Introduction to Old Testament

What the Bible is

The word „Bible‟ designates the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments
recognised and used by the Christian churches. Judaism recognised only the
scriptures of the Old Testament. Other religious traditions like, Hinduism, Sikhism,
Buddhism and Islam have their sacred scriptures.
But there is only one Bible all other „Sacred‟ literature is concerned, because:

i. It is the revelation of God.

ii. It is God‟s breathed (II Tim 3:16) and inspired in a different sense from all
other literatures.
iii. It discloses God‟s plan and purposes for the ages of time and eternity.
iv. It centres in God incarnate in Jesus Christ the Saviour of mankind (Heb 1: 1-
2).
Meaning of the Bible
The word „Bible‟ comes from the Greek word Biblia (books), a diminutive from biblos
(book) denoting the inner bark of the papyrus reed (ancient paper) from which
ancient books (scrolls) was made. Daniel 9:2 refers to the OT prophet‟s writing as
„the Scriptures‟ (ta biblia in the Greek).

The writer of I Maccabees (Apocryphal book) designates them „the holy books
(12:9). The usage passed over into Christian terminology and by 5th century A.D. By
the 13th CE the neuter plural came to be regarded as the feminine singular, and „the
Books,‟ became by common consent „The Book‟ (biblia, Singular) in which form the
word was passed into the languages of modern Europe.

This evolution of the term „the Bible‟ from the plural to the singular concept has
proven to be providential, stressing the unity of the 39 books of the OT and 27 of the
NT.
The Inspiration of the Bible

Inspiration has reference to the influence God exerted over the human authors of
Scripture so that the words and thoughts they recorded in the original autographs
were without error (II Tim 3:16, Jn 10:35, II Pet 1od directed the process, by a fact
demonstrated by textual criticism. Ferreting out any scribal errors which may have
crept into the transmitted text is an activity belonging to the domain of lower criticism
and the legitimate labours of consecrated scholars.
Word of God

Divine inspiration makes the Bible uniquely the Word of God and not merely a book
containing the Word of God, and as such is different from any other book sacred and
secular. It is an inspired revelation of God‟s redemptive of natural science or a book
of secular history. Alleged scientific discrepancies are due to faulty scientific theories
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or inadequate interpretations of Bible thought forms. Alleged historical blunders may
be due to such factors as a faculty textual tradition, or wrong interpretation of
historical or archaeological evidence or of the Biblical text itself.
The Authority of the Bible

Authority resides in God‟s inspired Word interpreted by God‟s Spirit operating

through Spirit-taught human agents. Orthodox Protestants differs from Catholicism in
claiming no other authority than canonical scripture as the voice of the Holy Spirit.
Purpose of the Bible

The Bible was given to bear witness to one God, Creator and Sustainer of the
Universe, through Christ, Redeemer. It presents one continuous story that of human
redemption. This story a progressive unfolding of the central truth of the Bible that
God in His eternal counsels was to become in incarnate in Jesus Christ for the
redemption of fallen man.
The unfolding of this central truth of redemption is set through history, prophecy, type
and symbol. The revelation of human redemption through Christ orients human in
the larger framework of God‟s plans for him/her in the ages of time, as well as the
divine purpose for him in eternity.
Terms Old Testament and New Testament

From the end of the 2nd Cen, the terms Old Testament and New Testament have
been used to differentiate the Hebrew from the Christian scriptures. The formal
collection of Christian writings made after the middle of the 2nd century was called
the New Testament. This collection was placed alongside the Hebrew Canonical
books. Tertullian, an early Latin Church Father (c.200), first employed the term
Novum Testamentum. Thereafter it came into general use, and the concept of a
Christian Bible was crystallised. The term testament mean covenant. The covenant
is a continuation of the OT designation for the Mosaic Law, the book of the covenant
(II Kgs 23:2). Paul in this sense speaks of reading „the old covenant‟ (II Cor 3:14).

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Introduction

The Old Testament was the Bible used by Christ and the apostles. Almost
uniformly (I Pet 3:16 is an exception) the words “scripture” or “scriptures” in the New
Testament refers to the Old Testament (e.g., Jn 5:39; 10:35; Acts 8:32; Gal 3:8; II
Tim. 3:16). Christ recognized the full authority, the binding nature, of scripture while
reserving for himself the right to be its true interpreter. Christ gives no evidence in
the NT of conflict over the inspiration or authority of the OT.

