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CONTENTS
1 Introduction to Statistics
and Research 2
1-1 Learning about Statistics 3
1-2 The Logic of Research 5
© Vladimir L./Shutterstock.com
1-3 Understanding Relationships 7
1-4 Applying Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 10
1-5 Understanding Experiments and Correlational
Studies 11
1-6 The Characteristics of Scores 15
2 Creating and Using

Frequency Distributions 20
2-1 Some New Symbols and Terminology 21
© Sai Yeung Chan/Shutterstock.com
2-2 Understanding Frequency Distributions 22

2-3 Types of Frequency Distributions 25
2-4 Relative Frequency and the Normal Curve 29
2-5 Understanding Percentile and Cumulative
Frequency 32
3 Summarizing Scores with

Measures of Central Tendency 36
Jerry and Marcy Monkman/EcoPhotography.com/Alamy
3-1 Some New Symbols and Procedures 37

3-2 What Is Central Tendency? 37
3-3 Computing the Mean, Median, and Mode 39
3-4 Applying the Mean to Research 44
3-5 Describing the Population Mean 49
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
4 Summarizing Scores with
Measures of Variability 52
4-1 Understanding Variability 53
4-2 The Range 55
4-3 The Sample Variance and Standard Deviation 55
4-4 The Population Variance and
Standard Deviation 59
4-5 Summary of the Variance and Standard
Deviation 61
©Stanth/Shutterstock.com
4-6 Computing the Formulas for Variance and
Standard Deviation 62
4-7 Statistics in the Research Literature: Reporting
Means and Variability 65
5 Describing Data with

z-Scores and the Normal
Curve 68
5-1 Understanding z-Scores 69
5-2 Using the z-Distribution to Interpret Scores 72
5-3 Using the z-Distribution to Compare Different
©iStockphoto.com/Casarsa
Variables 74
5-4 Using the z-Distribution to Compute Relative
Frequency 75
5-5 Using z-Scores to Describe Sample Means 79
6 Using Probability to Make

Decisions about Data 88
6-1 Understanding Probability 89
6-2 Probability Distributions 90
6-3 Obtaining Probability from the Standard Normal
Curve 92
6-4 Random Sampling and Sampling Error 94
6-5 Deciding Whether a Sample Represents
a Population 96
Zentilia/Dreamstime.com
vi Contents
7 Overview of Statistical
Hypothesis Testing: The z-Test
106
7-1 The Role of Inferential Statistics in Research 107
7-2 Setting Up Inferential Procedures 108
©iunewind/Shutterstock.com
7-3 Performing the z-Test 113
7-4 Interpreting Significant and Nonsignificant
Results 115
7-5 Summary of the z-Test 117
7-6 The One-Tailed Test 118
the Results 120
7-8 Errors in Statistical Decision Making 121
8 Hypothesis Testing Using

the One-Sample t-Test 126
8-1 Understanding the One-Sample t-Test 127
8-2 Performing the One-Sample t-Test 128
©Yuri Arcurs/Shutterstock.com
8-3 Interpreting the t-Test 133

8-4 Estimating m by Computing a Confidence
Interval 135
8-5 Statistics in the Research Literature:
Reporting t 138
9 Hypothesis Testing Using

the Two-Sample t-Test 140
9-1 Understanding the Two-Sample Experiment 141
9-2 The Independent-Samples t-Test 142
9-3 Performing the Independent-Samples t-Test 144
9-4 The Related-Samples t-Test 149
Fancy Collection/SuperStock
9-5 Performing the Related-Samples t-Test 152

9-6 Statistics in the Research Literature: Reporting a
Two-Sample Study 156
9-7 Describing Effect Size 156
Contents vii
© Martin Holtkamp/Taxi Japan/Getty Images
10 Describing Relationships
Using Correlation and
Regression 162
10-1 Understanding Correlations 163
10-2 The Pearson Correlation Coefficient 171
10-3 Significance Testing of the Pearson r 174
Reporting r 178
10-5 An Introduction to Linear Regression 178
10-6 The Proportion of Variance Accounted For: r 2 180
© Influx Productions/Photodisc/Jupiterimages
11 Hypothesis Testing
Using the One-Way Analysis of
Variance 184
11-1 An Overview of the Analysis of Variance 185
11-2 Components of the ANOVA 189
11-3 Performing the ANOVA 191
11-4 Performing the Tukey HSD Test 196
ANOVA 198
11-6 Effect Size and Eta2 198
11-7 A Word about the Within-Subjects ANOVA 199
12 Understanding
the Two-Way Analysis of
Variance 202
12-1 Understanding the Two-Way Design 203
12-2 Understanding Main Effects 204
12-3 Understanding the Interaction Effect 207
©Aeypix/Shutterstock.com
12-4 Completing the Two-Way ANOVA 209

12-5 Interpreting the Two-Way Experiment 214
viii Contents
13 Chi Square and
Nonparametric Procedures 218
13-1 Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics 219
13-2 Chi Square Procedures 220
13-3 The One-Way Chi Square: The Goodness
of Fit Test 220
Nicholas Pavloff/Iconica/Getty Images

13-4 The Two-Way Chi Square: The Test
of Independence 224
Reporting χ 2 229
13-6 A Word about Nonparametric Procedures for
Ordinal Scores 229
Appendix A: Math Review

and Additional Computing
Formulas 234
A-1 Review of Basic Math 234
A-2 Computing Confidence Intervals for the
Two-Sample t-Test 238
A-3 Computing the Linear Regression Equation 239
A-4 Computing the Two-Way Between-Subjects
ANOVA 241
A-5 Computing the One-Way Within-Subjects
ANOVA 247
Appendix B: Statistical Tables 252
Appendix C: Answers to
Odd-Numbered Study
Problems 264
Index 276
Contents ix
Chapter
1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
AND RESEARCH
GOING F O R WA R D
Your goals in this chapter are to learn:

• The logic of research and the purpose of statistical procedures.
• What a relationship between scores is.
• When and why descriptive and inferential procedures are used.
• What the difference is between an experiment and a correlational
study, and what the independent variable, the conditions, and the
dependent variable are.
• What the four scales of measurement are.
O
kay, so you’re taking a course in statistics. What does
Sections this involve? Well, first of all, statistics involve math,
but if that makes you a little nervous, you can relax:
1-1 Learning about Statistics
You do not need to be a math wizard to do well in
1-2 The Logic of Research this course. You need to know only how to add, subtract, multiply,
1-3 Understanding and divide—and use a calculator. Also, the term statistics is often
Relationships shorthand for statistical procedures, and statisticians have already
1-4 Applying Descriptive and developed the statistical procedures you’ll be learning about. So
Inferential Statistics you won’t be solving simultaneous equations, performing proofs
1-5 Understanding and derivations, or doing other mystery math. You will simply
Experiments and learn how to select the statistical procedure—the formula—that is
Correlational Studies
appropriate for a given situation and then compute and interpret
1-6 The Characteristics of the answer. And don’t worry, there are not that many to learn, and
Scores these fancy-sounding “procedures” include such simple things as
computing an average or drawing a graph. (A quick refresher in
2 Behavioral Sciences STAT2
© Vladimir L./Shutterstock.com
math basics is in Appendix A.1. If you can do that, is necessary for comprehending other people’s research
and for understanding your chosen field of study.
you’ll be fine.)
How do researchers use statistics? Behavioral
Instead of thinking of statistics as math prob- research always involves measuring behaviors. For
lems, think of them as tools that psychologists and example, to study intelligence, researchers measure
the IQ scores of individuals, or to study memory, they
other behavioral researchers employ when “ana- measure the number of things that people remember
lyzing” the results of their research. Therefore, for or forget. We call these scores the data. Any study
you to understand statistics, your first step is to typically produces a very large batch of data, and it
is at this point that researchers apply statistical proce-
understand the basics of research so that you can dures, because statistics help us to make sense out of
see how statistics fit in. To get you started, in this the data. We do this in four ways.
chapter we will discuss (1) what learning statistics 1. First, we organize the scores so that we can see
any patterns in the data. Often this simply involves
involves, (2) the logic of research and the purpose
creating a table or graph.
of statistics, (3) the two major types of studies that 2. Second, we summarize the data. Usually we don’t
researchers conduct, and (4) the four ways that want to examine each individual score in a study,
researchers measure behaviors. and a summary—such as the average score—
allows us to quickly understand the general
characteristics of the data.
1-1 LEARNING ABOUT 3. Third, statistics communicate the results of a study.
STATISTICS You will learn the standard techniques and sym-
bols we use to quickly and clearly communicate
Why is it important to learn statistics? Statistical proce- results, especially in published research reports.
dures are an important part of the research that forms 4. Finally, we use statistics to interpret what the
the basis for psychology and other behavioral sciences. data indicate. All behavioral research is designed
People involved with these sciences use statistics and sta- to answer a question about a behavior and,
tistical concepts every day. Even if you are not interested ultimately, we must decide what the data tell us
in conducting research yourself, understanding statistics about that behavior.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 3
is learning this code. Once you speak the lan-
guage, much of the mystery of statistics will
THE PURPOSE OF evaporate. So learn (memorize) the terminology
STATISTICAL by using the glossary in the page margins and the
PROCEDURES IS •
other learning aids that are provided.
The only way to learn statistics is to do statis-
TO MAKE SENSE OUT OF DATA. tics, so you must practice using the formulas and
concepts. Therefore, at the end of each chapter
are study questions that you should complete.
You’ll see there are actually only a few different Seriously work on these questions. (This is the
ways that behavioral research is generally conducted, practice test before the real test!) The answers to
and for each way, there are slightly different formu- the odd-numbered problems are in Appendix C,
las that we use. Thus, in a nutshell, the purpose of and your instructor has the answers to the even-
this course is to familiarize you with each research numbered problems.
approach, teach you the appropriate formulas for that • At the end of this book are two tear-out “Review
approach, and show you how to use the answers you Cards” for each chapter. They include: (1) a
compute to make sense out of the data (by organizing, Chapter Summary, with linkage to key vocabu-
summarizing, communicating, and interpreting). lary terms; (2) a Procedures and Formulas section,
Along the way, it is easy to get carried away and where you can review how to use the formulas
concentrate on only the formulas and calculations. and procedures (keep it handy when doing the
However, don’t forget that statistics are a research end-of-chapter study questions); and (3) a Putting
tool that you must learn to apply. Therefore, more It All Together fill-in-the-blank exercise that
than anything else, your goal is to learn when to use reviews concepts, procedures, and vocabulary.
each procedure and how to interpret its answer. (Complete this for all chapters to create a study
guide for the final exam.)
• You cannot get too much practice, so also visit
1-1a Studying Statistics the CourseMate website as described on the
The nature of statistics leads to some “rules” for how inside cover of this book. A number of study tools
to approach this topic and how to use this book. are provided for each chapter, including printable
• You will be learning novel ways to think about flashcards, interactive crossword puzzles, and
the information conveyed by numbers. You more practice problems.
need to carefully read and study the material,
and often you will need to read it again. Don’t
try to “cram” statistics. You won’t learn any-
1-1b Using the SPSS Computer
thing (and your brain will melt). You must Program
translate the new terminology and symbols into
In this book we’ll use formulas to compute the answers
things that you understand, and that takes time
“by hand” so that you can see how each is produced.
and effort.
Once you are familiar with statistics, though, you
• Don’t skip something if it seems difficult because will want to use a computer. One of the most popular
concepts and formulas build upon previous ones. statistics programs is called SPSS. At the end of most
Following each major topic in a chapter, test chapters in this book is a brief section relating SPSS
yourself with the in-chapter “Quick Practice.” If to the chapter’s procedures, and you’ll find step-by-
you have problems with it, go back—you missed step instructions on one of the Chapter Review Cards.
something. (Also, the beginning of each chapter (Review Card 1.4 describes how to get started by
lists what you should understand from previous entering data.) These instructions are appropriate for
chapters. Make sure you do.) version 20 and other recent versions of SPSS. Establish
• Researchers use a shorthand “code” for describ- a routine of using the data from odd-numbered study
ing statistical analyses and communicating problems at the end of a chapter and checking your
research results. A major part of learning statistics answers in Appendix C.
influence on a specific behavior in population
a specific situation. Then, using The large group of
TO BRUSH UP ON our findings, we generalize back

