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CHAPTER 6
MOTIVATING OTHERS
QUICK RESOURCE LOCATOR:1
One way to help your students master the general skill of “motivating others” is to focus
their attention on one or more specific skills. These basic skills are identified in the
chapter’s title page, and below as learning objectives. If you elect to organize this portion
of your course around specific learning objectives/ management skills, you can use the
following table as a roadmap—guiding each of your “trips” through the five-step learning
model and corresponding support material in this chapter of the Instructor’s Manual
(hereafter referred to as “IM”).
Learning Objective #1:

Diagnose work performance problems
Skill Assessment2 ✓ Take “Diagnosing Poor Performance” survey, items 1, 11 (text, p. 324)
✓ Take “Work Performance Assessment” survey, items 1, 8 (text, p. 325)
Skill Learning ✓ Read “Diagnosing Work Performance Problems” (text, p. 326)
✓ View clip from “American Beauty” (IM, p. 6-34)
✓ View PowerPoint slides3
Skill Analysis ✓ Analyze “Electro Logic” question 1 (text, p. 354 & IM, p. 6-16)
✓ Do “Walk a Mile in My Shoes” exercise (IM, p. 6-28)
✓ Do “Ability or Motivation” exercise (IM, p. 6-29)
✓ Do “Carrot or Stick Situations” exercise (IM, p. 6-31)
✓ Do a Feature-length Film Analysis (IM, p. 6-35)
Skill Practice4,6 ✓ Role Play “Joe Chaney” (text, p. 363 & IM, p. 6-18)
✓ Administer the “Work Performance Assessment” survey in a real work
setting (text, p. 325 & IM, p. 6-4)
✓ Do “Manager’s Workshop” simulation (IM, p. 6-32)7
Skill Application ✓ Complete Assignments 1 & 2 (text, p. 367)
✓ Complete an Application Plan and Evaluation (text, p. 368)

Enhance individual abilities
Skill Assessment2 ✓ Take “Diagnosing Poor Performance” items 3, 13, 20 (text, p. 324)
✓ Take “Work Performance Assessment” items 2-4, 9-11 (text, p. 325)
Skill Learning ✓ Read “Enhancing Individuals’ Abilities” (text, p. 328)
✓ Read Behavioral Guideline 2 (text, p. 352)
✓ View clip from “Party Girl” (IM, p. 6-33)
✓ View clip from “Rudy” (IM, p. 6-35)
✓ Do “Ability or Motivation” exercise (IM, p. 6-29)
Skill Practice4,6 ✓ Role Play “Shaheen Matombo” (text, p. 364 & IM, p. 6-19)
Skill Application ✓ Complete Assignments 1 (text, p. 367)
282
Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Fostering a motivating work environment
Skill Assessment2 ✓ Take “Diagnosing Poor Performance” Q 2,4-10,12,14-19 (text, p. 324)
✓ Take “Work Performance Assessment” items 5-7, 12-14 (text, p. 325)
Skill Learning ✓ Read “Fostering a Motivating Work Environment” (text, p. 330)
✓ Read Behavioral Guideline 1-8 (text, p. 352)
✓ View clip from “Rudy” (IM, p. 6-35)
✓ Analyze “Campus Life Problem” (IM, p. 6-29)5
✓ Do “Work Like You Play” exercise (IM, p. 6-21)
✓ Do “Different Strokes” exercise (IM, p. 6-27)
✓ Do “Walk a Mile in My Shoes” exercise (IM, p. 6-28)
✓ Do “Carrot or Stick Situations” exercise (IM, p. 6-31)
Skill Practice4, 6 ✓ Role Play “Shaheen Matombo” (text, p. 364 & IM, p. 6-19)
✓ Do “Salary Increases at Ord Services” exercise (IM, p. 6-23)
Skill Application ✓ Complete Assignments 3 & 4 (text, p. 367)
Footnotes:
1. We have developed a web site to support DMS teachers. It allows you to post questions, share resource
materials, seek feedback on new ideas, and so forth. If you would like to participate in this DMS teaching
network, please send an enrollment request to dms@byu.edu.
2. Tips for helping students learn the most from skill assessment surveys are included in Section 1,
“Designing the Course” of the Instructor’s Manual. A computerized version of all Skill Assessment surveys
is available through the www.prenhall.com/whetten. The online assessments require an access code which
can be valuepacked with their DMS book. An advantage of the online surveys is that students can compare
their results with a continuously updated, demographically similar, norm group.
3. The PowerPoint slides for the text can be ordered through your Prentice Hall representative, or they can be
downloaded from the Prentice Hall website.
4. There are several benefits of using a classroom exercises to introduce key concepts in a chapter. These
activities generate a high level of interaction and they stimulate student interest in learning the related subject
matter.
5. The use of a “campus life problem” is a particularly useful means for helping undergraduates see how a
“management” skill can be applied to their everyday experiences. These problems can be incorporated into
your classroom discussion as examples, formal cases, or exercises (they are also great exam questions). As
noted in the introduction to the Instructor’s Manual, it is important that students see the value of immediately
applying the skills in this course to everyday situations. If they view what they are learning as “interpersonal”
skills, rather than peculiarly “managerial” skills, they are more likely to see their immediate relevance. We
have only included one campus life problem per chapter because we encourage you to have students generate
their own. Following the presentation of a campus life problem, students should use the behavioral guidelines
and models in the appropriate chapter as the basis for generating recommendations. These “consulting”
discussions also provide a good opportunity to discuss the coaching material in the Communications chapter.
6. In Section 3 of the IM, under the title “Action Skill Exams,” John Bigelow has developed a set of role
play exercises for use as application, or performance, exams. These would be excellent demonstration role
plays for introducing a particular learning objective, or simultaneous role plays for practicing specific
behavioral guidelines. The first part of Section 3 contains numerous teaching tips for the effective use of
demonstration and simultaneous role plays in a skill development course.
7. Manager’s Workshop (version 3.0) by Randall B. Dunham is published by Prentice Hall, Inc., A Pearson
Education Company, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. ISBN: 0-13-140977-8
283
Introducing the Chapter
This is the third chapter on interpersonal skills. Therefore, it not only builds on the
foundation of the personal skills chapters, but also on the two previous skills chapters
about communication and power and influence.
This chapter uses expectancy theory as its theoretical core, to which we’ve added a
number of behavioral modification and leadership principles. This integrated framework
is used as the backdrop for a six-step approach to improving the performance of
subordinates. This format lends itself to a thoughtful, systematic diagnosis of
performance deficiencies and points out the value of both analytical and behavioral skills.
Just as managers must understand the factors that influence high or low performance,
they must also know how to use rewards and discipline appropriately to shape specific
behaviors.
In introducing this chapter, it is important to stress the balanced emphasis shown in

Figure 1 in the text. Effective managers figure out ways to successfully combine concerns
for both satisfaction and performance. This balanced view is consistent with the concept
of empowerment discussed in a subsequent chapter, as well as the model of conflict
management to be introduced in the next chapter.
It is also important to discuss the proper role of managers in the motivation process.
Basically, managers do not motivate subordinates, at least not directly. People motivate
themselves. What managers can and should do is to provide a working environment that
fosters motivation and encourages high productivity. There is a fine line here, but
students should understand that managers are not expected to take the responsibility for
“being motivated” off the shoulders of subordinates.
SKILL ASSESSMENT
Before reading the rest of the chapter students should complete the two assessment
exercises, neither of which takes more than about 10 or 15 minutes. Each instrument
assesses some critical components of enhancing subordinates’ performance through the
effective use of motivation techniques. Completing them before reading the chapter
increases students’ motivation and comprehension of the Skill Learning section.
Completing these instruments after reading the Skill Learning section sometimes leads
students to bias their scores toward a profile they think might be desirable.
Scores indicate competency as well as the need to improve. Because competency in