Paul and the Old Testament: As a Jew and a rabbi, Saul of Tarsus knew the
OT well; as a Christian and an apostle, Paul found the familiar text gave with fresh
meaning. Like Jesus he accepted the full inspiration and authority of the scripture (II
Tim 3:16).
General Introduction to the Old Testament

The Old Testament is concerned with the Hebrew God, Yahweh, and significances
to be a history of the early Israelites. The New Testament is the work of early
Christians and reflects their beliefs about Jesus; it purports to be the history of Jesus
teachings and deeds.

The composition of the version books began in about 1000 B.C and continued for
more than a 1000 years. Much oral material was included. This was repeated from
father to son, revised over and over again, and they put into written form by various
editors. These editors often worked in different locales and in different time periods
and were usually that and author foresaw that his work would be included in the
„Bible.‟

No original manuscripts exist. There is probably not one book which survives in
anything like its original form. There are hundreds of difference between the oldest
manuscripts if any one book. These differences indicate that numerous additions and
alterations were made to the originals by various copyist and editors.
A Brief History of the Old Testament

The OT records the beginning of God‟s divine, progressive revelation of who He is

and what is required for human to be in right relationship with their creator God.
Some facts about the OT

o Written over a period of 1000 years.

o Written by about 30 different human authors.
o Contain 39 books.
o Written primarily in Hebrew with short portions in Aramaic.
o The original scriptures were carefully and meticulously copied by hand by
Hebrew scribes and passed along from generation to generation.
o By the time of Christ the OT was complete as one book containing the books
we have today.

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 The Canon of the Old Testament
Canon is derived from the Greek word „Kanon‟ which means „rule.‟ The word
“canon,” borrowed by the Greeks from the Semites who themselves had borrowed it
from the Sumerians, originally meant “reed.” Because reeds often used as
measuring sticks, the word has come to have a variety of meanings related to
measurement, including „rule,‟ „standard,‟ „law,‟ „boundary,‟ „list,‟ „index.‟

Canon is a rule by which the books of the Bible received their final acceptance by the
church leaders. The canon of the Scripture refers to the collection of sacred books,
which are accepted as the authoritative Word of God. The canonical books of the OT
are those, which are accepted as being written by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

Four closely related distinguishable steps were involved in the formation of

the Old Testament canon.
1. Oral Tradition
For the people of Israel, the principle of canonicity began when they received the law
through Moses at Mt. Sinai. God gave strong words, the people pledged themselves
to abide by them, and Moses put them in writing (Exo 24:3f). The seeds of canonicity
were present even earlier when the people, becoming increasingly aware of Israel‟s
peculiar role in God‟s program of redemption, treasured the commands and the
promises affirmed to the patriarchs as sacred words from which to draw strength and
comfort.
2. Authoritative Documents

In Deut. 31: 24-26, Moses “finished writing the words of this law in a book” and
commanded the Levites to put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant… that it may
be there for a witness against you.” The biding authority of this book was reaffirmed
to Joshua: “The book of the law shall not depart out of your mouth, but you shall
meditate on it day and night…” (Josh. 1:8).

The rediscovery of the book of law in the eighteenth year of Josiah‟s reign
(621 B.C.) was a land mark in the development of the Old Testament canon (II Kgs
22).

3. Collections of Writings

The traditional threefold division of the Hebrew scriptures into Law, Prophets and
writings probably indicates stages in the formation of the canon as well as
differences in subject matter.

The five books of Moses, also called the „Law‟ (Torah) or „Pentateuch‟
probably were completed in substantially their present form by about the time
through the centuries until about the time of David (1000 B.C.). It is possible that

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modest amounts of revision continued through the centuries until about the time of
Ezra (ca. 400).

The Prophets customarily divided into two groups, Former and Latter. The
Former prophets are the historical are the historical books: Joshua Judges, Samuel
and Kings. The Latter Prophets are the great preachers of Israel: Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and the prophets included in the Book of the Twelve. Sometimes called
„minor‟ because of their comparatively brief writings, these twelve often were
contained in a single scroll.

The Writings are even more complex because of the diverse character of the
books. Psalms, Proverbs, and Job are books of poetry. Five of the books, written on
individual scrolls, were read separately at annual feasts: Song of Solomon at
Passover; Ruth at Pentecost; Lamentations on the ninth of Ab, the day Jerusalem
was destroyed in 586; Ecclesiastes at the Feast of Tabernacles; Ether at Purim.
Daniel is the lone prophet, and the Writings conclude in the Hebrew Bible with the
historical narratives of Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles.

