Nondestructive Evaluation Methods

Application to Power Plant Steam Turbine Systems

Technical Brief — Steam Turbines, Generators and Auxiliary Systems

Abstract
Nondestructive examination (NDE) is an indispensable tool for ensuring
the safety and performance of power plant systems. Our ability to detect
and characterize flaws and damage at an early stage and in a manner that
does not affect the future usefulness of the component is continually
evolving. Today, a variety of nondestructive testing methods are available,
and with new advances in the field of NDE, it can be challenging to know
which tool is most appropriate for a given situation. This white paper will
introduce the most common NDE methods used on steam turbines, with
an emphasis on understanding the principles of operation, capabilities,
and limitations of each. A selection of case studies illustrate the value of
some of these methods.
For a more in-depth understanding of the subject, the reader is referred to
two classical texts [1, 2] that cover NDE methods in comprehensive
detail. For those interested in less exhaustive and more readily accessible
sources of information, general engineering handbooks [3] and Web
resources [4] are a good place to start. Note also that the field of NDE is
particularly dynamic, with new technologies continually being devel-
oped. The reader is encouraged to follow periodical literature for the latest
research results.
In addition, specific codes and standards provide guidance for NDE
inspection. The AMSE Boiler and Pressure Vessel code covers NDE in
Section V, “Nondestructive Examination.” Relevant ASTM International
(ASTM) standards are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: ASTM standards for NDE

Introduction NDE Method ASTM Standard
NDE encompasses a suite of modern techniques for identifying and
Penetrant testing ASTM E165, ASTM E270, ASTM E433
quantifying defects or damage in components, without compromising
their future usefulness. It is employed for a variety of purposes, including Magnetic particle ASTM E709, ASTM E269
in-service inspection, characterizing the extent of damage and estimating testing
remaining life, identifying damage mechanisms, and quality control in Ultrasonic testing ASTM E500, ASTM E428, ASTM E213,
manufacturing and repair processes. ASTM E164, ASTM E 797, ASTM E114
Radiographic testing ASTM E94, ASTM E142, ASTM E586
A range of methods are available, each with its own strengths and limita- Testing agency ASTM E543
tions. This tutorial will only introduce the conventional NDE methods qualifications
most frequently used in the inspection of steam turbine components:

• Visual testing (VT)
• Penetrant testing (PT)
• Magnetic particle testing (MT)
• Eddy current testing (ECT)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• Radiographic testing (RT)
NDE requires training and experience. The technician performing the
tests must understand the limitations, preparation, testing process, data
interpretation, and reporting limits. Each technique will vary in process
and interpretation complexity. It is important that the inspection techni-
cian not only understands the test, but also has a fundamental under-
standing of the damage mechanisms and reporting criteria.
In the following text, the six NDE methods listed on the previous page
are introduced. Their principles of execution, capabilities, limitations,
and relevance to steam turbines will be presented. The latter part of this
paper illustrates the application of some of these NDE methods with case
studies.
NDE Methods
Visual Testing
VT is one of the most basic and important ways of finding flaws and
damage in many engineering systems, including boilers and turbines.
Visual inspection should be performed on accessible locations at every
opportunity (such as during each outage) and should be used to deter-
mine whether additional disassembly and more thorough NDE are
needed.