management skills is an ongoing process not a final state, continuous improvement is
required of all students.
Diagnosing Poor Performance and Enhancing Motivation Survey
Purpose: This survey consists of several questions from the Personal Assessment of
Management Skills (PAMS) instrument contained in the Introduction chapter of the text.
The additional items identify other important aspects of motivation.
284
Procedure: Students can score this survey by referring to the appropriate scoring key at
the end of the chapter. They can compare their scores with one another and with the norm
group data on the scoring key.
This instrument consists of seven subscales that focus on the following topics: diagnosing
performance problems (items 1, 11); establishing expectations and setting goals (items 2,
12); facilitating performance by enhancing ability (items 3, 13, 20); linking performance
to rewards and discipline (items 5–6, 14–15); using salient internal and external
incentives (items 7–8, 16–17); distributing rewards equitably (items 9, 18); and providing
timely and straightforward performance feedback (items 4, 10, 19).
Discussion Questions
 On which aspects of the motivation management process did you score very low or
high? Why do these areas seem to stand out?
 On which items do you feel your self-assessment would likely be out of synch with
how others might view you?
 Which aspects of motivation (components in the model) do you feel would be (are)
the most difficult to implement as a manager?
 How do your scores on these surveys compare with your scores on the Gaining
Power and Influence assessment survey? Do you see a pattern that provides
insights into your underlying management philosophy?
Work Performance Assessment Survey
The second instrument is based on the diagnostic model introduced in the chapter, shown
in several forms. Table 6.2 in the text introduces the six elements of an integrative
motivation program and related diagnostic questions that are used to create the summary
model for the chapter (Figure 6.5), plus an associated diagnostic tool in the Skill Practice
section (Figure 6.7). This survey can be discussed at the beginning of the chapter, or you
can wait and use it as a practice exercise.
Purpose: The purpose of this survey is to sensitize students to the wide range of
performance problems—or causes underlying performance deficiencies. It also
encourages them to use a systematic approach to diagnosing performance-related
concerns.
Procedure: Students can score this survey by referring to the appropriate scoring key at
the end of the chapter. This instrument focuses on seven performance problems:
conflicting perceptions about the level of performance (items 1, 8), lack of training (items
2, 9), inadequate aptitude (items 3, 10), insufficient resources (items 4, 11), unrealistic or
unclear expectations (items 5, 12), unattractive incentives (items 6, 13), and insufficient
reward salience (items 7, 14). Any total score over 7 points for each type of performance
problem represents an obstacle and a total score of all seven performance problems over
50 suggest significant, broad-based motivational deficiencies.
285
SKILL LEARNING
Outline: Chapter 6, Motivating Others
I. Increasing motivation and performance.
Employee motivation and performance are increasingly viewed as key resources in

helping organizations improve productivity, quality, customer relations, etc. Few subjects
receive more ongoing attention in organizations. Regardless of the organizational setting,
managers face a common challenge of fostering a motivating work environment.
The focus of this chapter is on creating work environments where employees are highly
productive and highly motivated. The core of this chapter outlines a six-step process for
creating a motivating work environment.
II. Diagnosing work performance problems.
Generally, supervisors attribute the cause of poor performance to low motivation or lack
of effort. This attribution bias, in the absence of scrutiny, leads to simplistic, ill-informed
diagnoses of work performance problems by supervisors.
The book endorses the following model: Performance is a product of ability multiplied
by motivation. Ability is the product of aptitude multiplied by training and resources.
Motivation is the product of desire (effort) and commitment. The multiplication sign in
these models signifies that all components are essential.
• Aptitude refers to native skills and abilities, including the personality
characteristics that a person brings to a job.
• Most inherent abilities can be enhanced by education and training.
• Resources in the ability equation focus on providing adequate resources
(technical, personnel, political) to perform the job.
• Desire and commitment is manifested in job-related effort.
Effective managers can tell whether poor performance stems from low motivation or a
lack of ability by considering four factors.
1. How difficult are the tasks assigned to the individual?
2. How capable is the individual?
3. How hard is the individual trying to succeed at the job?
4. How much improvement is the individual making?
Answering these questions determines whether the poor performance is due to the lack of
ability or motivation. Managers must be aware that different strategies exist to improve
performance based upon the cause for poor performance; ability or motivation. Choosing
the wrong strategy creates more problems for the supervisor-subordinate relationship.
III. Enhancing individuals’ abilities.
Ability problems result from poor employment screening, changes in responsibilities,

advances in technology or the Peter Principle, where people are promoted to one level
above their level of competence. Managers should be alert for individuals that show signs
of ability deterioration. The following are three danger signs:
286
1. Taking refuge in a specialty. Managers retreat to their technical
specialty as opposed to managing.
2. Focusing on past performance. Managers dwell on previous “days of
glory,” instead of confronting current challenges.
3. Exaggerating certain aspects of the leadership role. Managers feel
insecure about their command of job responsibilities and avoid certain
aspects of their role or use their office to intimidate others.
The five remedies for overcoming poor performance due to a lack of ability should be
implemented in this order.
1. Resupply—focuses on the support needs of the job, including
personnel, budget, and political clout. This is the least threatening
action and signals to the employee a willingness by the manager to
help.
2. Retrain—providing additional education or job-related training.
Training can take a variety of forms:
• Interactive
• Simulation
• Subsidized university courses
• In-house seminars
• Distance learning, material offered over the Internet
3. Refit--the subordinate remains on the job but the components of the
job are changed to better fit the individual. The result usually is a
changed job description.
4. Reassign- is more drastic because it involves a transfer, but it indicates
to the employee that the company is committed to helping him or her
succeed in that organization.
5. The final option, Release, or termination, should be considered only
after all other options have been explored.
IV. Fostering a motivating work environment.
The second component of employee performance is motivation. Related to

motivation are the assumptions tied to Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X is a
management style characterized by coercion, intimidation, and close supervision
where the basic assumption is that employees really do not want to work hard or
assume responsibility. Theory Y is a management style characterized by assisting
workers to reach their potential where workers want to do a good job and assume
more responsibility.
Managers should use motivation techniques that “integrate” concerns for both
employee satisfaction and performance. As Figure 6.1 indicates, there are four
ways to address satisfaction and performance.
• Indulging-a high emphasis on satisfaction and a low emphasis
on performance. The culture is one of entitlement over
accountability.
• Imposing-a strong emphasis on performance to the exclusion of
satisfaction. Employees feel exploited. Very little trust between
management and employees.
• Ignoring-neither satisfaction nor performance is emphasized. No
real leadership, no direction and ultimately failure.
287
• Integrating- emphasizes both satisfaction and performance. In
the long run both satisfaction and performance are given equal
consideration. Employees are still held accountable.
V. Elements of an effective motivation program
This section outlines a step-by-step program for creating an integrative, synergistic

motivational program grounded in the belief that employees can simultaneously be high
performers and personally satisfied. The key assumptions underlying the authors’
framework are found in Table 6.1.
Scholars’ understanding of the relationship between satisfaction, motivation and

performance has changed a great deal during the past two decades. The current “four-
factor” model is: motivation → performance → outcomes (rewards) → satisfaction.
There are six components in an integrating motivation program that are discussed in more
detail below (see Table 6.2 for summary).
Within the “four-factor” model are the six elements. The first relationship Motivation →
performance covers the first two elements: establish clear performance expectations and
remove obstacles to performance.
Establish Clear Performance Expectations
Establish moderately difficult goals that are understood and accepted. The foundation of
an effective motivation program is goal setting. Effective goal setting has three critical
components:
a. Goal-setting process that encourages subordinates to “buy into”
the goals.
b. Goal characteristics are specific, consistent, and appropriately
challenging.
• Goals should be specific meaning they are measurable,
unambiguous, and behavioral.
• Goals should be consistent meaning goals should be
compatible where all goals can be accomplished
simultaneously.
• Goals should be appropriately challenging where high
expectations generally foster high performance.
c. Feedback on goal accomplishment. Feedback provides
opportunities for clarifying expectations, adjusting goal difficulty,
and gaining recognition. Benchmarking plays a critical role in
feedback.
Remove Obstacles to Performance
Facilitate employee performance by removing obstacles to goal accomplishment to

