2012 TECHNICAL REPORT

Piping Hanger System Inspection Guide

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10371005
 Piping Hanger System
Inspection Guide

EPRI Project Manager

B. Carson

3420 Hillview Avenue

Palo Alto, CA 94304-1338
USA

PO Box 10412
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0813
USA

800.313.3774
650.855.2121

askepri@epri.com 1026659
www.epri.com Final Report, December 2012
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DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY
PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH
RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM
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CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR
ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS
DOCUMENT.

REFERENCE HEREIN TO ANY SPECIFIC COMMERCIAL PRODUCT, PROCESS, OR SERVICE BY ITS TRADE
NAME, TRADEMARK, MANUFACTURER, OR OTHERWISE, DOES NOT NECESSARILY CONSTITUTE OR
IMPLY ITS ENDORSEMENT, RECOMMENDATION, OR FAVORING BY EPRI.

THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION, UNDER CONTRACT TO EPRI, PREPARED THIS REPORT:

United Dynamics Corp.

NOTE

For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER…SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are
registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Copyright © 2012 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

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 Acknowledgments The following organization, under contract to the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI), prepared this report:

United Dynamics Corp.

2861 Coral Ridge Road
Brooks, KY 40109

Principal Investigator
J. Cavote
S. Hart

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

This publication is a corporate

document that should be cited in the
literature in the following manner:

Piping Hanger System

Inspection Guide.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012.
1026659.
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10371005
 This report provides guidance on improving the safety, reliability,
Abstract and sustainability of high-energy piping support systems (hangers).
The importance of high-energy pipe supports is frequently
overlooked, particularly with respect to the safe and continued
operation of power plant piping systems. Development and review of
hanger operating characteristics are vital.

This information will support in-plant engineering and maintenance

teams in managing and executing emergency and routine inspection
and repairs on plant pipe support and restraint systems.

Keywords
Hangers
Inspection
Pipework
Restraints
Supports

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 Section 1: Introduction ............................................1-1
Table of Contents Background ..................................................................... 1-1

Section 2: Management and Planning .....................2-1

Review of Records ............................................................ 2-1
Necessity of Pipe Support Inspections ................................. 2-1
Frequency of Inspection .................................................... 2-2
Risk-Based Inspection Program ........................................... 2-2
Risk-Based Inspection ........................................................ 2-3
Pre-Inspection Planning ..................................................... 2-4
Repair Selection Criteria ................................................... 2-5
Problem Definition ............................................................ 2-6
Multidiscipline Approach .................................................. 2-6
Residual Life .................................................................... 2-6
Permanent Engineered Solutions ........................................ 2-7
Root-Cause Analysis ......................................................... 2-8
Management Acceptance Criteria ...................................... 2-9
Inspection Photography................................................... 2-10
Problem Identification in the Field..................................... 2-11
Report Preparation ......................................................... 2-12
Setting Inspection Priorities .............................................. 2-12
Priority 1 (P1) Designation ......................................... 2-12
Priority 2 (P2) Designations ........................................ 2-13
Priority 3 (P3) Designations ........................................ 2-13
Inspection Tools ............................................................. 2-14
Piping Support Primer ..................................................... 2-14
Supports and Restraints ...................................................2-16
Rigid Supports .......................................................... 2-17
Hangers .................................................................. 2-18
Flexible Supports ...................................................... 2-19
Restraints....................................................................... 2-25
Guides .................................................................... 2-25
Anchors ................................................................... 2-26
Inspection Considerations ............................................... 2-26
Snubbers....................................................................... 2-28
In-Service Specifications for Snubbers (Routine
Operation Only) ....................................................... 2-29
Thermal Movement ......................................................... 2-31
Corrosion ...................................................................... 2-31
Fretting Corrosion .......................................................... 2-32

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 Maximum Load Variation ................................................ 2-33
Water Hammer.............................................................. 2-34

Section 3: Shared Inspection Procedures ..................3-1

General Routine Maintenance ........................................... 3-1
Hot and Cold Walkdown .................................................. 3-3
Nondestructive Testing Recommendations ........................... 3-6

Section 4: Inspection Procedures by Condition ..........4-1

Inspection of Corrosion, Erosion, and Fouling...................... 4-1
Inspection of Cracks ......................................................... 4-2
Inspection for Misalignment ............................................... 4-5
Inspection of Insulation Hot Spots ....................................... 4-9
Vibration ....................................................................... 4-10
Mechanical Damage from External Forces ........................ 4-10
Non-Conforming Repairs ................................................ 4-12
High- and Low-Temperature Springs ................................. 4-13
Base Spring Support ....................................................... 4-13
Miscellaneous Faults ....................................................... 4-13
Variable Spring Hanger .................................................. 4-15
Hanger Assembly ........................................................... 4-16
Spring Hanger Compression Springs ................................ 4-17
Variable Spring Hanger Disorders ................................... 4-18
Variable Spring Hanger Settings ...................................... 4-21
Constant Load Hanger .................................................... 4-24
Constant Load Spring Disorders ....................................... 4-27
Adjustment .................................................................... 4-28
Snubbers....................................................................... 4-34
Comparison of Snubber Types ......................................... 4-37
Hydraulic Snubbers................................................... 4-38
Mechanical Snubbers ................................................ 4-39
Rigid Frames ................................................................. 4-39
Rod or Rigid Hangers ..................................................... 4-41
Hanger Rod Rupture ....................................................... 4-43
Pipe Rolls ...................................................................... 4-44
Rigid Struts .................................................................... 4-45
Vibration Dampers ......................................................... 4-46
Anchors ........................................................................ 4-47
Saddles ........................................................................ 4-48
Twin Type or Trapeze ..................................................... 4-48
Dynamic Restraints ......................................................... 4-49

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 Section 5: New Installation Considerations ..............5-1
Inspection Requirements (Pre-Startup) .................................. 5-1
Evaluation of Company Programs and Procedures .......... 5-1
Startup Stage Only ........................................................... 5-3

Appendix A: Installation and Repair Procedures ... A-1

Variable Types A, B, and C ............................................. A-1
Variable Types D, E, and F .............................................. A-2
Type F Spring (Base Type) ................................................ A-3
Type G Spring (Double) ................................................... A-4
Instructions for Load Adjustment ........................................ A-4
Constant Hangers with Adjustable Travel Stop Keys ............ A-6
Types of Pipe Supports .................................................. A-10

Appendix B: Glossary...........................................B-1

Appendix C: Standards for Pipe Hangers and

Supports ................................................. C-1
Reference Codes and Standards ....................................... C-1
United States ............................................................. C-1
Britain ...................................................................... C-1
Germany .................................................................. C-2
Japan ....................................................................... C-2

Appendix D: Thermal Expansion of Pipe in

Inches per 100 Feet ................................ D-1

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 Figure 2-1 Maintenance strategy and analytical hierarchy
List of Figures process ........................................................................... 2-6
Figure 2-2 Residual strength diagram...................................... 2-7
Figure 2-3 Popular evaluation process ..................................... 2-8
Figure 2-4 Root-cause mapping diagram .................................. 2-9
Figure 2-5 Risk model (criteria) .............................................. 2-10
Figure 2-6 Example of inspection photography:
misalignment of spring support ........................................ 2-11
Figure 2-7 Example of a prepared report ............................... 2-12
Figure 2-8 Types of pipe supports.......................................... 2-15
Figure 2-9 Variable spring hammer types ............................... 2-16
Figure 2-10 Restraints and guides ......................................... 2-17
Figure 2-11 Two types of rigid supports ................................. 2-18
Figure 2-12 Examples of flexible supports .............................. 2-19
Figure 2-13 Examples of varied load flexible support. ............. 2-20
Figure 2-14 Examples of constant type flexible support ............ 2-21
Figure 2-15 Examples of flexible supports .............................. 2-22
Figure 2-16 Various flexible supports ..................................... 2-23
Figure 2-17 Examples of spring hanger being placed below
the piping ..................................................................... 2-24
Figure 2-18 Examples of spring type hangers ......................... 2-24
Figure 2-19 Examples of restraints ......................................... 2-25
Figure 2-20 Examples of guides ............................................ 2-26
Figure 2-21 Examples of clamp style hangers ......................... 2-28
Figure 2-22 Mechanical and hydraulic snubbers ..................... 2-29
Figure 2-23 Thermal movement ............................................. 2-31
Figure 2-24 Corrosion at cradle support................................. 2-32
Figure 2-25 Diagram of fretting corrosion .............................. 2-33
Figure 2-26 Illustration of water hammer ................................ 2-34

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 Figure 2-27 Pipe hanger bent and distorted due to a water
hammer ........................................................................ 2-35
Figure 3-1 Loose pipe clamp. Loose hanger can be seen in
the background. .............................................................. 3-2
Figure 3-2 Hangers were found over- or under-loaded ............... 3-5
Figure 3-3 A hot reheat constant support hanger is bottomed
out. This hanger should be adjusted to the cold setting
off-line. ........................................................................... 3-6
Figure 4-1 Once insulation is removed, corrosion is seen on
pipe and pipe-to-support connection. .................................. 4-2
Figure 4-2 Uninsulated piping is also subject to corrosion. ........ 4-3
Figure 4-3 Cracks can be seen in attachment welds................... 4-4
Figure 4-4 Through-wall crack in support attachment ................. 4-4
Figure 4-5 Steam pipe is nearly off its support. ........................ 4-5
Figure 4-6 Trapeze hanger is disengaged from pipe. ............... 4-6
Figure 4-7 Strut attachment is broken away from supporting
steel. .............................................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-8 Hanger rods unloaded .......................................... 4-7
Figure 4-9 Hanger rod is broken interfering with the cable
tray and wiring therein. .................................................... 4-7
Figure 4-10 A boiler circulation line trapeze constant
support hanger has rotated around the center line of the
pipe. .............................................................................. 4-8
Figure 4-11 The main steam trapeze constant support
hanger above the vertical restraint is topped out. This
would indicate the potential failure of the shear lugs. It is
recommended that the insulation above the clamp be
removed to allow for inspection. ........................................ 4-8
Figure 4-12 A breakdown in insulation can be clearly seen
using infrared photography. .............................................. 4-9
Figure 4-13 Hanger rod abraded by vibration ........................ 4-10
Figure 4-14 Broken support attachment bolt ............................ 4-11
Figure 4-15 Broken hanger support ....................................... 4-11
Figure 4-16 Poor quality attachment weld .............................. 4-12
Figure 4-17 Bad attachment weld ..........................................4-12

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 Figure 4-18 This foot-mounted support is virtually buried in
coal dust and ash. With high humidity and the
hygroscopic nature of the dust, it will solidify and the
support will become useless. ........................................... 4-13
Figure 4-19 No clearance for steam line in the wall to allow
for vertical downward displacement of main steam line
of a coal-fired power plant. Notice that the pipe with
insulation is sagging and insulation is already
compressed around the bottom of the opening. ................. 4-14
Figure 4-20 Feedwater piping with loose hanger springs ......... 4-15
Figure 4-21 Variable spring application ................................. 4-15
Figure 4-22 2 Sootblower support hangers............................. 4-16
Figure 4-23 3 Nuts and bolts missing on hanger rod.
Hangers are also unloaded. ............................................ 4-17
Figure 4-24 Variable spring hanger....................................... 4-18
Figure 4-25 Spring casing corroded away ............................. 4-19
Figure 4-26 Corrosion has packed between spring coils,
rendering spring function inoperable. ............................... 4-19
Figure 4-27 Detached hanger spring is allowing significant
sagging in the steam line. ............................................... 4-20
Figure 4-28 A variable spring hanger is disconnected. This
hanger should be reconnected and set in the cold
setting........................................................................... 4-20
Figure 4-29 Variable spring hanger....................................... 4-22
Figure 4-30 Hanger diagram ................................................ 4-23
Figure 4-31 Constant load hanger ......................................... 4-24
Figure 4-32 Mechanical details of a constant hanger .............. 4-25
Figure 4-33 Constant hanger diagram of operation ................. 4-25
Figure 4-34 Constant support used to support load from
below ........................................................................... 4-26
Figure 4-35 Constant hangers: Types A–E .............................. 4-27
Figure 4-36 A hot reheat constant support hanger is
bottomed out. This hanger should be adjusted to the
cold setting off-line. ........................................................ 4-29
Figure 4-37 Removing the travel stop .....................................4-29
Figure 4-38 Type 200 - F constant hanger .............................. 4-30

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 Figure 4-39 Type 200 - U hanger .......................................... 4-31
Figure 4-40 Type G constant hanger ..................................... 4-31
Figure 4-41 Sway brace....................................................... 4-33
Figure 4-42 Support attachment crack at the pipe-to-support
connection .................................................................... 4-33
Figure 4-43 Fully extended snubber is an undesirable
condition....................................................................... 4-34
Figure 4-44 Fully retracted snubber is an undesirable
condition....................................................................... 4-35
Figure 4-45 A typical example of failure due to incorrect
installation of snubbers. Although the snubber has not
failed, the connecting rod has deformed, making it
nonoperational. ............................................................. 4-36
Figure 4-46 Typical snubber orientation ................................. 4-37
Figure 4-47 Common snubber installation .............................. 4-37
Figure 4-48 Photo of hydraulic snubber.................................. 4-38
Figure 4-49 Cross section of hydraulic snubber ....................... 4-39
Figure 4-50 Mechanical rigid frame ...................................... 4-40
Figure 4-51 A box guide is distorted from dynamic loading.
The box guide flange is locked, preventing thermal
movement of the piping. ................................................. 4-40
Figure 4-52 Rod rigid hanger ............................................... 4-41
Figure 4-53 Rod hanger diagram .......................................... 4-42
Figure 4-54 Support bracket disengaged and not supporting
the weight of the pipe ..................................................... 4-43
Figure 4-55 Broken hanger rod ............................................. 4-44
Figure 4-56 Sheared hanger rod ........................................... 4-44
Figure 4-57 Typical pipe roller .............................................. 4-45
Figure 4-58 Rigid strut tandem ..............................................4-45
Figure 4-59 Broken strut or sway brace .................................. 4-46
Figure 4-60 Vibration isolation device ................................... 4-47
Figure 4-61 Anchor ............................................................. 4-47
Figure 4-62 Pipe and saddle arrangement ............................. 4-48
Figure 4-63 Typical trapeze arrangement ............................... 4-49

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 Figure 4-64 Dynamics restraint shown on steam piping............ 4-50
Figure A-1 Types A, B, and C ............................................... A-1
Figure A-2 Variable Types D, E, and F ................................... A-2
Figure A-3 Type F spring (base type) ..................................... A-3
Figure A-4 Type G spring (double) ........................................ A-4
Figure A-5 Load adjustment scale .......................................... A-5
Figure A-6 Removing the travel stop ....................................... A-6
Figure A-7 Illustration of hanger types .................................... A-7
Figure A-8 Additional hanger types ....................................... A-8
Figure A-9 Welding clevises ................................................. A-9
Figure A-10 Welded eye rod failure ...................................... A-9
Figure A-11 Type 1 adjustable steel clevis hanger ................. A-10
Figure A-12 Type 2 yoke type pipe clamp ............................ A-10
Figure A-13 Carbon- or alloy-steel pipe clamp ...................... A-10
Figure A-14 Type 4 steel pipe clamp ................................... A-11
Figure A-15 Type 5 pipe hanger ......................................... A-11
Figure A-16 Type 6 adjustable swivel pipe, split ring type,
or solid ring type........................................................... A-11
Figure A-17 Type 7 adjustable steel band hanger ................. A-12
Figure A-18 Type 8 extension pipe or riser clamp ................. A-12
Figure A-19 Type 9 adjustable band hanger ........................ A-12
Figure A-20 Type 10 adjustable swivel ring, band type ......... A-13
Figure A-21 Type 11 split pipe ring with or without
turnbuckle adjustment .................................................... A-13
Figure A-22 Type 12 extension split pipe clamp, hinged or
two-bolt ........................................................................ A-13
Figure A-23 Type 13 steel turnbuckle ................................... A-14
Figure A-24 Type 14 steel clevis.......................................... A-14
Figure A-25 Type 15 swivel turnbuckle ................................ A-14
Figure A-26 Type 16 malleable iron socket .......................... A-15
Figure A-27 Type 17 steel weldless eye nut .......................... A-15
Figure A-28 Type 18 steel or malleable concrete insert .......... A-15

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 Figure A-29 Type 19 top beam C-clamp .............................. A-16
Figure A-30 Type 20 side beam or channel clamp ................ A-16
Figure A-31 Type 21 center beam ....................................... A-16
Figure A-32 Type 22 welded beam attachment ..................... A-17
Figure A-33 Type 23 C-clamp ............................................. A-17
Figure A-34 Type 24 U-bolt ................................................ A-17
Figure A-35 Type 25 top beam clamp ................................. A-18
Figure A-36 Type 26 pipe clip ............................................ A-18
Figure A-37 Type 27 side beam clamp ................................ A-18
Figure A-38 Type 28 steel beam clamp with eye nut.............. A-19
Figure A-39 Type 29 linked steel clamp with eye nut ............. A-19
Figure A-40 Type 30 malleable beam clamp with extension
piece ........................................................................... A-19
Figure A-41 Type 31 light welded steel bracket .................... A-20
Figure A-42 Type 32 medium welded steel bracket ............... A-20
Figure A-43 Type 33 heavy welded steel bracket .................. A-21
Figure A-44 Type 34 side beam bracket .............................. A-21
Figure A-45 Type 35 pipe slide and slide plate..................... A-21
Figure A-46 Type 36 pipe saddle support ............................ A-22
Figure A-47 Type 37 pipe stanchion saddle ......................... A-22
Figure A-48 Type 38 adjustable pipe saddle support............. A-22
Figure A-49 Type 39 steel pipe-covering protection saddle .... A-23
Figure A-50 Type 40 protection saddle ................................ A-23
Figure A-51 Type 41 single pipe roll ................................... A-23
Figure A-52 Type 42 carbon- or alloy-steel riser clamp .......... A-24
Figure A-53 Type 43 adjustable roller hanger with or
without swivel ............................................................... A-24
Figure A-54 Type 44 pipe roll complete ............................... A-24
Figure A-55 Type 45 pipe roll and plate .............................. A-25
Figure A-56 Type 46 adjustable pipe roll and base ............... A-25
Figure A-57 Type 47 restraint control device ........................ A-25
Figure A-58 Type 48 spring cushion .................................... A-26

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 Figure A-59 Type 49 spring cushion roll............................... A-26
Figure A-60 Type 50 spring sway brace .............................. A-27
Figure A-61 Type 51 variable spring hanger ........................ A-27
Figure A-62 Type 52 variable spring base support ................ A-28
Figure A-63 Type 53 variable spring trapeze hanger ............ A-28
Figure A-64 Type 54 constant support hanger, horizontal
type ............................................................................. A-29
Figure A-65 Type 55 constant support hanger, vertical type ... A-29
Figure A-66 Type 56 constant support hanger, trapeze type .. A-30
Figure A-67 Type 57 plate lug ............................................ A-30
Figure A-68 Type 58 horizontal traveler ............................... A-31
Figure A-69 Type 59 trapeze hanger ................................... A-31

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 Table D-1 Thermal expansion of pipe in inches per 100 feet .... D-1
List of Tables

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Section 1: Introduction
Background

The purpose of any pipe hanger system is to accommodate the weight of the
suspended piping into predetermined locations. Passive components such as
structural members, rods, and associated hardware are used in this task.