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Visual inspection includes observation not only by the naked eye, but also
with optical tools, such as borescopes, fiberscopes, and video probes. A
rigid borescope allows a linear probe to be inserted into tight spaces, then
lenses to relay the image along the length of the instrument to an eyepiece
or camera. Rigid borescopes produce a high-quality image and are rela-
tively low-cost, but they are limited by their fixed geometry. A fiberscope,
in contrast, uses fiberoptic bundles to transmit both the local area illumi-
nation and the image. Its flexible structure allows for maneuvering around
tightly spaced components, as illustrated in Figure 1. However, because
the image in a fiberscope is discretized by the individual optical fibers, the
resolution is dependent on the fiber diameter and is often inferior to rigid
borescopes (see Figure 1c), and the optical fibers are easily damaged. A
videoscope has a small charged-couple device chip imbedded into the tip
of the scope and combines the advantages of flexibility, high resolution,
and durability.
Figure 1: (Top left) Inspection of LP turbine by fiberscope; (top right)
a view from inside the turbine showing the end of the fiberscope;
and (bottom) the appearance of a cracked blade as seen through the
fiberscope [6].
Visual examination is a standard inspection to identify damage or assem-
bly nonconformances on all steam turbine and auxiliary systems. Remote
visual examination can identify many forms of turbine steam path dam-
age, including the following:
• Missing blades or covers
• Degree of erosion by solid particles or liquid droplets
• Visible signs of cracking
• Surface damage, including pitting, corrosion buildup, deposits, and
foreign object damage
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• Heavy rubbing
• Evidence of elongation and notch lifting, such as by creep or other
gross deformation
Visual inspections are to be performed on all components prior to clean-
ing and disassembly to detect damage or evidence that will be eliminated
from the next work scope tasks. Examples of such visual evidence are as
follows:
• Discoloration due to overheating or residue formation
• Degree of scaling and oxidation
• Visible signs of misalignment or looseness
• Corrosion product or deposited material
• Presence of damage to consumable parts (gaskets, seals, and so on)
Case Study I illustrates the application of remote VT for in situ inspection
of a low-pressure (LP) turbine.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Penetrant testing is a method for detecting surface cracks in primarily
nonporous materials. Figure 2 illustrates the basic principle. It involves
applying a liquid penetrant to the carefully cleaned surface of a part and
allowing capillary action to draw the penetrant into tight cracks or surface
openings that are usually invisible to the naked eye. After a period of
penetration—dwell time—excess penetrant is strategically removed from
the surface using water or an appropriate solvent. Finally, a developer is
applied in the form of a white powder (though for convenience, the pow-
der can be applied as a suspension in water or solvent). The developer not
only acts as a blotter that soaks up and spreads out (that is, magnifies) the
penetrant seeping out of the surface defects, but also provides a uniform,
high-contrast background that assists inspection.
Figure 2: Principle of dye penetrant testing.
PT is one of the oldest forms of nondestructive testing, dating back to the
“oil and whiting” method used to detect surface cracks in railcar wheels
and axles in the late 19th century through the 1930s. Although the basic
approach has not changed, more advanced penetrants are used today,
including visible dye penetrants (producing vibrant colors under ambient
light), high-temperature penetrants, and fluorescent penetrants (visible in
ultraviolet light).
2 May 2020
The choice of PT system (penetrant and developer) is usually governed by
cost, sensitivity, and the available facilities. Aside from the distinction of
visible dye or fluorescent penetrants, the following three categories of
penetrant systems are used: (i) water washable, (ii) post-emulsifiable, and
(iii) solvent removable. Of these, the most sensitive is the post-emulsifi-
able fluorescent type, but the solvent-removable visible dye system has the
distinct advantage of being portable. Water-washable penetrants are the
least sensitive [2].
The advantages of PT are that it is low-cost and easy to apply and inter-
pretation is straightforward. However, a major limitation is that it can
detect only defects open to the surface. Also, inadequate surface cleaning
and excessively rough surfaces often cause false indications.
PT is frequently used in steam-generating equipment for detecting dis-
similar weld cracking, fatigue cracking, creep macro-cracking, and stress
corrosion cracking (SCC). Most importantly, this technique detects
cracking and disbonding in nonmagnetic materials, such as Stellite1, bear-
ing babbitt, and austenitic stainless steel applications.
Magnetic Particle Testing
When a ferromagnetic material or part is magnetized, surface and near-
surface magnetic discontinuities that lie in a direction generally transverse
to the direction of the magnetic field will cause a leakage field to be
formed around the discontinuity, often at and above the surface of the
part. The presence of this leakage field, and therefore the presence of the
discontinuity, is detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic par-
ticles applied over the surface (either as dry particles or suspended in a
liquid carrier), with some of the particles being gathered and held by the
leakage field. Figure 3 illustrates the principle schematically.
Figure 3: Principle of MT.
For the purpose of magnetizing the parts to be inspected, permanent
magnets have limited capability, but using electromagnets (where mag-
netic fields are produced by an electric current) generally provide much
more flexibility. For example, passing current through a cylindrical rod
will produce a circumferential magnetic field, whereas passing current
through a coil around the rod will produce longitudinal magnetization of
the rod. The direction of the magnetic field is important because flaws
1
Stellite is a registered trademark of Kennametal Inc
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parallel to the magnetic field lines will usually evade detection. Many
more arrangements are available for magnetization, such as prod-con-
tacts, which are portable and often used for inspection of large pieces, or
induction current methods, which avoid direct electrical contact and pos-
sible electrical damage. Both alternating current (ac) and direct current
(dc) can be used. Ac produces excellent mobility of particles (due to the
slight pulsation it imparts on them) and is concentrated at the surface of
a part; dc, resulting in deeper penetration, should be used when searching
for subsurface defects. High currents might be required for inspection of
large parts, and both portable and stationary power supplies capable of
delivering thousands of amps are available.