ensure a supportive work environment. This section is heavily influenced by the path-
goal model. Effective managers adjust their involvement in subordinate task performance
based on three factors (see Figure 6.2 and Table 6.3).
a. How much help is needed to complete the task.
o Key task characteristics are structure and difficulty. A task
that is highly structured and easy to perform does not require
288
directive leadership. Unstructured and difficult tasks require
direction.
b. How much direction the subordinates expect.
o Three distinct characteristics that influence expectations are
(1) desire for autonomy, (2) experience, and (3) ability.
Individuals who desire autonomy desire a participative
leadership style. Capable and experienced subordinates need
less assistance from the manager.
c. How much support is available from other organizational sources.
Management involvement should complement not duplicate
organizational sources of support.
Reinforce Performance-Enhancing Behavior
Once clear goals have been established and the paths to goal completion have been
clarified, the next step is to encourage goal accomplishment by contingently linking
performance to extrinsic outcomes (rewards and discipline) and fostering intrinsic
outcomes (Performance → outcomes). Therefore, the third element from Table 6.2; use
rewards and discipline appropriately to extinguish unacceptable behavior and encourage
exceptional performance. The authors note that this section is based upon two related
principles: (1) managers should link rewards to performance, not seniority and
membership and (2) managers should use discipline to extinguish counterproductive
behaviors and use rewards to reinforce productive behaviors.
Use Rewards as Reinforcers
When rewards are linked to desired behaviors, they reinforce that behavior. High
performers expect a strong link between performance and rewards. Since high
performers are the key to organizational success, it is important to keep this
group satisfied. Some creative links between performance and rewards include:
• sales commissions that include follow-up customer satisfaction ratings
• pay increases linked to acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or
demonstrated competencies
• compensating managers based upon their ability to mentor new group
members and resolve difficult intergroup relationships
• linking pay of key employees to the accomplishment of new
organizational goals or strategic initiatives
Technological constraints can prevent the link between individual performance

and rewards (for example, an assembly line). When neither individual nor group
performance can be measured, an organization-wide performance bonus is
appropriate.
Nonfinancial rewards (awards) should be included as well in the performance-

reinforcing program. The greatest motivational impact from awards programs is
possible when:
• the awards are given publicly
• awards are infrequent
• there is a credible reward process
• the award presentation is used to acknowledge past recipients
289
• the award is meaningful within the organization’s culture
The Role of Managers’ Action as Reinforcers
Managers should be cognizant of how their day-to-day interactions with

employees can be interpreted as rewards or punishments by the employees. The
do’s and don’ts for encouraging subordinates to assume more initiative (see
Table 6.4) demonstrate the power of managers’ actions in shaping behavior. The
quote “The best way to change an individual’s behavior in a work setting is to
change his or her manager’s behavior” fits this section.
Use Rewards and Discipline Appropriately
There are three types of management responses to employee behavior;

• no response (ignoring)
• negative response (disciplining)
• positive response (rewarding)
Managers should not assume that their lack of response to an action or event has
neutral meaning to subordinates. By definition, if a behavior persists, it is being
reinforced. Therefore, the authors take the stance that no response ultimately
results into either a negative or positive response.
Discipline is appropriate for extinguishing unacceptable behaviors but ineffective

in improving acceptable performance. Rewards are effective for improving
acceptable behaviors but inappropriate for correcting poor performance. Figure
6.3 is crucial for this discussion.
The consequences of misapplying rewards and discipline generally lead to two

undesirable outcomes: the work unit’s morale is threatened and poor performers’
behaviors are not improved. Subordinates expect managers to reprimand poor
performers (not ignore them or make excuses) and reward exceptional
performance (not nitpick the performance).
Therefore, exceptional managers are able to foster exceptional behavior in their

subordinates by utilizing the 9-step behavior-shaping process outlined in Table
6.5. This 9-step guideline can be used either to transform unacceptable behaviors
into acceptable ones, or to transform acceptable behaviors into exceptional ones.
Strategies for Shaping Behaviors
The nine step process is organized into three broad initiatives: reprimand,
redirect, and reward (see Table 6.5). Steps 1 through 6 (reprimand and redirect)
are used to extinguish unacceptable behaviors and replace them with acceptable
ones. Steps 4 through 9 (redirect and reinforce) are used to transform acceptable
behavior into exceptional behaviors.
• When issuing a reprimand, the discipline should immediately
follow the offensive behavior and focus exclusively on the
specific problems (don’t bring up old concerns). The focus
290
should be on eliminating behavior, not making the person feel
bad.
• After a reprimand, it is important to redirect inappropriate
behaviors into appropriate channels. It is important that those
being reprimanded understand how they can receive rewards in
the future.
• Once the manager has redirected the focus to the acceptable
behavior, the manager can begin to use rewards in connection
with the new behavior to reinforce the desirable behavior.
Foster Intrinsic Outcomes
Pay, promotion and praise are extrinsic outcomes. Intrinsic outcomes are
experienced directly by the individual as a result of successful task performance.
These experiences include feelings of accomplishment, self-esteem, and the
development of new skills. How the work is designed can enhance the potential
for intrinsic outcomes.
Motivating Workers by Redesigning Work
Work design is the process of matching job characteristics and workers’ skills
and interests. Figure 6.4 shows the relationship between core job dimensions, the
critical psychological states they produce, and the resulting personal and work
outcomes. The five core job dimensions; skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and feedback are positively related to job satisfaction.
• Skill variety: variety in the skills needed for the task creates a
perception that the task is meaningful.
• Task identity: performing a task from beginning to end, rather
than just a piece of a whole task, increases the meaningfulness
of the task.
• Task Significance: work or tasks that have a positive impact
on the lives of others increase the meaningfulness of the task.
• Autonomy: freedom to choose how and when to do the task
increases responsibility, leading to increased commitment.
• Feedback: information about the individual’s performance,
provided on a timely basis, helps the individual understand the
importance and value of the task.
Table 6.6 identifies the five managerial strategies for increasing intrinsic
outcomes related to the five core job dimensions. These five are:
1. Combine Tasks- requires workers to use a wider
variety of skills leading to work being more
challenging and meaningful.
2. Form Identifiable Work Units- increases task
identity.
3. Establish Client Relationships- these relationships
can enhance task significance.
4. Increase Authority- as supervisors delegate more
authority and responsibility, subordinates’ perceived
autonomy increases.
291
5. Open Feedback Channels- Timely and consistent
feedback is needed so subordinates can make
adjustments in their behavior to receive the desired
reward.
In summary, managers should recognize that both extrinsic and intrinsic

outcomes are necessary ingredients of effective motivational programs.
Provide Salient Rewards
Having established a link between performance and outcomes (rewards and discipline) as
part of an integrative motivational program, the final link in the four-factor model
(Outcomes → Satisfaction) is discussed, as well as the final three remaining elements of
the six element motivational program (see Table 6.2). The fourth element of the
integrative motivation program is to provide salient internal and external incentives. In
other words, is the promised reward worth the effort? Managers should seek information
about subordinates’ needs and values and not assume they know what employees want.
Personal Needs and Personal Motivation
The various hierarchical needs models (see Table 6.7) provide useful
information about personal needs, including needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power. However, hierarchical needs models are not as useful
for understanding day-to-day motivation levels of working adults.
An alternative perspective to the hierarchical models is the Manifest Needs

Model. This model proposes that people have divergent and often conflicting
needs and that we can classify people according to the strength of their
various needs. Moreover, this model assumes that needs are learned, not
inherited, and that needs are activated by cues from the environment. Finally,
within the workplace, only three needs have been identified as relevant:
achievement, affiliation, and power.
• Need for Achievement is characterized by
o a tendency to set moderately difficult goals
o a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for work
activities
o a single-minded focus on accomplishing a task
o a strong desire for detailed feedback on task performance
• Need for Affiliation is characterized by
o a sincere interest in the feelings of others
o a tendency to conform to the expectations of others
o a strong desire for reassurance and approval from others
• Need for Power is characterized by a desire to influence others
and to control one’s environment. There are two manifestations of
the need for power:
o Personal power: seek power for personal gain
o Institutional power: seek power to advance the goals of a
group or organization
292
Using Need Theory to overcome Common Attribution Errors
The tendency for managers to miscalculate subordinates’ reward preferences