Spring support systems tolerate a pipe that has experienced displacement. Simple
supports are no longer useful if the pipe rises and loads are transferred to other
supports or fragile equipment nozzles. To ensure support for the pipe as it moves,
a support to compensate for movement is desired. One practical device for this is
the spring.

It should be noted that where high operating temperatures (superheat/reheat

[SH/RH] steam) affect the geometry of the supported piping, the supports must
not only carry the weight of the piping, but also be reactive to the expansion and
contraction movement. To achieve this, active or flexible-type supports—such as
variable spring hangers and constant support hangers—are usually applied.

Ironically, the reliability of support devices and overall support systems is a

primary factor contributing to their neglect. Designed and constructed with
significant safety factors (in some cases, up to five times their rated loads),
hangers rarely break, become disengaged, and subsequently attract attention.

Development and review of the operating characteristics of the hangers are vital.
The potential for catastrophic failures must be anticipated and minimized
through an effective inspection program.

The importance of the high-energy pipe supports is frequently overlooked,

particularly with respect to the safe and continued operation of power plant
piping systems.

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Section 2: Management and Planning
Review of Records

Each plant should maintain and file the following documentation that exists for
each unit:
 Current piping drawings
 Construction isometrics
 Pipeline specifications covering material, outside diameter, and wall thickness
 Flow diagrams
 Support drawings
 Support setting charts
 Records of any piping system modifications

Review the records of piping support testing to verify the following:

 The organization has evaluated all piping support testing.
 Results are within the established acceptance criteria.
 Identified deficiencies cited in piping support testing records have been
corrected.

Necessity of Pipe Support Inspections

Inspections of pipe support systems are necessary for the following reasons:
 To ensure safety
 To evaluate the physical condition of the pipe support system for its
reliability to continue in service
 To determine the causes of deterioration and advise economical solutions
 To recommend short- and long-term repairs and replacements to ensure safe,
economical continued operation
 To initiate procurement action of materials to meet repair and replacement
needs
 To ensure that all pipelines are being inspected according to code to fulfill
the statutory requirement specifications as applicable

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  To ensure the proper use and quality of raw material and fabrication to
achieve the desired level of piping system reliability as well as commissioning
of new facilities with minimum failures
 To fully inform operating and maintenance personnel of the condition of
pipe support systems

The piping support program must provide reproducible results to eliminate

rework and improve the overall support process. This will also improve team
relationships. Planning specific procedures and reviewing the operating
characteristics of the hangers are basic issues that must be considered.

The potential for catastrophic failures must be anticipated and minimized

through early, effective inspection. In addition, the propensity for disengagement
of the support should be minimized by thoroughly reviewing the length and
condition of components.

Frequency of Inspection

Experience will reveal the rate of corrosion and replacement that could be
planned for pipes carrying various process liquids and vapor gases such as
ammonia, air, steam condensate, and water. The interval between inspections
will depend on the degree of corrosion or erosion caused by the flowing fluid,
remaining corrosion allowance, atmosphere prevailing around the piping,
potential for a fire or explosion in the case of leak or failure, the importance of
piping to operations, and statutory requirement specifications. In a refinery,
inspection of the process piping in units is generally done during the capital
maintenance shutdown of the units. However, by determining the corrosion rate
and type of deterioration, the frequency of process piping inspection can be
reduced or increased suitably. The frequency of piping inspection should be at
least half of the calculated remaining life of the piping. This is derived by
calculating the corrosion rate and remaining thickness to reach retiring thickness
for the specific service.

The adjustment and servicing of pipe support products should be addressed using
extreme care.

Risk-Based Inspection Program

Effective implementation of a risk-based inspection (RBI) program extends the

operating life of equipment and piping safely and cost effectively. RBI is accepted
as good engineering practice for the implementation of inspection and
maintenance programs.

There are two extremes of inspection, both undesirable:

 Very little inspection, replacing piping support elements when they fail
 Inspection of all piping support elements so often and so thoroughly that it
becomes economically undesirable

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 RBI is a method for using risk as a basis to prioritize and manage the efforts of
an inspection program. RBI methodology permits the shift of inspection and
maintenance resources to provide a higher level of coverage on high-risk systems
and an appropriate effort on lower risk equipment. RBI provides a methodology
for determining the optimum combination of equipment inspection methods,
scopes, and frequencies.

A risk assessment involves first establishing the current and anticipated condition
of the systems (that is, discovery inspections) by asking the following questions:
 What system degradations have been experienced historically or likely could
be experienced?
 What is the likelihood (probability) of these degradations occurring?
 What are the consequences of these degradations?

Next, determine the risk of operating the piping support system as the
combination of two separate terms: the likelihood of failure and the consequence
of failure.

The likelihood analysis assesses the probability and effects of specific failure
mechanisms based on the history of the specific equipment and of similar or
identical fleet equipment in identical service conditions.

The value analysis of a failure is calculated using the following:

 Data and information collected during discovery inspections
 Consequence of failure
 Probability of failure
 Risk ranking
 Mitigation as required
 Future reassessment

Risk-Based Inspection

RBI is a system used to determine the probability and consequences of failure.

The likelihood and significance are combined to produce an estimate of risk:

Risk = Likelihood of failure x Consequence

RBI variables to consider include the following:

 Piping geometry and varying diameters.
 Column correlation; being able to map the specific location in the overall
system.
 Inspection access and effectiveness.

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  Piping drawings (isometrics) that are either not available or are not as built.
At the extreme, materials of construction may not be known.
 Piping process constituents, operating pressure, temperature, and materials of
construction.
 Damage mechanisms for each mode of operation.

Based on the damage mechanisms, determine whether the damage can be

identified. If the damage can be inspected (for example, exfoliation, thinning, or
cracking at suspect areas), the thinning rate or state (cracking potential) needs to
be assessed.
 RBI should be used to prioritize for inspection for external damage (insulated
and non-insulated).
 The damage mechanisms identified should determine the inspection
methods, frequency, and extent.
 Single, random ultrasonic testing (UT) readings are considered ineffectual
and should be avoided.
 Damage that is undetected and no root cause analysis done.
 Damage that is known but not addressed.
 Actual or near-miss events should be tracked in a suitable software system
with an appropriate metric.
 The following should be compiled:
- A classified listing of all piping system identifiers
- Historical information on each piping system
- Targeted inspection procedures and methods
- Inspection results from all previous examinations and results
- Quality assurance plans and checklists

Pre-Inspection Planning

Pre-inspection planning should consider the following:

 Nomenclature of unit data
 Design of component or area (typical arrangement)
 Material of area to be assessed
 Past data reports
 Engineering or maintenance files
 Drawing files
 Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) records
 Contractor files
 Design code
 Operating hours
 2-4 

10371005
  Operating mode (for example, baseloaded or cyclic)
 Number of unit starts and characterization of start type
 Number of operating hours at off-design conditions
 Any upset operating conditions that could affect piping system integrity (for
example, safety valve operation, turbine trips, or water hammer)
 Isometric drawings
 As-built drawings
 Weld detail drawings
 Hanger support detail drawings (if these are not available, field hanger
support audits are necessary)

Repair Selection Criteria

Repeat failures can occur because a temporary rather than permanent solution is
applied to correct and/or prevent a support element problem. An example of a
temporary action is the use of a weld to repair a support or cracked area. Best
practice would be to immediately replace the damaged support element.
Unfortunately, many temporary solutions are not replaced with permanent ones
and fail again within a short time.

In relation to corrosion failures, the corrective or preventive actions should

include a reduction of impurity ingress and a determination of support element
life reduction resulting from the corrosion damage.

Problem definition and root-cause analysis of pipe support element corrosion

failures are usually more difficult because of the need to review the chemistry
history and data over an extended period of time.

Proper corrective and preventive action requires correct mechanism

identification, root-cause analysis, and verification. A formalized support element
failure prevention program satisfies these requirement specifications through
management mandates and support. An example of a maintenance strategy and
analytical hierarchy process is shown in Figure 2-1.

 2-5 

10371005
 Figure 2-1
Maintenance strategy and analytical hierarchy process

Problem Definition

Root-cause analysis of every support element failure is a prerequisite for an

effective formalized support element failure prevention program. Before the
actual root cause of a support element failure problem can be determined, it is
essential that the problem be clearly defined in terms of the failure mechanism.

Multidiscipline Approach

Activities associated with failures (that is, mechanism identification, root-cause

analysis and verification, and appropriate corrective and/or preventive action) are
complex and usually require the expertise of several technical and experience
disciplines. For example, mechanism identification may require knowledge of the
metallurgical characteristics of steels at high temperature over time. Root-cause
analysis may require knowledge about stress analysis of complex assemblies
subjected to expansion restraints, and short-term monitoring preventive action
may require a change in operation or maintenance practices. Effective support
element failure prevention programs recognize this complexity and address it by
mandating and supporting a “team” approach to solving support element failures.

Residual Life

Most repeat support element failures (that is, failures in the same system over
time, having the same mechanism and root cause) occur not because the
mechanism or root cause is not known and understood, but because the
remaining life of other damaged yet failed components was not determined.
Most failure mechanisms “use up” support element life that cannot be restored
even if the root cause has been corrected, for example, corrosion in which the
support element’s strength has been diminished due to wall thinning (corrosion)
or changes in microstructural properties.

 2-6 

10371005
 When failures resulting from these or other mechanisms that use up support
element life occur, residual life of other tubing in areas and/or locations under the
influence of the same root cause should be determined as soon as practicable (see
Figure 2-2). This will expose other damaged support elements that are prone to
failure prior to the next scheduled outage and establish corrosion/erosion rates for
predicting maintenance requirement specifications to inhibit future repeat
failures. Formalized support element failure prevention programs satisfy this
requirement by mandating residual life determination as an integral part of the
program’s correction, prevention, and control processes.

Figure 2-2
Residual strength diagram

Permanent Engineered Solutions

With many support element failure problems, temporary rather than permanent
engineered solutions are used—with the result that the remedy is a continuing
and costly maintenance burden.

In most cases, temporary repairs should only be used in emergencies, with

engineering fixes being the permanent solution. A formalized support element
failure prevention program with its “team” approach to permanent solutions
satisfies this requirement.

Since support element failures have been the subject of immense concern to
utility companies, there are a tremendous number of investigations and reports
concerning the different failure modes and mechanisms. A mechanism is defined
as the process by which something comes into being. Many types of mechanisms
have been cited as causes for support element failures. An extensive search was
conducted to compile the more significant common failure mechanisms for
inclusion in this report. A popular evaluation process is shown in Figure 2-3.

 2-7 

10371005
 Figure 2-3
Popular evaluation process

Root-Cause Analysis

Piping support failure root-cause analysis and verification methods include

gathering physical evidence or data and studying available facts through
systematic problem analysis. In most cases, combining both methodologies is
necessary because gathering all of the necessary data may be impossible or too
time-consuming and costly.

Important relevant parameters that may require determination by calculation,

observation, or measurement are as follows:
 Support element temperature
 Support element stress
 Support element thickness
 Support element microstructure
 Support element material properties
 Support element deposit constituents and thickness

On-line monitoring, periodic sampling, and laboratory testing are three ways to
quantify these critical parameters. Determination of the failure mechanism and
probable root causes is the key to minimizing data gathering requirement
specifications.

Each section of this report contains information on mechanism identification,

probable root causes, and verification processes. Information on probable root
causes should be used to minimize data needed to verify the actual root cause.
This approach will expedite the problem-solving and corrective action processes.

 2-8 

10371005
 Figure 2-4 illustrates the root-cause mapping process.

Figure 2-4
Root-cause mapping diagram

Current and future goals for generation facilities typically include the
development of a business model that will allow them to be operated in a highly
efficient and effective manner. This is not to imply that these organizations were
inefficient in the past, but rather that the decision-making paradigms need to be
shifted to take into account the new competitive nature of deregulation. One of
the changes that utility managers should recognize is the need for increased
thermal efficiency and availability at their generating facilities.

New technology solutions include the application of advanced computer systems

for the identification of performance and maintenance problems.

Management Acceptance Criteria

Inspection acceptance criteria must be established by each owning company

based on the overall risk the company is willing to absorb. The following are
examples of criteria:
 Jurisdictional review (authorized inspector)
 Documentation to support acceptance
 Damage scope and severity
 Discovery results prioritization

 2-9 

10371005
 Hazard factors must always be weighed against safety as seen in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5
Risk model (criteria)

Inspection Photography

A digital camera is a must these days. Select one that can withstand the rigors of
the boiler inspection environment. Keep moving parts to a minimum, as the fly
ash may foul its internal components. The team should use cameras during all
inspections—without exceptions. All photos may not be used in the report;
however, it makes the process of report generation much easier. Communication
is key, and photographs can convey an area’s condition with a minimum of
words. Figure 2-6 shows an example of inspection photography.

 2-10 

10371005
 Figure 2-6
Example of inspection photography: misalignment of spring support

If you discover a problem in the field, follow these steps:

1. Paint the problem brightly for location in the future; include the repair.
2. Clearly mark the location on the problem area with a paint stick.
3. Take a photograph that clearly shows the problem and the identification
marked with paint stick.
4. Take extra photos at different angles and positions.
5. Identify in your notes what each photo represents and which photo number
pertains to specific items.
6. Select the best photo for the report if more than one picture is available. Add
as many as may be required. Archive all photos, and include them in your
appendix at the end of your final report. Include captions with each photo for
easy identification: hundreds of pictures will be taken during a typical outage.

Problem Identification in the Field

One of the most difficult problems in the inspection process is the repair crew
finding the specific area to be repaired. This process can be aided by clearly and
uniformly marking the problem areas.

When beginning any inspection, identify the piping system to be inspected. In

addition, identify landmarks that might be of use during the inspection and
repairs.

Brightly mark the area of concern with bright paint or a tag. If painting, do not
paint into an area that will require pad welding. This makes the preparation
process more difficult for the repairperson.

 2-11 

10371005
 Report Preparation

Figure 2-7 shows an example of a prepared report.

United Dynamics Corporation
Main Steam Inspector: Jason C. Shankle (JCS)
MS-1 through MS-8
Hanger Scale Reading
By: JCS

Constant Support Rigid and Variable Date: Topped/

Hanger Hanger Data Support Data Design Elev 3/5/06 Bottomed
Mark Hanger Hanger Design Design Design Design Load Cold Cold Out
No. Size Type Mvt. Load (lb) Tot. Travel H C ft-in Position Remarks (Mark X)
MS-1 Constant 2" Up 12275 3-5/8" 10 X
MS-2 Constant 5" Up 5050 5-7/8" 10 X
MS-3NE Constant 3-13/16" Up 5850 5-1/8" 10 Trapeze assembly has moved 2" X
MS-3SW Constant 3-13/16" Up 5850 5-1/8" 10 and rods are bowed: See Fig. 1-3 X
MS-4 Rigid Vert 0" n/a
MS-5N Constant 3-1/16" Dn 4100 4-1/8" 2
MS-5S Constant 3-1/16" Dn 4100 4-1/8" 2
MS-6 Constant 3-1/4" Dn 4525 4-5/8" 0+/-
MS-7 Constant 1-7/8" Dn 6920 3" 0+/-
MS-8 Constant 1-7/8" Dn 6920 3" 0+/-

Notes
Ct= Cold theoretical
Ht= Hot theoretical
"Bottomed out" and "Topped out" in the remarks field refers to actual pipe movement not travel indicator scale. Load indicator scales on Basic Engineers (OEM) trapeze type supports move in
opposite direction of piping. A bottomed out trapeze will have the load indicator pin at the top of the travel scale.
Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3

Figure 2-7
Example of a prepared report
Used with permission from www.udc.net

Setting Inspection Priorities

For all inspections conducted, the use of a three-priority system for repair item
classification is suggested. Each of the three priority designations are clearly
defined next.

Priority 1 (P1) Designation

Priority 1 items should be inspected as follows:

 Within the next 7,500 hours or 50 thermal cycles of operation
 Areas without an inspection history (considered high-risk areas)
 Longitudinal seam welds, attemperator spools, and drain penetrations
 Locations identified with Class 3 or 4 creep damage during previous
examinations that have not been re-inspected with the last 15,000 hours of
operation
 Items that have a high probability of resulting in a forced outage, significant
performance degradation, financial loss, or safety hazard before the next
scheduled outage or if the recommended work is not accomplished during
the present outage

 2-12 

10371005
 Priority 1 items shall be addressed and repaired during the outage in which they
are recommended. A significant or rapid change in metallurgy or damage
mechanisms would trigger a P1 designation. In addition, Priority 1 can be
assigned to any problem that affects the reliability of the system. This is usually
pressure-part related; however, non-pressure-part issues may be included if the
definition is applicable.

Priority 2 (P2) Designations

Priority 2 items should be inspected as follows:

 After the next 25,000 hours or 150 thermal cycles of operation
 Locations within the piping system that have a known weld repair history
and that have not been re-inspected within the last 25,000 hours or 150
thermal cycles of operation
 Seam-welded piping systems that have been inspected and exhibited
characteristics of Class 2 creep mode
 Locations with no known or documented inspection history and are
considered medium risk
 Items that have a moderate probability of resulting in a failure

Priority 2 items have the potential to be upgraded to Priority 1 status if the item
becomes further degraded and/or experiences a change in condition from the
time of the previous assessment.

Ideally, Priority 2 items should be addressed during the present outage if time
and budget allow. At a minimum, efforts should be concentrated to repair either
certain items or a percentage of Priority 2 items. Priority 2 items that were not
addressed during the present outage should be reevaluated during the next
planned outage and addressed/repaired accordingly.

Priority 3 (P3) Designations

Priority 3 items should be inspected as follows:

 After the next 50,000 hours or 350 thermal cycles of operation
 The balance of seam-welded piping systems that have no known inspection
history within systems that have more the 150,000 hours of operation
 Locations that have been inspected and found to be free of service-related
deterioration and were evaluated as Class 1 creep
 Items that can be classified as a long-range mechanical optimization goal or a
general repair or record of an issue/observation

Under normal operating conditions, Priority 3 items would not cause a forced
outage. Priority 3 items are typically planned for future work or require
monitoring during regular outage intervals by the inspection team.