Most of the Writings were written or collected during and after the Exile, i.e.,
after 550, although some material, especially in Psalms and Proverbs, dates from
the Monarchy (1000-587B.C.). That the whole collection was put together by 150 is
virtually certain, although evidence for the use of Esther is very little.
4. Fixed Canon

Evidence for the three fold catalogue of sacred writings is found prior to 150 B.C.
The book of Ecclesiastics and apocryphal wisdom book also known ad Ben Sirah,
was provided with a preface by the author‟s grandson who translated the work into
Greek C.A. 132 B.C. in this preface the author refers to the Law and the Prophets as
well as “The others (books) that follow after them.” From this it seems likely that Ben
Sirah himself (Ca. 190) recognised the threefold division of the OT canon.

The most important Jewish reference to the canon occurs in the Talmudic tractate
Baba Bathra, the pertinent section of which probably dates to the first or second
century B.C. here the threefold division is implied clearly and authors are listed for
most books, all of which are in the present Protestant canon.
5. Apocrypha

Apocrypha means “hidden” or „obscure‟. It is used to designate the non-scriptural

writings of the Bible, which are not accepted as authoritative by the Jews or the
Protestant Church. Apocryphal books are the ancient Jewish writings that were
written from the 3rd cen B.C. to the 1st Cen A.D. Roman Catholics call the books
found in the Hebrew Bible “protocanonical” and the additional books and portions of
protocanonical books found only in the Greek OT “deutrocanonical” terms equivalent
to canonical and apocryphal as used by Protestants and Jews.

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  Reasons for the Rejection of Apocrypha
i. The apocryphal books were neither included in the Hebrew Bible, nor
were they quoted as authoritative scripture by Jesus and the apostles.
ii. The leaders of the early Church like Philo and Josephus never
considered the apocryphal books as authoritative even though they
knew them.
iii. The church fathers like Cyril of Jerusalem and Jerome rejected the
apocryphal books as not inspired and never included them in the
Hebrew canon.
iv. Until A.D. 1546, the apocryphal books were never considered as
canonical. Only in the council of Trent the apocryphal books were
considered as canonical by the Roman Catholics.
v. The apocryphal books contain historical, doctrinal and geographical
mistakes. Unanimity could not be achieved among Christian leaders to
include them in the scriptures.
The Canonical Books
Christians began to use the term „canon‟ to denote the list of books, which were
accommodated in the Bible from the 4th cen B.C. In the 1st cen, the Christians called
these sacred books either as “the Law‟ or „The Scriptures.‟ The OT canon was
finalised centuries before the time of Jesus Christ. So when Jesus was in the world,
He used the Hebrew Bible, which contained the 39 books of our Bible (Matt 21:42;
Lk 24: 27; Jn 5:39).
The canonical books available for the OT are the following.
i. The Jewish Canon

The Jewish canon (Hebrew Bible) consists of 24 books. All the books of the Jewish
canon are present in the protestant canon. In the Jewish canon the number of books
is less because Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah are present as one
bool and the twelve Minor Prophets are counted as one book.
ii. The Protestant Canon
The Protestant canon consists of 39 books that we now have in our English Bible.
Protestants consider these books as authoritative. The protestant reformers
accepted only the Hebrew canon as authoritative from the beginning. Martin Luther
excluded the apocryphal books. But he released a Bible in 1534, in which he
included some apocryphal books with the inspiration.
In 1562: the Church of England gave the following guideline for the use of the
apocryphal. “The Church can read them for example of life and instructions of
manner; but it cannot apply them to establish any doctrine.”
The Westminster Confession in 1643 states: the books commonly called Apocrypha,
not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the divine scripture, and therefore of no

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authority to the church of God, or it be otherwise approved or made use of, than any
other human writing.”
iii. The Roman Catholic Canon

The Roman Catholics consider 46 books as canonical. This was finalised in the
Council of Trent in AD 1546. The additional books are Tobit, Judith, the Wisdom of
Solomon, Ecclesiastics, Baruch (including the letter of Jeremiah), First and Second
Maccabees. In addition to these books the Roman Catholic canon has two additions
to Esther and Daniel. Roman Catholic Church did not accept the apocryphal books
like First and Second Esdras, 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151 as canonical.
iv. The Greek Orthodox Canon

The Greek Orthodox Canon id nearly the same as the Roman Catholic Canon. In
addition they include I Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh, 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm
152 into their canon. Baruch was excluded in the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672. So
Greek orthodox canon does not include Baruch.
The Formation of the Canon of the Old Testament