is reflected in the following attribution errors: (1) assuming all subordinates
value the same rewards and (2) assuming that the manager’s reward
preferences are shared by all subordinates. One approach is to match
employees’ preferences with organizational rewards through a “cafeteria
style” compensation system. A flexible reward system helps managers avoid
a common motivational mistake of projecting their own preferences onto
subordinates.
Be Fair and Equitable
Once appropriate rewards have been determined, managers must consider how to
distribute those rewards. The issue the manager faces here is equity. Any positive
benefits of the reward will be negated if the individuals feel they are not receiving their
fair share. Equity is the fifth element of the integrative motivation program (see Table
6.2).
Equity refers to the worker’s perception of fairness of the rewards. Equity is based on the
perceived balance between what individuals feel they are putting into a job and what they
believe they are getting in return. Inequities are based on a person’s perceived
input/output ratio compared with what s/he believes about the ratios of similar others.
The outcome of this comparison with others is the basis of the individual’s belief about
fairness. Feelings of inequity will cause the individual to alter either his/her inputs or
outputs until the individual perceives equity has been restored. The key for the manager
is to ensure that differences in ratios are based upon job-related items (performance,
skills, and experience, for example).
Provide Timely Rewards and Accurate Feedback
Once a manager has identified fair and equitable rewards, then the timing and delivery of
the reward becomes important. The sixth element of the model is thus related to how the
reward is administrated. Two aspects should be considered: (1) the length of time
between the occurrence of the desirable behavior and receipt of the reward and (2) the
specificity of the explanation for the reward. The longer the delay in the administration of
rewards, the less reinforcement value they have. The implication for effective
management is clear: effective rewards tend to be immediate. Reward programs that are
highly routinized (e.g. formal performance appraisal systems) tend to lose their
immediacy.
Besides timing, how often the reward is administrated is critical. Administrating a reward
every time a behavior occurs is called continuous reinforcement. Administrating rewards
every once in a while is called intermittent reinforcement. Neither approach is superior.
Effective managers tend to use both continuous and intermittent reinforcement.
In addition to the timing of feedback, the content of feedback significantly affects its
reinforcement potential. To increase the motivational potential of performance feedback,
be very specific, using examples whenever possible. The main purpose for feedback is to
reinforce productive behaviors and extinguish counterproductive behaviors. It is
especially important to provide accurate and honest feedback when the individual’s
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performance is marginal or substandard. Using one’s supportive communication skills in
this situation can be beneficial to both the supervisor and subordinate.
VI. Summary.
To summarize this chapter, explain the integrative model of motivation

enhancement (Figure 6.5). Be sure to reference Table 6.2 in your discussion.
Teaching Hints
1. Ability versus motivation. Students should understand the need to differentiate

between ability and motivation problems. The authors report Michener’s diagnostic
questions, but you could challenge students to come up with others. A news
clipping about low productivity can be a good discussion starter for this section.
Also, it is important to discuss the four remedies for a lack of ability noted earlier.
One approach is to list on the board several reasons ability might inhibit good
performance and ask students what diagnostic questions they would use. Possible
scenarios to include are poorly educated and trained immigrants who are having
difficulty being accepted by coworkers, or secretaries whose productivity fell
markedly soon after the introduction of new word processing equipment. In each
case, push students to consider various alternative explanations related to poor
performance and to have them offer remedies. Also, stress the merits of following
the recommended order of alternative actions. You can do this by asking:
 Which of these steps are likely to be applied out of sequence? Why? (It is
easier to transfer or fire a problem employee than it is to diagnose and solve
his or her problems.)
2. Diagnostic model. Students should understand the six elements of the integrative
motivation program and their related questions shown in Table 6.2. For example,
ask them to develop plausible explanations for a third-string football player who
transfers to a smaller school (low motivation to performance link), a high turnover
rate in a fast food restaurant (low intrinsic job satisfaction), an extroverted student
who gets lower grades in large lecture courses (low extrinsic rewards), lower
productivity in government than business organizations (lower performance to
rewards link), and a young married man with three kids living in California who
quits a commission sales job (nonsalient rewards—he needs more security). Using
Figure 6.5 as an overhead, have students identify which elements of the model
might account for these performance/motivation problems. Students can generate
their own set of problems from everyday experience, summer jobs, or current work,
and use these as “drills” for applying the model as a diagnostic aid. (The model in
Figure 6.5 has been converted into a decision tree format in Figure 6.7 in the Skill
Practice section. You may want to incorporate this alternative version in your
discussion of Figure 6.5.)
3. Proper use of rewards. Many managers get very frustrated because they have
communicated their expectations to their subordinates and their subordinates do not
comply. Ask why this might occur. (You might have students break into
brainstorming groups to make a list of plausible reasons.) Ask for examples of
managers or entire organizations that illustrate Kerr’s point about “the folly of
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rewarding A while hoping for B.” At some point in the discussion, ask how the
notion, “Managers get what they reward, talk about, and model, not simply what
they want” applies. One tie-in is that according to the path-goal model of
leadership, “what we want” is the equivalent of a goal or expectation. If
subordinates understand an expectation, but their behaviors are inconsistent, then
something’s wrong with the “path.” Possibly they do not know how to implement
the expectation (cannot select the appropriate path), do not feel it is worth their
effort (insufficient incentives), are not sure the boss is really serious about the
expectation (his/her own actions, private conversations, etc., are not consistent with
stated priorities), or are encountering insurmountable obstacles along the path.
4. Impact of managers’ actions. This discussion sensitizes students to the impact

managers have on the behavior of subordinates. The following sobering quote by
an authority on behavioral modification may benefit the discussion: “Any response
by a subordinate that continually occurs in the presence of his or her manager is
being reinforced by the manager” (Thompson, 1978). The material from Kellogg
on ways to encourage or discourage initiative in subordinates makes the same
point. Ask whether students have experienced either the do’s or don’ts in Table 6.4.
Why might managers intellectually understand the importance of following the
do’s but end up doing the don’ts? Students should understand that people who fall
into this trap are not simply unenlightened. They are often responding to a pattern
established by their boss or slavishly following their own precedents. Or they may
yield to some competing pressure, like making sure certain tasks are done perfectly
or completed on time.
It is interesting to discuss mutually reinforcing but counterproductive interactions

that occur (often unintentionally) between people. For example, a PBS special on
young black males indicated that many of these individuals (especially those who
live in poor neighborhoods) have low self-esteem during their teens. Unfortunately,
this low self-worth is reinforced by many of their interactions with adult authority
figures who relate with the black youth on the basis of stereotypes. Ask students to
identify statements made by teachers, single parents, bosses for part-time jobs, and
police officers that might reinforce low self-esteem. These might include: a teacher
labeling them disadvantaged, poor, underprivileged, etc.; a single-parent mother
expressing anger at the son’s father’s lack of responsibility (criticizing a role
model); a boss or teacher treating the youth as an underachiever (talking down to
him); police expecting youth from poor neighborhoods to be troublemakers
(stereotyping).
Ask students if they have experienced or witnessed these types of interactions.

(Especially focus on work experiences.) For example, if a new employee with low
self-esteem offers excuses why s/he cannot perform a task successfully, a punitive
boss may respond by chewing him/her out and questioning his/her fitness for the
job. This is positively reinforcing to the boss, because it immediately stops the
employee’s behavior, which s/he despises. Unfortunately, unless the true causes of
the employee’s failure are identified and rectified, the principal effect of this
response on the employee is a reaffirmation of his/her low self-worth (once again
told that s/he is a failure). If the employee complains to a coworker and is received
with sympathy, s/he’ll likely conclude that the boss is obnoxious. Thus, both the
boss’s and the colleague’s reactions fail to address the underlying problem.
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Indeed, both increase the likelihood that the employee will continue to avoid
responsibility for his/her own actions. The boss communicates that the employee is
not capable of handling problems on his/her own, and the colleague implies it is not
necessary for him/her to try.
Quite often counterproductive and even destructive activities are perpetuated, even
when the parties understand what is going on and have some interest in changing,
because one person’s habitual actions trigger a habitual reaction in the other. These
cycles are often extremely difficult to break without third-party intervention.
5. Three Rs approach to shaping behaviors. This is the heart of the chapter, in terms
of behavioral skills. Make sure students understand this developmental process
prior to beginning the Skill Practice exercises. Discussion questions might include:
 What is the proper role of discipline in the workplace? (It is often viewed
only in a negative, punitive light. It should also be seen as a constructive
opportunity for improving performance.)
 What mistakes are commonly made in each of the three steps? (Generally,
assuming that extinguishing inappropriate behaviors without specifying more
desirable alternatives will lead to improved performance.)
Managers often feel they are in a dilemma when it comes to monitoring

performance. On the one hand, they know they need accurate and timely
information to provide encouragement or redirection. In addition, performance
feedback is one of the essential ingredients of an intrinsically motivating task. On
the other hand, many have felt the stinging criticism of not trusting their
subordinates and using reporting mechanisms as a means of “micromanaging”
others’ work. What advice would you give managers about this important topic?
(Share the dilemma with subordinates, and invite them to help you design the
reporting mechanism; tailor reporting mechanisms to specific tasks, as well as the
experience level and expertise of individuals.)
Figure 6.3 may need some further explanation. The key points are:
 The disciplining approach should be targeted at correcting unacceptable