to the broader behaviors and
individuals to which
a law of nature
YOUR MATH SKILLS, CHECK OUT laws we began with. For example,
applies
BASIC
THE REVIEW OF here’s an idea for a simple study. sample A
relatively small subset
MATH IN APPENDIX A.1

Say that we think a law of nature
is that people must study informa-
of a population
intended to represent
ON PAGE 234. tion in order to learn it. We trans- the population
late this into the more specific participants

hypothesis that “the more you The individuals who
are measured in a
But remember, computer programs do only what you study statistics, the better you’ll sample
tell them to do. SPSS cannot decide which statistical learn them.” Next, we will trans-
procedure to compute in a particular situation, nor late the hypothesis into a situation
can it interpret the answer for you. You really must where we can observe and measure specific people
learn when to use each statistic and what the answer who study specific material in different amounts, to
means. see if they do learn differently. Based on what we
observe, we have evidence for working back to the
general law regarding studying and learning.
1-2 THE LOGIC OF The first part of this translation process involves
samples and populations.
RESEARCH
The goal of behavioral research is to understand the 1-2a Samples and Populations
“laws of nature” that apply to the behaviors of liv-
ing organisms. That is, researchers assume that spe- When researchers talk of a behavior occurring
cific influences govern every behavior of all members in nature, they say it occurs in the population. A
of a particular group. Although any single study is a population is the entire group of individuals to
small step in this process, our goal is to understand which a law of nature applies (whether all humans,
every factor that influences the behavior. Thus, when all men, all 4-year-old English-speaking children,
researchers study such things as the mating behavior etc.). For our example, the population might be all
of sea lions or social interactions among humans, they college students who take statistics. A population
are ultimately studying the laws of usuallyy contains all possible members—past,
nature. present, and future—so we usually con-
sider it to be infinitely large.
The reason a study is a
small step is because nature But what However, to study an infinite pop-
How
iss very complex. Therefore, does it mean? ulation would
w
Instead, we
take roughly forever!
w study a sample from the
research involves a series of
translations that simplify things population. A sample is a relatively
populatio
so that we can examine a specific small subset
sub of a population that is
intended to represent, or stand in for,
the population.
p Thus, we might
study the students in your statis-
tics cl
class as a sample representing
the population
po of all college stu-
dents studying statistics. The indi-
© iStockphoto.com/Andrzej Burak
viduals measured in a sample are

vidual
called the participants and it is
their scores that constitute
our data.
example of the scores that everyone in the population
would obtain.
On the other hand, any sample can be unrepre-
sentative and then it inaccurately reflects the popula-
tion. The reason this occurs is simply due to random
chance—the “luck of the draw” of who we happen
to select for a sample. Thus, maybe, simply because
© iStockphoto.com/Aldo Murillo
of who happened to enroll in your statistics class, it
contains some very unusual, atypical students who
are not at all like those in the population. If so, then
their behaviors and scores will mislead us about those
of the typical statistics student. Therefore, as you’ll
see, researchers always consider the possibility that
a conclusion about the population—about nature—
Although researchers ultimately discuss the behav- might be incorrect because it might be based on an
ior of individuals, in statistics we often go directly to unrepresentative sample.
their scores. Thus, we will talk about the population Researchers study the behavior of the individuals
of scores as if we have already measured the behavior in a sample by measuring specific variables.
of everyone in the population in a particular situation.
Likewise, we will talk about a sample of scores, imply- 1-2b Understanding Variables
ing that we have already measured our participants.
Thus, a population is the complete group of scores We measure aspects of the situation that we think
that would be found for everyone in a particular situ- influence a behavior, and we measure aspects of the
ation, and a sample is a subset of those scores that we behavior itself. The aspects of the situation or behav-
actually measure in that situation. ior that we measure are called variables. A variable
The logic behind samples and populations is this: is anything that can produce two or more different
We use the scores in a sample to infer—to estimate— scores. A few of the variables found in behavioral
the scores we would expect to find in the population research include characteristics of an individual, like
if we could measure it. Then by translating the scores your age, race, gender, personality type, political affili-
back into the behaviors they reflect, we can infer the ation, and physical attributes. Other variables mea-
behavior of the population. By describing the behav- sure your reactions, such as how anxious, angry, or
ior of the population, we are describing how nature aggressive you are, or how attractive you think some-
works, because the population is the entire group to one is. Sometimes variables reflect performance, such
which the law of nature applies. Thus, if we observe as how hard you work at a task or how well you recall
that greater studying leads to better learning for the a situation. And variables also measure characteristics
sample of students in your statistics class, we will infer of a situation, like the amount of noise, light, or heat
that similar scores and behaviors would be found in that is present; the difficulty or attributes of a task; or
the population of all statistics students. This provides
evidence that, in nature, more studying does lead to
better learning.
Notice that the above assumes that a sample is
representative of the population. We discuss this issue
in later chapters, but put simply, the individuals in a
representative sample accurately reflect the individu-
als that are found in the population.
This means that then our inferences
variable Anything
about a behavior or
about the scores and behaviors found
Erik Isakson/Getty Images
situation that, when in the population will also be accu-