The formation of the OT canon was not the effort of some leaders but was by the
guidance of Holy Spirit. The canon was neither planned by some people nor by a
group of persons. But God moved the children of God from the Moses to recognise
certain writings as authoritative and inspiring.
The Finalisation of the Canon of the Old Testament

By the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, many of the books were accepted as sacred
writings. The leaders who lived between the time of Ezra and the first century
finalised the canon of the OT.
The Conditions for Canonicity of Books

The following conditions were taken into consideration while the canonicity of the
Scripture wad finalised.

i. The author of the books should be a prominent Jewish leader or a prophet.

ii. The book should be consistent and authentic.
iii. The book should have been accepted by the 1 st cen Christians and quoted in
the NT.
iv. The book should edify the readers and must have life transforming ability,
v. The book should be authoritative and claim that the message in the book is
from God.
vi. The books should have been written before or at the time of exile or at the
time of prophets.

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 Formation of the Old Testament

The printed Old Testament has a lengthy history. A product of a distant time and
place, it has come through a centuries-long process of editing, collection, copying,
and translating.

Languages

The two languages of the OT, Hebrew and Aramaic are members of the
family of kindred languages called “Semitic,” a word derived from the name of
Noah‟s son Shem. The original Semites seem to have come from the Arabian
Peninsula. The portions written in Aramaic, were Ezra 4:8-16, 18; 7:12-26; Daniel 2:
4-7, 27 and Jer. 10:11.

Hebrew

The affinities between Hebrew and Canaanite languages are recognized by

the OT itself, for one of the names applied to it is literally “lip of Canaan” (Isa. 19:18).
The patriarchal narratives in Genesis seem to suggest that Abraham‟s family spoke
in Aramaic and that the patriarch and his descendants learned a Canaanite dialect
when they settled in Canaan; Jacob called the stone pile in Gen. 31:47 by a Hebrew
name, while Laban used Aramaic.

The earliest Hebrew manuscripts undoubtedly were written in the

Phoenician alphabet, which has been preserved in the Phoenician and Moabite
inscriptions mentioned above. The written vowels (or vowel points) which appear in
printed Hebrew Bibles were added shortly after A.D. 500 by the Masoretes, a group
of Jewish scholars who were able to stabilize the pronunciation of Biblical Hebrew.

Materials and Methods of Writing

The scroll or roll was the standard form in which the Scriptures were
preserved in OT times. The Dead Sea scrolls are a good indication of the nature of
ancient rolls and the methods of writing employed. Made of carefully prepared
leather, the scrolls are composed of many pieces sewn together and carefully
scarped. However, the earliest biblical documents were written on papyrus which
was used in Egypt as early as the third millennium. The material for these rolls was
prepared by splitting the papyrus reeds and laying one layer of reeds on the top of
another at right angles. The natural gum of the papyrus served as glue for the
crossed strips of each section and for the number of sections joined together to
make a scroll. The other materials were used, generally for shorter message: tablets
of wood, wax, or clay and fragments of broken pottery.

Vellum, which is prepared from skins of animals, was the most frequently
employed material in the writing of the Hebrew Old Testament. Because of its
durability the Jews continued its use through Greek and Roman times, though

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papyrus was more plentiful and commercially acceptable as the standard writing
material. An average leather scroll measured about thirty feet in length and
approximately ten inches in height. Peculiar to ancient texts is the fact that in the
original state only the consonants were written, appearing in a continuous line with
very little word separation.

Text

The Old Testament originally written in Hebrew, with the exception of few chapters
and verses in the latter books. No autograph texts of any Old Testament writing are
known to exist today until the recent discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. These
manuscripts are the Codex Babylonicus. Batropoly turns which goes back only to
916 A.D. This made a time gap of about thousand three hundred years. At first sight
it would appear that the Old Testament is no more reliable than other ancient
literature. With the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a number of OT manuscripts
have been found which scholars date before the time of Christ.

Various Old Testament Texts

1. Massoretic Text

All of the Hebrew manuscripts represent one and the same text, the Massoretic. The
Massorotes were Jewish Rabbis and scholars who edit the Hebrew OT during the
period between 6&8 centuries A.D. Their headquarters was in Tiberius. This text had
vowel points added in order to insure proper pronunciation. This mossoretic text is
the standard Hebrew text today. The mossoretese were well disciplined and treated
the text “with the greatest imaginable reverence and devised a complicated system
of safe guards against scribal slips.” They counted for, the number of times each
letter of the alphabet occurs in each book. They pointed out the middle letter of the
Pentateuch and the middle letter of the whole Bible and made even more detailed
calculations than these.

