refractive index profile and spectral
response

The fundamental principle behind the operation of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is Fresnel
reflection. Where light traveling between media of different refractive indices may both
reflect and refract at the interface. The fiber Bragg grating will typically have a sinusoidal
refractive index variation over a defined length. The refractive index of the fiber core is
modulated with a period of Λ. When a light with a broad spectrum is launched into one
end of fiber containing a fiber Bragg grating, the part of the light with wavelength
matching the Bragg grating wavelength will be reflected back to the input end, with the
rest of the light passing through to the other end.
The Bragg wavelength (λB) is essentially defined by the period of the microstructure (Λ)
and the index of refraction of the core (neff).
The Bragg Condition is the result of two requirements:
1.Energy Conservation: Frequency of incident radiation and reflected radiation is the

same.
2.Momentum Conservation: Sum of incident wave vector and grating wave vector equal
the wave vector of the scattered radiation. Light at other wavelengths, not satisfying the
Bragg condition, is nearly not affected by the Bragg grating, except for some side lobes
which frequently occur in the reflection spectrum.
Fiber Bragg gratings are created by periodic or aperiodic variation of refractive index into
the core of a special type of optical fiber using an intense ultraviolet (UV) source such as
a UV laser. Two main processes are used: interference and masking. The method that is
preferable depends on the type of grating to be manufactured. Normally a germanium-
doped silica fiber is used in the manufacture of fiber Bragg gratings. The germanium-
doped fiber is photosensitive, which means that the refractive index of the core changes
with exposure to UV light. The amount of the change depends on the intensity and
duration of the exposure as well as the photosensitivity of the fiber. To write a high
reflectivity fiber Bragg grating directly in the fiber the level of doping with germanium
needs to be high.

Applications of FBG
1)Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (OADM)
2)Chromatic Dispersion Compensation: Another use of fiber gratings is to compensate for

chromatic dispersion in an optical fiber. The grating serves as a selective optical delay
line, which adjusts the transit times of different wavelengths in a pulse so they are
approximately equal.
3)Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors : As well as being sensitive to strain, the Bragg
wavelength λB is also sensitive to temperature. This means that fiber Bragg gratings can
be used as sensing elements in optical fiber sensors. Fiber Bragg gratings can then be
used as direct sensing elements for strain and temperature.
4)FBG as EDFA Pump laser stabilizer
5)FBG as Optical amplifier gain flattening filter
6)FBG as Laser diode wavelength lock filter
7)FBG as Tunable filter
8)FBG for Remote monitoring
For example, in SMF at 1.55μm, group velocity dispersion creates a negative chirp of the
pulses, which means that the higher frequencies (which propagate faster) are in the
leading part of the pulse and the lower (propagating slower) in the trailing one.
Because of this different velocity of propagation of different spectral components, the

pulse spreads. If we create fiber grating with period linearly reducing along the grating,
because the higher frequencies will reflect after longer propagation in the grating a time
delay between lower and higher frequency components will appear this is just opposite to
this created in the SMF. Therefore, propagating and reflecting our pulse in this device
will allow compensating the dispersion broadening of our pulse.

Procedure: In opt system software and add a new project/layout. Open component
library, select default. From default:
1. Select transmitter, select bit sequence generator, add user defined bit sequence
generator.
2. Select visualizer library, select pulse generator, add optical Gaussian pulse
generator.
3. Select visualizer, select optical, add optical spectrum analyzer. (4 times)
4. Select visualizer, select optical, add optical time domain visualizer. (4 times)
5. Select optical fiber library, select optical, add optical fiber.
6. Select filter library, select optical, add FBG.
7. Drag all these component and connect as per figure and simulate.
Fig.no.12.2: Project Layout for dispersion compensation with Fiber Bragg grating
component in OptiSystem

Observation:
1. The following shape was generated in the Optical Gaussian pulse generator with
an initial 12.5 ps pulse and global parameters of a 40 Gb/s bit rate and a 0.5 times
bit slot.
Fig.no.12.3: Initial Gaussian pulse

2. The pulse was launched in 10 km SMF. As a result of this propagation, the width
of the pulse increases approximately four times.
Fig.no.12.4: Gaussian pulse after 10 km propagation in SMF

3. Fiber Bragg Grating with following properties has been used: frequency 193.1
THz, effective index =1.45, length = 6 mm.