measured, can produce rate. Thus, if your class is representa-
two or more different
tive of all college students, then the
scores
scores the class obtains are a good
how many others are present and the types of interac-
tions you have with them. Table 1.1
Variables fall into two general categories. If a Scores Showing a Relationship between the
score indicates the amount of a variable that is present, Variables of Study Time and Test Grades
the variable is a quantitative variable. A person’s FYI: The data presented in this book are fictional. Any resemblance to
height, for example, is a quantitative variable. Some real data is purely a coincidence.
variables, however, cannot be measured in amounts,
Student Study Time in Hours Test Grades
but instead classify or categorize an individual on
the basis of some characteristic. These variables are Gary 1 F
called qualitative variables. A person’s gender, for Bo 1 F
example, is qualitative because the “score” of male or Sue 2 D
female indicates a quality, or category.
Tony 2 D
For our research on studying and learning sta-
tistics, say that to measure “studying,” we select the Sidney 3 C
variable of the number of hours that students spent Ann 4 B
studying for a particular statistics test. To measure Rose 4 B
“learning,” we select the variable of their perfor-
Lou 5 A
mance on the test. After measuring participants’
scores on these variables, we examine the relationship
between them.
1-3 UNDERSTANDING
RELATIONSHIPS In a relationship, as the scores on
If nature relates those mental activities we call study- one variable change, the scores
ing to those mental activities we call learning, then dif- on the other variable change in
ferent amounts of learning should occur with differ- a consistent manner.
ent amounts of studying. In other words, there should
be a relationship between studying and learning. A
relationship is a pattern in which, as the scores on
one variable change, the scores on the other variable Because we see a relationship in these sample data,
change in a consistent manner. In our example, we we have evidence that in nature, studying and learn-
predict the relationship in which the longer you study, ing do operate as we hypothesized:
the higher your test grade will be. The amount someone studies does quantitative
Say that we ask some students how long they stud- seem to make a difference in test variable A
variable for which
ied for a test and their subsequent grades on the test. grades. In the same way, whenever scores reflect the
We obtain the data in Table 1.1. To see the relation- a law of nature ties behaviors or amount of the
ship, first look at those people who studied for 1 hour events together, then we’ll see that variable that is present
and see their grade. Then look at those who studied particular scores from one variable qualitative
2 hours, and see that they had a different grade from are associated with particular scores variable A
variable for which
those studying 1 hour. And so on. These scores form from another variable so that a rela- scores reflect a quality
a relationship because as the study-time scores change tionship is formed. Therefore, most or category that is
(increase), the test grades also change in a consistent research is designed to investigate present
fashion (also increase). Further, when study-time relationships, because relationships relationship
scores do not change (e.g., Gary and Bo both studied are the tell-tale signs of a law at work. A pattern between
two variables
for 1 hour), the grades also do not change (they both A major use of statistical pro- where a change
received Fs). We often use the term association when cedures is to examine the scores in in one variable is
talking about relationships: Here, low study times are a relationship and the pattern they accompanied by a
consistent change in
associated with low test grades and high study times form. The simplest relationships fit
the other
are associated with high test grades. one of two patterns. Let’s call one
variable X and the other Y. Then, sometimes the rela-
tionship fits the description “the more you X, the Table 1.2
more you Y.” Examples of this include the following: Scores Showing a Relationship between Study
The more you study, the higher your grade; the more Time and Number of Errors on Test
alcohol you drink, the more you fall down; the more
often you speed, the more traffic tickets you receive; Student X Hours of Study Y Errors on Test
and even that old saying “The bigger they are, the Amy 1 12
harder they fall.” Karen 1 13
At other times, the relationship fits the description
Joe 1 11
“the more you X, the less you Y.” Examples of this
include the following: The more you study, the fewer Cleo 2 11
the errors you make; the more alcohol you drink, the Jack 2 10
less coordinated you are; the more you “cut” classes, Maria 2 9
the lower your grades; and even that old saying “The
Terry 3 9
more you practice statistics, the less difficult they are.”
Relationships may also form more complicated Manny 3 10
patterns where, for example, more X at first leads to Chris 4 9
more Y, but beyond a certain point, even more X leads Sam 4 8
to less Y. For example, the more you exercise the bet-
Gary 5 7
ter you feel, until you reach a certain point, beyond
which more exercise leads to feeling less well, due to
pain and exhaustion.
Although the above examples involve quantitative
For example, Table 1.2 presents a less consistent
variables, we can also study relationships that involve
relationship between the number of hours studied
qualitative variables. For example, gender is a com-
and the number of errors made on the test. Notice
monly studied qualitative variable. If you think of
that the variables are also labeled X and Y. When
being male or female as someone’s “score” on the gen-
looking at a relationship, get in the habit of asking,
der variable, then we see a relationship when, as gender
“As the X scores increase, do the Y scores change in
scores change, scores on another variable also change.
a consistent fashion?” Answer this by again looking
For example, saying that men tend to be taller than
at one study-time score (at one X score) and seeing
women is actually describing a relationship, because
the error scores (the Y scores) that are paired with it.
as gender scores change (going from men to women),
Then look at the next X score and see the Y scores
their corresponding height scores tend to decrease.
paired with it. Two aspects of the data in Table 1.2
produce a less consistent relationship: First, not
1-3a The Consistency of a everyone who studies for a particular time receives
Relationship the same error score (e.g., 12, 13, and 11 errors are
all paired with 1 hour). Second, sometimes a par-
Table 1.1 showed a perfectly consistent association ticular error score is paired with different studying
between hours of study time and test grades: All scores (e.g., 11 errors occur with both 1 and 2 hours
those who studied the same amount received the same of study). These aspects cause overlapping groups of
grade. In a perfectly consistent relationship, a score different error scores to occur at each study time, so
on one variable is always paired with one and only the overall pattern is harder to see. In fact, the greater
one score on the other variable. This makes for a very the differences among the group of Y scores at an X
clear, obvious pattern when you examine the data. In and the more the Y scores overlap between groups,
the real world, however, not everyone who studies for the less consistent the relationship will be. Nonethe-
the same amount of time will receive the same test less, we still see the pattern where more studying
grade. (Life is not fair.) A relationship can be present tends to be associated with lower error scores, so a
even if there is only some degree of consistency. Then, relationship is present. Essentially, one batch of error
as the scores on one variable change, the scores on the scores occurs at one study-time score, but a different
other variable tend to change in a consistent fashion. batch of error scores tends to occur at the next study-
This produces a less obvious pattern in the data. time score.
Notice that the less consistent relationship above
still supports our original hypothesis about how nature
operates: We see that, at least to some degree, nature
does relate studying and test errors. Thus, we will always
A relationship is present
examine the relationship in our data, no matter how
(though not perfectly consistent)
consistent it is. A particular study can produce anywhere
between a perfectly consistent relationship and no rela- if there tends to be a different
tionship. In Chapter 10 we will discuss in depth how group of Y scores associated
to describe and interpret the consistency of a particular with each X score. A relationship
relationship. (As you’ll see, the degree of consistency in is not present when virtually the
a relationship is called its strength, and a less consistent same batch of Y scores is paired
relationship is a weaker relationship.) Until then, it is
with every X score.
enough for you to simply know what a relationship is.
1-3b When No Relationship Is