The Jewish Rabbis believed that every word and letter of the Scripture was of divine
authority and hence they made sure that extremely accurate copy as done. The
Scarcity of Hebrew manuscript is due to the practice of destroying worn manuscripts
after new copies have been made. Thus the massoretic text, which is the official text,
has handed down the Hebrew text in the 2nd century A.D. which was substantially the
text known and used in the time of our Lord.

2. Samaritan Text

This text contains the Pentateuch and is valuable to determine textual readings. This
had been preserved by the Samaritans.

Other Versions (Translations)

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 1. The Septuagint

The Jews were scattered from their homeland and there was a need of the
Scriptures in the common language of that day. Septuagint was the name given to
the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. The term Septuagint is the Latin
word for seventy in the number of Rabbis who did the translation in Alexandria
probably under the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt (285-246 B.C.) This
Greek translation was adopted and used by the Christian church as readily
understood.

2. The Targums

The Targums were probably oral translations of the Hebrew Scriptures into Aramaic
after it replaced the Hebrew as the spoken languages of the Jews. The Targums
contains religious instruction along with interpretation, which accompanied the
reading of scripture in the Synagogue. This belongs to the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.

3. The Peshitta

The Peshitta is the Syriac Bible of the Old Testament translated in the 2 nd or 3rd
century A.D. for the benefit of the Christian whose language was Syriac.

4. The Old Latin Versions

This translation originated among the Latin speaking Jews of Carthage (Africa), and
entire Bible that Old Latin circulated in Carthage by A.D. 250.

5. The Vulgate

This was the Latin Version produced by the scholar Jerome in a cave in Bethlehem.
Jerome translated directly from the Hebrew with reference to the Septuagint. He was
commissioned in A.D. 382 by Pope Damascus to make an official version of the Old
Latin Bible. His work was completed in A.D. 405. This is the official version of the
Roman Catholic Church today.

Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls are made up of some 40 thousand inscribed fragments. From
these fragments more than 500 books have been reconstructed. Many extra-Biblical
books are fragments were discovered that shed light on the religious community of
“QUMRAN.” In the various caves are some very helpful commentaries on the
Scripture.

How was the Dead Sea Scrolls Found?

Ralph Engle gives a vivid and concise answer as to how the Scrolls were found.
The story of this discovery is one of the most fascinating tales of Morden times. In

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February or March 1947 a Beduine Shepherd boy named MUHSMAD was searching
for a goat. He tossed as tome into a hole in a cliff on the west side of the Dead Sea,
about 8 miles south of Jericho. To his surprise he hears the sound of shattering
pottery. Investigating he discovered an amazing sight. On the floor of the cave were
several jars containing leather Scrolls, wrapped in a linen cloth. Because the jars
were carefully sealed the Scrolls had been preserved in excellent condition nearly
1900 years (they were evidently placed there in A.D. 63).

Five of the Scrolls found in Dead Sea Cave 1 as now it is no called were bought by
the Arch Bishop of Syrian Orthodox Monastery at Jerusalem. The Arch Bishop, who
could not read Hebrew, phoned the American School of Oriental research in
Jerusalem and told about the Scrolls. The acting director of the School John Travard,
who was also an excellent amateur Photographer, photographed each column of the
great Isaiah Scroll which is 24 feet long and 10 inches high and developed the place
himself and sent a few prints by airmail to Dr. W.F. Albright of John Hopkins
University recognised archaeologist. By return mail Albright wrote “My heartiest
congratulation on the greatest manuscript discovery of modern times, what an
absolutely incredible find and there can happily not be slight doubt in the world about
the genuiness of the manuscript.” Dr. W.F. Albright dated it about 100 B.C.

The Value of the Dead Sea Scrolls

The oldest complete Hebrew manuscript we possessed was from 900 A.D. How
could we be sure of their accurate transmission since the time of Christ in 32 A.D?
The Dead Sea Scrolls are great critical value on the basis of such factor antiquity
and authenticity. One of the Scrolls found was a complete manuscript of the Hebrew
text of Isaiah. It is date by Palaeography around 125 B.C. this manuscript more than
1,000 years older than any manuscript we previously possessed. The impact of this
discovery is in the exactness of Isaiah Scroll 125 B.C. with the massoretic text of
Isaiah (196 AD) 1,000 years later. This demonstrates the unusual accuracy of the
copy list of the Scriptures over s 1,000 years period.

Geography of Old Testament

The hundreds of place names in the Old testament-cities and countries, mountains
and valleys, river and seas, and other geographical features – make it unique among
religious literature.