behaviors. It consists of reprimanding and redirecting. Some managers are
reluctant to reward acceptable behaviors (or they are simply forgetful).
Subordinates may interpret this as punishment.
 The rewarding approach should be targeted at transforming acceptable
behaviors into exceptional behaviors. It involves redirecting and rewarding.
Sometimes managers refuse to deal with unacceptable behaviors. This
unwillingness to confront substandard performance can be interpreted as a
reward.
6. Salience of rewards. It is interesting to explore the implications of the survey

results in Table 6.8. Ask, “What is the likely impact of this substantial incongruity
between subordinates’ preferences and what managers think subordinates value?”
In general, not only will the overall reward system not operate at maximum
effectiveness, but also supervisors will not likely use the rewards they control as
much as they should, because they do not understand the salience to their workers.
A common complaint from subordinates is, “My work is not appreciated.” A
296
common response from the immediate manager is, “I cannot do anything about it
because the organization imposes strict guidelines on pay increases and promotions
(e.g., I can only give 15% superior performance evaluation ratings).” The point of
this survey is that subordinates value highly “manager-controlled” rewards, such as
attractive task assignments, personal expressions of appreciation, and additional
responsibilities.
SKILL ANALYSIS
Electro Logic Case
Based on an actual organization, this case gives students experience using the chapter’s
diagnostic models to identify motivation and performance problems. Tell students that
they have been hired as consultants by the owner to identify specific performance and
motivation problems and recommend changes. The firm has expanded quickly, and the
owner is concerned about rumors of growing disenchantment. Stress that students should
back up their analysis with evidence from the case and make very specific
recommendations for change.
Questions 1 & 2: The case lends itself to small-group analysis and discussion, followed
by a general discussion. If this format is adopted, assign students to use the summary
integrative model in Figure 6.5 as a reference for their analysis of the case. Or, assign
each group a specialist role with responsibility for a specific component of the model
(e.g., motivation to performance, performance to outcomes, outcomes to satisfaction). To
clarify the task, indicate that the general discussion will focus on three items (list three
headings on the board): Performance Problems, Supporting Evidence, and Recommended
Actions.
Examples include:
Performance Problems
1. Inadequate resources
2. Expectations not understood
3. Rewards not linked to performance
4. Tasks have low identity and feedback
5. Performance not linked to salient rewards
6. Inequity
7. Lack of training
8. Possible placement mismatch
Supporting Evidence (numbers correspond with preceding)
1. Pat: Staff being shifted to other projects.

2. Bob: Boss too busy to discuss goals/priorities.
3. Chris: Senior members get preference for staff, salary.
4. Chris: Do not understand contribution. Do not receive feedback.
5. Meg: Administrative staff does not receive respect.
Chris: Lack of recognition and appreciation.
P. J.: Feeling pressure to advance.
“Engineers with most responsibility and authority tend to leave.”
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6. Chalida: Doing work of engineers, receiving pay of tech.
7. Meg: Needs administration education.
8. Meg: History major—assistant head of administration.
Recommended Actions (numbers correspond with preceding)
1. More frequent planning/coordination meetings. Possibly more staff—possibly hire

part-time students from local university during peak periods.
2. More frequent staff meetings. Upper management review first-level managers’ unit
plans and expectations.
3. Set up a formal salary and benefits program.
4. Redesign some jobs by combining tasks, building relationships with client groups.
5. Have supervisors model Steve Morgan’s (EL President) behavior by spending
more time in the administration unit.
6. Adjust unrealistic expectations. Provide opportunities for continuing education.
7. Follow the retrain, refit, and reassign approach.
8. Same as # 7.
You might also interject discussion questions that tap other aspects of the case, such as:
 Find examples of individuals motivated by different “outcomes.” (Pat—social

interactions, Chris—nature of the task, P. J.—money and security)
 What are the implications of these different preferences for the management of this
firm? (It is desirable to offer a variety of rewards.)
 Using the path-goal model of leadership (shown in Figure 6.2: Leader Involvement
and Subordinate Performance), how involved should Steve (EL President) be in
facilitating goal accomplishment with the following groups of employees: research
scientists, technical support, administrative support? (These groups form a
continuum from low to high involvement conditions, as shown in Table 6.3 in the
text.)
SKILL PRACTICE
Exercises for Diagnosing Work Performance Problems
Two alternative options can be used to practice the analytical skill of diagnosing
performance problems related to Figure 6.7. The first is a case (Joe Chaney); the second
is a survey (the same one that appears in the Assessment section), which students can use
to analyze an actual workplace. The second option requires more planning as students
will need to identify and gain access to an organization. If you are considering the survey
as a general class assignment, assign the exercise a week or two prior to the motivation
chapter. An alternative is to assign a group of students to collect the information and
report on the results to the class. (This fits nicely into the group project course
requirement described in the Introduction to the Instructor’s Manual.)
The second option has several advantages: it adds variety to the course, demonstrates the
utility of these concepts and models, and introduces students to real-world attitudes and
practices. The case study (first option) should be used if you cannot manage the logistics
of administering a survey. Also, the case study can supplement your discussion of the
survey. Following the classic case study philosophy, use the discussion about Joe’s
problems to flesh out patterns reflected in the survey data.
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Joe Chaney
The steps in the assignment constitute a meaningful learning experience “package.” Start
with individual analysis (possibly assigned as homework); use small-group discussions to
compare different points of view on the problems (as well as to generate a list of
discussion questions for Joe and a companion list of recommended solutions); and stage
an interview with Joe (or multiple interviews, using individuals advocating different
approaches).
Sample discussion questions include:
 What factors might have contributed to Joe’s frequent change in jobs? (Joe appears
to have unrealistic expectation and he is unwilling to continue his education.
Moreover, he appears to be searching for an opportunity to make a more
meaningful contribution.)
 What effect might the changes in office and management routines due to an
upsurge in work have on Joe’s decreased motivation? (Less-enjoyable place to
work resulting from increased tensions; less opportunity for management to
discuss concerns, goals, etc., with the staff during performance review interviews;
increased overtime takes him away from his family.)
 Joe seemed highly motivated when he first joined the firm. What factors seem to
have contributed to his waning interest? (Not receiving salient rewards, i.e., status
recognition, interesting work assignments, or compensation consistent with his
perceived contribution.)
 What effect do you think equity plays in Joe’s dissatisfaction? (He feels he’s
making a contribution on a par with higher-paid employees, but his job class and
lack of a four-year degree probably prevent him from earning a higher salary.)
 What responsibility does Joe have to upgrade his skills? (He is making the choice
to not get his degree from night school. The company is not responsible for the
consequences of that decision. He was hired as a draftsman. If he wants to get
more education to upgrade his position, then possibly management could ease off
on overtime, reduce out-of-town travel, etc., to facilitate a night school
arrangement.)
 What other “solutions” do you propose that Joe’s manager consider? (Possibly
explore other means for helping Joe get what he desires, e.g., make him a lead
worker or supervisor over other draftsmen so that he has a higher status when
interacting with architects and a wider range of challenging tasks.)
Encourage students to use the language of the chapter. Having the key models displayed
and referencing them to highlight students’ comments reinforces the value of these
frameworks. Several components of the decision tree model are applicable. Training
might be a factor if the firm was willing to provide on-the-job training in lieu of a college
degree as the basis for upgrading his job classification and giving him more interesting
work. Training also comes into play if it is interpreted as formal education—which Joe
has not pursued. It appears that the rewards available for being a high-performing
draftsman are not salient to Joe.
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Work Performance Survey
As mentioned above, you can use this survey in a variety of ways to practice analyzing
motivation in an actual work setting. For instance, you might require all students to
collect data, or you might assign a small group to use the survey as a special project.
Either way, you will probably have to help students prepare copies of the survey for
distribution, analyze the data, and plan a presentation. If a small group is presenting the
data, they could report the results and make recommendations for improvement, or they
could simply report the data and then hand out copies of the results for use in small-group
discussions of implications and recommendations.
Questions for the General Discussion at the End of the Exercise
 Why do you think these performance problems were identified by this group of
employees? (Discuss type of work, organizational culture, level of education, union
status, etc.)
 How typical do you feel these are? (Relate to experiences of students.)
 Which of these do you feel are more difficult for managers to deal with?
 Do you know of specific managers/organizations that have made improvements in
any one of these areas?
Exercise for Reshaping Unacceptable Behaviors
Shaheen Matombo
This role play gives students practice on the nine elements of the three Rs approach to
improving performance. As with other role plays, this one can be conducted in triads or
as a demonstration in front of the class, but this one lends itself to an informative pre-
role-play planning session in small groups. If you use this approach, assign students into
Andre and Shaheen role-play preparation groups. (If you are going to conduct a
demonstration role-play, then only have one group of Shaheens. For individual role plays,
place one-third of the class in the Shaheen group and assign half the Andre group to play
his role and the other half to serve as observers.)
The assignment for the Andre small groups is to use the model to brainstorm suggestions
for a meeting with Shaheen. Also, encourage them to incorporate the behavioral
guidelines for supportive communication into their meeting with Shaheen. The
individuals in the Shaheen planning group(s) should focus on Shaheen’s concerns and
problems. What are the common mistakes made by managers of individuals with these
kinds of problems? From Shaheen’s point of view, what would be a realistic and
appropriate response from Andre? What responses would she find inappropriate, even
maddening?
Note: This role play does not naturally lend itself to practicing all nine of the steps in the
three Rs model. Generally, the confrontation focuses on the reprimand and redirect steps
only. One way to initiate a discussion about the reward steps is to ask students playing
the role of Andre how they would follow up on this phone call to encourage Shaheen to
implement any commitments made during the call.
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Questions for the discussion following the role play might include:
 Which of the three Rs appeared to be the most challenging to implement well?