Present
Table 1.3
At the other extreme, sometimes the scores from two Scores Showing No Relationship between Hours
variables do not form a relationship. For example, say of Study Time and Number of Errors on Test
that we had obtained the data shown in Table 1.3.
Here, no relationship is present because the error Student X Hours of Study Y Errors on Test
scores paired with 1 hour are essentially the same as Amy 1 12
the error scores paired with 2 hours, and so on. Thus,
Karen 1 10
virtually the same (but not identical) batch of error
scores shows up at each study time, so no pattern of Joe 1 8
increasing or decreasing errors is present. These data Cleo 2 11
show that how long people study does not make a Jack 2 10
consistent difference in their error scores. Therefore,
Maria 2 9
this result would not provide evidence that studying
and learning operate as we think. Terry 3 12
Manny 3 9
Chris 3 10
Less studying may lead Sam 4 11
to more errors ... Jane 4 10
Gary 4 8
© iStockphoto.com/AAR Studio
> Quick Practice 1-4 APPLYING DESCRIPTIVE
AND INFERENTIAL
> A relationship is present when, as the
scores on one variable change, the scores
on another variable tend to change in a
STATISTICS
Statistics help us make sense out of data, and now you
consistent fashion. can see that “making sense” means to understand the
scores and the relationship they form. However, because
More Examples
we are always talking about samples and populations,
Below, Sample A shows a perfect relationship: One Y
we separate statistical procedures into those that apply
score occurs at only one X. Sample B shows a less con-
to samples and those that apply to populations.
sistent relationship: Sometimes different Ys occur at a
Descriptive statistics are procedures for orga-
particular X, and the same Y occurs with different Xs.
nizing and summarizing sample data. The answers from
Sample C shows no relationship: The same Ys tend to
such procedures are often a single number that describes
show up at every X.
important information about the scores. (When you
see descriptive, think describe.) A sample’s average, for
A B C
example, is an important descriptive statistic because
X Y X Y X Y in one number we summarize all scores in the sample.
1 20 1 12 1 12 Descriptive statistics are also used to describe the rela-
1 20 1 15 1 15 tionship in sample data. For our study-time research,
for example, we’d want to know whether a relation-
1 20 1 20 1 20
ship is present, how consistently errors decrease with
2 25 2 20 2 20 increased study time, and so on. (We’ll discuss the com-
2 25 2 30 2 12 mon descriptive procedures in the next few chapters.)
2 25 2 40 2 15 After describing the sample, we want to use that
3 30 3 40 3 20 information to estimate or infer the data we would
find if we could measure the entire population. How-
3 30 3 40 3 15
ever, we cannot automatically assume that the scores
3 30 3 50 3 12 and the relationship we see in the sample are what we
would see in the population: Remember, the sample
might be unrepresentative, so that it misleads us about
For Practice the population. Therefore, first we apply additional
Which samples show a perfect, inconsistent, or no statistical procedures. Inferential statistics are pro-
relationship? cedures for drawing inferences about the scores and
relationship that would be found in the population.
A B C D Essentially, inferential procedures help us to decide
X Y X Y X Y X Y whether our sample accurately represents the rela-
2 4 80 80 33 28 40 60 tionship found in the population. If it does, then, for
2 4 80 79 33 20 40 60
3 6 85 76 43 27 45 60
© iStockphoto.com/Rob Broek
3 6 85 75 43 20 45 60
4 8 90 71 53 20 50 60
4 8 90 70 53 28 50 60
> Answers
C and D: No Relationship
B: Inconsistent Relationship
A: Perfect Relationship
© iStockphoto.com/Robert MacAusland
© Naypong/Shutterstock.com
example, we would use the class average as an esti- population in a given situation, we are describing how
mate of the average score we’d find in the population a law of nature operates.
of students. Or, we would use the relationship in our
sample to estimate how, for everyone, greater learn-
ing tends to occur with greater studying. (We discuss
inferential procedures in the second half of this book.)
1-5 UNDERSTANDING
EXPERIMENTS AND
1-4a Statistics versus Parameters CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
Researchers use the following system so that we know In research we can examine a rela- descriptive
when we are describing a sample and when we are tionship using a variety of different statistics
describing a population. A number that describes an kinds of studies. In other words, we Procedures for
organizing and
aspect of the scores in a sample is called a statistic. use different designs. The design summarizing sample
Thus, a statistic is an answer obtained from a descrip- of a study is how it is laid out— data
tive procedure. We compute different statistics to how many samples are examined, inferential
describe different aspects of the data, and the symbol how participants are selected and statistics
for each is a different letter from the English alphabet. tested, and so on. A study’s design is Procedures for
determining whether
On the other hand, a number that describes an aspect important because different designs
sample data
of the scores in the population is called a parameter. require different descriptive and accurately represent
Thus, a parameter is obtained when applying inferen- inferential procedures. Recall that the relationship in the
tial procedures. The symbols for the different param- your goal is to learn when to use population
eters are letters from the Greek alphabet. each statistical procedure and, in statistic A
For example, the average in your statistics class is part, that means learning the par- number that
describes a sample
a sample average, a descriptive statistic that is symbol- ticular procedures that are appro- of scores; symbolized
ized by a letter from the English alphabet. If we then priate for a particular design. (On by a letter from the
estimate the average in the population, we are esti- the tear-out cards in your book is English alphabet
mating a parameter, and the symbol for a population a decision tree for selecting proce- parameter
average is a letter from the Greek alphabet. dures, which you should refer to as A number that
describes a
After performing the appropriate descriptive and you learn statistics.) population of scores;
inferential procedures, we stop being a “statistician” To begin, recognize that we symbolized by a
and return to being a behavioral scientist: We inter- have two major types of designs letter from the Greek
alphabet
pret the results in terms of the underlying behaviors, because we have two general ways
psychological principles, sociological influences, and of demonstrating a relationship: design The way
in which a study is
so on, that they reflect. This completes the circle, using experiments or using correla-
laid out
because by describing the behavior of everyone in the tional studies.
experiment 1-5a Experiments wishes (we’ll have some participants study for 4 hours
whether they want to or not).
A study in which
one variable is In an experiment, the researcher Technically, a true independent variable is manip-
actively changed or actively changes or manipulates one ulated by doing something to participants. However,
manipulated and scores
variable and then measures partici- there are many variables that an experimenter can-
on another variable are
measured to determine pants’ scores on another variable to not manipulate in this way. For example, we might
whether a relationship see if a relationship is produced. For hypothesize that growing older causes a change in
occurs some behavior, but we can’t make some people be
example, say that we study amount
independent of study time and test errors in an 20 years old and make others be 60 years old. Instead,
variable In an experiment. We decide to compare we would manipulate the variable by selecting one
experiment, a variable
manipulated by the 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours of study time, sample of 20-year-olds and one sample of 60-year-
experimenter that so we select four samples of stu- olds. We will also call this type of variable an inde-
is hypothesized to dents. We have one sample study for pendent variable (although technically it is called a
cause a change in the
dependent variable 1 hour, administer the statistics test, quasi-independent variable). Statistically, we treat all
and count the number of errors each independent variables the same.
condition An
amount or category participant makes. We have another Thus, the experimenter is always in control of the
of the independent sample study for 2 hours, administer independent variable, either by determining what is
variable that creates the the test, and count their errors, and done to each sample or by determining a character-
specific situation under
so on. Then we determine if we have istic of the individuals in each sample. Therefore, a
which participants’
scores on the produced the relationship where, as participant’s “score” on the independent variable is
dependent variable are we increase study time, error scores determined by the experimenter: Above, students in
measured the sample that studied 1 hour have a score of 1 on the
tend to decrease.
dependent You must understand the com- study-time variable; people in the 20-year-old sample
variable In an ponents of an experiment and learn have a score of 20 on the age variable.
experiment, the
behavior or attribute their names.
of participants that is CONDITIONS OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE An
measured; expected to THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE An independent variable is the overall variable a researcher
be influenced by the independent variable is the vari- manipulates, which is potentially composed of many
independent variable
able that is changed or manipulated different amounts or categories. From these the
by the experimenter. We manipulate researcher selects the conditions. A condition is the
this variable because we assume that doing so will specific amount or category of the independent vari-
cause the behavior and scores on the other variable to able that creates the situation under which participants
change. Thus, in our example above, amount of study are studied. Thus, although our independent variable is
time is our independent variable: We manipulate study amount of study time—which could be any amount—
time because doing this should our conditions involve 1, 2, 3, or
cause participants’ error scores 4 hours of study. Likewise, if
to change in the predicted way. we compare 20-year-olds to
(To prove that this variable 60-year-olds, then 20 and 60
is actually the cause is a very are each a condition of the
difficult task, which we’ll save independent variable of age.
Jetta Productions/Blend Images/Alamy
for an advanced discussion.