The Bible World

The region between the mountains and deserts may be identified as “the Bible
World”. All events recorded in the Bible took place in or involved peoples of this
region. The central OT characters lived principally in Palestine, but at certain points
were in Mesopotamia or Egypt. Occasionally, other peoples come into the story from

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Persia, south Arabia, Ethiopia, Asia Minor, the Mediterranean Islands, Greece and
other areas.

The Promise Land

The Promise Land received the name Canaan, the son of Ham, the son of Noah and
was originally called as the land of Canaan (Gen 10: 1, 6). A number of Semitic
people like the Hittites, Amorites and Philistines lived in this land. God gave this
fertile land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea to Abraham and
his descendants (Gen 12: 5-7; Exo 3:7-8; 6: 1-4). The Canaanites lived in the central
part of this land. The people of Israel conquered this land under the leadership of
Joshua. The land was divided and given to the twelve tribes of Israel and was called
as the land of Israel.

Palestine

The name Palestine, which came into use only after the fifth century B.C., is
not used in the OT. The term Holy Land (Zech. 2:12) came into common use in the
Middle Ages. After the destruction of Jerusalem, this land was called Palestine, as
the Philistines lived in that land.

1. Extent

In the popular usage, Palestine refers to the land „from Dan to Beersheba
(Judg. 20:1). This territory extends from the southern slopes of Mt. Hermon to the
edge of the southern desert (the Negeb), bounded on the west by the Mediterranean
Sea and on the east by the Jordan Valley. In Greek and Roman times, the term
included territory east of the Jordan, or Transjordan.

2. Divisions

Palestine is divided into five features, (North-South divisions),i.e.,

i. Coastal Plain

The Coastal Plain is narrow in the north, becoming non-existent at the

Ladder of Tyre and the foot of Mt. Carmel. At its southern end the Coastal
Plain is very broad.

ii. Shephelah

In the south, between the coastal plain and the mountain range, is a broad
and fertile piedmont area, the Shephelah. Under the Judges and early
monarchy this area was a major focus of almost constant warfare between
the Israelites.

iii. Central High Lands

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 The western mountain range (in Palestine, more descriptively called the
central range) forms the back bone of the land. The central hill country it
was chief centre of Israelites population. The region includes series of
mountain region. Six mountains exist in this part of the country.

Galilee

Samaria: Most of Samaria is Mountainous

Judah:

Sinai

iv. Jordan Valley

The Jordan rift is part of the Great Rift. The Jordan rift includes the
tributaries of the Upper Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, Jordan River, Dead
Sea and Arabah. This rift divides Mount Lebanon from entire Lebanon
rangers which are known Herm on during the time of the Bible. The Jordan
valley was natural barrier between east and west Palestine. It is narrow
long strip of the land in the east the most of this region lies belonged sea
level it included Jordan river and dead sea. The Dead Sea was outlet
about 25 of water consist of salt deposited this reason proved that there
was produced other chemicals.

v. Transjordan Plateau
It is divided into 5 sections by 4 main streams. The warmok, Jabok, Amon
and the dart zerd to the north of Amon for the biblical Bashan stretching
Both north and south of Jubod was, Gilead, south of Armon led in the mark
of Moab further short was Edom.

Gilead, south of the Yamuk, was a land of numerous valleys with good
grazing, land and rugged hills with forests of oak and other trees.

Ammon

Moab

Midian

Significance: Palestine was a land bridge between the civilizations of Europe,

south-western Asia and Northern Africa.
The surrounding nations of Palestine

Palestine is surrounded by several nations all these nations are looking at

Palestine for the resources and for military seizure somehow rather all these nations

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 created trouble to the Israel. So, later it is examined some of the important
surrounding countries of Palestine.

1. Amon: It was the name the descendent of Bem-Ammi , lots youngest son by his
daughter born in cave near Zoor (Gen. 19:38).

Ammonites were regarded as relate to Israelites and were commanded to tread them
kindly Amon was located between the river Arnon and Jabhok Deu.2:20-21, 3:11. At
the time of exodus Israelites did not conquered Amon (Due. 2:19). However
Ammonites were condemned for joining the Moabites and hiring Balaam, and
Ammonite was forbidden to the enter congregation of Israel Deu.9:3-6. In the day of
Judges, Ammonites assist Judges 13 at the time of Japhthah, they encroached
Israelites land on the east of Jordan. But Japthah defeated the Ammonite and the
prevent them out. Their religion influence some of the Israelites Amon has several
connection with Israel. Ammonite survived up to two century BC.