 2-13 

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 Inspection Tools

The following are the most practical tools and instruments used for pipeline
inspection:
 Inspector’s hammer for general cleanup
 Ultrasonic thickness meter to create a thinning and thickness record for
remaining life calculation
 Ultrasonic flaw detector to detect welding and material defects
 Pit depth gauge for pitting depth measurement
 Measuring tape for measurement of dimensions and sagging, bowing, and so
on
 Radiography equipment for weld defects
 Borescope, fiber scope pipe for header internal inspection
 Small mirror to assist with visual inspection of unapproachable areas
 Dye penetrant testing kit
 Magnetic particle testing kit for wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing
 Magnifying glass to enlarge the view of small pits, defects, and cracks for
inspection
 Inside and outside calipers for OD measurement to assess bulging
 Infrared measurement
 High-intensity flashlight for improved visibility
 Scrapper, emery paper, wire brush for surface cleaning for inspection
 Magnet for identification of ferromagnetic material
 Pi tape for dimensional measurements
 Paint and coating thickness gauges

Piping Support Primer

A piping system may be supported or controlled in several different ways (see

Figure 2-8). The inspection team must know the different types of supports and
restraints in order to properly design a piping system or evaluate a design made
by others.

 2-14 

10371005
 Figure 2-8
Types of pipe supports

A piping system needs supports and restraints because of the numerous loads that
are imposed upon it. Supports and restraints are often needed to permit the
piping system to function under normal operating conditions without failure in
the pipe itself or associated equipment. Supports are commonly needed to absorb
system weight loads to keep the sustained longitudinal stress in the pipe within
allowable limits or to limit pipe sag. Restraints are used to control or direct the
thermal movement of a piping system. The control of thermal movement may be
necessary to keep pipe thermal expansion stresses within allowable limits or to
limit the loads imposed on connected equipment. Restraints may also be
necessary to absorb other loads imposed on a piping system and to limit pipe
deflection and the resultant stresses (see Figure 2-9). Such loads include
earthquake, slug flow, water hammer, and other dynamic loads.

 2-15 

10371005
 Figure 2-9
Variable spring hammer types
Used with permission from AAA Technology & Specialties Co.

There are various supports and restraints that are suitable for a particular
application. Within these are different types, such as shoes, saddles, and vertical
guides.

Selection of a particular type of support or restraint depends on several factors:

 Weight load to be supported or restraint load to be absorbed
 Clearance available for attachment to the pipe
 Availability of nearby structural steel that is already there for other purposes
 The direction of loads to be absorbed or movement to be restrained
 Design temperature
 The need to permit vertical thermal movement at a support

Supports and Restraints

Supports sustain a portion of the piping weight and any superimposed vertical
loads. The weight comes from the pipe itself, its contents, insulation or lining (if
any), and other piping components such as valves and flanges. Restraints are
devices that prevent, resist, or limit the free thermal movement of piping or
absorb other applied loads so that they do not have a detrimental impact on the
pipe or connected equipment (see Figure 2-10). Depending on the situation, a
combination of support and restraint types may be installed at one location.
There are two general classes of supports: rigid supports and flexible or resilient
supports.

 2-16 

10371005
 Figure 2-10
Restraints and guides

Rigid Supports

Rigid supports are used where weight support is needed and no provision to
permit vertical thermal expansion is required. A rigid support prevents vertical
movement downward and sometimes prevents vertical thermal movement
upward. It will permit lateral movement and rotation. A rigid support is the more
common of the two support classes.

The use of any type of support depends on the magnitude of the load to be
carried, the point of attachment to the pipe, and the distance to available support
structure or grade. For illustration:
 Two different shoe support types are shown in Figure 2-11. The choice
between the two depends on the pipe diameter and the load to be carried.
The design with the single vertical member would be used with small
diameter, lightly loaded pipe. The design with two vertical members spreads
the applied load over a larger portion of the pipe wall and reduces the local
stress in the pipe wall. It would be used for larger pipe diameters and greater
loads.
 Designs that employ a trunnion arrangement must consider the bending
moment imposed on the pipe resulting from the weight load being supported
and applied at the end of the movement arm. Because of this, the trunnion
length must be kept as short as possible to minimize the bending moment
that must be designed for.
 Pipe supports are often made using sections of pipe to provide support, rather
than structural members. This type is called a dummy support, indicating that
there is no flow in the pipe section providing the support.
 2-17 

10371005
  A saddle-type support uses a reinforcing plate that is first welded to the
underside of the pipe. This reinforcing plate will normally have an included
angle of 90° to 120°, along the pipe circumference, that distributes the weight
load over a wider portion of the pipe and reduces the local pipe stress.

Hangers

Hangers support pipe from structural steel or other facilities located above the
pipe and carry piping weight loads in tension. They typically consist of one or
more structural steel rods bolted to a pipe attachment and to the overhead
member. A hanger rod is designed to move freely, both parallel and
perpendicular to the pipe axis, and not to restrict thermal expansion in these
directions. A hanger will prevent movement both down and up and therefore
cannot be used to provide support at locations where any vertical thermal
movement will occur. Numerous types and sizes of pipe supports can be found in
a typical vendor’s pipe hanger catalog.

Figure 2-11
Two types of rigid supports

 2-18 

10371005
 Flexible Supports

Flexible supports allow the piping system to move in all three directions while
still supporting the required weight load. Weight is supported in this application
by a coil spring having an appropriate stiffness to carry the applied weight load.
Since the spring is robust, it will permit vertical thermal movement while still
carrying the weight. This type of support is used in situations where support
must be provided at a specific location and vertical thermal expansion must be
permitted. There are two basic types of flexible supports: variable load and
constant load. Figures 2-12 through 2-16 show examples of flexible supports.

Figure 2-12
Examples of flexible supports
Used with permission from AAA Technology & Specialties Co.

In the variable-load flexible support (see Figure 2-13), the load exerted by the
spring on the pipe changes as a result of the pipe thermal movement conveyed to
the spring. The amount of this load change equals the amount of thermal
movement multiplied by the spring constant for the spring.

 2-19 

10371005
 Figure 2-13
Examples of varied load flexible support
Used with permission from AAA Technology & Specialties Co.

The spring is selected such that it provides the correct amount of supporting load
to the pipe while considering the thermal movement to be absorbed. This is the
more commonly used of the two resilient-support types.

 2-20 

10371005
 Figure 2-14
Examples of constant type flexible support

 2-21 

10371005
 Figure 2-15
Examples of flexible supports

In the constant-load type flexible support, the load exerted by the support on the
pipe remains constant throughout the entire movement range of the support.
This is accomplished using a pivoting, lever arm mechanism.

This type of support is used in situations where the load variation in a variable-
load spring is too large to be accommodated by the piping system or where the
thermal movement is over 75 mm (3 in.). Each type of resilient support is
selected from standard available models based on design load, required
movement, and installation geometry considerations. Their attachments to the
pipe and support members are made similarly to other rigid supports and hangers
and may be located under, over, or next to the pipe. Figure 2-16 illustrates
various flexible supports.

 2-22 

10371005
 Figure 2-16
Various flexible supports

Examples of spring hanger being placed below the piping are shown in Figure 2-
17, and Figure 2-18 shows examples of spring type hangers.

 2-23 

10371005
 Figure 2-17
Examples of spring hanger being placed below the piping
Used with permission from AAA Technology & Specialties Co.

Figure 2-18
Examples of spring type hangers

 2-24 

10371005
 Restraints

Restraints (see Figure 2-19 for examples) have two primary purposes in a piping
system:
 To control the unrestricted thermal movement (expansion or contraction) of
the pipe by directing or limiting the piping system since it is usually totally
restrained at the end connection points. Restraints control, limit, or redirect
the thermal movement to reduce either the thermal stress in the pipe or the
loads exerted on equipment connections due to thermal movement.
 To absorb loads imposed on the pipe by other conditions, including wind,
earthquake, slug flow, water hammer, or flow-induced vibration. These could
result in excessive pipe stress, equipment reaction loads, or flange leakage.

Figure 2-19
Examples of restraints

There are several different types of restraints that may be used. The selection of
which type to use depends primarily on the direction of pipe movement that
must be restrained, the location of the restraint point, and the magnitude of the
load that must be absorbed. It is also possible to restrain more than one direction
at one location in a piping system or to combine a restraint with a support.

Guides

A guide is a particular type of restraint. It is used in situations where movement

along the pipe axis must be permitted while movement perpendicular to the pipe
axis in one or both directions must be prevented. Depending on the guide details
employed, pipe rotation may or may not be restricted. Common situations where
guides are used are in long pipe runs on a pipe rack to control thermal movement
and prevent buckling, and in straight pipe runs down the side of a tower to
prevent wind-induced movement and control thermal expansion. See examples in
Figure 2-20.

 2-25 

10371005
 Figure 2-20
Examples of guides

Anchors

An anchor is a special type of restraint that stops movement in all three

directions. Anchors provide full fixation of the pipe, permitting limited, if any,
change or rotation. An anchor is used in circumstances where it is necessary to
totally isolate one section of a piping system from another. A directional anchor
is more commonly used in plant piping and restrains the line only in its axial
direction.

The term pipe support refers to a device or assembly that supports the pipe
weight. Pipe restraint refers to a device or assembly that restrains the pipe against
lateral or axial movement. Sway brace is used to restrain the piping against lateral
sway. In everyday practice, pipe support is often used to refer to any type of
support, restraint, or sway brace.

Inspection Considerations

Recurring formal inspection is necessary to evaluate the status of the discrete pipe
supports and overall support of the piping system. Safety of the system is key
when considering replacement of individual pipe supports or recalibration of the
entire support system. It is also important to understand the original design of
the piping system and the function of each individual support prior to inspection.

A study of the data sheets, drawings, and specifications should establish a picture
of how the designer expected the system to operate. Once this is done, the
inspector can focus on what is different at the time of inspection. General
recommendations in this area are also outlined in various codes, regulations, and
standards, including ASME B31.1 and ANSI/NB-23.

 2-26 

10371005
 In its most basic form, an isometric sketch should be developed showing the
configuration of the piping and the approximate location of the supports. An
accompanying log sheet should also list the design or nameplate data, readings at
flexible-type supports, and general observations.

The work would ideally involve inspections with the equipment in the hot or
operating mode supplemented by inspections in the cold or shutdown condition.
The fundamental visual examination process should also be complemented by
historic activities as warranted from previous inspection results, site-specific
concerns, or generic deficiencies with the designs or products installed.

The inspector should coordinate his or her inspection with the Company
refueling outage and pipe supports and directional restraints inspection program
to observe functional testing and to adhere to Company specifications and
procedures.

Prior to the inspection or surveillance of pipe support specifications and

directional restraints specifications, the inspector should become familiar with
Company specifications, approved programs, and procedures—especially possible
addenda or amendments to specifications pertaining to surveillance and test
intervals, which may vary from 31 days to 18 months. Inspectors shall
periodically observe some of the Company’s surveillance and test activities. They
should also use judgment regarding the use of scaffolds or long ladders, using
existing facilities whenever possible to reduce the need for Company assistance.

Cycling service has an adverse effect on the expected life of a system. Depending
on the severity of the stresses, fatigue loading can result in cracking at passive
restraint sites. If the unit is experiencing flexible operation, additional attention
should be given to cracking at passive restraints.

Where variable temperatures exist, the supports must allow for movement. To
achieve this, reactive supports such as variable spring hangers and constant
support hangers are typically used.

The importance of the pipe supports is frequently minimized. With ever-

declining budgets, this lack of inspection and repair activity is common. When
the support system is compromised, stress is the primary reason for failure.

Variance in hanger loads allows the suspended piping to move until halted by
interference or by reaching the travel limits of the support system.

The loading conflict can cause damage to the piping itself, which may result from
damage to the supports or a defective spring in the hanger support. Examples of
clamp style hangers are shown in Figure 2-21.

 2-27 

10371005
 Figure 2-21
Examples of clamp style hangers

Snubbers

Snubbers and/or shock suppressors are designed to prevent unrestrained motion

under dynamic loads (such as an earthquake or severe transient) while allowing
normal thermal motion such as expansion and contraction during startup and
shutdown. Inoperative or defective snubbers for safety-related systems and
components prohibit a startup. The observance of any breakdown, leak,
deformation, or deterioration shall provide a basis for more examination or
testing to determine its cause. Figure 2-22 shows mechanical and hydraulic
snubbers.

 2-28 

10371005
 Figure 2-22
Mechanical and hydraulic snubbers

Restraint systems require consideration of component and pipe movement

resulting from temperature changes. It is normal design practice to specify initial
(cold) conditions and predict clearances for hot conditions. It should be
recognized that actual thermal movement may differ in both magnitude and
direction. Therefore, tests are required to confirm the acceptability of clearances
and displacements in the as-built system.

As-built snubber drawings should be used to verify proper attachment,

installation, and piston position. Piping support and restraint system inspections
at operating temperatures should be performed during the hot functional test and
during the power scaling testing program.

In-Service Specifications for Snubbers (Routine Operation

Only)

Observe functional testing of hydraulic and mechanical snubbers, and verify the
following:
 The test equipment is calibrated.
 Acceptable instructions and procedures are followed.
 The force that initiates free movement of the snubber rod (mechanical
snubbers only) in either tension or compression is less than the specified
maximum drag force.
 The force to initiate or maintain motion of the snubber is within the
specified range in both directions of travel.

 2-29 

10371005
  Snubber activation or restraining rate is within the specified range of
compression or tension.
 Snubber bleed or release rate is within the specified range of compression or
tension.
 If the snubber fails during testing, the cause of failure is determined.
 The number of units to be tested is in accordance with specifications.

Piping designers specify supports for piping systems based on the design
conditions as specified by the customer prior to fabrication and subsequent
construction. During construction and years of operation, many of the initial
design assumptions change, such as operating temperatures, pressures, and flow
rates.

Hangers and supports must be designed to meet all static and dynamic
operational conditions to which the piping and equipment may be subjected. The
support system must provide for and control—subject to the requirement
specifications of the piping configuration—the movement due to the thermal
expansion and contraction of the piping and connected equipment.

Unconstrained movement caused by defective supports can add additional

stresses and therefore reduce the piping overall life. If carried to the ultimate
conclusion, a piping failure is likely.

Recognizing that power plant reliability and safety are long-term goals, vigilance
is essential. When performed effectively, the inspection and servicing of pipe
supports will only serve to enhance the piping system.

In the support system, connected piping problems are usually long term. This
situation masks the importance of the specific device conditions. Hardware such
as structural members, welded attachments, clamps, U-bolts, and even rods all
require a certain amount of attention. Deficiencies in most passive components
are often masked.

Another problem that is often concealed, due to extreme temperatures and

insulation coverage, is cracking in welded hanger attachments. Elbow lugs, shear
lugs, and side plates are some of the more common attachments that are prone to
outright failures, particularly on high-temperature (typically greater than 850°F)
steam leads.

The damage from water hammer can be significant. This issue arises in areas that
periodically introduce water to control steam temperature (for example,
attemperators).

One example of stress problems related to elevation changes (movement) is often

found in branch line connections to the significant run of pipe. Where the larger
pipe is free to move and the branch line binds at some point in the travel cycle,
bending moments will develop at the connection and often lead to cracking or
failure.

 2-30 

10371005
 Thermal Movement

Thermal movement is the vertical displacement of the pipe with the passage of
fluids passing through, changing from hot to cold condition. The movement is
denoted as “-” or “down” and “+” or “up”—depending on whether the pipe is
moving up along the Y axis from the cold set position or moving down from the
cold set position (see Figure 2-23).

Figure 2-23
Thermal movement

Corrosion

It is important to note the influence of a corrosive environment and account for

the active service life of the spring. For example, a spring required to operate 105
cycles over a period of three months would be much less influenced by a
particular corrosive environment than a spring operating for the same number of
cycles over a period of five years. Figure 2-24 shows an example of corrosion at a
cradle support.

 2-31 

10371005
 Figure 2-24
Corrosion at cradle support

Fretting Corrosion

Fretting corrosion is a type of damage that occurs when two surfaces in contact
with one another experience a small relative movement, which can considerably
reduce the fatigue strength of the material. Fretting can occur, for example, in
compression spring end coils, the hook of a tension spring, or between
consecutive leaves of a leaf spring. The effect of fretting can be minimized by
lubricating the surfaces or if the surface against which the spring is rubbing is of a
lower hardness. In a helical coil compression spring, fretting at the end coil is
relatively low because the working stress is low (dead coils). If the end coils are
closed, the problem is further reduced. It is preferable to design helical coils
operating under fatigue conditions to be “buckle proof.” If that is difficult, a
compression spring should be guided on its outside diameter since the working
stress is lower at the outside than at the inside due to coil curvature effects.

Step 1 of Figure 2-25 shows how the thin layer cracks under pressure when
contact is first made. The layer is represented as a thin black line (A). Clean
material (B) oozes through the cracks in the oxide layer. If the contact spot
moves a microscopic amount from fretting motion (shown in Step 2), the clean
tin is exposed to the air and quickly forms an insulating oxide film (C). Every
time there is motion at the contact spot, the cycle repeats and more oxide wear
debris builds up, as shown in Step 3. With continued microscopic fretting
movement between contacting surfaces, the material thins.

 2-32 

10371005
 Figure 2-25
Diagram of fretting corrosion

Maximum Load Variation

Maximum load variation is the variation in load or stress imposed on the

pipework system when moving from the cold condition to the hot condition.
This is usually expressed as a percentage of the hot load. For a VES unit
(http://www.ves.co.uk/), as the pipe is suspended or supported directly on the
spring, any thermal movement of pipe line will force the spring to expand or
compress—causing either a decrease or increase in load. This differential change
in load is known as load variation (LV) and is expressed as a percentage.
Normally, MSS-SP58 specifies maximum LV as 25%. However, designers
sometimes impose a cap on the LV for certain supports on critical pipework to
reduce the differential stresses it experiences. This means that a softer spring
constant has to be selected to achieve maximum LV. To illustrate selection of
VES units:

LV or percentage variation = (hot load ~cold load) x 100 hot load =

(travel x spring rate) x 100 hot load

 2-33 

10371005
 Water Hammer

Water hammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate colliding at high velocity
into pipework fittings, plant, and equipment (see Figure 2-26).

Figure 2-26
Illustration of water hammer

This has a number of implications:

 Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, the dissipation of
kinetic energy is higher than would normally be expected.
 Water is dense and incompressible, so the “cushioning” effect experienced
when gases encounter obstructions is absent.
 The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in the piping
system such as valves and fittings.

Formations of a “solid” slug of water indicating water hammer include a banging

noise and perhaps movement of the pipe.

In severe cases, water hammer may fracture pipeline equipment with an almost
explosive effect, with consequent loss of live steam at the fracture—leading to an
extremely hazardous situation. One example of the effects of water hammer is
shown in Figure 2-27.

 2-34 

10371005
 Figure 2-27
Pipe hanger bent and distorted due to a water hammer

Good engineering design, installation, and maintenance will prevent water

hammer; this is a far better practice than attempting to contain it by choice of
materials and pressure ratings of equipment.

Commonly, water hammer occurs at the low points in the pipework. Such areas
are due to:
 Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports
 Inadequate drainage of steam lines
 Incorrect operation; opening valves too quickly at startup when pipes are cold

The following actions should be taken to minimize water hammer:

 Install steam lines with a gradual fall in the direction of flow and with drain
points installed at regular intervals and at low points.
 Install check valves after all steam traps that would otherwise allow
condensate to run back into the steam line or plant during shutdown.
 Open isolation valves slowly to allow any condensate that may be lying in the
system to flow gently through the drain traps before it is picked up by high-
velocity steam. This is especially important at startup.