(Generally individuals feel most uncomfortable with the reprimand stage. It is easy
to get mad, but difficult to use this as a constructive opportunity to improve
performance.)
 Where did the communication tend to break down most easily? (Generally this is
either in the reprimand or redirect steps. If Shaheen does not feel that Andre is
trying to understand her problems, or if he dictates remedies that she feels are
unfair or unworkable, she is likely to balk.)
 What aspects of supportive communication did you find most helpful/difficult to
implement? Should Andre view Shaheen’s problem as a problem or a symptom?
(Both. Problem: It interferes with office routines and Symptom: It suggests
Shaheen is facing some fundamental difficulties in getting to work. The tendency is
for the boss to treat an issue as a problem, and for the subordinate to treat it as a
symptom. This often leads to a misunderstanding, hence the need for supportive
communication to understand the issue from the subordinate’s perspective.)
 What are Andre’s and Shaheen’s rights and responsibilities in this interaction?
(Create a 2 x 2 table to list the responses from the students. Rows: Andre, Shaheen;
Columns: Rights, Responsibilities. Responses might include: Andre has the right to
expect timely attendance and the responsibility to ensure compliance. He also has
the responsibility to be understanding and supportive when employees find it
difficult to comply with his expectations—no matter how reasonable or basic they
are. Shaheen has the right to be treated with respect and the responsibility to
comply with basic work requirements. This analysis is particularly useful for role
players who had difficulty coming to an agreement.)
SKILL APPLICATION
Activities for Motivating Others
Suggested Assignments
These exercises provide opportunities for students to extend the learning experience
beyond the classroom discussion. Your selection of assignment should take into
consideration your students’ age, access to organizations, employment status, etc. You
should also consider which aspects of the chapter you spent the most time discussing in
class. The Skill Application assignment can balance the emphasis placed on various
topics.
Assignment 1 involves using the decision tree model to diagnose the causes of an
individual’s inferior work performance and explore remedies. Assignment 2 asks students
to use the model to improve their own performance. This assignment is preferable to
Assignment 1 for students who are involved in a leadership role. Assignment 3 directs
students to examine ways of more effectively shaping unacceptable behavior. Students
may need some help thinking of relationships where this assignment might apply;
examples are family, roommates, study group members, friends, and work associates.
Assignment 4 focuses on designing a new work relationship to increase its motivational
potential.
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channels have to be cleansed. The best form to give to a sewer is
the one given here in section (Fig. 24).
CHAPTER X.
PAUL BEGINS TO UNDERSTAND.
In spite of the news of the war, which was daily assuming a more
threatening character, M. de Gandelau insisted on the works not
being interrupted; and the inhabitants of the château found in the
execution of the plans prepared by Eugène and Paul a beneficial
distraction from the sad forebodings which oppressed them.
In the evening, after reading the paper, which recorded, alas! only
a succession of disasters, everyone remained silent, with eyes fixed
on the hearth; but soon, with a determined effort, M. de Gandelau
started the inquiry how the house was getting on. It was for Paul, as
Clerk of the Works, to give an account of the operations of the day,
and he began to perform his task with a fair amount of exactness
and clearness. He showed his memorandum books, which, thanks to
Eugène’s corrections, were not very badly drawn up, and which, by
the help of a daily summary of accounts, indicated the expenses that
had been incurred.
Fig. 25.
The excavations had hitherto furnished enough materials to
obviate the necessity of sending for any from the neighbouring
quarries. About the 15th of September the cellar walls were already
beginning to make their plan visible, and it was time to think of the
exterior plinths in elevation, and of the cellar vaultings, for whose
construction wooden centres were required. The carpenter was
therefore commissioned to send for timber-sawyers, to convert some
trunks of poplars, which having been cut some time before, were put
by for the purpose. The best part of the wood was sawn into thin
boards for battens, to be employed when required; and the slabs—
that is, the part near the bark—were cut up for centring for the
cellars. As the plans gave only two barrel-vaults whose arches were
different, the curves were soon struck out, and the carpenter
prepared the centres, which were fixed up as soon as the cellar walls
reached the level of the spring of the vaults These centres were
formed in the manner shown in Fig. 25—that is, consisted each of a
tie-piece, a, a king-post, b, two blades, c, and clips, d, which held
fast the curves formed of slabs of poplar nailed together, as shown at
e, and fixed at g and h on to the king-post by means of a notch, f,
and to the tie-piece by an iron staple. On these centres, supported
by props k, and set five feet apart, they laid a covering composed of
planks, l, 3 inches thick, to receive the vaults, which were made of
blocks of tufa extracted from the banks of the rivulet, 8 inches in
thickness, with a good layer of mortar over all. The openings for the
air-holes had to be contrived in the haunches of the vault, a piece of
work which gave Paul considerable trouble—or rather, he had some
difficulty in understanding it and sketching it in his note-book; for, as
to Branchu, he did not seem to find any particular difficulty in it.
Eugène had given the sketch for the air-holes at the same time as
the section of the plinth, 5 feet in height above the ground level.
Fig. 26.
This drawing presented, in section at A, and in plan at B, the figure
26. Eugène had to explain this sketch to his clerk-of-works, who did
not understand it at the first glance. “As the light comes from the sky,
at the mean angle of 45°, the cellars must be lighted accordingly,”
said Eugène. “The plinth consists of a course, d, half sunk in the
ground, two clear courses, e f, and a course bearing the set-off. We
give the cellar wall bearing the spring of the vaults, 3 feet. The wall
above the floor-level being 2 feet, this wall gives one foot on each
side of the fixed centre-line, but as the plinth has 4 inches of
projection outside, there will be 16 inches from the centre to the
exterior face of this plinth. Within, the wall descends plumb as far as
the skew-back which carries the vaults. A width of 8 inches is
needed to receive the latter. Thus, from the centre-line below the
spring of the vaults there will be 20 inches in the interior, and 16
inches on the exterior: total, 3 feet. The lower course rising above
the surface 6 inches, and the height of the plinth being 5 feet, there
remains above these 6 inches, 4 feet 6 inches, which divided by
three gives for each course 18 inches. I take the opening of the air-
hole in the second course; out of the third, I take a chamfer of 4
inches, to admit the light, as the exterior, M, and the section indicate.
I cut the first course to a slope of 45°, as shown at i, leaving a flat, a,
of 12 inches, as you see in the plan. Then, behind this sill, I place a
lintel, with a chamfer in the same way, as drawn at o, and take care
to leave at b, two rebates of 2 inches, for casements or gratings, at
discretion. At the back of these rebates, I splay the air-hole, which
has only 2 feet 8 inches of exterior opening, to 3 feet 4 inches. I draw
in section an inclined line, m n, 8 inches above the lintel o, which 8
inches will be the rise of the arched opening that will penetrate into
the barrel-vault, and whose curve in horizontal projection will give the
outline x. Thus this arch, x, will receive the thrust of the courses of
the barrel-vault, and will throw it on the two cheeks, p. Branchu will
only have to mark the curve x on the covering of the centres to form
his arched opening.”
Fig. 27.
It was not quite certain that Paul perfectly caught this explanation,
though repeated several times; and he did not understand it
completely till he saw Branchu construct the air-holes and the
centres were removed (Fig. 27).
Fig. 28.
“I spare you the difficulties,” said Eugène, seeing that Paul was
puzzled to comprehend the construction of the cellars, “for the
structure of the vaults and their penetrations is a matter that requires
long study. We have made only simple barrel-vaults, and you will
observe that the cellar doors are all in the end walls, or tympanums,
and not in the side walls bearing the springing of the vaults. With the
difficulties, I also avoid useless expense. The courses which form
the plinth will be of hard stone, but you will observe that, except at
the angles and for the air-holes, they are only a facing,—they are not
parpings, that is, do not form the whole thickness of the wall. We
have excellent rubble-stone, which, with the good mortar we employ,
offers greater resistance to pressure than is required to carry two
stories and a roof. Letting these rough stones tooth out on the inside
we tie them better into the haunches of the barrel-vaults (Fig. 28),
and thus economise dressed stone. You will also see in elevation,
above the plinth, how we can spare dressed stone if we wish, while
preserving a perfectly sound construction. We find moreover, on the
surrounding uplands, layers of thin limestone, which split in regular
beds from 6 to 8 inches in thickness, and which make capital range-
work. We call that range, or coursed work, in which the stone is laid
with visible faces, beds, and joints somewhat roughly dressed. This
range-work facing, which presents in its way an attractive
appearance, and whose rusticity contrasts with the smooth finish of
the dressed stone, is backed with ordinary rubble walling. Thus, in
districts where stone occurs naturally of this shape in the quarries,
we get an economical building material. But it is puerile to amuse
one’s self with making thin coursed-work where soft freestone
abounds, and where it must be cut into little bits to obtain this
appearance. You will see that it is contrary to common sense to cut
great blocks of stone into little bits, and that when the quarries
supply those only, it is reasonable to employ them according to their
natural dimensions, and to adapt the construction to the nature and
height of the stones. Here we have large blocks, when we require
them, but they are not common. In short, we ought to proceed, as far
as possible, according to the nature of the materials which the soil
furnishes us in abundance.”
The drain was made, the vaults were turned; the steps down to the
cellars were laid; the plinth had risen more than a yard above the
ground. It was time to think about studying the details of the
elevations. That overlooking the garden was only roughly sketched
out. Paul was hoping that it would present a more regular
appearance than that of the entrance side. He made a remark to that
effect, for Paul had seen in the environs of Paris, many country-
houses that seemed to him charming, with their four pepper-boxes at
the angles, their porch in the very centre of the façade, and their zinc
cresting on the roof. He had too high an opinion of his cousin’s ability
to allow himself to criticise the façade of his sister’s house, as
designed for the entrance side; but in his heart he would have
preferred something more conformable to the laws of symmetry.
Those windows of all forms and dimensions shocked his taste a little.
When the façade on the garden side (Fig. 29) was sketched—a
frontage which, this time, presented a symmetrical aspect—Paul
declared himself satisfied with it; and in the evening, the family being
assembled, he asked why the entrance front did not present the
symmetrical arrangements which delighted him on the garden side.
Fig. 29.
“Because,” said Eugène, “on the garden side our plan gives us
rooms which are the counterparts of each other, of equal dimensions
and corresponding purposes; while on the entrance side we have
very diverse services in juxtaposition. The question you raise, Paul,
is a very large one. Two methods may be followed. On the one hand,