2. Bhashan: It is the frontier of region is of Jordan living to the north of Gilead it extend
north wards to mount Herman and east ward thro Seletha at the time conquest of
Palestine by Israelites Bashan was under the ruler of Ogg he was defeated by
Israelites Edrai Due. 14:3. the territory of Bhashan was given to Mahesh. It was
former apart of the kingdom of David and Solomon it was during Syrian wars. But
regained by Jeroboam II King 14:25.

3. Edom: At the time of Edom denotes at the name of Esau, are Edomites, the land
occupied by Esau descendents. It is stretched from the river of Jerab. To the gulf of
Akalah for about 100 miles, it is rugged mountains area in the bible times. The king‟s
highway passed a lone Eastern Plateau, the descendent of Esau. Esau‟s
descendent migrated to the land in cooperated in the original forest.

4. Gilead: The names apply to the whole of part of the Trans Jordanians land occupied
by the tribes by Rueben, Gad and half tribe Manasseh. Gilead is divided into
northern and southern hales lower Jabhok, Rebbok, Gilead is located in the northern
end of the Dead Sea Gen. 31:21-55. Jacob sought refuge in Gilead. During the time
of Saul some of the Israelites in fear of Philistine took refuge in Gilead, during
Absalom revolt David refuge in Gilead.

5. Moab : Moab was the son of Lot by his eldest daughter Gen. 19:37, both the
descendents and the land was known as Moab the core land of Moab was plateau
east of dead sea. Between the Armon and Jarah reveres. In the pre-exodus time
Moab occupied and people settled there at about 18th & 15th BC… in the core of the
occupation of Palestine by Israelites they sought the permission of Moabites who
travelled along king‟s highway. Moabite refuge entry of Israelites, Mosses was
forbidden to attack Moab Due. 2:9. Baalak the reign of Moab requested Baalak to
curse Israel. He offered him a lot of Bull to curse Israel, ultimately Balaam was not
able to curse Israel instead he blessed them from four places. He says “If Yahweh
did not permit me to curse Israel how can I curse his people.

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 In the prophets Moabites are mentioned- and the divine judgment is pronounced on
them. In the day judges‟ Eglon the king of Moab invaded Israelites land and
oppressed Israelites for 18 years. In the post exilic period Moabites were mentioned
in the bible and the last, their independence existence they remained as race.
Finally, Alexander James subdued them in 2 century BC.

6. Palestine: - Palestine was like people they were migrated from Aegean vassion to
the southern coast of Palestine in the early 12th century BC. They settled on east
coast of Mediterranean Sea. They became Israel principle rivalry even philistine is
fertile land they are not successes their sources and very often they fought against
Israelites. Philistine composed of fire major city – Gaza, Ashor, Ashallon, Gad,
Ekron, all fire cities are called philistine Pentapolis. Philistine interest in expansion of
their land and Israelites occupation of Palestine brought conflict between Israelites
and philistine. This competition for land and political control produced fierce rivalry
between the two nations from the mid of 12 th century BC and according to Joshua
13:2-3, Judges 3:1-3. Philistines were among the nations that the Lord left in canon
to test Israel. There are several instances in the OT about the hostility between these
two rival nations eg. Judge 3, I Sam. 4, 7…

Divisions of Old Testament (English Bible)

Law (5)

History (12)

Joshua – Esther

Poetry (5)

Job – Song of Solomon

Major Prophets (5)

Isaiah – Daniel

Minor Prophets (12)

Hosea - Malachi

Divisions of Hebrew Bible

 Torah (5)

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

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 Numbers

Deuteronomy

 Prophets(8)

Former Prophets (4)

Joshua

Judges

1-2 Samuel

1-2 Kings

Latter Prophets (3)

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Ezekiel

The Twelve(1)

Hosea

Joel

Amos

Obadiah

Jonah

Micah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Malachi

 Writings(11)

Emeth (Truth) (3)

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 Psalms

Proverbs

Job

Megiloth (Scrolls)(5)

Song of Solomon

Ruth

Lamentation

Ecclesiastes

Esther

Daniel

Ezra-Nehemiah

1-2 Chronicles

The Pentateuch

The first five books of the OT – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and
Deuteronomy are called the “Pentateuch.” The word derives from Gk, pentateuchos
„five volumed (book),‟

The Jews call it the „Torah‟ (Instruction), often rendered in English, „Law,‟ as it is
called in NT (Gk. Nomos; Matt. 5: 17; Lk 16:17; Acts 7:53; I Cor 9:8). Fundamentally
legal character of the Torah can be appreciated from the many references in the
Bible to the law of God (Neh 10:28)

1. The law of Moses: Josh. 8:312; 23:6; II Kgs. 14:6; II Chro 23: 18; 30:16; Neh
8:1

2. The Book of Moses: II Chor. 35: 12; Ezra 6:18; Neh 13:1; Mk. 12:26

3. The Law: Josh. 8:3; II Chro 14:4; Ezra 2:10; Lk 10:26

4. Moses: Acts 15: 21

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The book if Moses was considered nine volumes. But it was reduced into five
volumes in the Post-exilic period 400 B.C.