 2-35 

10371005
10371005
Section 3: Shared Inspection Procedures
General Routine Maintenance

Hangers and supports are fundamentally “fit and forget” items and in many cases
not easily accessible for inspection or maintenance. For this reason, emphasis
should be on surface protection. Through the analysis of data collected by
discovery inspection of all supports in a system, two questions need to be
answered:
 Do the individual supports still function as designed?
 Does the system of supports still function as designed?

Little routine maintenance is required, and the supports are intended for a
minimum 20–25 year life cycle. If the initial specification for corrosion resistance
is good, even painting may not be required.

What is required is routine inspection for the following:

 General damage or breakage (see Figure 3-1).
 Creep, fatigue, or excessive loads.
 Additions or modifications to the line.
 The bearings in the constant effort supports are lubrication free and do not
need any attention.
 If there are hints of rusting, a coat of paint every two years will help extend
the life of the support.
 Check to see whether the spring is operating between the “hot” and “cold”
pointers and not beyond its travel range.
 Inspection procedures are followed.
 Proper acceptance criteria are used.
 Deficiencies, if found, are recorded, reviewed, and reported, as required.
 Corrective action is implemented, as required.
 Frequency of visual inspection is determined as required by the specifications,
the ASME Code, or by plant management requirement specifications
developed from manufacturer’s instructions.
 Check for proper supports according to engineering drawings.

 3-1 

10371005
  Supports should be placed as near as practicable to changes in direction
(lateral or vertical).
 The clear space around bends, loops, and pipe terminal ends should be
sufficient to allow free movement of these portions on thermal expansion.
 Preferably, supports should never be welded directly to pipe.
 While checking the supports, the shoe of pipelines and their positioning with
respect to support should also be checked in both hot and cold conditions.
 The shoe on the pipe should be fully welded to the pipe. Otherwise,
corrosion may occur between the pipe and the shoe.

Figure 3-1
Loose pipe clamp. Loose hanger can be seen in the background.

Hot and cold condition walkdowns of the hanger supports in the piping system
should be audited during planned outages or no longer than every 24 months.
This is to ensure that the piping systems are supporting as foreseen by the
designer. The inspected condition of the supports provides an indicator of the
condition of the applicable high-energy piping system. In fact, over 95% of the
through-wall failures experienced in high-energy piping systems are correlated
with applied bending stresses from external circumstances.

In addition to the physical integrity of the support assembly, the inspector must
check the position (amount of compression) of the spring coil. The original
designer specified the size for the variable spring support at a certain point based
on the load and travel of the pipe expected during startup, operation, and

shutdown cycles of the system. The resistance to movement that a spring coil
provides depends on how compressed the coil is. If the indicator shows that the
coil is not compressed to the proper position, something is different from what
the original piping designer had intended.

 3-2 

10371005
 Once the positions of all of the spring coils have been observed, an analysis of the
current system status can begin. One of the problems that can occur is a bottom-
out spring; that is, the coil is completely compressed and can move in only one
direction. This is a major concern for the safety of current operations. An analysis
of the total system is necessary to determine if factory reconditioning or
replacement is required or if field adjustments can restore the support system to
safely function at current conditions.

Hot and Cold Walkdown

Pipe support systems should be visually inspected for the following:

 Interferences with or from other piping or equipment.
 Vibrations.
 General condition of the supports, hangers, guides, anchors, supplementary
steel, and attachments.
 Hanger position scale readings of variable and constant support hangers shall
be determined periodically. It is recommended that readings be obtained
while the piping is in its fully hot position and, if practical, when the system
is reasonably cool or cold sometime during the year as permitted by plant
operation. Pipe temperature at the time of reading hangers shall be recorded.
 Corroded hangers and other support components.
 Broken springs or any hardware item that is part of the complete hanger or
support assembly.
 Piping vibration; valve operator shaking or movement.
 Piping interferences.
 Excessive piping deflection, which may require the installation of spring units
with a greater travel range.
 Pipe sagging, which may require hanger adjustment or the reanalysis and
redesign of the support system.
 Hanger unit riding at either the top or the bottom of the available travel.
 Requirement of adjustment of hanger load-carrying capacity.
 Adjustments of hanger rods or turnbuckle for compensation for elevation
changes.
 Loose or broken anchors.
 Inadequate clearances at guides.
 Inadequate safety valve vent clearances at outlet of safety valves.
 Any failed or deformed hanger, guide, U-bolt, anchor, snubber, or shock
absorber, slide support, dampener, or supporting steel.
 Leaks at flanges, valve bonnets, and valve stems.
 Excessively corroded valves.

 3-3 

10371005
  Defective traps, separators, strainers, silencers, flexible hoses, flexible fittings,
and water level gauge glass.
 Undesirable movements in expansion joints.
 Evidence of corrosion.
 Distortion.
 General physical damage.
 Movement or deterioration of concrete footings.
 Condition of foundation bolts.
 Free operation of pipe rollers.
 Secure attachment of brackets and beams to the supports.
 Secure attachment and proper adjustment of pipe hangers; spring hangers
loading should be checked. Both cold and hot readings should be obtained
and checked against the original cold and hot readings. The movement of
spring supports should be monitored.
 Broken or otherwise defective pipe anchors.
 Cold pull wherever required, according to design documents, should be
performed and properly recorded; free operation of pulleys or pivot points of
counterbalanced piping systems.

This list is intended to provide direction for the periodic routine operational
inspection requirements specifications for piping support and restraint systems.
The purpose of the periodic routine operational inspection is to identify, evaluate,
and correct service-induced deficiencies.

Procedures should include cold load preset for standard and adjustable supports
specifications and the required calibrations for snubbers, restraints, and vibration
arrestors.
 References to vendors’ procedures and specifications are acceptable if they are
made part of the record system.
 Excessive water hammer or vibration within the piping system should be
recorded and analyzed for resolutions, such as addition of restraints or
vibration arrestors. Minor water hammer or vibration should be analyzed for
possible effect on the reliability of the pipe support and/or restraint systems.
 Smaller size mechanical snubbers are vulnerable to mechanical damage from
lateral loads. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to them after
construction or other similar activities near them.
 Locking devices are devices installed to prevent threaded connections, bolts,
and nuts from coming loose. During the construction phase, these locking
devices may have been removed and not replaced.
 Typical evidence of overstressing includes indications of bending of pipe
supports or associated equipment and cracks in material or welded surfaces.
The inspector should be aware that the Company may not necessarily be
 3-4 

10371005
 committed to the ASME weld requirement specifications. The inspector
should review the Company construction (hanger erection) procedures and
the final as-built drawings to determine whether any discrepancies exist.
 The proper snubber position can be determined using the as-built drawings.
If the snubber piston shaft does not have position markings, proper piston
extension can be determined by comparing the required snubber piston
length listed in the as-built drawings to the actual snubber piston length.
 Snubber inspection requirement specifications can be found in ASME Code.

Rigid rod hangers shall be maintained in accordance with the limits specified by
the manufacturers and designers. (Examples of poorly maintained hangers are
shown in Figures 3-2 and 3-3.) Maintenance of these items shall include
cleaning, lubrication, and corrosion protection. Pipe location readings and travel
scale readings of variable and constant support hangers shall be recorded on
permanent log sheets in such a manner that will be simple to interpret.

Figure 3-2
Hangers were found over- or under-loaded

 3-5 

10371005
 Figure 3-3
A hot reheat constant support hanger is bottomed out. This hanger should be
adjusted to the cold setting off-line.

During the shutdown inspection, the visual, ultrasonic, radiographic inspections

as detailed for on-line inspection should be performed and recorded.

Nondestructive Testing Recommendations

 Perform NDE as recommended by all visual inspections and lab procedures.
 Report finding for immediate repairs (based on NDE procedure).
 Report finding for future repairs (based on NDE procedures).
 NDE tests include magnetic particle, dye penetrant, ultrasonic, radiographic,
and visual.

 3-6 

10371005
Section 4: Inspection Procedures by
Condition
Inspection of Corrosion, Erosion, and Fouling
 Thorough visual inspection should be carried out for corrosion, erosion, and
fouling.
 The nature and extent of deposit should be noted. Samples may be collected
for chemical analysis.
 If corrosion under the insulation lining is noticed, more areas should be
exposed to determine the extent of corrosion (see Figure 4-1). For pitted
pipes, the depth of pits may be measured by pit gauge.
 For assessing localized crevice corrosion points at supports, ultrasonic testing
can be used.

 4-1 

10371005
 Figure 4-1
Once insulation is removed, corrosion is seen on pipe and pipe-to-support
connection.

Inspection of Cracks

The morphology of stress and elevation changes (movement) in piping systems

includes through-cracking from bending movements experienced at the
circumference of the supported pipe (see Figure 4-2). The location of the
cracking is usually at the smallest cross-sectional (thinnest) area next to a
restraint (similar to the “weakest link in a chain”).

Excessive variances in elevation (movement) unanticipated by design are a result

of failed support performance.

 4-2 

10371005
 Figure 4-2
Uninsulated piping is also subject to corrosion.

Pipelines should be inspected for cracks. Particular attention should be given to

areas near the weld joints.

Welds, heat-affected areas adjoining welds, and points of restraint or strain are
areas subject to stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen attack, and caustic
embrittlement and should be carefully inspected for cracks (Figures 4-3 and 4-4).
For spot check, dye penetrant and magnetic particle inspection should be used.
Alloy and stainless steel piping need special attention. In situ metallography at
critical spots may also be done. Magnifying glass can be used for general crack
detection.

 4-3 

10371005
 Figure 4-3
Cracks can be seen in attachment welds.

Figure 4-4
Through-wall crack in support attachment

 4-4 

10371005
 Inspection for Misalignment

Piping should be inspected for misalignment. If misalignment of piping was

noted during operation, the cause should be determined. Figures 4-5 through 4-
11 show piping and misalignment problems.

Figure 4-5
Steam pipe is nearly off its support.

 4-5 

10371005
 Figure 4-6
Trapeze hanger is disengaged from pipe.

Figure 4-7
Strut attachment is broken away from supporting steel.

 4-6 

10371005
 Figure 4-8
Hanger rods unloaded

Figure 4-9
Hanger rod is broken interfering with the cable tray and wiring therein.

 4-7 

10371005
 Figure 4-10
A boiler circulation line trapeze constant support hanger has rotated around the
center line of the pipe.

Figure 4-11
The main steam trapeze constant support hanger above the vertical restraint is
topped out. This would indicate the potential failure of the shear lugs. It is
recommended that the insulation above the clamp be removed to allow for
inspection.

Misalignment is usually caused by the following:

 Inadequate provision for expansion
 Broken or defective anchors
 Excessive friction on sliding saddles, indicating lack of lubrication or
necessity of rollers
 Broken rollers or inability of rollers to turn because of corrosion or lack of
lubrication
 Broken or improperly adjusted hangers
 Hangers that are too short and thus limit movement of the piping

 4-8 

10371005
  Deformation of the wall of the vessel in the vicinity of the pipe attachment
 Pipe supports forced out of plumb by expansion or contraction of piping
 Shifting of base plate or shearing of the foundation bolts of mechanical
equipment to which the piping is attached
 Cracks in the connecting flanges or pump casings and turbines to which the
piping is attached
 Pipe dislodged from its support so that the weight of the pipe is distributed
unevenly on the hangers or the saddles

Misalignment can cause lifting of the piping. Causes of misalignment that could
not be corrected during on-line operation should be attended during shutdown.

Inspection of Insulation Hot Spots

Where hot spots on insulated pipe were noted during operation, the internal
insulation should be inspected visually for failure; the pipe wall at the hot spot
should be inspected visually for oxidation and scaling. The scale should be
removed to sound metal, and the area should be checked for cracks. Figure 4-12
shows a breakdown in insulation.

Figure 4-12
A breakdown in insulation can be clearly seen using infrared photography.

When the insulation is removed:

 The thickness should be measured to ensure that sufficient thickness is left in
the pipe for service.
 The outside diameter of piping in high-temperature service should be
measured to check for creep.

 4-9 

10371005
 Vibration

Vibration can be caused by abnormal displacement due to support deviation.

Repair includes balancing the pipe support by adjusting the pipe hanger. If
vibration or swaying is observed, inspection should be made for cracks in welds,
particularly at points of restraint such as where piping is attached to equipment
and in the vicinity of anchors. Additional supports should be considered for
poorly braced small size piping and valves and for the vibrations in the line to
which they are attached. Figure 4-13 shows a hanger rod abraded by vibration.

Figure 4-13
Hanger rod abraded by vibration

Mechanical Damage from External Forces

Pipe should be inspected for dents and scratches from external sources. Examples
of broken components are shown in Figures 4-14 and 4-15.

 4-10 

10371005
 Figure 4-14
Broken support attachment bolt

Figure 4-15
Broken hanger support

 4-11 

10371005
 Non-Conforming Repairs

Figures 4-16 and 4-17 show poor quality attachment welds.

Figure 4-16
Poor quality attachment weld

Figure 4-17
Bad attachment weld

 4-12 

10371005
 High- and Low-Temperature Springs

Temperature has a profound effect on the performance of a spring. Normal

silicon manganese steels cannot perform at ambient temperatures below -20°C.
For elevated temperatures, carbon steels no longer have a fatigue limit at their
fatigue strength. Operating temperatures have to be considered when inspecting
springs.

Base Spring Support

Check the spring coil for any sign of corrosion. Mark the position of the coil for
any sign of corrosion, and check the load flange to be sure that it can move.
Figure 4-18 shows a foot-mounted support buried under coal dust and ash.

Figure 4-18
This foot-mounted support is virtually buried in coal dust and ash. With high
humidity and the hygroscopic nature of the dust, it will solidify and the support will
become useless.

Miscellaneous Faults
 Increased friction on a spring due to corrosion and wear
 Relaxation of springs in variable and constant supports
 Faulty load settings of variable and constant supports
 Jammed bearings and guides
 Broken, bent, or deformed rods

 4-13 

10371005
  Broken pipe clamps
 Frozen mechanical shock absorbers
 Leaks in hydraulic shock absorbers; deformed connections in shock absorbers
and rigid struts
 Errors in support design
 Incorrect installation of supports
 Poor quality of certain brands

Figures 4-19 and 4-20 show pipe clearance problems and loose hanger springs,
respectively.

Figure 4-19
No clearance for steam line in the wall to allow for vertical downward
displacement of main steam line of a coal-fired power plant. Notice that the pipe
with insulation is sagging and insulation is already compressed around the bottom
of the opening.
 4-14 

10371005
 Figure 4-20
Feedwater piping with loose hanger springs

Variable Spring Hanger

A variable spring hanger supports a hung pipe from above. Figure 4-21 shows a
variable spring support placed below the pipe and supporting the pipe from
underneath. Variable spring hangers are standard supports, used to support the
pipe’s dead weight while allowing vertical movement due to expansion or
contraction. The reaction force on a spring hanger varies as the pipe moves
vertically, which makes it best suited where vertical expansion and contraction
movements are not too large, restricting the force in the spring from varying by
more than 25% from the cold to the hot position.

Figure 4-21
Variable spring application

 4-15 

10371005
 As the pipe moves horizontally, the spring will swing. A limit of the swing angle
is typically specified in the vendor catalog. The spring is selected based on its
weight-carrying capability and its cold-to-hot travel range.

For piping systems operating at temperature, it is advisable to verify—once the

line is placed in service—that the calculated movements at the springs correspond
with the observed movements and that the support contracts and expands within
its travel range. Piping systems supported solely by spring hangers or rod hangers
are flexible and are therefore vulnerable to large displacements under vibration or
fluid transients.

Flexible supports using helical coil compression springs (to accommodate loads
and associated pipe movements due to thermal expansion) are broadly classified
into variable effort support and constant effort support. The critical component in
both types of supports is the helical coil.

Figure 4-22 shows sootblower support hangers.

Figure 4-22
Sootblower support hangers

Hanger Assembly
 Check the beam attachment pin and the spring hanger attachment for any
cracks, fractures, or signs of corrosion.
 Check the pipe clamp attachment, the weldless eye, and threaded rod for
integrity.
 Test the turnbuckle, locknuts, and other threaded items to be sure they will
turn (see Figure 4-23).
 Check the spring coil for any sign of corrosion.

 4-16 

10371005
  Mark the position of the coil for any sign of corrosion.
 Check the position of the coil, and compare it to design position and the
operating range of the spring.

Figure 4-23
Nuts and bolts missing on hanger rod. Hangers are also unloaded.

Spring Hanger Compression Springs

Variable effort supports, also known as variable hangers or variables, are used to
support piping subjected to moderate (approximately up to 50 mm) vertical
thermal movements.

Variable effort support (VES) units are used to support the weight of pipework
or equipment. Spring supports may also be used to support lines subject to
relative movement occurring typically from subsidence or earthquakes.

A VES unit is fairly simple in construction, with the pipe virtually suspended
directly from a helical coil compression spring as the cut-away sectional sketch in
Figure 4-24 shows. The main components are the following:
 Top plate
 Pressure plate or piston plate
 Bottom plate or base plate
 Helical spring
 Turnbuckle assembly
 Locking rods
 Name plate
 Can section or cover

 4-17 

10371005
 Figure 4-24
Variable spring hanger

Figure 4-24 shows a typical VES assembly; the VES unit is fixed to the
supporting structure using a welded beam attachment, and the pipe is slung
beneath using a hanger rod and clevis attachment.

From the figure, it is evident that the pipe is suspended from the spring. Thus, if
the pipe moves down from the position shown in the figure, the spring will get
further compressed. In addition, if the pipe were to move up from the position
shown, the spring will get relaxed. Thus with movement of the pipe, the spring
gets compressed or relaxed. If a spring is compressed, the load increases;
relaxation leads to decrease in load. Therefore, in a VES unit, the load varies
with pipe movement. Thermal movement always takes place from the cold
condition to hot condition, and the pipe is the prime mover—not the spring.

Variable Spring Hanger Disorders

All ferrous materials have a fatigue limit. This is the value of maximum stress
below which, for any given value of minimum stress, failure will never occur—
regardless of how many times the loading and unloading cycle is applied. Above
the fatigue limit stress value, the spring failure stress is found to be approximately
inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of cycles.

Figure 4-25 shows a spring casing that has corroded.

 4-18 

10371005
 Figure 4-25
Spring casing corroded away

Helical coil compression springs used in spring hangers and supports are not
subjected to dynamic or cyclic duty cycles such as those of automobile or rolling
stock springs used in railways. Because springs used in hanger supports are
subjected to static loadings, fatigue is not a major concern. Figures 4-26 through
4-28 show hanger spring problems.

Figure 4-26
Corrosion has packed between spring coils, rendering spring function inoperable.