MT is very sensitive to small surface cracks. Subsurface discontinuities
can also be detected, although the deeper the discontinuity lies below the
surface, the larger it must be to be detected. Pre-cleaning and preparatory
work are not mandatory (unlike for PT), but demagnetization following
inspection often is. MT results are visual, though some experience could
be required for interpretation. The simplicity of the method makes it very
attractive; however, this method will work only on ferromagnetic materi-
als (which excludes austenitic stainless steels). Multiple inspections might
be required with different magnetization to avoid missing defects that are
parallel to the magnetic field. False indications can occur due to sharp
transitions, such as that from the base metal to the weld cap, mill scale,
surface roughness, and magnetic dissimilarity between the weld metal
and base metal.
The applications of MT in steam turbines are similar to those of PT. For
example, it is used extensively for the inspection of turbine casings and
forgings features for SCC, creep, and fatigue cracking damage. The scope
of inspection coverage is typically 100% inspection of accessible surfaces.
MT is often preferred to PT because it does not require extensive surface
cleaning and can even be applied over thin coatings. However, the limita-
tion to ferromagnetic materials might preclude its application to certain
components. One must be keenly aware that blade repairs, for example,
might consist of both ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic materials.
Ultrasonic Testing
Similar to the principle of sonar, UT uses sound waves to inspect the
volume of solid parts. The necessary equipment consists of a signal gen-
erator, a piezoelectric sending transducer, a couplant (such as water or
grease) that establishes good contact between the transducer and the part
to be inspected, a receiving transducer (often a single transducer doubles
as both a sending and receiving transducer), and signal amplifier. Bursts
of ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves in the range of 1–25 MHz)
are introduced into the part being inspected using the sending transducer.
The sound waves are mechanical vibrations (elastic disturbances) that
propagate at a fixed speed through the material and reflect at interfaces,
such as the opposite surface of the part, and at internal discontinuities or
inclusions. Some approaches make use of the timing of these echoes, or
the attenuation of the signal as it transmits through the material, to detect
and characterize the dimensions of flaws.
3 May 2020
Figure 4 illustrates the most common pulse-echo method, known as an
A-scan. The receiving transducer registers the echoes from the top surface,
any internal defects, and the bottom surface of the part and displays signal
intensity versus time at a single measurement point. The thickness of the
piece and the location of defects can be calculated based on a time-of-
flight measurement between the pulses. Alternatively, a B-scan takes mea-
surements along a linear path and represents a cross-sectional (end) view
of the part, registering the flaw depth and length (signal intensity is not
output). A C-scan outputs a plan view of the part, indicating the planar
size of defects (through the volume or at a discrete depth).
Figure 4: Principle of ultrasonic testing (A-scan).
In addition to the pulse-echo technique, through-transmission methods
make use of a separate receiving transducer on the other side of the part
to register attenuation of the signal. The main application of through-
transmission UT is in the detection of large discontinuities and lamina-
tions in plates.
Ultrasonic testing is one of the most widely used methods of NDE
because of its many advantages:
• It can detect flaws deep within the material.
• It can provide quantitative information about flaw size, shape, and
location.
• There is a high degree of accuracy.
• Only one surface needs to be accessible.
• Any material can be inspected.
• The equipment is portable.
• The results are immediate.
Some of the disadvantages of UT are as follows:
• Careful calibration and attention to technique are required.
• Geometric complexity of turbine components might create challenges
in flaw sizing and orientation interpretation.
• There are difficulties associated with thin materials and the detection of
defects very close to the surface.
• The ability to detect defects parallel to the sound waves is limited.
• Extensive training is required for technicians examining turbine blades
and related components.
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UT is used extensively on steam turbines to perform volumetric scans and
allows the inspection of unexposed surfaces, such as rotor forgings, blade
attachments, disk keyways, and the babbitt bond in bearings. UT is also
employed to supplement surface inspection methods. Volumetric inspec-
tions support flaw size estimation without pursuing localized excavation
to determine depth. Case Study II illustrates the use of UT inspection for
rotor bore examination.
Eddy Current Testing
ASME Section V refers to electromagnetic testing as ET. However, ET is
broken down by techniques, and ECT is a technique. Electrically con-
ductive components can be inspected for flaws using the eddy current
method. Figure 5 schematically illustrates the setup for and principle of
ECT. An induction coil, excited with ac, is used to induce circulating
eddy currents in a component under inspection. The flow of these eddy
currents is affected by the setup of the inspection equipment (such as the
frequency and distance from surface), the electrical and magnetic proper-
ties of the part, and any discontinuities and inhomogeneity within the
material. The eddy currents create their own electromagnetic field, which
can be sensed through its effect on the electrical impedance of the exciting
coil or an independent sensor.
Figure 5: Principle of ECT.
Because many factors affect the flow of eddy currents in a material, ECT
is extremely versatile. This is both an advantage and disadvantage because
variables that are not of interest might cause instrument signals that mask
critical features. The following discussion of some of the factors affecting
ECT readings will demonstrate the challenges and benefits of versatility.
The electrical conductivity of the material being inspected has a direct
effect on the flow of eddy currents. However, many factors can influence
material conductivity, including composition, temperature, microstruc-
ture, hardness, and residual stress. In addition, the presence of cracks
decreases the apparent conductivity of the specimen because the currents
must travel farther to complete their circuit within the material. Typically,
a reference sample with intentional discontinuities fabricated into it is
used for calibration purposes when ECT is used for flaw detection.
4 May 2020
The magnetic permeability of the material also strongly influences the
eddy current response. Permeability changes have a bigger effect than
conductivity changes, so the technique for inspecting magnetic materials
differs from that of nonmagnetic materials.