In the meantime, be cautious THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
when using the word cause.) The dependent variable
You can remember independent is the variable that measures
because this variable occurs a behavior or attribute of par-
independently of participants’ ticipants that we expect will be
influenced by the indepen-
dent variable. Therefore, Table 1.4
we measure participants’ Summary of Identifying an Experiment’s Components
scores on the dependent
variable in each condition. Researcher’s Name of Amounts of
You can remember depen- Activity Role of Variable Variable Variable Present
dent because whether a Researcher → Variable influences a → Independent → Conditions
score is high or low pre- manipulates behavior variable
sumably depends on a par- variable
ticipant’s reaction to the Researcher → Variable measures → Dependent → Scores
condition. (This variable measures behavior that is variable
reflects the behavior that variable influenced
is “caused” in the relation-
ship.) Thus, in our study-
ing experiment, test errors
is our dependent variable because these scores depend
on how participants respond to their particular study
Drawing Conclusions from 1-5b
time. Or, in a different experiment, if we compare the an Experiment
activity levels of 20- and 60-year-olds, then partici- As we change the conditions of the independent vari-
pants’ activity level is the dependent variable because able, participants’ scores on the dependent variable
presumably it depends on their age. Note: The depen- should also change in a consistent fashion. To see this
dent variable is also called the “dependent measure” relationship, a useful way to diagram an experiment
and we obtain “dependent scores.” is shown in Table 1.5. Each column in the diagram is
IDENTIFYING AN EXPERIMENT’S COMPONENTS It is a condition of the independent variable (here, amount
important that you can identify independent and depen- of study time). The numbers in a column are the scores
dent variables, so let’s practice: Say my experiment is on the dependent variable from participants who were
to determine if a person’s concentration is improved tested under that condition (here, each score is the
immediately after physical exercise. First, recognize number of test errors).
that implicitly, we are always looking for a relation- Remember that a condition determines partici-
ship, so I’m really asking, “Is it true that the more peo- pants’ scores on the independent variable: Participants
ple exercise, the more their concentration improves?” in the 1-hour condition each have a score of “1” on
Therefore, also implicitly, I’m going to need to measure the independent variable, those under 2 hours have
the concentration of different participants after I make a score of “2,” and so on. Thus, the diagram commu-
them get different amounts of exercise. So what are the nicates pairs of scores consisting of 1-13, 1-12, 1-11;
variables? Use Table 1.4, which summarizes the deci- then 2-9, 2-8, 2-7, etc.
sion process. (The table is also on Review Card 1.2.) Now look for the relationship as we did previ-
What is the variable I’m manipulating because I think ously: First look at the error scores paired with 1 hour,
it influences a behavior?
Amount of exercise; so
Table 1.5
it is my independent
Diagram of an Experiment Involving the Independent Variable of Number of
variable (and the differ-
Hours Spent Studying and the Dependent Variable of Number of Errors Made on a
ent amounts that par-
Statistics Test
ticipants exercise are
my conditions). What Independent Variable: Number of Hours Spent Studying
is the variable I’m mea-
Condition 1: Condition 2: Condition 3: Condition 4:
suring because it reflects
Dependent Variable: 1 Hour 2 Hours 3 Hours 4 Hours
a behavior I think is
being influenced? Con- Number of Errors Made on 13 9 7 5
centration; so it is my a Statistics Test ➞ 12 8 6 3
dependent variable that 11 7 5 2
produces my data.
Petarneych... | Dreamstime.com
© mtsyri/Shutterstock.com
then at the error scores paired with 2 hours, and so correlational study, the researcher measures par-
on. The pattern here forms a relationship where, ticipants’ scores on two variables and then determines
as study-time scores increase, error scores tend to whether a relationship is present. Thus, in an experi-
decrease. Essentially, participants in the 1-hour condi- ment the researcher attempts to make a relationship
tion produce one batch of error scores, those in the happen, while in a correlational study the researcher
2-hour condition produce a different, lower batch of is a passive observer who looks to see if a relationship
error scores, and so on. exists. For example, we used a correlational approach
We use this diagram because it facilitates applying previously when we simply asked some students how
our statistics. For example, it makes sense to compute long they studied for a test and what their test grade
the average error score in each condition (each column). was. Or, we would have a correlational design if we
Notice, however, that we apply statistics to the depen- asked people their career choices and measured their
dent variable. We do not know what scores our partici- personality, asking, “Is career choice related to per-
pants will produce, so these are the scores that we need sonality type?”
help in making sense of (especially in a more realistic As usual, we want to first describe and understand
study where we might have 100 different scores in each the relationship we’ve observed in the sample, and cor-
column). We do not compute anything about the inde- relational designs have their own descriptive statistical
pendent variable because we know all about it (e.g., procedures for doing this. Here we do not know the
above we have no reason to compute the average of 1, scores that participants will produce for either vari-
2, 3, and 4 hours). Rather, the conditions simply form able, so the starting point for making sense of them is
the groups of dependent scores that we then examine. often to compute the average score on each variable.
Thus, we will use specific descriptive procedures Also, to decide about the relationship we would find in
to summarize the sample’s scores and the relationship the population, we have specific correlational inferen-
found in an experiment. Then, to infer that we’d see a tial procedures. Finally, as with an experiment, we will
similar relationship if we tested the entire population, translate the relationship back to the original hypoth-
we have specific inferential procedures for experi- esis about studying and learning that we began with so
ments. Finally, we will translate the relationship back that we can add to our understanding of nature.
to the original hypothesis about studying and learning
that we began with, so that we can add to our under-
standing of nature.
correlational
study A design in 1-5c Correlational In a correlational study, the
which participants’
scores on two variables
Studies researcher simply measures
are measured, without participants’ scores on two
manipulation of either
Not all research is an experiment.
Sometimes we do not manipulate or variables to determine if a
variable, to determine
whether they form a change either variable and instead relationship exists.
relationship
conduct a correlational study. In a
> Quick Practice 1-6 THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF SCORES
> In an experiment, the researcher
changes the conditions of the
independent variable and then measures
We have one more issue to consider when selecting the
descriptive or inferential procedure to use in a particular
participants’ behavior using the experiment or correlational study. Although we always
© iStockphoto.com/RusN
dependent variable. measure one or more variables, the numbers that
comprise the scores can have different
erent underly-
> In a correlational design the researcher

measures participants on two variables.
ing mathematical characteristics. The partic-
ular characteristics of our scores determine
which procedures we should use, e, because
More Examples the kinds of math we can perform rm depend
In a study, participants’ relaxation scores are measured on the kinds of numbers we have.. There-
after they’ve been in a darkened room for either 10, fore, always pay attention to two o
20, or 30 minutes. This is an experiment because the important characteristics of
researcher controls the length of times in the room. The your scores: the scale of mea-
independent variable is length of time, the conditions surement involved and whether
are 10, 20, or 30 minutes, and the dependent variable the measurements are continuous us
is relaxation. or discrete.
A survey measures participants’ patriotism and
also asks how often they’ve voted. This is a correlational
design because the researcher passively measures both
1-6a The Four Types of
variables. Measurement Scales
Numbers mean different things in different contexts.
The meaning of a 1 on a license plate is different from
For Practice
that of a 1 in a race, which is different still from the
1. In an experiment, the _____ is changed by the meaning of a 1 in a hockey score. The kind of infor-
researcher to see if it produces a change in partici- mation that scores convey depends on the scale of
pants’ scores on the _____. measurement that is used in measuring the variable.
There are four types of measurement scales: nominal,
2. To see if drinking influences one’s ability to drive,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
each participants’ level of coordination is measured
With a nominal scale, we do not measure an
after drinking 1, 2, or 3 ounces of alcohol. The inde-
amount, but rather we categorize or classify indi-
pendent variable is _____, the conditions are _____,
viduals. For example, to “measure” your gender, we
and the dependent variable is _____.
classify you as either male or female. Rather than
3. In an experiment, the _____ variable reflects partici- using these labels, however, it is easier for us (and for
pants’ behaviors or attributes. computers) to use numbers to identify the categories.
4. We measure the age and income of 50 people to For example, we might assign a “1” to each male and
see if older people tend to make more money. What a “2” to each female. These scores involve a nominal
type of design is this? scale because the numbers are used simply for iden-
tification (so for nominal, think name). Such scores
> Answers are assigned arbitrarily—they don’t reflect an amount,
and we could use any other numbers. Thus, the key
4. correlational here is that nominal scores indicate only that one
3. dependent individual is qualitatively differ-
nominal scale
nation ent from another. So, the numbers A scale in which
2. amount of alcohol; 1, 2, or 3 ounces; level of coordi- on football uniforms or on your each score is used
credit card are nominal scales. In for identification and
does not indicate an
research, we have nominal variables
1. independent variable; dependent variable
amount
when studying different types of
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unceremoniously as if they were at home. Concord seems to reign at
table. I have never seen the legitimate larva take offence at the
indiscretion of the strangers, nor observed these attempt to trouble
its repast. All keep themselves together, and eat peaceably without
annoying their neighbours.
So far all would be well, were it not that a grave difficulty arises.
However active may be the mother-nurse, it is clear that she cannot
meet such a consumption of food. She has to be incessantly on the
[246]wing to feed one larva: what must happen if there are a dozen
gluttons to provide for? The result of this enormous increase of
family can only be want, or even famine, not for the larvæ of the
Dipteron (which develop more rapidly than that of the Bembex,
profiting by the days when abundance still reigns, their host being
yet in early youth), but for the latter, who reaches the moment of
metamorphosis without being able to make up for lost time. Besides,
when the first guests become pupæ and leave the table free to it,
others come, as long as the mother visits the nest, and complete its
starvation.
In burrows invaded by numerous parasites the Bembex larva is

undoubtedly much smaller than one would expect from the heap of
food consumed, the remains of which encumber the cell. Limp,
emaciated,—only half or a third of its proper size,—it vainly tries to
spin a cocoon, the silk for which it has not got, and it perishes in a
corner of the cell, amid the pupæ of guests more fortunate than
itself. Or its end may be yet more tragic. Should provender fail, or the
mother delay too long in returning with food, the Diptera devour it. I
ascertained this black deed by bringing up the brood myself. All went
well as long as food was plentiful, but if through neglect, or on
purpose, the daily supply failed, next day or the day after I was sure
to find the Diptera larvæ greedily rending that of the Bembex. Thus,
when the nest is invaded by parasites, the legitimate larva is fated to
perish either by hunger or a violent death, and this it is which makes
the sight of Miltogramma prowling round the nest so odious to the
Bembex. [247]
The Bembex is not the only victim of these parasites: the burrows of
one and all of the mining Hymenoptera are invaded by Tachinids,
especially by the Miltogramma. Various observers—notably
Lepeletier de Saint Fargeau—have spoken of the manœuvres of
these impudent Diptera; but as far as I know none have perceived
the very curious case of parasitism at the expense of the Bembex—
very curious, because the conditions are quite different. Nests of
other Fossors are stored beforehand, and the Miltogramma drops an
egg on the prey just as it is being carried in. The provender stored
and her egg laid, the Hymenopteron closes up the cell where
thenceforward live the legitimate larva and the strangers, unvisited in
their prison. Thus, the robbery committed by the parasite is unknown
to the mother, and must consequently remain unpunished.
With the Bembex it is quite otherwise. The mother constantly returns

during the fortnight that she is bringing up the larva; she knows that
her offspring is living among numerous intruders, who appropriate
the greater part of the food; every time that she brings provender she
touches and feels at the bottom of her den these detestable guests,
who, far from contenting themselves with remains, seize what is
best. She must perceive, however small her powers of arithmetic
may be, that twelve are more than one; besides, she would discover
this from the disproportion between the consumption of food and her
means of hunting, and yet, instead of seizing these bold intruders
and bundling them out, she serenely tolerates them. Tolerates! Why,
she [248]feeds them and brings them their rations, and perhaps feels
as much tenderness for them as for her own larva. It is a new
version of the cuckoo story in yet more singular circumstances. The
theory that the cuckoo, almost as big as a sparrowhawk and
coloured like it, should look imposing enough to introduce an egg
unresisted into the nest of the weak hedge-sparrow, and that the
latter, overawed perhaps by the alarming look of her toad-faced
nursling, should accept and care for the stranger, has something in
its favour. But what shall we say of a sparrow which, turning parasite,
should go with splendid audacity and intrust her eggs to the eyrie of
a bird of prey—the nest of the sparrowhawk itself—the sanguinary
devourer of sparrows? What should we say of the bird of prey who
should accept the charge and bring up the brood tenderly? It is
precisely thus that the Bembex acts,—she, a captor of Diptera who
yet brings up other Diptera—a huntress who distributes food to a
prey whose last repast will be her own disembowelled offspring! I
leave to cleverer people the task of explaining these amazing
relations.
Let us observe the tactics employed by the Tachinid, whose object is