 4-19 

10371005
 Figure 4-27
Detached hanger spring is allowing significant sagging in the steam line.

Figure 4-28
A variable spring hanger is disconnected. This hanger should be reconnected and
set in the cold setting.

 4-20 

10371005
  Lines should be checked for bulging, bowing, and sagging between the
supports.
 Mechanical damage from external forces: pipes should be inspected for dents
and scratches from external sources.

Variable Spring Hanger Settings

Spring hanger loading should be checked cold and hot. The cold setting is the
position at which a spring hanger indicator is set, denoting the proper installation
setting of the unit with the piping in the cold position. The hot setting is the
position at which the indicator on a spring hanger should be with the piping in
the hot or operating position.

Temporary locking devices and travel stops are devices that temporarily lock the
moveable parts of a spring hanger in a fixed position, enabling a load to be
transferred through the spring hanger to the supporting structure while
maintaining the piping at a desired elevation during erection and/or hydrostatic
testing.
 Each hanger assembly should be verified against the hanger drawing to
ensure that all components have been installed and are in their proper
position.
 Temporary locking devices (travel stops) and other locking means furnished
with spring units should be properly engaged.
 Spring locking devices and any temporary hangers and supports required for
hydrostatic testing shall be removed.
 Spring hangers should be checked to ensure that their load/travel indicators
are approximately in their cold position setting and that the pipe is at the
proper elevation.
 Piping systems should be inspected in their entirety to verify that no
interference exists between the pipe, pipe insulation, and the building
structure or equipment.
 Spring hanger loads should be checked under both cold and hot conditions,
and the readings obtained should be checked against the original cold and
hot readings.
 The plant should establish a program to have a periodic inspection of critical
piping support system and load travel indicator readings recorded and
compared to the baseline set of readings.
 Spring hangers should be checked to ensure that their load/travel indicators
are approximately in their hot position setting and that the pipe is at the
proper elevation.
 Line temperature and actual hot positions of the load/travel indicators on
springs should be noted and recorded in a permanent formal log.
 Constant type springs have specific load adjustment devices, which can vary
the spring effort by plus or minus some percentage from the factory set load.

 4-21 

10371005
  Variable type springs are usually provided with turnbuckles, threaded collars,
or adjustment nuts to enable varying the spring effort. Figure 4-29 shows a
variable spring hanger.
 Load travel scale on variable and constraint type spring units is usually
marked to show the position of the load/travel indicator in both the cold and
hot positions.
 Reference should be made to the particular spring supplier’s catalog for the
location and operation of these devices.
 To compensate for pipe elevation discrepancies, hangers are usually provided
with means to permit vertical adjustment during and after installation.
Threaded devices using turnbuckles, clevises, and so on provide this feature,
or the adjustment is inherently available in the hanger design. No adjustment
shall be made that will result in less than full usable thread engagement.
Adjustable features also facilitate pipe load distribution.

Figure 4-29
Variable spring hanger

 4-22 

10371005
 The following are hanger-specific inspection guidelines.

Search for signs of visual cracks, fractures, or corrosion of the spring casing, and
do the following (see Figure 4-30).

Figure 4-30
Hanger diagram
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 Check the beam attachment (1).
 Check the beam attachment pin (2).
 Check the spring hanger attachment (3) for any cracks, fractures, or signs of
corrosion.
 Check the pipe clamp attachment (4), the weldless eye (5), and threaded rod
(6) for integrity.
 Test the turnbuckle (7), locknuts (8), and other threaded items to be sure
they will turn.
 Check the spring coil (9) for any sign of corrosion.
 Mark the position of the coil (9) for any sign of corrosion.

 4-23 

10371005
  Check the position of the coil (10) and compare it to the design position and
the operating range of the spring.
 Check the turnbuckle (7) if present, locknuts (8), and all other threaded
items to ensure that they are secured and fastened with full thread
engagement.
 Compare the position of the coil (10) with the hot/cold load indicator and
operating range of the spring.
 Check the mobility of the load column (11).

Constant Load Hanger

A constant load hanger supports a hung pipe from above, as shown in Figure 4-
31. Like a variable spring, the constant load hanger is used to support the pipe’s
dead weight while allowing vertical movement due to expansion or contraction.
Unlike a variable spring, the constant load hanger maintains a nearly constant
upward load on the pipe as it moves up or down over a certain range. Constant
load hangers are used where the pipe will undergo large vertical movements from
thermal expansion, where a variable spring may have seen load variations in
constant effort springs of 25%. Limits on swing angle and travel range are similar
to variable springs.

Figure 4-31
Constant load hanger

The constant spring assembly is usually larger and heavier than a variable spring
and is used primarily where the pipe cold-to-hot vertical travel is too large to
beaccommodated by a variable spring. For piping systems operating at
temperature, it is advisable to verify—once the line is placed in service—that the
calculated movement at the hangers correspond to the observed movements and
that the support operates in its design range. See Figure 4-32.
 4-24 

10371005
 Figure 4-32
Mechanical details of a constant hanger

A constant load support is placed below the pipe and supports the pipe from
underneath (see Figures 4-33 and 4-34). When confronted with large vertical
movements, there is no choice but to select a constant effort support (constant
effort spring). In addition, for piping that is critical to the performance of the
system or so-called critical piping where no residual stresses are to be transferred
to the pipe, it is common to use a constant effort spring.

Figure 4-33
Constant hanger diagram of operation

 4-25 

10371005
 Figure 4-34
Constant support used to support load from below

Why is it called a constant? In a constant effort support, the load remains

constant when the pipe moves from its cold position to the hot position. Thus,
irrespective of travel, the load remains constant over the complete range of
movement and is therefore called a constant load hanger. Compare this to a
variable load hanger where the load varies with movement and the hot load and
cold load are two different values governed by the travel and spring constant.

A constant effort spring unit does not have any spring rate. It is a complicated
piece of equipment employing helical coil springs, PTFE bearings, precision
machined components, and leverages to achieve load constancy.

Other standard features of constant effort spring units are the following:
 Compact design
 Load capacity to 52,000 kg (114,000 lbs.)
 Travel up to 750 mm (30 in.) as standard

 4-26 

10371005
  Wide range of standard types to suit all space envelopes
 Calibrated to specific requirement specifications without loss of load
adjustment or available travel

As with variable springs, Type refers to the connection of the constant to the
structure and the pipe. Figure 4-35 shows the attachment for Types A–E.

Figure 4-35
Constant hangers: Types A–E
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

Travel stops are installed in all constants before shipping. These must be present
during any hydro testing but must be removed during installation before normal
operation. They are usually pins, but in some cases may be keys. In either case,
the load must be adjusted so that the travel stop is easily removed.

Constant Load Spring Disorders

All ferrous materials have a fatigue limit. This is the value of maximum stress
below which, for any given value of minimum stress, failure will never occur—
regardless of how many times the loading and unloading cycle is applied. Above
the fatigue limit stress value, the spring failure stress is found to be approximately
inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of cycles.

 4-27 

10371005
 Helical coil compression springs used in spring hangers and supports are not
subjected to dynamic or cyclic duty cycles such as those of automobile or rolling
stock springs used in railways. Because springs used in hanger supports are
subjected to static loadings, fatigue is not a major concern.

Adjustment

Type F - 100 constant hangers should be adjusted as follows:

 Secure the hanger to a structure capable of handling the operating load, at a
point where the constant’s load coupling is directly over the desired point of
attachment to the pipe in the operating position.
 The moving parts of the constant should be unobstructed and free to move
(see Figure 4-36).
 Attach the connecting rod to the load coupling with full thread engagement.
 Transfer the load by turning on the load coupling before removing the travel
stop.
 If required, hydro testing should be done at this time.
 Once the load is transferred, the travel stop must be removed. The travel stop
(painted red) should now slip out easily. If not, refer to Figure 4-37. The
travel stop pin must be moved to the center of its hole by adjusting the
hanger load. The hanger load needs to be increased if the pin is in position
A, or decreased if the pin is in position C. Once disengaged, the travel stop
may be stored by hanging it from the constant.
 The hanger load should now be readjusted to the cold position.
 When the operating conditions are reached, check the hanger to ensure that
the indicator is in the hot position. If necessary, adjustment should be made
by turning the load coupling to align the indicator to the hot position.

 4-28 

10371005
 Figure 4-36
A hot reheat constant support hanger is bottomed out. This hanger should be
adjusted to the cold setting off-line.

Figure 4-37
Removing the travel stop
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

 4-29 

10371005
 Type 200 - F constant hangers (shown in Figure 4-38) should be adjusted as
follows:
 Attach the base plate of the constant to the supporting structure by placing
the constant in its installation location. If the clearance is tight, temporarily
force the table down by loosening the two nuts on top of the angles and then
tightening the nuts below.
 Loosen the installation nuts below the angles to allow the load flange to rise
up to the installed height. If the clearance is loose, shim or grout the constant
or pipe attachment accordingly. Re-tighten the two nuts above the angles.
 Hydro test the line, if necessary.
 Loosen and raise the nuts above the angles at least a nut thickness to allow
the removal of the travel stop rods. Remove the travel stop rods from the
load table. The constant effort support is now ready for operation.

Figure 4-38
Type 200 - F constant hanger
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

Type 200 - U hanger (see Figure 4-39):

 Attach the base plate of the constant to the supporting structure by placing
the constant in its installation location. If the clearance is tight, temporarily
force the table down by loosening the four lower nuts and then tightening
the four nuts above.
 Loosen the upper installation nuts to allow the load flange to rise up to the
installed height. If the clearance is loose, shim or grout the constant or pipe
attachment accordingly. Re-tighten the four lower nuts.
 Hydro test the line, if necessary.
 Back the four lower nuts all the way down. Back the four upper nuts all the
way up, but do not remove from installation rods. The constant effort
support is now ready for operation.

 4-30 

10371005
 Figure 4-39
Type 200 - U hanger
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

The Type G constant hanger (see Figure 4-40) consists of two Type 100
constants connected by a beam, with the pipe being supported on the beam.

Figure 4-40
Type G constant hanger
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

Adjust as follows:
 Support the pipe at the desired elevation.
 Attach load rods to the structural support.
 Attach the constant to the load rods using the turnbuckles provided.
 Using the turnbuckles, level the pair of channels connecting the two
constants.

 4-31 

10371005
  Keeping the channels level, transfer the pipe load to the constant either by
raising the constants or removing any temporary support for the pipe.
 If hydro testing is required, this should be done now.
 Remove the travel stops. If they are not in the center of their holes, use the
turnbuckles to adjust the load so that the stops are in the center. They should
be easily removed. If not, adjust the load until they are.

CAUTION: Do not drive them out.

 Using the turnbuckles, adjust the load indicator to the cold position.
 After the load reaches normal operating conditions, check to see that the
load indicator is at the hot position. If not, adjust using the turnbuckles.

Adjust the sway brace (Figure 4-41) as follows:

 Measure the correct space required to install the sway brace assembly. Lay
out the sway brace assembly as it is to be installed. Weld one end of
structural attachment to the structure, and affix the other end with clamp or
bolting as required. Make sure that the sway brace is located in the same
direction as the thermal movement of the pipe. Tighten the adjustment
coupling to release the travel stops, if supplied. Turn the thrust nut until the
bottom of the pressure plate lines up with the pre-load indicated on the
nameplate.
 The brace should be in the proper configuration when it reaches the hot
condition. If not, final adjustments can be made by tightening or loosening
the adjustment coupling. When properly adjusted, the rod coupling should
rotate with slight resistance and the tension test collar can be rotated by hand
while holding the rod stationary. There should not be any gap between either
end of the pressure and end plates.
 Two rod ends should be visible in the adjustment coupling.

 4-32 

10371005
 Figure 4-41
Sway brace
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

When the system shuts down for maintenance, the travel stops should be
reinstalled and the same adjustment procedure repeated.

If vibration or swaying is observed, inspection should be made for cracks in

welds, particularly at points of restraint such as where piping is attached to
equipment and in the vicinity of anchors (see Figure 4-42).

Figure 4-42
Support attachment crack at the pipe-to-support connection

Additional supports should be considered for poorly braced small size piping and
valves and for the main vibrating line to which they are attached.
 In case of severe vibration, detailed investigations should be carried out to
determine the source of problems and take remedial action.
 Vibrations and shaking can be continuous or intermittent; both are harmful,
depending on the severity.

 4-33 

10371005
  If a hammering sound (due to internal flow) is heard in a line, a crack may be
anticipated at restrained locations or the location where hammering is more
severe. The cause of hammering should be identified and corrected.
 Intermittent wetting due to falling of liquid from leaky valves or flanges or
from rainwater on bare hot piping (particularly alloy steel) has resulted in
cracks, leading to fire and unit interruption. Such cases should be identified
and corrective action taken.
 Locations of temperature fluctuation (due to mix-up of two streams at
different temperatures) in SS piping are vulnerable to cracks due to thermal
fatigue. Process modifications to reduce temperature difference, changing the
design of the junction where two components at different temperatures meet,
or metallurgy degradation (such as from SS to duplex SS or Inconel,
wherever feasible) would help to solve the problem.

Snubbers

There are typically three types of snubbers: a mechanical snubber (Figure 4-43), a
hydraulic snubber with a sealed reservoir (Figure 4-44), and a hydraulic snubber
with a reservoir open to the atmosphere. This last type is distinguished by the
vertical, transparent reservoir partially filled with hydraulic fluid.

Figure 4-43
Fully extended snubber is an undesirable condition.

 4-34 

10371005
 Figure 4-44
Fully retracted snubber is an undesirable condition.

While the first two have different principles of operation, from the standpoint of
installation and maintenance they are very similar and will be discussed together.
The third has some unique features and will be described separately. Some
comments apply to all. First, the snubber must be set at the cold position. Under
normal operations, the snubber will extend in the positive direction from the
initial (cold) position to the operating (hot) position. In rare installations, the
snubber may be expected to move in the negative direction by some known
amount. The cold position must be set so that the snubber will never be closer
than ½ to 1 inch from the end of its stroke. In most cases, this means that the
cold setting will be ½ to 1 inch from one end of its stroke range. At operating
conditions, the snubber should have at least 1 inch of possible travel.

The snubber should be installed with its axis parallel to the direction of expected
impulsive load. This may or may not be the direction of thermal movement. If
the two movements are not in the same direction, there are some additional
installation considerations. In this case, the snubber should normally be ordered
with ball joints at both ends, as shown in Figure 4-45. The snubber should be
mounted so that the major expected thermal movement is in the plane of the ball
joints. The overall length is adjustable from 2" to 6" by means of the threaded rod
on the extension end of the unit.

 4-35 

10371005
 Figure 4-45
A typical example of failure due to incorrect installation of snubbers. Although the
snubber has not failed, the connecting rod has deformed, making it
nonoperational.

CAUTION: Do not use the piston side threaded rod end for adjustment. Full
thread engagement is critical for safe operation.

Under normal operating conditions, hydraulic snubbers are maintenance free. In

severe service (usually involving excessive vibration or high temperatures), the
seals may become damaged, causing a loss of fluid. In this case, the snubber must
be completely disassembled, new seals must be installed, and the snubber must be
refilled with fluid.

Snubbers (see Figure 4-46) are shock absorbers that act somewhat like a seat belt:
they extend or retract to accommodate a slow movement of the pipe (due to
thermal expansion or contraction), but lock under shock (seismic or water
hammer load). They are either hydraulic or mechanical devices, rated based on
dynamic load and range of static motion.

 4-36 

10371005
 Figure 4-46
Typical snubber orientation

Comparison of Snubber Types

The major comparison between the two types of snubbers is related to the level of
maintenance required to keep the snubber functional.

Hydraulic snubbers require regular inspection and replenishing of the hydraulic

fluid; otherwise, air can enter the cylinder and prevent the valves from
functioning correctly.

Mechanical snubbers are simply lubricated prior to installation (installation is

shown in Figure 4-47). It is difficult to visually examine a mechanical snubber to
ensure that it is functioning correctly. Inspection normally requires physical
testing to ensure functionality. Mechanical failure normally results in seizure or
substantially increased resistance to movement.

Figure 4-47
Common snubber installation

Caution must be exercised when high temperatures are likely. It is very important
that the hydraulic cylinder is isolated from any high temperature as this will cause
expansion of the hydraulic fluid and increased pressure within the snubber.

 4-37 

10371005
 Depending on the locking mechanism, snubbers are activated either by
acceleration or by velocity. Because they contain moving parts or hydraulic fluid,
they need to be periodically inspected or tested. They are most useful on hot lines
subject to dynamic loads and are commonly used in nuclear power plants as
seismic restraint on hot piping systems. However, snubbers must be used
judiciously, as their failure by lockup could result in excessive thermal binding of
the piping system.

For piping systems operating at temperatures above approximately 150°F, it is

advisable to verify—once the line is placed in service—that the calculated design
movements correspond to the observed movements and that the snubber expands
and contracts within its design range.

Hydraulic Snubbers

A hydraulic snubber (shown in Figures 4-48 and 4-49) is a hydraulic cylinder

containing hydraulic fluid with a piston that displaces the fluid from one end of
the cylinder to the other. Displacement of fluid results from the movement of the
pipe, causing the piston to displace within the cylinder—resulting in high
pressure in one end of the cylinder and relatively low pressure in the other. The
velocity of the piston will dictate the actual difference in pressure. The fluid
passes through a spring-loaded valve, the spring being used to hold the valve
open. If the differential pressure across the valve exceeds the effective pressure
exerted by the spring, the valve will close. This causes the snubber to become
rigid, and further displacement is substantially prevented.

Figure 4-48
Photo of hydraulic snubber

 4-38 

10371005
 Figure 4-49
Cross section of hydraulic snubber

The hydraulic snubber is normally used when the axis of restraint is in the
direction of expansion and contraction of the pipe. The snubber is therefore
required to extend or retract with the normal operation of the pipework. The
snubber has low resistance to movement at very low velocities.

Mechanical Snubbers

While having the same application as the hydraulic snubber, with mechanical
snubbers, retardation of the pipe is due to centrifugal braking within the snubber.
A split flywheel is made to rotate at high velocity, causing steel balls to be forced
radially outward. The flywheel is forced apart by the steel balls, causing braking
plates to come together—retarding the axial displacement of the snubber.

Rotation of the flywheel is generated by the linear displacement of the main rod
acting on a ball-screw or similar device.

Rigid Frames

Rigid frames (see Figure 4-50) are custom-designed structures. The quality of
materials and fabrication has to be verified during construction. Common
materials for carbon steel frames include ASTM A 36 for shapes, ASTM A 53 or
A 106 for carbon steel pipe members, ASTM A 500 for tubing, ASTM A 570
for channels, and ASTM A 307 or A193 for bolts. Support members are typically
galvanized or painted. An ASTM A 240 stainless steel plate can be used between
stainless steel pipe and carbon steel supports.

 4-39 

10371005
 Figure 4-50
Mechanical rigid frame

When used to react to large loads, the frame has to be sufficiently stiff, with a
pipe-to-frame gap typically no larger than 1/16” + D α AT, where D = pipe
diameter, α = coefficient of thermal expansion, and ΔT = rise in temperature. To
be rigid, the frame itself may be designed to deflect no more than 1/16” under
maximum load.