The lift-off effect refers to the change in the discontinuity indication as the
coil is moved closer to or farther from the component’s surface. The effect
is very strong and can mask many indications of primary interest, unless
the distance between the coil and component is tightly controlled. This
accounts for the difficulty of scanning a part having a complex shape.
However, the lift-off effect can also be useful in measuring the thickness
of nonconductive coatings.

Eddy currents decay exponentially with depth into the material; there-
fore, the applicability of ECT is limited to surface and near-surface indi-
cations. Lower frequencies have a greater penetration, but at the expense
of sensitivity and speed of inspection. Thickness measurements and volu-
metric examination can also be performed if the part is thin enough for
the eddy currents to penetrate all the way through its volume and proper
technique is used. On the other hand, if the thickness of the part is not of
interest, eddy currents that penetrate only on the surface of the piece are
those of significance.
Other limitations to watch out for are the effect of significant geometric
transitions, which typically preclude the use of ECT near edges and/or
corners. It is also essential that flaws be nearly perpendicular to the eddy
current flow in order for them to be optimally registered.
In power plant systems, conventional ECT is mostly used as an alterna-
tive to MT when conditions permit detecting surface and near-surface
cracks. For steam turbine components, it is primarily used to examine
blade attachments for very small surface defects. More advanced eddy
current techniques and processing technology can be used to inspect areas
with access limitations and provide automated data collection to improve
the inspection speed and quality of results. Case Study III provides an
example of ECT used to quickly inspect the complex geometry of rotor
blade root attachments.
Figure 6: Principle of radiography.
The primary strengths of RT are its depth of penetration and its ability to
deal with complex geometries and all types of materials. More modern
filmless radiography techniques, such as digital radiography, permits
instantaneous results, allowing for real-time reorientation of the test
piece.
The downside of RT is the concerns for area safety, the high cost of equip-
ment, and the necessary training for its operation. Portable devices are
available and usually have a lower cost, but because these are limited in
radiation output, long exposure times (sometimes hours) could be
required for thick sections [2]. As section thickness increases, the contrast
of small flaws is also reduced. Accessibility to both sides of the test piece
is required for RT, and the ability of the process to detect cracks depends
on proper orientation of the test piece or radiation beam during inspec-
tion. One should be aware of the effects of image distortion and scattered
radiation. Metalic and/or flourescent radiographic screens, which are
placed in immediate contact with the film during exposure, are often used
to increase radiographic contrast and filter out radiation scattered from
the test piece, table, floor, and walls.