Fig.no.12.5: Parameters of uniform, apodized, linear chirped Fiber Bragg Grating
4. The result of dispersion compensation performed from this fiber grating

component is obtaining of a pulse with approximately 20 ps width.
Fig.no.12.6: Pulse after dispersion compensation with fiber grating with uniform
apodization and linear chirp.

Result: In this experiment we demonstrated the possibility for dispersion compensation

with the help of fiber Bragg Grating created with the Fiber Grating component. This
component allows design of gratings that are able to provide dispersion compensation in
optical system by creating a time delay between different spectral components of the
signal. We have shown in this experiment that how to use Fiber Bragg grating component
in Opti-System for dispersion compensation.
Discussion:
1. How does Bragg fiber grating work?

2. What is grating in optical fiber?
3. Which type of fiber optic cable is most widely used?
4. What is fiber Bragg grating sensor?


Experiment no.-13
Aim: Plot Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication Link.
Apparatus Required: ST2502 trainer with power supply cords
Components Required: Optical Fiber cable, Cathode ray oscilloscope with

necessary connecting probe.
Theory:
Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements: a transmitter, an optical
fiber and a receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form
and then transforms it into optical energy containing the same information. The
optical fiber is the medium which takes the energy to the receiver. At the receiver,
light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as fed to the
transmitter.
Transmitter: Fiber optic transmitters are composed of a buffer, driver and optical
source. The buffer provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the
transmitter and the electrical system the data. The driver provides electrical power to
the optical source. Finally, the optical source converts the electrical current to the
light energy with the same pattern.
The transmitter section comprises of Function Generator (which generates input
signals that are going to be used as information to transmit through optical fiber),
frequency modulator, pulse width modulator block. The output voltage is 1KHz
square wave signal. The modulator section accepts the information signal and
converts it into suitable form of transmission through fiber optic cable.
The Fiber Optic Link: Emitter and Detector circuit on board form the fiber optic
link. This section provides the light source for the optic fiber and the light detector at
the far end of the fiber optic links. The optic fiber plugs into the connectors provided
in this part of the board. Two separate links are provided.

The Receiver: The comparator circuit, LPF, phase locked loop, AC amplifier circuit
for receiver on the board. It is able to undo the modulation process in order to
recover the original information signal.
Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable
cable

Circuit CRO
(Sinusoidal (Photo Diode)
Signal) (LED)
Fig.no.15.1 Fiber Optic Link
Procedure:-
1. Connect the Power Supply cord to mains supply and to Scientech 2502.
2. Make the following connections as shown in next figure.
3. Function Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input socket of emitter 1
circuit via 4mm lead.
4. Connect optic fiber between emitter l’s output and detector 1’s input.
5. Connect Detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4nm lead.\
6. Switch on the Power Supply.
7. Set the amplitude of the Function Generator to 2V p-p.
8. Observe the transmitted and received signal on CRO. Vo (output voltage)
should be in the same order as Vin (input voltage).
9. Next set Vin to suitable values and note the values of Vo.
10. Tabulate and plot a graph Vo versus Vin & compute Vo/Vin.

Fig.no.15.2 Fiber Optic Link connection diagram
Observation:
Table13.1:
S.No. Input Output Vo-Vin Vo/Vin

Voltage(Vin) Voltage(Vo)
Results:
1.The change of output voltage with respect to input voltage has been analysed.
2.Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication link has been observed and there is
low loss while the signal propagates in optical link.
3.The graph has been plotted between Vo/Vin.
Discussion :-
1. What are fiber optics made of? Are there different qualities of fiber optics?
2. What are the methods of optical parameter measurement?
3. What is the advantage of amplitude modulation in terms of bandwidth
requirement?
4. How amplitude modulation signal is generated?
5. What is the detection process amplitude modulated signals?