Friction between the moving pipe and the frame must be minimized (for
example, by use of pipe rolls or slide plates such as Teflon™), or the friction force
should be included in the design load.

When frames are used to support multiple pipes (sometimes referred to as gang
supports), they must be designed to support or restrain the combined tributary
load from each pipe. Frames are often made from standard steel shapes or
standard catalog struts. For small bore piping and tubing, a common support
consists of struts bolted to the wall or ceiling, with the pipe or support element
clamped to the strut railing, as shown in Figure 4-51.

Figure 4-51
A box guide is distorted from dynamic loading. The box guide flange is locked,
preventing thermal movement of the piping.

 4-40 

10371005
 Steel frames and their weld details are typically designed to the rules of the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual for Steel Construction,
and American Iron and Steel Institute standards. The base plate anchor bolts
that anchor the steel frame to the structure are designed to American Concrete
Institute (ACI) standards.

Rod or Rigid Hangers

Rod hangers (Figures 4-52 and 4-53) are smooth or threaded rods used to
support the weight of hung pipes. They usually have turnbuckles to permit
vertical adjustment. Rod hangers are standard catalog components sized to act as
tension members and can buckle in compression. They are load-rated for tension
and used where upward thermal expansion is not expected. Rod hangers can
accommodate some horizontal pipe expansion or sway, which is typically
specified in the manufacturer’s catalog. A rod hanger does not accommodate the
cold-to-hot vertical movement of the pipe. It is used for systems operating at
ambient temperature or in hot systems at points where vertical travel is
negligible. Limits on swing angle are similar to those for spring supports.

Figure 4-52
Rod rigid hanger

 4-41 

10371005
 Figure 4-53
Rod hanger diagram

It is often difficult to adjust rod hangers to ensure that they are carrying their
proper share of the weight, particularly when several rods are installed next to
each other on 6” or larger lines. But, unlike variable springs, well-installed rod
hangers are quite useful in setting and maintaining fixed pipe elevation and slope.

In critical applications (for example, the first two hangers from rotating
equipment), rod hangers can be adjusted at the end of construction to carry the
design cold load by using a dynamometer with turnbuckle adjustment or
torqueing the turnbuckles or rod nuts to a predetermined value based on load and
rod diameter.

Rigid hangers and supports are used to support piping that is not subjected to
any vertical movement (but may be subjected to axial or lateral movement).
Typically, a rigid hanger will consist of a tie-rod assembly with a pipe clamp.

A pipe shoe or pipe base is also a rigid support as it supports the pipe line from
beneath and normally rests on or is welded to the structure. Figure 4-54 shows a
disengaged support bracket.

 4-42 

10371005
 Figure 4-54
Support bracket disengaged and not supporting the weight of the pipe

Hanger Rod Rupture

Rod rupture (see Figures 4-55 and 4-56) can have several causes:
 Abnormal displacement and high vibration
 Cracking due to stress concentration (a result of hanger rod rupture)
 Rupture of hanger spring or rod can be caused by surface corrosion or stress
corrosion of the hanger spring
 A rigid motion of a hung hanger in an overloaded pipe line
 Design error of hanger load, displacement, or thermal movement
 Sticking of the rotating arm or internal spring; sticking of rotating arm can
be caused by oxide scale (rust), exacerbated by outdoor installation locations

 4-43 

10371005
 Figure 4-55
Broken hanger rod

Figure 4-56
Sheared hanger rod

Pipe Rolls

Pipe rolls (Figure 4-57) are used where a pipe undergoes large longitudinal
movement and little vertical or lateral movement, for example, on long, straight
steam lines that will be permitted to expand axially due to the low friction of the
rolls. With time, particularly outdoors, some rolls can corrode or be dislodged.
They need to be periodically inspected and maintained.

 4-44 

10371005
 Figure 4-57
Typical pipe roller

Rigid Struts

Rigid struts (Figures 4-58 and 4-59) act in tension and compression along their
axis. They can be sized to re-act cyclic and dynamic loads, in which case they are
often referred to as restraints. When used on fire protection sprinkler systems,
they are referred to as sway braces. Two braces placed in a V-shape will restrain
the pipe from moving in the plane of the V.

Figure 4-58
Rigid strut tandem

 4-45 

10371005
 Figure 4-59
Broken strut or sway brace

Vibration Dampers

Vibration dampers are standard devices that absorb and dampen pipe vibration.
They are rated for travel, load, and stiffness. It is usually preferable to eliminate
the source of vibration rather than dampen its effects; however, where this is not
feasible, a vibration damper can be used to reduce vibration amplitude. This
should be done with care since residual vibration may, in time, fail the damper
itself or its attachments by fatigue.

One type of damper is the viscous damper. It is an assembly that consists of a

plunger attached at one end to the pipe by means of a pipe clamp and placed at
the other end inside an oil filled cylinder. The viscous damper provides damping
and frictional restraint to the piping system (see Figure 4-60, for example).

 4-46 

10371005
 Figure 4-60
Vibration isolation device

Anchors

Anchors (shown in Figure 4-61) are not to be confused with concrete anchor
bolts.

Figure 4-61
Anchor

Pipe anchors are restraints that constrain the pipe in all degrees of freedom: three
translations and three rotations. They are custom made, often by welding the
pipe to a rigid support structure through sleeves, rectangular lugs, or round
trunnion. The construction and stiffness cautions of rigid frames also apply to
anchors. Because anchors often involve welding to the pipe wall, caution should
be exercised to avoid excessive stresses at the welded attachments. PFI standard
ES-26 provides guidance for welding a support to the pipe wall. The anchor has
to be sized to withstand the concurrent forces and moments from both sides
(upstream and downstream pipe) of the anchor point.

 4-47 

10371005
 Saddles

Saddles and piers (Figure 4-62) are weight supports and, if sufficiently deep, also
act as lateral restraints. U-bolts or straps can be added to provide upward and
lateral restraint.

Figure 4-62
Pipe and saddle arrangement

A pier support with strap is used to avoid excessive contact stresses between pipe
and saddle. AWWA recommends limiting the weight supported by a saddle to
AWWA M11 specifications.

Twin Type or Trapeze

Twin type or trapeze type rigid hangers (shown in Figure 4-63) are generally
used for vertical or horizontal piping, but cannot be supported from a single
point due to clash with other lines or equipment.

 4-48 

10371005
 Figure 4-63
Typical trapeze arrangement

For typical rigid hangers, the rod sizing should be done in such a way that each
individual hanger rod can support the full load of the pipe in the event of “lifting”
on one side due to lateral and/or rotational movement.

For rigid hangers, typically where the pipe rests on the trapeze or is placed on a
pipe shoe that rests on a trapeze, this rule may not apply as the pipe is not rigidly
fixed to the trapeze. Hence, in such cases, each individual hanger rod can be
designed to carry 50% of the pipe load.

The span of the trapeze should be designed to accommodate the pipe with
insulation, plus a clearance of at least 100 mm on either side. Only then will the
pipe not touch the tie rods at either end.

Dynamic Restraints

A restraint is a device that prevents either the pipework or the structure to which
the pipework is connected from being damaged due to the occurrence of any of
the following phenomenon:
 Earthquake: In areas situated on or near geological fault lines, it is common
practice to protect the plant from potential earthquake activity. In such
plants, there will be a very large requirement for dynamic restraints (see
Figure 4-64).
 Fluid disturbance: This can be caused by the effect of fluid in a liquid state
entering a pipe intended for the transportation of steam.
 Certain system functions: Some system functions such as the operation of
safety relief valves will cause irregular and sudden loading patterns within the
piping system.
 Environmental influences: The environment can cause disturbance due to
high wind loadings. The restraint system will be designed to accommodate
all of these influences.

 4-49 

10371005
 Figure 4-64
Dynamics restraint shown on steam piping

Restraints are designed to absorb and transfer sudden increases in load from the
pipe into the building structure and to deaden any opposing oscillation between
the pipe and the structure. Therefore, dynamic restraints are required to be very
stiff, to have high load capacity, and to minimize free movement between the
pipe and the structure.

The standard parts that make up dynamic restraints are the following:
 Hydraulic and mechanical snubbers
 Rigid struts
 Stiff clamps
 Welding clevises

The restraint system performs an entirely different function from that of the
supports. The latter is intended to carry the weight of the pipework and allow it
to move freely under normal operating conditions. The restraint system is
intended to protect the pipework, the plant, and the structure from abnormal
conditions; it should not impede the function of the supports.

 4-50 

10371005
Section 5: New Installation Considerations
For new installations, the following should be considered:
 Determine proper installation and operation of pipe and component support
and restraint systems in accordance with regulatory requirements, programs,
and procedures for the following conditions:
- Ambient temperature.
- Intermediate and normal operating temperature and pressure.
- After steam transient testing.
- During required inspection intervals.
 Determine whether the surveillance of pipe supports and directional restraint
inspections for safety-related piping and equipment are in conformance with
company requirements.
 Determine whether required records are maintained and properly reviewed
and evaluated.

Inspection Requirements (Pre-Startup)

Evaluation of Company Programs and Procedures

Ascertain whether the company established, reviewed, and approved adequate

programs and procedures for the examination and testing of piping support and
restraint systems. The procedures should include the following:
 Examination of pipe support systems at various temperatures, from ambient
to normal operating temperature, to detect interference caused by thermal
expansion (startup stage only).
 Setting and calibration of snubbers, restraints, and vibration arrestors are
being performed and checked at predetermined temperatures (startup stage
only).
 Examination of piping support and restraint systems during transient testing
to ascertain that pipe motion and vibration are within design limits and that
water hammers do not exist (startup stage only).
 Conduct vibration tests, including resolution of high vibration (startup stage
only).
 Displacement measurements at ambient and operating temperature (startup
stage only).

 5-1 

10371005
  Snubber inspection schedule and sampling procedures are in conformance
with specifications.
 Pipe and component support inspection schedules are in conformance with
ASME Code.
 Observation at ambient, intermediate, and operating conditions (visually
examine with respect to the items specified in each category).
 Dynamic piping supports (snubbers, shock suppressors, restraints, and
vibration arrestors).
 Hydraulic fluid in snubbers, shock suppressors, and restraints are at the
proper level.
 Fluid leaks through seals or elsewhere are not evident.
 Deterioration, corrosion, physical damage, and deformation are not evident.
 Lubricants are applied wherever required.
 All required bolts, locking devices, nuts, and washers are installed. Fasteners
should be tight, secure, and of the correct material and size.
 Support plates, extension rods, and connecting joints are not bent, deformed,
loose, or otherwise out of specification.
 Connecting joint specifications, moving according to specifications, piston
shafts, seals, and so on are free from arc strikes, weld spatter, paint, scoring,
roughness, general corrosion, or other materials that may obstruct proper
operation.
 Pipes, supports, or other associated equipment or components are not in
contact with other surfaces as a result of thermal expansion (routine
operation only).
 Snubber position is at or near its predicted position, and it is not near the
limits in either extension or compression.
 Fixed piping support (hangers, brackets, clamps, braces, lugs, cradles,
saddles, straps, turnbuckles, clevis, and base support are according to
specifications).
 Pipe supports, including associated equipment, are not deformed or loose.
 If pipe clamps are used to support vertical lines, shear lugs welded to the pipe
are provided as specified.
 Springs in hangers are not obstructed by foreign material.
 Spring hangers provided with indicators show either “cold” or “hot” position,
consistent with plant condition.
 Threaded connections are secured by lock nut fasteners, cotter pins, or
similar locking devices and conform to the as-built drawings.
 Sliding or rolling supports are provided with material and/or lubricants
suitable for the environment and compatible with sliding contact surfaces.
 Thermal expansion of the piping system is not restricted by the supports.
 5-2 

10371005
  Deformation is not present in component support structures (brackets,
frames, and plates).
 Grooves, abrupt ridges, valleys, cracks, discontinuities, or other detrimental
indications that appear to exceed ASME Code limitations are not observed
on welded surfaces.

Startup Stage Only

Select three systems subject to steam transient testing, and examine 25% of the
piping support and restraint systems with various degrees of accessibility for the
following:
 Position indicators are in the appropriate position.
 Deformation is not evident.
 Component support structures are securely attached to the building structure,
and no cracks can be observed in structure support welds.
 Bolts, nuts, and other fastener type devices are secure.
 Debris that may affect the operation of piping support or restraint systems is
not evident.
 Fluid leaks through seals or elsewhere are not evident.

 5-3 

10371005
10371005
Appendix A: Installation and Repair
Procedures
Variable Types A, B, and C

Each of these is provided with an attachment that connects the top of the spring
can to an overhead structural member. Type A is supplied with a threaded
bushing for a threaded rod, which in turn is connected to the structural support.
Types B and C are provided with one or two lugs, respectively. These are then
attached to the structural support. The pipe is then suspended below the spring
can using a rod assembly. Figure A-1 shows Types A, B, and C.

Figure A-1
Types A, B, and C
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 Securely connect the top attachment to a point on the structure directly
above the pipe the spring supports. Attach a pipe clamp or other hardware to
the bottom end of the rod. Attach the clamp to the pipe. Perform hydro
testing if required. Cut the shipping bands off, and remove the lower travel
stops. The upper travel stops must be removed now. To remove these travel
stops, turn the load column or turnbuckle clockwise until the travel stops
become loose enough to be removed by hand.
 After removing the upper travel stops, turn load column counterclockwise to
bring the load indicator back to the cold load mark. Use a locknut to secure
the rod.

 A-1 

10371005
 Variable Types D, E, and F

These types rest on the supporting structural member, usually on a pair of

channels. Type D has a rod that passes through the hanger, permitting
adjustment from the top. Figure A-2 shows Types D, E, and F.

Figure A-2
Variable Types D, E, and F
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 Securely weld or bolt the bottom of the spring to the structure. For Type D,
pass the hanger rod assembly through the load column and attach it with a
washer and hex nut to hold the hanger rod in position. Attach the clamp on
the rod assembly to support the pipe. Perform hydro testing if required. Cut
the shipping bands off, and remove the lower travel stops. The upper travel
stops must be removed now. To remove travel stops, turn the load column or
turnbuckle clockwise until the travel stops become loose enough to remove by
hand.
 After removing the upper travel stops, turn the load column or turnbuckle
counterclockwise to bring the load indicator back to the cold load mark. Use
a locknut to secure the rod.

 A-2 

10371005
 Type F Spring (Base Type)

In Type F springs (Figure A-3), the pipe rests on the support, which is typically
welded or bolted to the floor or other structural member.

Figure A-3
Type F spring (base type)
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 Securely attach spring casing base plate to the supporting structure by bolting
or welding the base plate to the structure. Place the load flange on the load
column, and turn the load column counterclockwise until the load flange is
against the pipe. This may be done by inserting a bar into holes in the load
column and turning the column as a jack screw. Perform hydro testing if
needed. Cut off the shipping bands, and remove lower travel stops. Turn the
load column counterclockwise until the upper travel stop loosens enough that
it can be removed by hand.
 After removing the upper travel stop, turn the load column counterclockwise
to bring the load indicator back to the cold load mark. Use a locknut to
secure the rod.

 A-3 

10371005
 Type G Spring (Double)

The Type G spring (Figure A-4) consists of two regular springs that support a
beam between them. The pipe then rests on the beam.

Figure A-4
Type G spring (double)
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 Connect the rod assembly to the load columns. Connect the other end of the
rods to the structural support. Make sure that the spring cans are suspended
with the rod assembly above the spring. Install the pipe on the supports.
Perform hydro testing if required. Cut off the shipping bands, and remove
the lower travel stops. The upper travel stops must be removed now. To
remove travel stops, turn the load column or turnbuckle clockwise until the
travel stops become loose enough.
 After removing the upper travel stops, turn the load column counterclockwise
to bring the load indicator back to the cold load mark.

Instructions for Load Adjustment

Under no circumstances should an attempt be made to remove the locknut and

the load adjustment nut from the constant spring hanger.

Every constant spring hanger is calibrated in the factory and set to the load
specified on the nameplate. Load adjustment in the field is discouraged as it may
significantly change the system.

However, to provide for situations where the supported load is different from the
calculated load, the constant spring hangers are equipped with load adjustment
capability. The load adjustment capability consists of a load adjustment scale
(Figure A-5) and indicator, which are used to increase or decrease the load by
10%. Thus, a 2000-lb hanger can be adjusted for loads from 1800 to 2200 lb.
The travel stop pin must be engaged before load adjustment is performed.
Adjusting the load to a higher or lower load from that specified on the nameplate
using load adjustment is approximate and not recommended.

 A-4 

10371005
 Figure A-5
Load adjustment scale
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products

To increase the cold setting, be sure that the travel stop pin is in place. Then
loosen the locknut at the end of the spring. Tighten the main nut; then retighten
the locknut.

To decrease the cold setting, be sure that the travel stop pin is in place. Then
loosen the locknut at the end of the spring. Loosen the main nut; then retighten
the locknut.

 A-5 

10371005
 Constant Hangers with Adjustable Travel Stop Keys

Removal of travel stop key is shown in Figure A-6.

Figure A-6
Removing the travel stop
Used with permission from Piping Technology and Products
 After hanger installation, remove the travel stop hex nuts from both sides.
Check whether the A-face or B-face of the threaded bolt is in contact with
the travel stop keyhole as illustrated in Figure A-6.
 If the B-face of the threaded bolt is in contact with the travel stop keyhole as
shown in the figure, turn the turnbuckle clockwise. The travel stop bolt will
move toward the center. At this point, the load has been transferred and the
constant hanger is balanced with the pipe weight. The travel stop key can be
easily removed.
 If the A-face of the threaded bolt is in contact with the travel stop keyhole as
shown in the figure, turn the turnbuckle counterclockwise. The travel stop
bolt will move toward the center. At this point, the load has been transferred
and the constant hanger is balanced with the pipe weight. The travel stop key
can be easily removed.

Spring hanger replacement (if required):

 Have the replacement spring, associated hardware, and the necessary tools
ready to complete the removal of the existing spring support and the
installation of the new spring support.
 Place the top and bottom travel stops in the existing spring to prevent
movement.
 Attach a temporary support to the piping system during removal of the
existing spring. Examples of temporary supports include chains and pulleys,
rods assemblies, and wire.
 Remove the existing spring support and related hardware.

 A-6 

10371005
  Install the replacement spring support and related hardware.
 Remove the lower travel stop, and adjust the spring down until the pressure
is off the upper stops. Remove the upper stop by hand.
 Remove the temporary support.
 Make the final adjustments to the hot position on the spring scale indicator
by adjusting the nuts.
 Tighten all locknuts, and discard existing spring and hardware.

Figures A-7 and A-8 illustrate various hanger types.

Figure A-7
Illustration of hanger types

 A-7 

10371005
 Figure A-8
Additional hanger types

Welding clevises are at the point of attachment to the structure and occasionally
the pipe. Similar to stiff clamps, these items are highly rigid with very close-
fitting pins to eliminate free play. A welding clevis and welded eye rod failure are
shown in Figures A-9 and A-10, respectively.