Radiographic Testing
Radiography has been used for weld examination for many years and is
Radiography is used to detect the features of a component or assembly used to qualify manufacturing of welded turbine rotors. For steam tur-
that exhibit a difference in thickness or physical density as compared to bine inspections during outages, application of radiography is considered
the surrounding material. As shown schematically in Figure 6, a source of in highly stressed areas that cannot be effectively inspected using UT. It is
radiation (usually electromagnetic, such as X-rays and gamma rays) is used to characterize macroscopic cracking in complex parts, such as dam-
used to direct penetrating rays through the test piece. Variations in den- age in blade attachment areas that are not disassembled.
sity as well as physical discontinuities that have a significant dimension in
the direction of the radiation beam will absorb different amounts of radi- Case Study IV covers the use of RT for SCC and corrosion-fatigue crack-
ation compared to the bulk material. The unabsorbed radiation can be ing inspection in blade attachments.
used to expose photosensitive film. The result is a two-dimensional
“shadow picture” in which features that allowed greater amounts of radia-
tion to penetrate (such as cracks) appear as darker projections (see Case
Study IV).

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Case Studies
Case Study I: Visual Examination (Including In Situ
Inspection) of Turbine Blades [6]
Visual inspection is one of the most important methods of detecting tur-
bine damage and must be performed on a routine basis. The key locations
to be examined, either during overhaul or via video probe/fiberscope,
include the first stage of the high-pressure (HP) and intermediate-pres-
sure (primarily for assessing accumulating damage by solid particle ero-
sion and copper deposition) and the last few rows of the LP turbine (for
erosion, fatigue, and corrosion fatigue).
In one case, a utility wished to enable in situ examination of the blade
roots of the last three rows of an LP turbine of a nuclear unit. An inspec-
tion procedure was developed using a video imaging scope with near and
far focus tips. Figure 7 shows how access was accomplished. The root of
the L-0 blades was examined through a diffuser 25-mm (1-in.) gap. The
L-1 discharge side was inspected through an existing 38-mm (1.5-in.)
hole. Examination of the L-1 intake side and both sides of the L-2
required entry through the manway, for which the thermal shield had to
be cut down. The resulting capability to detect blade damage allowed the
utility to move to a 10-year period between major turbine inspection
outages.
Figure 7: Example of in-situ visual inspection of L-0, L-1, and L-2 rows.
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Case Study II: UT of Rotor Bores
Utilities conduct bore inspections of their rotor fleets to detect surface
and embedded flaws in order to avoid catastrophic failures (such as that
shown in Figure 8). Early rotors were typically bored to remove the segre-
gates and nonmetallic inclusions that congregated along the center axis as
a result of the forging process. After a rotor is bored, the tangential stress
resulting from centrifugal force is the greatest at its bore surface. Because
of the stress concentration at the bore surface, it is essential to identify
significant flaws in the forging. Inclusions can potentially link by a creep
mechanism to form subsurface cracks lying near the bore. In high-tem-
perature applications, the cracks can propagate by a combined creep and
fatigue mechanism until they reach critical size, and they can then lead to
catastrophic rotor failure. On low-temperature rotors, fatigue represents
crack growth risk. The flaws can be either inherent from the forging pro-
cess or service-induced flaws in the rotor material. A boresonic inspection
is critical for detection of near-bore inclusions and cracks.
Figure 8: Segment of Gallatin HP rotor from catastrophic burst event.
In preparation for bore inspection, the rotor is set in a horizontal or nearly
horizontal position. Space at one end of the rotor is required to accom-
modate bore surface preparation equipment and bore inspection equip-
ment. Bore plugs seal the bore and are installed with an interference fit.
The bore plugs are removed to allow access to the bore for inspection.
After the bore plugs are removed, the bore is cleaned in preparation for
the first visual inspection. The bore is honed to remove oxide, pits, scale,
and scratches. Honing equipment varies in size and complexity. Small
portable honing tools remove a minimal amount of rotor material and are
usually sufficient for preparation of the rotor surface for boresonic
inspection.
The most common commercial boresonic inspection systems are contact