to confide her egg to the nest of the miner. It is an invariable rule that
the fly should never penetrate into the burrow, even if left open and
the owner absent. The crafty parasite would take good care not to
entangle itself in a passage, where, having no possibility of flight, it
might pay dearly for its effrontery. The only moment for its designs—
a moment watched for with the greatest patience—is that when the
Hymenopteron [249]enters the gallery, clasping her prey. At that
instant, brief as it is, when the Bembex or any other miner has half
her body within the entrance, and is about to disappear
underground, the Miltogramma arrives on the wing, perches on the
prey slightly, projecting beyond the hinder end of the Bembex, and
while she is delayed by the difficulties of entering, the Miltogramma,
with unparalleled promptitude, lays an egg on the prey, or two, or
even three eggs, successively. The hesitation of the Bembex,
embarrassed by her load, lasts but the twinkling of an eye; but that
matters not—it is long enough for the fly to accomplish its misdeed
without being dragged beyond the threshold. What must not be the
suppleness of organs to achieve this instantaneous laying of the
egg! The Bembex disappears, herself introducing the enemy, and
the Tachinid goes and crouches in the sun, close to the burrow, and
meditates fresh crimes. If one would make sure that the Dipteron’s
eggs have really been deposited during this rapid manœuvre, it
suffices to open the burrow and follow the Bembex to the bottom of
her abode. The prey which one takes from her bears underneath at
least one egg—sometimes more, according to the length of the delay
at the entrance. These very minute eggs could only belong to a
parasite, and if any doubt remained, you can bring up the brood in a
box, and the result will be Diptera larvæ—later pupæ, and finally
Miltogramma.
The fly shows wonderful sagacity in the moment selected by it—the

only one which could permit of her carrying out her purpose with
neither peril nor vain efforts. The Bembex, half-way through [250]the
entrance, cannot see her enemy audaciously perched on the hind
quarters of the prey, or, if she suspects the bandit’s presence, cannot
drive it away, having no freedom of movement in the strait passage,
and in spite of all precautions to facilitate speedy entrance, cannot
always vanish underground with the celerity required, so quick is the
parasite. In fact, this is the only propitious moment, since prudence
forbids the Dipteron to penetrate into the den, where other Diptera,
far stronger than itself, are served up as food for the larvæ. Outside,
in the open air, the difficulty is insurmountable, so great is the
vigilance of the Bembex. Let us give a moment to the arrival of the
mother, when the nest is being watched by the Miltogramma.
Some of these flies—more or fewer, generally three or four—have

settled on the sand and are quite motionless, all gazing at the
burrow, the entrance of which they know very well, carefully hid
though it be. Their dull-brown colour, their large crimson-red eyes,
their intense stillness, have often made me think of bandits who,
dressed in a dark material, with a red kerchief over their heads, are
lying in wait to do some evil deed. The Hymenopteron comes,
loaded with prey. Had she no anxieties she would alight straightway
at her door. Instead, she hovers at a certain height, descends slowly
and circumspectly, hesitates, and vibrates her wings, producing a
plaintive hum denoting apprehension. She must have seen the
malefactors. They too have seen the Bembex. The movement of
their red heads shows that they are following her with their eyes;
every gaze is fixed on the coveted [251]booty. Then come marches
and counter-marches of cunning versus prudence.
The Bembex drops straight down with an imperceptible flight, as if

she let herself sink gently, making a parachute of her wings. Now
she is hovering just above the ground; the flies take wing, placing
themselves one and all behind her,—some nearer, some farther,—in
a geometrical line. If she turns round to disconcert them, they turn
too, with a precision which keeps them all in the same straight line; if
she advances, so do they; if she draws back, they draw back too,
measuring their flight, now slow, now stationary, on that of the
Bembex at the head of the file. They do not attempt to fling
themselves on the desired object, their tactics being merely to hold
themselves in readiness in the position of rearguard, so as to avoid
any hesitation when the rapid final manœuvre shall come.
Sometimes, wearied out by their obstinate pursuit, the Bembex

alights, and the flies instantly settle on the sand, still behind her, and
keep quite still. She rises again, with a sharper hum—the sign no
doubt of increasing indignation; the flies follow her. One last means
remains to throw the tenacious Diptera off the track; the Bembex
flies far away—perhaps hoping to mislead the parasites by rapid
evolutions over the fields. But the crafty flies are not taken in; they let
her go, and settle down again on the sand round the burrow. When
the Bembex returns the same manœuvres begin again until the
obstinacy of the parasites has exhausted her prudence. At a moment
when her vigilance fails, the flies are [252]instantly there. Whichever is
at the most favourable point drops upon the vanishing prey, and the
thing is done—the egg is laid.
There is ample evidence that the Bembex is conscious of danger,

and knows how disastrous for the future of her nest is the presence
of the hated fly; her long efforts to throw the parasites off her track,
her hesitation and flights, leave not a doubt on the subject. How is it
then, I ask myself once more, that the enemy of Diptera should allow
herself to be annoyed by another Dipteron—a tiny robber, incapable
of the least resistance, which, if she chose, she could destroy
instantly? Why, when once free from the prey which hampers her,
does she not pounce on these ill-doers? What is needed to
exterminate the evil brood around her burrow? Merely a battle which
would take but a few instants. But the harmony of those laws which
govern the preservation of species will not have it so, and the
Bembex will always allow herself to be harassed without ever
learning from the famous “struggle for life” the radical means of
extermination. I have seen some which, pressed too closely, let fall
their prey and flew off wildly, but without any hostile demonstration,
although dropping their game left them full liberty of action. The prey,
so ardently desired a moment earlier by the Tachinidæ, lay on the
ground at the mercy of them all, and not one cared about it. It had no
value for the flies, whose larvæ need the shelter of a burrow. It was
valueless also to the Bembex, who came back, felt it for an instant
and left it disdainfully. The little break in her custody of it had
rendered her suspicious of it. [253]
Let us end this chapter by the history of the larva. Its monotonous life
offers nothing remarkable during the two weeks while it eats and
grows. Then comes making a cocoon. The slight development of
silk-producing organs does not allow of a dwelling of pure silk, like
those of the Ammophila and Sphegidæ—made of several wrappers
which protect the larva, and later the nymph, from damp in the ill-
protected, shallow burrow during autumn rains and winter snows. Yet
this Bembex burrow is in worse conditions than those of the Sphex,
being made at a depth of only a few inches in very permeable soil.
To fashion a sufficient shelter the larva supplements by its industry
the small amount of silk at its disposal. With grains of sand
artistically put together and connected by silky matter, it constructs a
most solid cocoon—impenetrable to damp.
Three general methods are employed by fossorial Hymenoptera to

construct the dwelling in which metamorphosis is to take place.
Some hollow burrows at a great depth under a shelter, and then the
cocoon consists of a single wrapper, so thin as to be transparent.
Such is the case with Philanthidæ and Cerceris. Others are content
with a shallow burrow in open ground; but in that case they have silk
enough for manifold wrappings of the cocoon, as with Sphegidæ,
Ammophila, and Scolia; or if the quantity be insufficient, they use
agglutinated sand—as, for instance, the Bembex and Palarus. One
might take a Bembex cocoon for a solid kernel, so compact and
resistant is it. The form is cylindrical—one end rounded, the other
pointed. [254]The length is about two centimetres. Outside it is slightly
wrinkled and coarse, but within the walls are smoothed by a fine
varnish.
Rearing at home has enabled me to follow every detail of the

construction of this curious piece of architecture—a real strong box
which can brave all the severity of the weather. First of all the larva
pushes away the remains of its feast into a corner of the cell, or the
compartment arranged for it in a box with paper partitions. Having
cleared a space, it affixes to the walls of its abode threads of a
beautiful white silk, forming a spidery web which keeps the heap of
food-remains at a distance, and serves as scaffolding for the work to
come.
This work consists of a hammock, suspended far from anything that