 A-8 

10371005
 Figure A-9
Welding clevises

Figure A-10
Welded eye rod failure

 A-9 

10371005
 Types of Pipe Supports

Various types of pipe supports are shown in Figures A-11 through A-69.

Figure A-11
Type 1 adjustable steel clevis hanger

The Type 2 yoke type clamp is a pipe attachment for suspension of horizontal
stationary insulated lines. This type of clamp is also made to accommodate pipe
of nonstandard size when designed with a filler plate.

Figure A-12
Type 2 yoke type pipe clamp

The carbon- or alloy-steel pipe clamp is a pipe attachment for suspension of

horizontal stationary lines.

Figure A-13
Carbon- or alloy-steel pipe clamp

 A-10 

10371005
 The Type 4 steel pipe clamp is a pipe attachment for suspension of horizontal
stationary insulated lines.

Figure A-14
Type 4 steel pipe clamp

The Type 5 pipe hanger is a pipe attachment for suspension of horizontal

stationary lines either using a hanger rod or bolting to the wall from the T-slot
provided in the side of the strap.

Figure A-15
Type 5 pipe hanger

The Type 6 adjustable swivel pipe, split ring type, or solid ring type is a pipe
attachment for suspension of horizontal stationary lines.

Figure A-16
Type 6 adjustable swivel pipe, split ring type, or solid ring type

 A-11 

10371005
 Type 7 adjustable steel band hanger is a pipe attachment for suspension of
horizontal stationary lines and provides a means for vertical adjustment.

Figure A-17
Type 7 adjustable steel band hanger

Type 8 extension pipe or riser clamp is a pipe attachment for suspension of

vertical stationary lines without the use of hanger rods. The transfer of piping
load is accomplished by resting the ears of the clamp on a bearing surface.

Figure A-18
Type 8 extension pipe or riser clamp

Type 9 adjustable band hanger is a pipe attachment for suspension of horizontal

stationary lines.

Figure A-19
Type 9 adjustable band hanger

 A-12 

10371005
 Type 10 adjustable swivel ring, band type is a pipe attachment for suspension of
horizontal stationary lines and provides a means for vertical adjustment.

Figure A-20
Type 10 adjustable swivel ring, band type

Type 11 split pipe ring with or without turnbuckle adjustment is a pipe

attachment for suspension of horizontal stationary lines permitting installation
before or after the pipe is in place.

Figure A-21
Type 11 split pipe ring with or without turnbuckle adjustment

Type 12 extension split pipe clamp, hinged or two-bolt, is a pipe attachment for
suspension of horizontal stationary lines used in conjunction with a pipe nipple.

Figure A-22
Type 12 extension split pipe clamp, hinged or two-bolt

 A-13 

10371005
 Type 13 steel turnbuckle is a device with one left-hand internal threaded end and
one right-hand internal threaded end, used to join two threaded rods and to
provide for vertical adjustment.

Figure A-23
Type 13 steel turnbuckle

Type 14 steel clevis is a device that provides for the attachment of a threaded rod
to a bolted or pinned connection.

Figure A-24
Type 14 steel clevis

Type 15 swivel turnbuckle is a device that provides flexibility at the pipe

connection and a means of vertical adjustment.

Figure A-25
Type 15 swivel turnbuckle

 A-14 

10371005
 Type 16 malleable iron socket is a device for attaching threaded rods to various
types of building attachments.

Figure A-26
Type 16 malleable iron socket

Type 17 steel weldless eye nut is a forged-steel device that provides for the
attachment of a threaded rod to a bolt or pin connection.

Figure A-27
Type 17 steel weldless eye nut

Type 18 steel or malleable concrete insert is a cast-in-place device that provides

for a rod attachment capable of nominal lateral adjustment.

Figure A-28
Type 18 steel or malleable concrete insert

 A-15 

10371005
 Type 19 top beam C-clamp is a device requiring no welding that attaches to the
top flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is required to be offset from
the edge of the flange.

Figure A-29
Type 19 top beam C-clamp

Type 20 side beam or channel clamp is a device requiring no welding that

attaches to the bottom flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is
required to be at the edge of the flange.

Figure A-30
Type 20 side beam or channel clamp

Type 21 center beam is a device requiring no welding that attaches to the bottom
flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is required to be centered on
the structural shape.

Figure A-31
Type 21 center beam

 A-16 

10371005
 Type 22 welded beam attachment is a structural attachment welded to the
bottom of steel beams and used as a means for connecting hanger rods to the
beams.

Figure A-32
Type 22 welded beam attachment

Type 23 C-clamp is a device requiring no welding that attaches to a flange of a

structural shape and provides for attaching a threaded rod.

Figure A-33
Type 23 C-clamp

Type 24 U-bolt is a U-shaped rod with threaded ends used as a support or guide.

Figure A-34
Type 24 U-bolt

 A-17 

10371005
 Type 25 top beam clamp is a device requiring no welding that attaches to the top
flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is required to be at the edge of
the flange.

Figure A-35
Type 25 top beam clamp

Type 26 pipe clip is a pipe attachment for suspension of horizontal stationary

lines by bolting the clip directly to a structure. Also referred to as a pipe strap or
strap.

Figure A-36
Type 26 pipe clip

Type 27 side beam clamp is a device requiring no welding that attaches to the
bottom flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is required to be offset
from the center of the shape.

Figure A-37
Type 27 side beam clamp

 A-18 

10371005
 Type 28 steel beam clamp with eye nut is a device requiring no welding that
attaches to the bottom flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is
required to be centered on the structural shape.

Figure A-38
Type 28 steel beam clamp with eye nut

Type 29 linked steel clamp with eye nut is a device requiring no welding that
attaches to the bottom flange of a structural shape where the vertical rod is
required to be centered on the structural shape.

Figure A-39
Type 29 linked steel clamp with eye nut

Type 30 malleable beam clamp with extension piece is a device requiring no

welding that attaches to the bottom flange of a structural shape where the vertical
rod is required to be centered on the structural shape.

Figure A-40
Type 30 malleable beam clamp with extension piece

 A-19 

10371005
 Type 31 light welded steel bracket is a braced cantilever device intended for
supporting a gravity load from rod-type hangers. This device is typically bolted to
a wall and may be installed with the brace either above or below the horizontal
member.

Figure A-41
Type 31 light welded steel bracket

Type 32 medium welded steel bracket is a braced cantilever device intended for
supporting maximum gravity loads and/or horizontal loads up to 1500 lb (6670
newton). Loads may be applied anywhere along the main member. This device is
typically bolted to a wall and may be installed with the brace above, below, or on
either side of the main member.

Figure A-42
Type 32 medium welded steel bracket

 A-20 

10371005
 Type 33 Heavy welded steel bracket is a braced cantilever device intended for
supporting maximum gravity loads and/or horizontal loads up to 3000 lb (13,340
newton). Loads may be applied anywhere along the main member. This device is
typically bolted to a wall and may be installed with the brace above, below, or on
either side of the main member.

Figure A-43
Type 33 heavy welded steel bracket

Type 34 side beam bracket is a device requiring no welding that attaches to the
sides of steel or wooden members and provides a means for vertical adjustment.

Figure A-44
Type 34 side beam bracket

Type 35 pipe slide and slide plate is a device for supporting pipe having
horizontal movement and where a low coefficient of friction is necessary.

Figure A-45
Type 35 pipe slide and slide plate

 A-21 

10371005
 Type 36 Pipe saddle support is a device having a curved base for cradling
horizontal pipe and that slips into a nominal diameter pipe stanchion.

Figure A-46
Type 36 pipe saddle support

Type 37 pipe stanchion saddle is a device having a curved base for cradling
horizontal pipe and that slips into a nominal diameter pipe stanchion. The U-
bolt yoke provides stability.

Figure A-47
Type 37 pipe stanchion saddle

Type 38 adjustable pipe saddle support is a device having a curved base for
cradling horizontal pipe and threads into a nominal diameter pipe stanchion.
This device provides vertical adjustment.

Figure A-48
Type 38 adjustable pipe saddle support

 A-22 

10371005
 Type 39 steel pipe-covering protection saddle is a device used on insulated piping
that is designed to minimize heat losses and prevent damage to insulation.

Figure A-49
Type 39 steel pipe-covering protection saddle

Type 40 protection saddle is a metal device intended to prevent crushing of

insulation and/or breaching of the vapor barrier. It is typically used at support
points.

Figure A-50
Type 40 protection saddle

Type 41 single pipe roll is a device used for supporting horizontal piping from
two rods, allowing for vertical adjustment and consisting of a roller that allows
for axial movement with virtually no frictional resistance.

Figure A-51
Type 41 single pipe roll

 A-23 

10371005
 Type 42 carbon- or alloy-steel riser clamp is a pipe attachment for supporting
vertical piping through the use of shear lugs welded to the pipe. Load bolts are
provided to transfer the pipe load to the rod hanger assembly.

Figure A-52
Type 42 carbon- or alloy-steel riser clamp

Type 43 adjustable roller hanger with or without swivel is a device used for
supporting horizontal piping from a single rod, allowing for vertical adjustment
and consisting of a roller that allows for axial movement with virtually no
frictional resistance.

Figure A-53
Type 43 adjustable roller hanger with or without swivel

Type 44 pipe roll complete is a device used for supporting horizontal piping
where vertical adjustment is unnecessary and consisting of a roller that allows for
axial movement with virtually no frictional resistance.

Figure A-54
Type 44 pipe roll complete

 A-24 

10371005
 Type 45 pipe roll and plate is a device used to support horizontal piping, having
minimal axial movement, from beneath and where no vertical adjustment is
necessary.

Figure A-55
Type 45 pipe roll and plate

Type 46 adjustable pipe roll and base is a device used to support horizontal
piping, having axial movement, from beneath and where vertical adjustment is
necessary.

Figure A-56
Type 46 adjustable pipe roll and base

Type 47 restraint control device is a rigid, mechanical, spring, or hydraulic device

used for absorbing shock loading and/or controlling sway in piping systems.

Figure A-57
Type 47 restraint control device

 A-25 

10371005
 Type 48 spring cushion is a non-calibrated, rod-type, single-coil spring support
used where a cushioning effect is desired.

Figure A-58
Type 48 spring cushion

Type 49 spring cushion roll is a non-calibrated, rod-type, double-coil rod spring

support used where a cushioning effect is desired along with a pipe roll.

Figure A-59
Type 49 spring cushion roll

 A-26 

10371005
 Type 50 spring sway brace is a spring device used for absorbing shock loading
and/or controlling sway in piping systems.

Figure A-60
Type 50 spring sway brace

Type 51 variable spring hanger is a device having a single-spring coil that

supports the gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal
movements. This device produces a varying load when the piping moves from the
cold position to the hot position. This type of spring hanger supports the pipe
from above.

Figure A-61
Type 51 variable spring hanger

 A-27 

10371005
 Type 52 variable spring base support is a device having a single-spring coil that
supports the gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal
movements. This device produces a varying load when the piping moves from the
cold to the hot position. This type of spring hanger supports the pipe from
below.

Figure A-62
Type 52 variable spring base support

Type 53 variable spring trapeze hanger is a device having double-spring coils that
support the gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal
movements. This device produces a varying load when the piping moves from the
cold position to the hot position. This type of spring hanger supports the pipe
from above with two rods.

Figure A-63
Type 53 variable spring trapeze hanger

 A-28 

10371005
 Type 54 constant support hanger, horizontal type, is a device having a single-
spring coil working in conjunction with counterbalancing mechanisms to support
the gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal movements. This
device produces a constant load when the piping moves from the cold position to
the hot position. This type of constant hanger has the spring coil in the
horizontal position and supports the pipe from above.

Figure A-64
Type 54 constant support hanger, horizontal type

Type 55 constant support hanger, vertical type, is a device having a single-spring

coil working in conjunction with counterbalancing mechanisms to support the
gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal movements. This
device produces a constant load when the piping moves from the cold position to
the hot position. This type of constant hanger has the spring coil in the vertical
position and supports the pipe from above.

Figure A-65
Type 55 constant support hanger, vertical type

 A-29 

10371005
 Type 56 constant support hanger, trapeze type, is a device having double-spring
coils working in conjunction with counterbalancing mechanisms to support the
gravity loads of piping systems subjected to vertical thermal movements. This
device produces a constant load when the piping moves from the cold position to
the hot position. This type of constant hanger has the spring coil in the vertical
position and supports the pipe from below with two rods.

Figure A-66
Type 56 constant support hanger, trapeze type

Type 57 plate lug is a structural attachment that provides a means of connecting

rod-type hangers to structural steel members via a pin or bolt through the hole of
the lug.

Figure A-67
Type 57 plate lug

 A-30 

10371005
 Type 58 horizontal traveler is a device that permits the structural attachment end
of rod-type hangers to accommodate horizontal piping movements in conditions
where offsetting of conventional structural attachments is not practical due to
limited space.

Figure A-68
Type 58 horizontal traveler

Type 59 trapeze hanger is a horizontal rigid member, suspended by rods, on

which pipes are supported and/or clamped.

Figure A-69
Type 59 trapeze hanger

 A-31 

10371005
10371005
Appendix B: Glossary
Adjustable: Having linear adjustment capability (usually with threads).

Adjustment Device: Components that provide for linear adjustability, for

example, turnbuckle, hanger rod, nut, and load coupling.

All Thread Rod: A rod threaded its full length.

Alloy Pipe Clamp: A pipe clamp made from low chrome-moly (less than 5%
chrome) materials for the purpose of resisting the effects of piping temperatures
in the 750–1,100°F range.

Anchor: A rigid device used to prevent essentially all pipe rotation and
displacement at the point of application.

Anchor Bolts: Threaded items used to embed plates into concrete on structural
supports.

Band Hanger: A pipe attachment providing for vertical adjustment, consisting

principally of a formed steel strap.

Beam Clamp: A type of forged or fabricated clamp that is used to attach rod
hangers to beams by clamping onto the load flange.

Big Ton Spring: A multi-spring coil device that lends itself to supporting very
high loads and providing a great amount of stability.

Bracket: Cantilevered member, with or without a knee brace, designed to

withstand a gravity load and/or horizontal forces.

Bulk Material: Material that has been packaged in a manner in which identical
items are grouped together and are identified only by quantity, size, and/or
manufacturer’s figure number.

C-Clamp: "C" shaped beam clamp that attaches to a flange of a structural

member and provides for attaching a threaded rod.

Center Beam Clamp: A jaw type beam clamp for use with I-beams and wide
flange beams that provides a centered beam connection for the remainder of the
pipe hanger assembly.

 B-1 

10371005
 Channel Clamp: A side beam clamp with channel adapter and hook rod, which
attaches to the bottom flange of a channel beam and provides a connection for
the remainder of the pipe hanger assembly.

Clevis Hanger: A pipe attachment providing vertical adjustment, consisting of a

clevis type top bolted to a formed steel bottom strap.

Cold Piston Setting: An indicated piston position on a hydraulic snubber,

denoting proper installation setting of the unit with the piping in the cold
position.

Cold Setting: The position at which a spring hanger or mechanical snubber

indicator is set, denoting the proper installation setting of the unit with the
piping in the cold position.

Cold Spring: The act of pre-stressing a piping system during installation so that
the equipment reactions will be lower in the operating condition. This pre-stress
is accomplished by the proper closure of the cut short gaps.

Completely Engineered Hanger Assembly: Pipe hanger assembly that has been
designed, detailed, and provided with a complete bill of material.

Component: Any of a range of devices used to make up a pipe hanger assembly.

Component Support Structure: A supporting member, such as structural

brackets and frames, for component mounting between the building structure
and component.

Concrete Fastener: A device installed in concrete by means of a drilled hole, to

which a pipe hanger can be attached.

Concrete Insert Box: A cast-in-place insert that provides for a rod attachment
capable of nominal lateral adjustment.

Constant-Type Spring Hanger: A mechanical and spring coil device that

produces a relatively constant supporting effect while permitting vertical pipe
movement. This class provides a mean variability (deviation from specified load),
including friction, of not more than 6% throughout the total travel range.

Constant Support Hanger: A mechanical and spring coil device that produces a
relatively constant supporting effect while permitting vertical pipe movement.

Deviation: A term used to describe the accuracy of a constant support hanger; a

measure of the maximum difference between the actual and specified supporting
effect, through its travel cycle, expressed as a percentage.

Dynamic Piping Support: A piping support or restraint with a mechanical or

hydraulic control unit designed to prevent unrestrained piping motion during an
earthquake or severe transient but allowing normal thermal motion.

 B-2 

10371005
 Elbow Lug: A pipe attachment welded to an elbow for the purpose of attaching
the remainder of the pipe hanger assembly.

Embed Plates: Steel plates sunk into concrete piers used to provide structural
support for pipe racks, pipe supports, and so on.

Extension Riser Clamp: A pipe clamp for the support of vertical piping, whose
ears have been extended to permit the transfer of the piping load to a bearing
surface upon which the ears of the clamp will rest.

Extension Split Clamp: A pipe clamp primarily used on non-insulated piping

and provided with a female threaded attachment.

Eye Rod: A hanger rod having an end formed in a circular or pear shape,
permitting attachment to other components by means of a bolt or pin. The eye
may be forged, welded, or non-welded.

Eye Socket: A device that provides for the attachment of a threaded hanger rod
to the bolt of another component.

Fixed Piping Support: A piping support without hydraulic or mechanical control

used for mounting pipes.

Forged Clevis: A device that provides for the attachment of a threaded hanger
rod to a bolted or pinned connection.

Guide: A device used to permit pipe movement in a predetermined direction

while restraining movement in other directions.

Hanger Rod: Round steel bar normally threaded used to connect other
components to make up a pipe hanger assembly.

Heavy Bracket: A bracket used for the support of heavy loads.

Horizontal Traveler: Any device that will permit the upper end of a pipe hanger
to move in a manner that will accommodate horizontal piping.

Hot Piston Setting: The position at which the piston on a hydraulic snubber
should be with the piping in the hot or operating position.

Hydraulic Snubber: A hydraulic cylinder or rotating vane device used for the
control of shock or sway in piping systems while allowing for normal thermal
expansion.

Hydrostatic Lock: See Travel Stop.

Hydrostatic Test: A pre-operational test, whereby the piping system is subjected

to a pressurized fluid test in ex-constant effort springs of the operational pressure
to ensure the integrity of the system.

 B-3 

10371005
 Hydrostatic Test Load: A temporary loading condition consisting of a total of
the gravitational piping, insulation, and test fluid weight specifications for piping
systems subjected to hydrostatic tests.

Insert: A device, embedded in concrete, to which a pipe hanger assembly can be

attached.

Insert Nut: A female threaded device that locks into position in an insert and
receives a threaded hanger rod.

Instrument Supports: Devices fabricated from small bore piping used to support
process instrumentation such as temperature sensors and flowmeters.