systems. For contact systems, the inspection head maintains contact with
the inspection probes on the bore surface; the assembly is rotated circum-
ferentially in the bore and indexed axially along the bore to facilitate com-
plete inspection of the near-bore and bore surface.
6 May 2020
The inspection head typically has expandable arms to position the probes
against the bore surface. In addition to inspection probes, the head can
accommodate ultrasonic couplant delivery lines. Ultrasonic couplant is
necessary to couple (transmit) the sound from the inspection probe into
the rotor material. Turbine oil is a typical couplant; other light oils and
kerosene are also used.
Discontinuities discovered by UT are referred as indications, and they
reflect the sound energy to identify a discontinuity in the material. Exam-
inations are performed to detect radial-axial or radial-circumferential
crack-like reflectors originating at or near the rotor bore surface as well as
forging defects distributed radially through the first 4–6 in. (10.2–15.2
cm) of the forging. Flaws are detected using a combination of ultrasonic
inspection probes mounted together in an inspection head and inserted
in the rotor bore for scanning.
Figure 9: Ultrasonic bore inspection tool.
The inspector collects the sizes and locations of recordable flaws detected
by UT as directed by the examination procedure. Surface flaws are typi-
cally removed by boring operations, whereas fracture mechanics calcula-
tions are applied to determine the growth rate to a critical crack size based
on distributed stresses and the cyclic duty expected. This case study is
developed from excerpts of past Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
research [7]. The reader is referred to the full technical report [7] for more
detailed information on boresonic inspections.
Case Study III: Application of Eddy Current Testing
to Identify and Visualize SCC and Corrosion
Fatigue Damage in LP Blade Attachments
Application of ECT on steam turbine components is increasingly popular
among utilities. ECT is considered an alternative method to conventional
MT and PT surface inspection approaches, which require patience and
EPRI Technical Brief
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discipline of the inspection technician to execute the process, identify
indications, and manually record findings. For critical inspection areas,
whereby there is a very small defect allowance or expectation to quantify
a large distribution of findings, specifically designed ECT inspection
techniques might be preferred to improve data collection quality and
record retention.
In blade root attachments, very small defects (potentially visibly unde-
tectable) in high-stress fields represent system reliability risk for operation
between planned inspections. Defects are often oriented in areas with
tight geometries where there is no direct line of sight, poor access, and
difficult areas to verify. A properly calibrated ECT can detect indications
smaller than the naked eye can see.
Special inspection tools are developed with an array of small eddy current
probes that traverse the inspection surface geometry. Figure 10 shows an
example of a tool developed for a specific blade attachment geometry.
Although ECT technology is deployable for a variety of surface inspec-
tions, the tool shown in Figure 10 is designed specifically to improve the
inspection quality of this critical feature.
Figure 10: Multiple-element ECT tool inspecting blade groove on rotor
[8].
The probe is swept along the groove profile, and defect indications are
recorded based on the encoded axial position of the tool. Figure 11 shows
a representative ECT coil array along the two-dimensional profile of the
blade attachment and a corresponding output from the encoded scan.
Figure 11: Eddy current probe with enhanced data collection and
visualization [8].
7 May 2020
With this complementary data collection system, the inspection interpre-
tation is automated, using a preset sizing heat map that is graphically
displayed for the technician and engineer to evaluate. The X-axis repre-
sents the location axially on the groove. The Y-axis represents the coil
detecting an indication. The detection coil represents the radial hook and
geometric position of the indicated discontinuity or flaw. With the color
representing a flaw size or depth, data can be used in structural evalua-
tions to make run-repair-replace decisions for the component.
Once appropriate shielding is established, the inspection consists of aim-
ing X-rays from the energy source through the test piece volume and
collecting the energy that has permeated through the test piece. Figure 13
shows the energy source aligned for inspecting the attachment on the L-0,
last-stage blades.