Experiment no.-14
Aim: To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser
Resource required: (Virtual lab)
Components Required: Analyzer, polarizer, Photodetector, Laser, rotator
Theory:
A polarizer is placed in an external feedback cavity to form polarized optical
feedback. The effect of the different directions of polarized optical feedback on laser
polarization characteristics (LPCs) is investigated experimentally and theoretically.
The angle between the optical axis of the polarizer and the laser polarization is
changed from 0° to 90°. It is found that LPCs vary greatly under different directions
of polarized optical feedback. The angle range can be divided into five zones (two
flipping zones, ⊥⊥-polarization zone, bistable zone, and ∥∥-polarization zone)
according to the different LPCs. When the angle is in the range of the ⊥⊥-
polarization zone (∥∥-polarization zone), the laser outputs ⊥⊥-polarization (∥∥-
polarization). Thus, one can choose either ⊥⊥-polarization or ∥∥-polarization by
properly aligning the axis of the polarizer.
Polarisation
The Phenomena like interference and diffraction do not indicate the type of the wave
(whether is longitudinal or transverse). The exhaustive experiments on nature of
light show that the light waves posses an assymmetry with respect to the direction of
propagation. Transverse waves alone exhibit asymmetry and are said to be polarised.
Transverse nature of light waves comes into play when we consider interaction
oflight with matter. The states of polarization of the output beam (632.8 nm) of
internal mirror He-Ne lasers have been investigated using a scanning Fabry-Perot
Interferometer and linear polarizers. It was found that during the initial warmup
period of the laser, the output power fluctuates periodically and the axial modes
sweep rapidly across the Doppler gain profile. A thermal analysis shows that the
sweeping rate is in good agreement with the calculated rate of expansion of the laser
cavity. During certain periods of time which recur with a frequency that is related to

the mode motion the output beam is linearly polarized in two preferred orthogonal
directions. The states of polarization of the output beam are due to the tendency of
axial modes to be linearly polarized, with an orthogonal relationship existing at
times between adjacent modes. However, the polarization states of the total beam
and of the individual modes also vary periodically and in a complicated manner as
the laser warms up. It was found that the simple description of orthogonally
polarized alternate modes is inadequate to characterize the beam during a large
fraction of the time corresponding to a fluctuation cycle.
Properties of laser light

A. The light is extremely monochromatic with wavelength l= 632.8 nm
B. Consequently, the light has high "temporal coherence", meaning as you travel
along the direction of propagation, the components of the electric field continue to
oscillate like a sine-wave with a single wavelength, amplitude, and phase. Of course,
no light source generates perfect plane-waves. Real wavetrains have finite length.
The distance over which the waveform remains similar to a sine-wave is called the
coherence-length of the beam, Lc, and it is typically about 10-30 cm for commercial
He-Ne lasers.
C. The light is unidirectional and aligned so as to be parallel to the body of the laser.
D. The light is "spatially coherent". The phase of radiation is nearly constant
throughout the cross-sectional width of the beam. This property is a consequence of
property C, and is entirely independent of temporal coherence (property B).
E. A Brewster-window is often inserted in the laser by the manufacturer to produce
light with a definite state of linear polarization.
The lasing mechanism- It consists of a hollow tube filled with 90 percent He and 10
percent Ne gases and fitted with inward-facing mirrors at the ends of the cavity. The
combined pressure of the two gases is approximately 1 Torr (1/760 atmospheres). A
He-Ne laser works by exciting Neon atoms in the gas. The 632.8 nm optical light
emitted by the laser is generated in the process when the Neon atoms decay from an
excited state to an ordinary state.