you may plan a symmetrical architectural casing, in which you try, as
best you can, to accommodate the services required by a habitation.
Or, on the other hand, you may arrange these services, in plan,
according to their importance, their respective place, and the
relations that are to be established between them, and erect the
casing so as to suit these services, without troubling yourself to
obtain a symmetrical appearance. When it is proposed to erect an
edifice whose exterior aspect is destined to exhibit a grand unity of
design, it is desirable to endeavour to satisfy the rules of symmetry,
and to take care that the building shall not present the appearance of
having been built piecemeal. In a private habitation it is imperative
first to satisfy the requirements of its inhabitants, and not to incur
needless expense. The habitations of the Ancients were not
symmetrical, any more than those of the Middle Ages. Symmetry
strictly applied to domestic architecture is a modern conceit—an
affectation—a false interpretation of the rules observed during the
best periods of art. The houses of Pompeii are not symmetrical: the
country-house—the villa—of which Pliny has left us a complete
description, did not present a symmetrical ensemble. The castles,
manors, and houses built during the Middle Ages are anything but
symmetrical. Lastly, in England, in Holland, in Sweden, in Hanover,
and in a large part of Germany, you may see numbers of dwellings
wonderfully appropriate to the needs of their inhabitants, which are
constructed without regard to symmetry, but which are nevertheless
very convenient and elegant in appearance, from the simple fact that
they clearly indicate their purpose.
“I know that there are many persons quite disposed to put
themselves to inconvenience every day, in order to have the vain
pleasure of exhibiting regular and monumental façades outside; but I
think your sister is not one of those persons, and therefore I have not
hesitated to proceed according to what I conceive to be the law of
common sense in making the designs for her habitation. I can fancy
her asking me, with her quiet, and slightly ironical smile—
“‘Why, my dear cousin, did you make me so large a window in this
small room? We shall have to stop up half of it.’... Or, ‘Why did you
not give me a window on this side, where the view is so pretty?’
“If I replied that it was to satisfy the laws of symmetry, she would
perhaps have laughed outright, and, in petto, might probably have
thought that her respected cousin was after all a fool, with his ‘laws
of symmetry.’”
“Alas!” said M. de Gandelau, “there are too many people in our
country with whom considerations of vanity take precedence of
everything else, and that is one of the causes of our misfortunes.
Appearance is the great object. Every retired bourgeois who has a
country-house built, wishes to have his turrets regularly disposed at
the corners of a building, symmetrical, indeed, but in which he is very
indifferently lodged—satisfied if this inconvenient erection is called
the château, internal comfort being sacrificed to the gratification of
exhibiting outside bad stucco carvings, zinc ornaments on the roof,
and a quantity of nonsensical decorations which have to be renewed
every spring. Build us then, cousin, a good house, well sheltered
from the sun and rain, thoroughly dry within, and in which nothing is
sacrificed to that debased luxury which is a thousand times more
offensive in our country districts than it is in the city.”
CHAPTER XI.
THE BUILDING IN ELEVATION.
“It is decided that we are to build our exterior walls with dressed
stone and range-work,” said Eugène, while they were levelling-up to
the ground-floor.
“We have a good part of the materials on the ground. As regards
stones of large size, we shall get them from the quarries of Le Blanc,
which are only a mile or two distant. Our quoins, our door and
window-openings, our string-courses, cornices, dormer-windows,
and gable-copings, will be made of dressed stone. Let us begin with
the quoins. This is how you will give the details to Branchu; it is a
very simple matter. In this part of the country they sell stone by the
scantling; that is to say, the quarries supply it according to a
measure stipulated beforehand, and the price per cubic foot is less in
proportion to the uniformity of the order, and the ease with which it is
executed. Now our walls on the ground-floor are 2 feet thick: let A be
one of the corners (Fig. 30); for these you will require stones all of
the same scantling—2 ft 10 in. long by 2 feet wide, and a mean
height of 18 inches, which is the average thickness of the beds in the
quarries of this district. And these quoin stones will be placed as I
have marked here, one a b c d, the other a e f g, the result of which
will be that each stone will form alternately on one side and the other
a bond of 10 inches. The range-work having its courses about 6
inches thick, we shall have three courses of the range-work in the
height of each course of dressed stone, and the building as it rises
will present the appearance indicated by the perspective sketch B.
Between the plinth mould and the string-course of the first floor we
have 14 feet; nine courses of stone, plus the mortar beds, therefore,
will constitute its height. Let us see how we are to arrange our
window-casings. We must consider how to place the jalousies, which
cannot be dispensed with in the country, but which when folded back
on the face of the walls produce a disagreeable effect, very soon
begin to get out of repair, and are troublesome to shut or open,
imposing on the inmates of the dwelling a gymnastic exercise from
which they would gladly be
excused. Interior reveals will be
required sufficiently deep for the
casements, not to be flush with the
walls, and to leave a space
between them and the curtains.
Our widest windows are 4 feet wide
in the clear; our walls, on the
ground-floor, are 2 feet thick; we
can therefore find a place for the
jalousies in the casing, only on
condition of dividing each of these
leaves into two or three folds. Only
those made of sheet iron will allow
us to manage this, because three
sheets folded back on themselves
are only 2 inches thick, including
the room left for the play of the
hinges. This, then, is the method
given (in Fig. 31) of arranging the
jambs of the windows: the outside
being at a, we will leave a
thickness, b, to mask the leaves of
the jalousies folded up in the jamb
of 4 inches. We will allow a space
of 10¾ inches for these leaves at
c. Then will come the window-
frame, 2¼ inches thick; total, 17
inches. We shall then have left 7
inches of reveal inside at d. Fig. 30.
“You see at e how we shall build
these window-openings: a sill, f, of a single block of stone; then a
course, g, 16 to 18 inches high, bonding into the range-work; a stone
on end, h, only the thickness of the casing; a third course, i, like that
marked g; and lastly, the lintel. We will make this only the thickness
of the casing, that is, 14¾ inches; we shall have left 9¼ inches,
exactly space enough to turn an arch of bricks, k (these being 9
inches long, and with the joint 9¼
inches). This arch will bear our
joists, if there are any that have to
rest in the outer walls, and it will
hinder a fracture of the lintels.
Besides this we will pass a tie-bar,
l, under the latter. I find the tie-bar
more effective at this level than at
the level of the flooring. A tie-bar is
an iron sinew placed in the
thickness of the walls to bind and
keep in place the whole
construction. It is not always placed
in houses built in country districts,
but it is unwise to omit it—indeed, a
very poor economy to do so; for a
building not tied is liable to be
easily cracked. But we shall speak
of this again at the proper time.
Make a fair copy of these sketches
and show them to me; and we will
give these details to Branchu.
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
“We must also decide how we shall construct the floors. In Paris,
at the present day, they construct all the floors with joists of double T
iron, and for bearings of 16 to 20 feet they take iron 4½ to 6 inches in
vertical section. They pug these iron joists—placed about 28 inches
apart, and connected at intervals of about a yard, by iron tie-bars ⅝
in. square—with plaster concrete. This is no bad method, certainly;
but here we have neither the iron joists, which are so easily procured
at the great centres, nor the plaster-of-Paris, which is perhaps too
lavishly used in the capital, but which is nevertheless an excellent
material when it is properly employed, especially for the interior. We
must construct the floors with wood. But I have already told you that
timbers which have not been soaked for some time, and which have
been cut scarcely two years, decay very rapidly when enclosed,
chiefly in their bearings, that is their extremities built in the walls. To
prevent our floors giving us anxiety respecting their durability, we
must leave the timbers visible, and not build them in the walls. We
will, therefore, adopt the system of bearers attached to the walls to
receive the bearings of the joists; and as we have small oak trunks,
we will content ourselves with squaring them on two faces, and place
them diagonally, as I show you here (Fig. 32). For bearings of 16 to
20 feet, which are the largest we have, timbers 7 inches square will
be sufficient. If we think them insufficient we will put an intermediate
beam; that remains to be seen. These joists, diagonally placed,
present moreover their maximum of resistance to deflection. We will
place them at 20 inches from centre to centre. Their bearings will be
in the notches made in the bearers, as marked at a, and the soffits—
which are the spaces between the joists—will be made with bricks
placed flat-ways, overlaid with mortar and plastered beneath. We
may decorate these ceilings with line painting, which renders them
light and agreeable to the sight, as at h. Joists thus placed do not
present internal angles difficult to keep clean, and among which
spiders spin their webs. A dust with a soft brush readily cleans these
soffits.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
“As to the bearers b, (placed against the wall, as section c shows),
they will be supported by corbels, d, a yard apart at most, and by
cramps, i, to prevent these timbers from giving out. This
arrangement will take the place of those cornices run in plaster,
which are of no use, and which we could not get executed properly
in this neighbourhood, where we have no good workmen in plaster.
When partitions above have to be supported, we will put a special
joist, the section of which I have sketched for you at e, composed of
two pieces, a and b, with an iron plate between them—the whole
fastened together by iron pins at intervals. Joists like this are
perfectly rigid.
“As the joists rest on bearers, we have no need to trouble
ourselves about the windows, but we shall require trimmers at the
chimney-breasts and under the hearths, and—to receive these
trimmers—trimmer-joists. You will easily see that it would be
dangerous to lay pieces of wood under fireplaces. Accordingly, we
place on the two sides of the jambs of these fireplaces, at a distance
of 12 inches from the hearth-stones, stronger joists, which receive at
32 or 36 inches from the wall—to clear the width of the fireplace—a
piece called a trimmer, into which the joists are tenoned.
“For the trimmer-joists we will take the type previously indicated at
e; we shall strengthen (Fig. 33) this beam in its bearing with a block,
d, resting on a strong stone corbel. We will bind the two pieces, e
and d, by an iron strap, f, and frame the trimmer by a tenon, h, in
the mortise g. This trimmer will receive, like the bearers, the ends of
the joists at i. The space, g k, will be the under side of the hearth of
the fireplace above; it will be 32 inches wide, and will be bedded with
brick, laid on tie-pieces of iron, l. These trimmer-joists, e, will have to
be let into the wall about 4 inches, to render them firm and bind the
structure; but in the neighbourhood of the flues we have no reason to
fear the effect of damp on the wood. To sum up, this is the
appearance of these joists and trimmers underneath the fireplaces
(Fig. 34).”
All this, it must be confessed, appeared rather strange to Paul,
accustomed as he was to the invariable smooth white ceiling, and
who had never suspected that such level surfaces could hide such a
framework.