Case Study IV: Detecting SCC of Blade Attachments

Using RT
Laboratory and field tests have demonstrated the capability of RT to
detect cracks within thick-wall components. One such laboratory and
field investigation conducted by EPRI considered applying radiographic
inspection techniques to inspect LP blade attachment surfaces without
removing the blade row.

Current examination of a steam turbine rotor pin finger blade/bucket

attachment requires the removal of each blade from the rotor. Following
examination, the reassembly process involves machining the holes to
enable new pins to be securely fitted. Removal and re-installation can be
a risky, costly, and time-consuming procedure. This process can be per-
formed a limited number of times in the life of a turbine, and the time
and cost of it can be greatly reduced by NDE of the blade roots. Inspec-
tion for cracking using a volumetric NDE technique does not require
removal of the blade/bucket, thus significantly reducing time and cost
during a maintenance outage. Also, the technique has no adverse impact
on the life of the turbine.
Figure 13: Betatron X-ray source positioned on last-stage blade root
attachment.
A resultant digital image is used to assess high-contrast features that rep-
resent cracking. Based on historical findings, the locations, shapes, and
orientations of crack-like indications can be inferred and sized within the
digital display. Figure 14 is an example of a digital image that is collected
for evaluation.

The steel of the last-stage (L-0) blade root of the steam turbine where the
pin finger attachments connect the turbine blades to the rotor shaft can
be up to 12 in. (300 mm) thick. The thickness of high-density material
requires high-energy X-rays to penetrate it, but the energy source must be
small enough for deployment at a power station or maintenance shop.
Additionally, the radiation level must be controlled such that the exclu-
sion area for personnel safety has minimal impact on facility operations.
Figure 12 shows a representative inspection set up to contain X-ray energy
at the site.

Figure 12: Inspection setup with shielding for X-ray side scatter.

Figure 14: Digital RT imaging on a finger root blade attachment.

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In order to detect and size flaws within the intended inspection scope, the
focal range and inspection volume size must be carefully evaluated. Indi-
cation resolution will improve as the test piece thickness decreases.
RT is best applied in situations where the surface inspection is insufficient
and the volumetric geometry is considered too complex for conventional
UT inspection techniques. The key parameters in design and application
are the exclusion zone, test piece thickness, and the space limitations for
aiming the X-ray source.
Summary
This technical brief introduces the conventional NDE methods most fre-
quently used in the inspection of steam turbine components. The basic
principles of operation, capabilities, limitations, and the methods’ rele-
vance to boilers and turbines were presented. As a summary, Table 2 com-
pares the six NDE methods covered in this white paper in terms of their
advantages, disadvantages, and applications.