can defile it, in the centre of threads stretched from wall to wall. Fine,
beautiful white silk is the only material used. The shape is that of a
sack open at one end, with a wide circular orifice, closed at the other
and ending in a point; a fisherman’s basket gives a very fair idea of
it. Then the edges of the aperture are permanently kept apart by
numerous threads fastened to the neighbouring walls. The tissue of
the bag is extremely fine, allowing all that the grub does to be seen.
Things had been in this state since the previous evening, when I
heard the larva scratching in the box. On opening, I found my captive
busy scratching the cardboard walls with the tips of its mandibles, its
body half out of the bag. Already it had made considerable progress,
and a heap of little fragments were piled before the opening of the
hammock, to be utilised later. For lack of other [255]materials it would
doubtless have used these scrapings for its constructions, but I
thought it better to provide according to its tastes and give it sand.
Never did Bembex larva build with such sumptuous material. I
poured out for my prisoner sand for drying writing,—sand well
sprinkled with gilded grains of mica,—before the opening of the bag,
which was in a horizontal position, suitable to the work which would
follow. The larva, half out of its hammock, chose its sand almost
grain by grain, routing in the heap with its mandibles, and, if one too
bulky presented itself, it was seized and cast aside. The sand being
sorted, the larva introduced a certain quantity with its mouth into the
silken fabric, then retired into its sack and began spreading the
materials in a uniform layer on the inner surface, then glued together
various grains and inlaid them in the fabric, with silk for cement. The
outer surface was constructed more slowly. These grains were
carried singly and fixed on with silk gum.
This first deposit of sand only concerns the anterior part of the
cocoon—that half which ends in the opening. Before turning round to
work at the back part, the larva renews its store of materials and
takes certain precautions, so as not to be embarrassed in its
masonry. The sand heaped before the entrance might slip inside and
hinder the builder in so narrow a space. The grub foresees this, and
glues some grains together, making a coarse curtain of sand, which
stops up the orifice, imperfectly indeed, but enough for the purpose.
These precautions taken, the grub labours at the back part of the
cocoon. From time to time it turns round to get [256]fresh materials
from outside, tearing away a corner of the protecting curtain, and
through this window grasping the materials needed. The cocoon is
still incomplete—wide open at the upper end and without the
spherical cap needed to close it. For this final bit of work the grub
provides itself abundantly with sand, and then pushes away the heap
before the entrance. A silken cap is now woven and fitted close to
the mouth of this primitive basket. On this silken foundation are
deposited, one by one, the sand grains kept in the interior and
cemented with silk-spittle. This lid completed, the larva has only to
give the last finish to the interior of the dwelling and glaze the walls
with varnish, to protect its tender skin from the roughness of the
sand.
The hammock of pure silk and the cap which later closes it are
evidently only scaffolding intended to support the masonry of sand
and to give it a regular curve. One might compare them to the
constructions used by builders when making an arch or vault. The
work being completed, the silken support disappears, partly lost in
the masonry, and partly destroyed by contact with rough earth, and
no trace remains of the ingenious method employed to put together
a construction perfectly regular, yet made of a material so little
coherent as is sand. The spherical cap which closes the original
basket is a separate work, adjusted to the main body of the cocoon.
However well the two pieces are fitted and soldered, the solidity is
not such as the larva would obtain had it built the whole dwelling
continuously. Thus, on the circumference of the cover there is a
circular line less capable of resistance, but this is not [257]a fault of
construction. On the contrary it is a fresh perfection. The insect
would experience grave difficulty in issuing from its strong box, so
thick are the walls, did not the line of junction, weaker than the rest,
apparently save much effort, as it is usually along this line that the
cover is detached when the perfect Bembex emerges.
I have called the cocoon a strong box. It is indeed a solid article,

both from its shape and the nature of its materials. Landslips or
falling sand cannot alter its form, since the strongest pressure of
one’s fingers cannot always crush it. Thus it matters little to the larva
if the ceiling of its burrow, dug in loose soil, should sooner or later fall
in, and it need not fear, even should a passing foot press down the
thin covering of sand; it runs no risks when once enclosed in its stout
shelter. Nor does damp endanger it. I have immersed Bembex
cocoons for a fortnight in water without finding any trace of damp
inside them. Ah! why cannot we have such waterproof for our
dwellings? To sum up: the cocoon, of graceful oval shape, appears
rather the product of patient art than the work of a grub. For any one
not behind the scenes, the cocoons which I saw in process of
construction with the sand from my inkstand might well have been
precious articles of some unknown industry—great beads starred
with golden dots on a ground of lapis lazuli, destined for the necklace
of some Polynesian belle. [258]
[Contents]
XIX
THE RETURN TO THE NEST
The Ammophila digging her well late in the day leaves her work after
stopping the entrance with a stone, flits away from one flower to
another, goes into a new neighbourhood, and yet next day can return
with a caterpillar to the abode hollowed out the evening before,
notwithstanding her want of acquaintance with the locality—often
new to her; the Bembex, loaded with prey, alights with almost
mathematical precision on the threshold of a dwelling blocked by
sand and rendered uniform with the rest of the sandy surface. Where
my sight and memory are at fault, theirs have a certainty verging on
infallibility. One would say that the insect possessed something more
subtle than mere recollection—a kind of intuition of locality with
which nothing in us corresponds—in short, an indefinable faculty
which I call memory for lack of any other expression by which to
designate it. The unknown cannot be named. In order to throw if
possible a little light on this point in the psychology of animals I
instituted a series of experiments, which I will now describe.
The first had for its subject Cerceris tuberculata, [259]which hunts the
Cleonus. About 10 a.m. I took a dozen females busy at the same
bank and of the same colony, either hollowing or storing burrows.
Each was enclosed in a twist of paper, and all were put into a box.
About two kilometres from the nests I freed my captives, first
marking them with a white dot in the middle of the thorax by means
of a straw dipped in an indelible colour, in order to recognise them
later. They flew on every side—some here, some there, but only a
few paces, alighting on blades of grass and passing their forelegs
over their eyes for a moment, as if dazzled by the bright sunshine to
which they were suddenly restored. Then they took flight—some
earlier, some later; and one and all took unhesitatingly a straight line
south, i.e. in the direction of their home. Five hours later I returned to
the common territory of the nests. Almost directly I saw two of my
white-dotted Cerceris working at their burrows. Soon a third came in,
with a weevil between her feet. A fourth soon followed—four out of
twelve in a quarter of an hour was enough for conviction; I judged it
useless to wait longer; what four could do, the others could, if indeed
they had not already done it, and one may very well suppose that the
eight absentees were out hunting, or perhaps had retired into the
depths of their burrows. Thus, carried to a distance of two
kilometres, in a direction and by a way which they could not possibly
perceive from the depths of their paper prison, the Cerceris—at all
events part of them—had returned home.
I do not know to what distance they go hunting; possibly they know

the country round for some two kilometres. In that case they would
not have been [260]far enough away, and came home by their local
knowledge. The experiment had to be tried again at a greater
distance, and from a point which the Cerceris could not possibly
know.
I therefore took nine females from the colony whence I had got them
in the morning; three of these had been already experimented upon.
Again they were conveyed in a dark box—each imprisoned in a
paper twist. The starting-place was to be the neighbouring town of
Carpentras, about three kilometres from the burrows. I meant to
release them not amid fields as before, but in a street in the midst of
a populous quarter, where the Cerceris, with their rustic habits, had
assuredly never penetrated. As the hour was late I put off the
experiment, and my captives spent the night in their prison cells.
The next morning, towards eight o’clock, I marked them with a

double white spot on the thorax to distinguish them from those of the
evening before, which had only one, and set them free successively
in the middle of the street. Each mounted vertically, as if to get as
soon as possible from between the houses and gain a wide horizon,
then rising above the roofs, instantly and energetically turned its
flight south. And it was from the south that I brought them into the
town, and their burrows are south. Nine times with my nine prisoners
did I obtain this striking result—that an insect quite beyond its
bearings should not hesitate a moment what direction to take to
regain its nest.
Some hours later I too was at the burrows. I saw several of my

yesterday’s Cerceris with a white dot, but none of the last set free.
Had they been [261]unable to find the way back? Were they out
hunting, or in their galleries recovering from the excitement of such a
trial? I do not know. The next morning I came again, and had the
satisfaction of finding at work, as active as if nothing extraordinary
had happened to them, five Cerceris with two white dots. Three
kilometres of distance,—the town with its houses, roofs, and smoky
chimneys—all so novel to my rustic Cerceris,—had proved no
obstacle to their return home.
Taken from its brood and carried an enormous distance, the pigeon
returns promptly to its dovecote. If one were to consider the length of
journey in proportion to the size of the animal, how superior to the
pigeon is the Cerceris carried away three kilometres and returning to
its burrow! The size of the insect does not equal a cubic centimetre,
while that of the pigeon must quite equal the cube of a decimetre, if it
does not exceed it. The bird, a thousand times larger than the
Hymenopteron, ought, in order to rival it, to find its dovecote at a
distance of 3000 kilometres—thrice the greatest length of France
from north to south. I do not know if a carrier-pigeon has ever shown
such prowess, but wing-power and yet more lucidity of instinct
cannot be measured by yards. Nor can we here consider the
question of size, and one can only see in the insect a worthy rival to
the bird without deciding which has the advantage.
Are the two guided by memory when placed by man beyond their
bearings and carried to great distances—into regions with which they
are unacquainted and in unknown directions? Is memory [262]as
quick when, having reached a certain height at which they can in
some sort take their bearings, they launch themselves with all their
power of wing towards that part of the horizon where are their nests?
Is it memory which traces their aerial way across regions seen for
the first time? Evidently not. It is not possible to recollect the
unknown. The Hymenopteron and the bird know nothing of their
surroundings; nothing can have taught them the general direction
which they followed when carried thither, for it was in the darkness of
a closed box that the journey was made. Locality, orientation,—all is
unknown, and yet they find their way. They have then as guide
something better than simple memory—a special faculty, a kind of
topographic consciousness of which we can form no idea,
possessing nothing analogous to it.
I am now about to establish experimentally how subtle and precise is