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Developing Management Skills 8th

Edition Whetten Solutions Manual

Developing Management Skills 9th Edition Whetten

Developing Management Skills 9th Edition Whetten Test

Developing Management Skills 10th Edition Whetten Test

Skills in Clinical Nursing 8th Edition Berman Solutions

Educational Psychology Developing Learners 8th Edition

Leadership Research Findings Practice and Skills 8th

Becoming a Multicultural Educator Developing Awareness

Business Communication Essentials A Skills Based

Learning Objective #1:

Learning Objective #2:

In introducing this chapter, it is important to stress the balanced emphasis shown in

Scores indicate competency as well as the need to improve. Because competency in

Diagnosing Poor Performance and Enhancing Motivation Survey

Work Performance Assessment Survey

Employee motivation and performance are increasingly viewed as key resources in

II. Diagnosing work performance problems.

Ability problems result from poor employment screening, changes in responsibilities,

The second component of employee performance is motivation. Related to

This section outlines a step-by-step program for creating an integrative, synergistic

Scholars’ understanding of the relationship between satisfaction, motivation and

Establish Clear Performance Expectations

Remove Obstacles to Performance

Facilitate employee performance by removing obstacles to goal accomplishment to

Reinforce Performance-Enhancing Behavior

Use Rewards as Reinforcers

Technological constraints can prevent the link between individual performance

Nonfinancial rewards (awards) should be included as well in the performance-

The Role of Managers’ Action as Reinforcers

Managers should be cognizant of how their day-to-day interactions with

Use Rewards and Discipline Appropriately

There are three types of management responses to employee behavior;

Discipline is appropriate for extinguishing unacceptable behaviors but ineffective

The consequences of misapplying rewards and discipline generally lead to two

Therefore, exceptional managers are able to foster exceptional behavior in their

Strategies for Shaping Behaviors

Foster Intrinsic Outcomes

Motivating Workers by Redesigning Work

In summary, managers should recognize that both extrinsic and intrinsic

Provide Salient Rewards

Personal Needs and Personal Motivation

An alternative perspective to the hierarchical models is the Manifest Needs

The tendency for managers to miscalculate subordinates’ reward preferences

Be Fair and Equitable

Provide Timely Rewards and Accurate Feedback

To summarize this chapter, explain the integrative model of motivation

1. Ability versus motivation. Students should understand the need to differentiate

4. Impact of managers’ actions. This discussion sensitizes students to the impact

It is interesting to discuss mutually reinforcing but counterproductive interactions

Ask students if they have experienced or witnessed these types of interactions.

Managers often feel they are in a dilemma when it comes to monitoring

 The disciplining approach should be targeted at correcting unacceptable

6. Salience of rewards. It is interesting to explore the implications of the survey

Electro Logic Case

Supporting Evidence (numbers correspond with preceding)

1. Pat: Staff being shifted to other projects.

Recommended Actions (numbers correspond with preceding)

1. More frequent planning/coordination meetings. Possibly more staff—possibly hire

 Find examples of individuals motivated by different “outcomes.” (Pat—social

Exercises for Diagnosing Work Performance Problems

Sample discussion questions include:

Questions for the General Discussion at the End of the Exercise

Exercise for Reshaping Unacceptable Behaviors