Jacket: A non-load bearing metal covering placed around the insulation to

protect it against damage.

Knee brace: A diagonal structural member used to transfer load or provide

stability.

Light Bracket: A bracket used for the support of light loads.

Limit Stop: An internal device built into a variable spring or constant support
hanger to prevent the overstressing of the spring coil, over-travel, or release of the
load.

Liner: Material placed between pipe and pipe attachment to protect piping from
damage or other undesirable effects.

Load Adjustment Scale: A scale used on a constant support hanger to indicate

the load adjustment.

Load Bolt or Pin: A bolt or pin used to support the weight being carried by the
pipe hanger assembly, for example, the top pin or bolt in a three-bolt pipe clamp.

Load Coupling: An adjustment device used to connect the hanger rod to a

variable spring hanger or constant support hanger.

Load Indicator: The load plate or other means used to indicate the reading on
the load scale of a variable spring hanger.

Load Scale: A scale attached to a variable spring hanger to provide a means of

indicating the supported load.

Load Variation: A term associated with variable spring hangers used to describe
the difference in supporting effect between the hot and cold elevations of the
support point.

Mark Number: A unique number used to identify pipe hangers.

 B-4 

10371005
 Mechanical Snubber: A mechanical device used for the control of shock or sway
in piping systems while allowing for normal thermal expansion.

Medium Bracket: A bracket used for the support of moderate loads.

Multiple Support: A pipe hanger assembly consisting of a common cross

member used to support parallel run or banks of piping.

Non-Metallic Wear Pad: A sacrificial plate used to prevent damage to the pipe
by absorbing the frictional load caused by the movement of pipe on structural
steel.

Offset: A relative displacement between the structural attachment and pipe

attachment, which may be incorporated into the design of the pipe hanger
assembly to accommodate the piping movement.

Pipe: Pressure tight cylinder to convey fluid/fluid pressure.

Pipe Attachment: Any device used to connect the pipe to the remainder of the
pipe hanger assembly.

Pipe Clamp: A bolted pipe attachment that clamps around the pipe to connect
the pipe to the remainder of a pipe hanger assembly.

Pipe Clip: A pipe attachment used to hold the pipe directly to a structure; also
referred to as a strap or pipe strap.

Pipe Covering Protection Saddle: A device used to prevent damage to the

insulation at the support point.

Pipe Hanger: A device suspended from a structure and used to carry the piping
load in tension.

Pipe Hanger Assembly: A general term used to describe a series of assembled

components that make up a pipe hanger, pipe support, restraint, anchor, guide,
and so on.

Pipe Hanger Cold Load: Loading at ambient temperature, resulting from the use
of variable spring hangers in the support of a piping system. The cold load equals
the operating load plus or minus the load variation.

Pipe Hanger Cold Spring Load: An additional force that may occur at a support
point as a result of the cold spring of a piping system.

Pipe Hanger Deadweight Load: Loading condition that considers only the dead
weight of the piping, insulation, and contents.

Pipe Hanger Design Load: The combination of operating and other loads as
defined by job specification.

 B-5 

10371005
 Pipe Hanger Friction Load: Loading as a result of frictional forces due to sliding
surfaces.

Pipe Hanger Hot Load: Operating load on a variable spring hanger (normally
represents dead weight under operating conditions).

Pipe Hanger Seismic Load: Temporary loading associated with the occurrence of
an earthquake.

Pipe Hanger Thermal Load: Loading introduced by the restraint of a piping

system against thermal expansion or contraction.

Pipe Hanger Water Hammer Load: Temporary loading resulting from a change
in the flow rate of the piping contents.

Pipe Roll: A roller device used to support horizontal piping and provide for axial
movement.

Pipe Saddle Supports: A stanchion using a curved section for cradling the pipe.

Pipe Shoe: Normally a Tee section attached to the pipe to transmit the load or
forces to the adjacent structure.

Pipe Slide: A device consisting of a pipe attachment and a slide plate to

accommodate horizontal pipe movement.

Pipe Support: A device by which piping is carried from beneath and is used to
carry the piping weight in compression.

Pipe Support Elements: Transmit the load from pipe to structures and/or
pressure equipment, for example, spring hangers, guides, and hangers (these are
called fixtures). Attachment such as clips, clamps, and strips are called structural
attachments.

Piping: Assemblies of piping components used to convey, distribute, or mix

flows. Also includes piping elements.

Piping Components: Joining/assembling mechanical elements for pressure-tight

piping such as flanges, gaskets, valves, expansion joints, hoses, traps, and
strainers.

Piping Elements: Any material or work required to plan and install a piping
system, including specs, materials, components, and supports inspection.

Piping System: Interconnected piping subjected to the same set or varying sets of
design conditions.

Plate Lug: An attachment welded to a structural member or piping to provide for

a pinned or bolted connection to the remainder of a pipe hanger assembly.

 B-6 

10371005
 Protection Saddle: See Pipe Covering Protection Saddle.

Protection Shield: A metal shield used to maintain the integrity of the vapor
barrier and/or protect the insulation at support locations.

Restraint: Any device that prevents or limits the free movement of the piping.

Restraining Control Device: Any hydraulic, mechanical, spring, or rigid device

used for the control of shock and sway in piping systems.

Rigid Hanger: A pipe hanger that does not permit vertical movement.

Rigid Support: A pipe support that does not permit vertical movement.

Riser: Any vertical portion of a piping system.

Riser Clamp: A pipe clamp for the support of vertical piping having separate load
bolts to transfer the piping load to the remainder of the pipe hanger assembly.

Rod Coupling: A tapped device used to join two threaded rods.

Rod Hanger: An adjustable vertical assembly consisting of a structural

attachment, hanger rod (with or without intermediate components), and pipe
attachments.

Roll Stand: A pipe roller mounted in a stand, used to support horizontal piping
from beneath and providing for axial movement.

Roll and Plate: A pipe roller and bearing plate used for minimal axial movement
where no vertical adjustment is necessary.

Roll Hanger: A pipe attachment that uses a pipe roller for axial movement and is
used in a suspension hanger.

Roll Plate: A flat device that provides a bearing surface for a pipe roll.

Saddle: See Pipe Covering Protection Saddle.

Semi-Engineered Hanger Assembly: A pipe hanger assembly that has been

indicated on a piping drawing and designated as a specific type (for example,
rigid or spring) with spring hangers indicating load, movement, spring type, and
size. This hanger assembly is field fabricated using bulk material where
applicable.

Shear Lug: A welded pipe attachment subjected primarily to shear stress,

transferring axial pipe load to the supporting member.

Shield: See Protection Shield.

 B-7 

10371005
 Side Beam Bracket: A bracket provided with a hole in the vertical leg for bolting
to the building structure and a hole in the horizontal leg to receive a threaded
hanger rod.

Side Beam Clamp: A beam clamp that attaches to a flange of an I-beam or wide
flange beam and provides an off-center attachment for the remainder of a pipe
hanger assembly.

Single Pipe Roll: A pipe attachment that uses a pipe roll for axial movement and
is used in a trapeze hanger or support.

Sleeper: A horizontal beam, usually located at grade, upon which horizontal pipe
runs are supported.

Slide Plate: A flat plate whose surface has been prepared in a manner that will
facilitate a sliding motion.

Sliding Support: A device providing support from beneath by offering no

resistance, other than frictional, to horizontal movement.

Snubber: A hydraulic, mechanical, or spring device used for the control of shock
and sway in piping systems.

Spider Guide: A pipe attachment for insulated piping used for maintaining
alignment of piping through its axial expansion and contraction cycles.

Split Ring: A pipe clamp used on non-insulated piping, provided with a hinge
that permits installation before or after the piping is in place.

Spring Cushion Hanger: A simple, non-calibrated, single rod spring support,

used for providing a cushioning effect.

Spring Cushion Roll: A pair of spring coils with retainers, for use with a single
pipe roll.

Spring Hanger: A pipe hanger, using a spring or springs, to permit vertical

movement in a piping system.

Spring Snubber: See Spring Sway Brace.

Spring Sway Brace: A spring device used for the control of vibration or shock or
bracing against sway in piping systems.

Stanchion: A pipe support using a vertical member in compression.

Steel Clevis: A forged or fabricated device used to fit over a welding lug in the
attachment of a pipe to a structural support.

Stop: A device used to limit pipe movement in a specific direction.

 B-8 

10371005
 Structural Attachment: A device used to connect the remainder of the pipe
hanger assembly to the structure.

Strut: A rigid tension/compression member.

Sway Brace: See Restraint Control Device.

Swivel Turnbuckle: A device that provides flexibility at the pipe connection, in

addition to linear adjustment for suspension hanger.

Three-Bolt Pipe Clamp: A pipe clamp normally used for horizontal insulated
piping that uses clamping bolts to attach the clamp to the pipe and a separate
load bolt to transfer the piping weight to the remainder of the pipe hanger
assembly from a point outside the insulation.

Top Beam Clamp: A beam clamp that attaches to the top of a structural beam
and provides an attachment to the remainder of the pipe hanger assembly from
the side of the beam.

Trapeze Hanger: A pipe hanger consisting of parallel vertical rods suspended

from a structure and connected at their lower ends by a horizontal member from
which the pipe is supported. Some of its uses are for clearing overhead
obstructions or where insufficient vertical space is available to accommodate a
single suspension hanger.

Travel Indicator: For constant support hangers, a device attached to a moveable

arm of a constant support hanger, used to indicate the reading on the travel scale
to show the vertical pipe movement. For variable spring hangers, this is the
spring load plate that indicates the reading on the load/travel scale to show the
vertical pipe movement.

Travel Scale: A device attached to a spring unit, whose purpose is to provide for
an indication of the vertical pipe movement.

Travel Stop/Temporary Locking Device: A device that temporarily locks the

moveable parts of a spring hanger in a fixed position, enabling a load to be
transferred through the spring hanger to the supporting structure while
maintaining the piping at a desired elevation during erection and/or hydrostatic
testing.

Turnbuckle: A device with one left-hand female threaded end and one right-
hand female threaded end, used to join two threaded rods and provide linear
adjustment.

U-Bolt: A U-shaped rod with threaded ends that fits around a pipe and is
attached to a supporting member.

Vapor Barrier: An uninterrupted covering for an insulated pipe to preclude the

introduction of moisture into the insulation.

 B-9 

10371005
 Variability: The load variation of a variable spring hanger divided by the hot load
expressed as a percentage.

Variable Spring Hanger: A spring coil device that produces a varying supporting
effect while permitting vertical pipe movement.

Welded Beam Attachment: A U-shaped flat bar device, normally welded to a

steel beam used to connect the remainder of a pipe hanger assembly.

Welded Pipe Attachment: A pipe attachment that requires welding to the pipe
in order to connect the pipe to the remainder of the pipe hanger assembly.

Welding Lug: A steel device that is welded to supports or structural steel to allow
for the suspension of pipe using rod hangers.

Weldless Eye Nut: A forged steel device that provides for the attachment of a
threaded hanger rod to a bolt or pin connection.

Wide Flange Beam Clamp with Links: A steel beam clamp for the suspension of
pipe loads from structural beams.

Yoke U-Bolt: A type of clamp that includes a U-shaped rod with threaded ends
that fits around a pipe and is recommended for the suspension of high-
temperature piping.

 B-10 

10371005
Appendix C: Standards for Pipe Hangers
and Supports
Pipe hangers and supports normally conform to MSS-SP58, MSS-SP69, BS-
3974, or B31.1 Power Piping. These standards deal with rod hangers, spring
hangers, load ratings for various rod sizes, welding, allowable material stresses at
various temperatures, heat treatment, coatings, surface protection, hanger testing
methods, spring design and materials, and typical supporting arrangements.

It is not uncommon for piping design engineers to frequently refer to MSS-SP58

as part of their specification with additional conditions relating to materials and
selection.

Reference Codes and Standards

United States

MSS-SP58, Materials and Design of Pipe Supports

MSS-SP69, Selection and Application of Pipe Supports

MSS-SP89, Fabrication and Installation of Pipe Supports

PFI-ES26, Welded Load Bearing Attachments to Pressure Retaining

Boundaries

WRC Bulletin 198

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

American Welding Society (AWS)

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

Britain

BS 3974, Specification for Pipe Supports, Parts 1, 2, and 3

BS 5135, Process of Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon Manganese Steels

 C-1 

10371005
 Germany

VGB-R510L

DIN EN 288, Specification and Approval of Procedures for Welding Metallic

Materials

Japan

Meeting Notification 501

 C-2 

10371005
 Appendix D: Thermal Expansion of Pipe in
Inches per 100 Feet
Table D-1
Thermal expansion of pipe in inches per 100 feet

Saturated Temp. Cast Carbon Wrought 4-6% Cr. 18/8 Copper

Steam Degrees Iron Steel Iron Alloy Stainless
Fahr. Steel Steel
-200 -1.058 -1.282 -1.289 -1.250 -2.030 -1.955
-180 -0.982 -1.176 -1.183 -1.150 -1.850 -1.782
-160 -0.891 -1.066 -1.073 -1.030 -1.670 -1.612
-140 -0.797 -0.948 -0.955 -0.970 -1.480 -1.428
-120 -0.697 -0.826 -0.833 -0.800 -1.300 -1.235
-100 -0.593 -0.698 -0.705 -0.700 -0.900 -1.040
-80 -0.481 -0.563 -0.570 -0.550 -0.880 -0.835
-60 -0.368 -0.428 -0.435 -0.430 -0.670 -0.630
-40 -0.248 -0.288 -0.295 -0.290 -0.450 -0.421
-20 -0.127 -0.145 -0.152 -0.145 -0.225 -0.210
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 0.128 0.148 0.180 0.140 0.223 0.238
32 0.209 0.230 0.280 0.234 0.356 0.366
40 0.270 0.300 0.350 0.280 0.446 0.451
29.39 60 0.410 0.448 0.540 0.430 0.669 0.684
28.89 80 0.550 0.580 0.710 0.500 0.892 0.896
27.99 100 0.680 0.753 0.887 0.650 1.115 1.134
26.48 120 0.830 0.910 1.058 0.800 1.338 1.366
24.04 140 0.970 1.064 1.240 0.950 1.545 1.590
20.27 160 1.110 1.200 1.420 1.100 1.784 1.804
14.63 180 1.240 1.360 1.580 1.250 2.000 2.051

 D-1 

10371005
Table D-1 (Continued)
Thermal expansion of pipe in inches per 100 feet

Temp. 4-6% Cr. 18/8

Saturated Degrees Cast Carbon Wrought Alloy Stainless
Steam Fahr. Iron Steel Iron Steel Steel Copper
6.45 200 1.390 1.520 1.750 1.400 2.230 2.296
0 212 1.480 1.610 1.870 1.500 2.361 2.428
2.5 220 1.530 1.680 1.940 1.550 2.460 2.516
10.3 240 1.670 1.840 2.120 1.720 2.680 2.756
20.7 260 1.820 2.020 2.300 1.880 2.920 2.985
34.5 280 1.970 2.180 2.470 2.050 3.150 3.218
52.3 300 2.130 2.350 2.670 2.200 3.390 3.461
74.9 320 2.268 2.530 2.850 2.370 3.615 3.696
100.3 340 2.430 2.700 3.040 2.530 3.840 3.941
138.3 360 2.590 2.880 3.230 2.700 4.100 4.176
180.9 380 2.750 3.060 3.425 2.860 4.346 4.424
232.4 400 2.910 3.230 3.620 3.010 4.580 4.666
293.7 420 3.090 3.421 3.820 3.180 4.800 4.914
366.1 440 3.250 3.595 4.020 3.350 5.050 5.154
451.3 460 3.410 3.784 4.200 3.530 5.300 5.408
550.3 480 3.570 3.955 4.400 3.700 5.540 5.651
664.3 500 3.730 4.151 4.600 3.860 5.800 5.906
795.3 520 3.900 4.342 4.810 4.040 6.050 6.148
945.3 540 4.080 4.525 5.020 4.200 6.280 6.410
1115 560 4.250 4.730 5.220 4.400 6.520 6.646
1308 580 4.430 4.930 5.430 4.560 6.780 6.919
1525 600 4.600 5.130 5.620 4.750 7.020 7.184
1768 620 4.790 5.330 5.840 4.920 7.270 7.432
2041 640 7.970 5.550 6.050 5.100 7.520 7.689
2346 660 5.150 5.750 6.250 5.300 7.770 7.949
2705 680 5.30 5.950 6.470 5.480 8.020 8.196
3080 700 5.520 6.160 6.670 5.650 8.280 8.472
720 5.710 6.360 6.880 5.850 8.520 8.708
740 5.900 6.570 7.100 6.030 8.780 8.999
760 6.090 6.790 7.320 6.220 9.050 9.256
780 6.280 7.000 7.530 6.410 9.300 9.532

 D-2 

10371005
Table D-1 (Continued)
Thermal expansion of pipe in inches per 100 feet

Temp. 4-6% Cr. 18/8

Saturated Degrees Cast Carbon Wrought Alloy Stainless
Steam Fahr. Iron Steel Iron Steel Steel Copper
800 6.470 7.230 7.730 6.610 9.580 9.788
820 6.660 7.450 7.960 6.800 9.820 10.068
840 6.850 7.650 8.180 7.000 10.100 10.308
860 7.049 7.970 8.400 7.190 10.370 10.610
880 7.248 8.100 8.630 7.380 10.630 10.971
900 7.460 8.340 8.870 7.580 10.900 11.156
920 7.668 8.540 9.070 7.770 11.180 11.421
940 7.862 8.770 9.300 7.970 11.460 11.707
960 8.073 8.990 9.520 8.170 11.730 11.976
980 8.300 9.220 9.740 8.360 12.000 12.269
1000 8.510 9.420 9.970 8.550 12.260 12.543
1020 9.65 8.75 12.55
1040 9.87 8.95 12.82
1060 10.08 8.15 13.10
1080 10.32 9.35 13.37
1100 10.57 9.54 13.62
1120 10.75 9.75 13.91
1140 10.98 9.95 14.17
1160 11.21 10.15 14.45
1180 11.43 10.36 14.72
1200 11.63 10.49 14.98
1220 11.87 10.75 15.26
1240 12.10 10.95 15.53
1260 12.33 11.15 12.81
1280 12.55 11.35 16.08
1300 12.75 11.55 16.34
1320 12.98 11.75 16.62
1340 13.21 11.95 16.90
1360 13.42 12.15 17.17
1380 13.65 12.35 17.43
1400 13.87 12.54 17.70

 D-3 

10371005
Table D-1 (Continued)
Thermal expansion of pipe in inches per 100 feet

Temp. 4-6% Cr. 18/8

Saturated Degrees Cast Carbon Wrought Alloy Stainless
Steam Fahr. Iron Steel Iron Steel Steel Copper
1420 17.98
1440 From the Piping Handbook 18.25
1460 By Sabin Crocker, 18.52
Mcgraw-Hill Publishing Co.
1480 & Acme Paper No. 53-A-52, 1954. 18.80
1500 19.07

 D-4 

10371005
10371005
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10371005