Table 2: Comparison chart for NDE methods [2, 3, 5]

Method Advantages Disadvantages Applications

VT • Low-cost and expedient.
• Can be applied remotely
without disassembly.
PT • Low-cost and expedient.
• Large areas easily inspected.
• Applicable to complex
geometries.
MT • Low-cost and expedient.
• Can detect surface and
near-surface flaws.
• Surface preparation is less
critical than for PT.
UT • Can detect deeper subsurface
flaws than other NDE methods.
• Provides quantitative
information about extent and
location of flaw.
• Minimal preparation required.
• Interpretation of results is
difficult; skill and training are
required.
ECT • Can detect surface and
near-surface flaws.
• Surface preparation and even
direct contact with part not
necessary.
• Provides additional information
about material properties.
• Probe can be very small.
RT • Applicable to complex
geometries.
• Can detect surface and
subsurface flaws.
• Minimal part preparation
required.
• Limited to surface flaws. • Preliminary inspections prior to
• Limited ability to detect small indications. cleaning and disassembly.
• Detection of surface damage,
such as wear, that does not result
in a crack-like feature.
• Cannot detect subsurface defects. • Detection of surface cracks and
• Porous and rough surfaces can produce discontinuities.
false indications. • Dissimilar and nonmagnetic
• Surface preparation and post-cleaning are materials.
required.
• Results are mostly qualitative.
• Only ferromagnetic materials can be • Detection of surface and near-
inspected. surface cracks and discontinuities
• Alignment of magnetic field and defect in ferromagnetic materials.
matters.
• Demagnetization is necessary.
• Results are mostly qualitative.
• Skill and training required. • Detection and quantitative
• Thin parts and near-surface defects present characterization of subsurface
a challenge. flaws.
• Defects parallel to sound beam can be • Thickness measurements on thick
difficult to detect. materials.
• Defect shapes are difficult to interpret. • Detection of variation in materials
• Complex geometries require standards and properties.
calibration blocks to provide expected flaw
sizing accuracy.
• Only conductive materials can be • Detection of surface and near-
inspected. surface flaws in conductive
• Ferromagnetic materials require special materials.
treatment. • Thickness measurements of thin
• Depth of penetration is limited. materials and nonconductive
• Defects parallel to inspection coil windings coatings.
can be difficult to detect. • Provides information about
• Interpretation of results is difficult; skill and electromagnetic properties,
training are required. microstructure, and heat
treatment.
• High cost of equipment. • Detection and quantitative
• Skill and training required. characterization of subsurface
• Access to both sides of the structure is flaws.
usually required.
• Orientation of defect is critical.

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References
1. R. McMaster, Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Edited for the Society
of Nondestructive Testing. The Ronald Press Company, New York,
NY, 1963.
2. H. Boyer, Metals Handbook, Eighth Edition, Volume 11: “Nondestruc-
tive Inspection and Quality Control.” American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH, 1976.
3. K. Myer, Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, Volume 1: Materials and
Mechanical Design. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
4. NDT Resource Center: http://www.ndt-ed.org.
NDE Resources
NDE is a powerful tool for detecting and anticipating damage in power
plant systems. However, it can be applied effectively only if one knows the
damage indications to look for. For that purpose, EPRI published a com-
prehensive technical report, Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Prac-
tice [6]. It contains detailed information and photographs on a range of
damage mechanisms relevant to boilers and steam turbines. This informa-
tion will improve plant engineers’ understanding of potential problems,
assisting in the choice of NDE method and the interpretation of results.
Also available from EPRI are more concise field guides, illustrated with
dozens of color photos, and a poster version of the information.

5. Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and
This report was prepared by:
Practice, Volumes 1–3. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007. TR-1012757.
6. Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice. EPRI, Palo Alto, Altran Solutions Corp.
CA: 1999. TR-108943. 451 D Street
7. Boresonic Inspection Primer. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2008. Boston, MA 02210

8. C. Vierck (Siemens), “Inspection of LP Turbine Fir Tree Blade Attach-

Principal Authors and Investigators
ment Features.” Presented at the EPRI Winter Turbine Generator
Richard L. Martin, Program Manager
Users Group, January 2020.
Metodi Zlatinov, Mechanical Engineer
9. Digital Radiography for Turbine Pin Finger Blade Attachment Cracking
Detection. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2018. 3002010534. EPRI Contributing Staff
Grant Lanthorn
Eric Prescott
Robert Smilie

This report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature

in the following manner: Nondestructive Evaluation Methods: Application
to Power Plant Steam Turbine Systems. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2020.
3002019320.

EPRI Technical Brief 10 May 2020

13306922
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