this faculty in the narrow cycle where it is applied, and also how
limited and obtuse when it has to move out of habitual conditions.
Such is the invariable antithesis of instinct.
A Bembex, actively engaged in feeding her larva, has left her burrow.
She will return immediately with the product of the chase. The
entrance is carefully stopped with sand—swept backward by the
insect before departing. Nothing distinguishes it from the rest of the
sandy surface. But this offers no difficulty to the Hymenopteron, who
finds her doorway again with a sagacity which I have already
described. Let us plan some treachery; let us perplex her by altering
the state of the place. I cover the entrance with a flat stone as large
as [263]my hand. She soon returns. The complete change made upon
her threshold during her absence does not seem to cause her the
slightest hesitation; at all events she alights immediately upon the
stone, and tries for an instant to hollow it, not at a chance spot, but
exactly over the opening of her burrow. Quickly turned aside from
this attempt by the hardness of the obstacle, she traverses the stone
in every direction, goes round it, slips underneath, and begins to dig
in the precise direction of her dwelling.
The flat stone is too trifling an obstacle to disconcert the clever fly; let
us find something better. I did not allow the Bembex to continue her
excavation, which I saw would soon prove successful, and drove her
far off with my handkerchief. The absence of the frightened insect for
a considerable time allowed me to prepare my snares leisurely. What
materials must now be employed? In these improvised experiments
one must know how to turn all things to profit. Not far off on the high
road is the fresh dropping of a beast of burden; here is wood for our
arrow. The dropping was collected, crushed, and spread in a layer at
least an inch thick on the threshold of the burrow and its
surroundings over more than a quarter of a yard. Assuredly here was
such a façade as never Bembex knew. Colour, the nature of the
material, the effluvium,—all combined to deceive the Hymenopteron.
Can she take this stretch of manure—this dung—for the front of the
dwelling? She does! Here she comes; studying from above the
unusual condition of the place, and settling in the middle of the layer,
just opposite the entrance, routing about, making a way [264]through
the fibrous mass, and penetrating to the sand, she promptly
discovers the mouth of the passage. I stop and drive her away a
second time.
Is not the precision with which the Bembex settles before her
dwelling, though masked in a way so novel, a proof that sight and
memory are not in such a case the only guides? What further can
there be? Smell, perhaps. That is very doubtful, for the emanations
from the dung could not baffle the perspicacity of the insect.
Nevertheless, let us try another odour. I happen to have with me, as
part of my entomological outfit, a little phial of ether. The covering of
manure is swept off and replaced by a cushion of moss, not very
thick, but covering a wide surface, on which I pour the contents of
my phial the moment I see the Bembex coming. The over-strong
emanations keep her off, but only for an instant. She alights on the
moss, still reeking of ether, traverses the obstacle and penetrates to
her dwelling. The etherised effluvia did not disturb her any more than
did those of the manure; something surer than smell tells where her
nest is.
The antennæ have been often suggested as the seat of a special

sense to guide insects. I have already shown how the suppression of
these organs appears to offer no obstacle to the researches of the
Hymenoptera. Let us try once more in wider conditions. The Bembex
is caught, its antennæ amputated to the roots, and is then released.
Stung by the pain—wild with terror at being held between my fingers
—the insect flies off swifter than an arrow. I had to wait a whole hour,
uncertain as to its [265]return. However, it came, and with its
invariable precision alighted quite close to its doorway, whose look I
had changed for the fourth time, having covered the site with a large
mosaic of pebbles the size of a nut. My work, which, compared to
the Bembex, surpassed what for us are the Megalithic monuments of
Brittany, or the lines of Menhirs at Carnac, was powerless to deceive
the mutilated insect. Though deprived of antennæ it found the
entrance in the midst of my mosaic as easily as would have done an
insect under other conditions. This time I let the faithful mother go
home in peace.
The site transformed four times over, the outworks of the abode
changed in colour, scent, and material, the pain of a double wound,
—all failed to disconcert the Hymenopteron or even to make her
doubtful as to the precise locality of her doorway. I had exhausted
my stratagems, and understood less than ever how the insect, if it
have no special guide in some faculty unknown to us, can find its
way when sight and smell are baffled by the artifices of which I have
spoken. Some days later an experience gave me the opportunity to
take up the problem from a new point of view. The Bembex burrow
had to be bared in its whole extent, without quite destroying it, to
which operation its shallowness and almost horizontal direction, and
the light soil in which it was made, lent themselves readily. The sand
was gradually scraped off with the blade of a knife, and thus,
deprived of roof from end to end, the underground abode became a
semi-canal or conduit, straight or curved, some eight inches long,
open where was the entrance, and ending [266]in a cul-de-sac where
lay the larva amid its food.
The dwelling was uncovered in full sunshine; how would the mother
behave on her return? Let us consider the question scientifically. The
observer may be greatly embarrassed: what I have already seen
leads me to expect it. The mother’s impulse is to bring food to her
larva, but to reach this larva she must first find the door. Grub and
entrance are the points which appear to deserve being separately
examined; therefore I take away grub and food, and the end of the
passage is cleared. There is nothing more to do but arm one’s self
with patience.
At last the Bembex arrives and makes straight for her absent door,
only the threshold of which remains. There for a good hour did I see
her dig, sweep the surface, send the sand flying, and persist, not in
making a new gallery, but in seeking the loose sand barrier which
should yield to the mere pressure of her head and let her pass
easily. Instead of loose materials she finds firm soil not yet disturbed.
Warned by this resistance she limits her efforts to exploring the
surface, always close to where the door should be, only allowing
herself to deviate a few inches. She returns to sound and sweep
places already sounded and swept some twenty times, unable to
leave her narrow circle, so obstinately convinced is she that the door
must be there and nowhere else. With a straw I pushed her gently
and repeatedly to another point. She would have none of it, and
came back at once to where the door ought to have been. Now and
then the gallery, turned into a semi-canal, appeared to attract [267]her
attention, but very faintly. She would go a few steps along it, still
raking, and then return to the entrance. Two or three times I saw her
go the whole length of the gallery and reach the cul-de-sac where
the larva should be, do a little careless raking, and hurry back where
the entrance used to be, and continue searching with a patience
which exhausted mine. More than an hour had passed, and still she
sought on the site whence the door had disappeared.
What would happen in the presence of the larva? That was the
second part of the question. To continue the experiment with the
same Bembex would not have offered sufficient guarantee, as the
creature, rendered more obstinate by her vain search, seemed
possessed by a fixed idea, and this would have interfered with the
facts which I wanted to prove. I required a new subject, concerned
solely with the impulses of the actual moment. An opportunity soon
came. The burrow was uncovered, as I have just said; but I did not
touch the contents; larva and food were left in their places,—all was
in order inside, the roof only was wanting. Well, with this open
dwelling, whose every detail the eye could embrace,—vestibule,
gallery, cell at the far end, with the grub and its heap of provender,—
this dwelling turned into a roofless gallery at the end of which the
larva was moving restlessly, under the hot sun, its mother continued
the manœuvres already described. She alighted just where the
entrance had been, and there it was that she hunted about and
swept the sand—there that she always returned after some hasty

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Neuroscience for Neurosurgeons (Feb 29,

2 Creating and Using

2-2 Understanding Frequency Distributions 22

3 Summarizing Scores with

3-1 Some New Symbols and Procedures 37

5 Describing Data with

6 Using Probability to Make

8 Hypothesis Testing Using

8-3 Interpreting the t-Test 133

9 Hypothesis Testing Using

9-5 Performing the Related-Samples t-Test 152

12-4 Completing the Two-Way ANOVA 209

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Appendix A: Math Review

Appendix B: Statistical Tables 252

Your goals in this chapter are to learn:

2 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 3

4 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

TO BRUSH UP ON our findings, we generalize back

MATH IN APPENDIX A.1

late this into the more specific participants

viduals measured in a sample are

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 5

situation that, when in the population will also be accu-

6 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 7

8 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

1-3b When No Relationship Is

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 9

10 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 11

for an advanced discussion.

12 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 13

14 Behavioral Sciences STAT2

> In a correlational design the researcher

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics and Research 15

In burrows invaded by numerous parasites the Bembex larva is

With the Bembex it is quite otherwise. The mother constantly returns

Let us observe the tactics employed by the Tachinid, whose object is

The fly shows wonderful sagacity in the moment selected by it—the

Some of these flies—more or fewer, generally three or four—have

The Bembex drops straight down with an imperceptible flight, as if

Sometimes, wearied out by their obstinate pursuit, the Bembex

There is ample evidence that the Bembex is conscious of danger,

Three general methods are employed by fossorial Hymenoptera to

Rearing at home has enabled me to follow every detail of the

This work consists of a hammock, suspended far from anything that

I have called the cocoon a strong box. It is indeed a solid article,