Fig.no.14.1: The LASER Activity
Block Diagram:
Fig.no.14.2: Polarization of light using He – Ne Laser setup
Procedure:-
1. Click the below link to initiate the experiment
https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/basics-of-physics/exp/he-ne-laser-polarization/simulation.html
2. Set the polarizer angle.

3. Set the analyser angle.

4. Through the photodetector microameter gives the intensity of light.

5. Tabulate and plot the nature of graph between intensity light coming out of Analyzer
and COS² θ.
Observation:
Table 14.1:
S.No. Angle of Angle of Angle COS θ COS² I/I(0)

Polarizer ϕ Analyzer between the θ
axes of
(degrees) ϕ∘ (degrees) polarizer
and
Analyzer
‘θ’ = ϕ - ϕ∘
(degrees)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Results :
Fig. 14.3(a) The graph showing the dependence of intensity transmitted

light on the angle between polariser are analyser,

Fig. 14.3 The graph showing the dependence of intensity transmitted light on the
angle between COS² θ
1. Nature of graph between intensity light coming out of polariser and analyzer and
COS θ is parabolic
2. Nature of graph between intensity light coming out of polariser and analyzer and
COS² θ is straight line.
3. Property of Polarization can be observed in transverse wave.
4. According to law of Malus the intensity of the light coming out of Analyzer is
directly proportional to COS² θ
5. Almost no light will come out of analyzer if the angle between polarizer and
analyzer is 0 degree.
Discussion:-
1. State law of malus.

2. What is value of refractive index of a medium of polarizing angle 60 degree?

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SWAMI KESHVANAND INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

MANAGEMENT& GRAMOTHAN, JAIPUR

COURSE NAME- OPTICAL COMMUNIATION LAB

COURSE CODE- 7EC4-23

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

S.NO. LIST OF CONTENTS Pg.No.

Exp:14 To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser 125

Department of ECE Page 2

Vision of the Institute

Mission of the Institute

Quality Policy of the Institute

Institute would pursue quality in:

 All its endeavors like admissions, teaching-learning processes, examinations,

Vision and Mission of Department

Department of ECE Page 3

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

Program Outcomes (POs)

Department of ECE Page 4

responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

Program Specific Outcomes(PSO’s)

Department of ECE Page 5

Mapping of Course Outcomes with POs and PSOs:

3: Strongly 2: Moderate 1: Weak

Department of ECE Page 6

3 Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.

Department of ECE Page 7

3 Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.

14 To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser

7EC4-23. a – Plot Characteristics of Fiber Optics Communication Link

7EC4-23. b – To study polarization of light using He-Ne Laser

Beyond PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO

Department of ECE Page 8

Department of ECE Page 9

Department of ECE Page 10

Optical Communication laboratory course flow process:

Introduction to optical communication

Fig. no.1: Optical Fiber

Department of ECE Page 11

Department of ECE Page 12

Fig. no. 2: Optical Fiber Communication System

Department of ECE Page 13

Intoduction for harware kits:

Department of ECE Page 14

Numerical Aperture : ³ 0.5

Fig. no.3: ST 2501 Optical Fiber Communication Kit

2. Technical Specifications ST 2502 Optical Fiber Communication Kit

Department of ECE Page 16

Power Supply : 110-220V, ± 10%, 50 / 60 Hz

Fig. no.4: ST 2502 Optical Fiber Communication Kit

Department of ECE Page 17

Description of Receiver Unit

Fig. no.5: ST 2506 Laser Fibre Optics Kit

Department of ECE Page 18

4.Technical Specifications ST 2510 LED Radition Pattern Trainer Transmitter:

Fig. no. 6: ST 2510 LED Radition Pattern Trainer

Department of ECE Page 19

(This page is intentionally left blank)

Department of ECE Page 20

Apparatus Required: ST2502 trainer with power supply cords

Components Required: Optical Fiber cable, Cathode ray oscilloscope with

Department of ECE Page 21

Block Diagram: Optical fiber cable

Source Emitter Detector Circuit

Fig. no.1.1: Fiber Optic Link