Genesis

Genesis is the first book of the Pentateuch, a five-section compilation of diverse

traditions of varies age, given its final editing on the 6th Cen B.C. The English tile
derived from the LXX title, which is derived from the Greek of 5:1, “this is the record
of the generation (genitive of genesis) of Adam.” The Hebrew title bere’ sit is simply
the first word of the scroll, the ancient way of naming scrolls.

Genesis is concerned with origins – of the world of human beings, of Israel in

its ancestors.

Origin of the World and the Nation (Gen 1-11 Chs) Shem

Creation Fall First Sin Flood Noah Ham

The Babel (Gen 11) Japheth

The Patriarch History (Gen 12-50 Chs)

Exodus

The Exodus serves as a connecting link between the narratives of Genesis. It deals
with after the propitious times of Joseph and immediately following, the Exodus from
Egypt. The English title Exodus is derived from the LXX and means literally “going
forth (from Egypt),” one of the main events narrated.
Exodus 1-12 chs – The bondage and preparation for their deliverance.
The life of Moses
40 years in the palace
40 years in the desert
40 years with the people of Israel
Call of Moses
10 plagues to the Egyptians
Journey to Mt. Sinai
Legislation given to the Israelites at Sinai
Exo 19-40 – the divine revelation at Sinai
Tabernacle
Ten Commandments

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 Leviticus

The book contents were described by such terms as „Priestly law‟ or „Priestly book‟
or „Law of the offerings.‟ These laws were largely ritual, since it was naturally of
considerable importance for the Israelites to be acquainted with regulation
concerning worship at the tabernacle. The contents were the particular concern of
Levitical priesthood.
The Law of Sacrifice – Lev 1-7
The Consecration of Priest 9-10
The clean and unclean 11-15
The Day of Atonement 16
Ritual laws 17-25
Promises, warning and appendix 26-27
Numbers

A designation meant to indicate that particular portion of the five Mosaic writings the
numberings of the Israelites. Numbers, like Exodus, combined history with legal
enactments. The time when some thirty eight years later, they were on the point of
entering the promise land.

The preparation or last events at Sinai – 1:1-10:10

The Journey to the plains of Moab – 10:11-21

Events in the Moabite plains 22-36

Balaam

Balak

Israel

Inheritance in Transjordan 32-42.

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy is the fifth and latter book of the Pentateuch. The title comes via the
Latin from the LXX title deuternomion which means „second law.‟ It reflects an
incorrect understanding of the words „copy of this law.‟

The Last discourses of Moses and Second law 1-34chs

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 Acts of God 1:1 – 4:43

The Law of God 4:44 – 26:19

The Covenant with God 27-30chs

Appendices

Final instructions of Moses 31: 1-21

Blessing of Moses 33:1-29

Death of Moses 34: 1-14

Historical Books
Authorship of Historical Books

The authorship of Joshua – II Kings remains anonymous. Concerning the book of

Joshua the Talmud says it is written by Joshua himself. However the internal
evidences did not support this view, e.g., Joshua 4:9; 5:9; 6:25; 7:16; 8:28; 9:27;
10:27; 13:13; 15:63; 16:10.

The phrase „to this day‟ suggests that some time had passed between the events
narrated and had written the record. At least in one place the author of Joshua
mentions about the previously written sources (10:13). Such evidence clearly shows
that the book of Joshua was not written by Joshua as Talmud suggested.

Thus the authorship of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, I & II Samuel, I & II Kings opens the
study for further investigation of the authorship.

According to Martin Noth the Deuteronomic history runs from the Deuteronomy to II
Kings. Some of the scholars hold the view that the Pentateuch document (JEDP)
continue in the book of Joshua and compose by a single author.

E.J. Young argues that the book of Joshua betrays the Deuteronomic flavour,
however, the Pentateuch have a priestly frame work. Therefore scholars think that
Deuteronomist sections from Joshua to II Kings has gone through several
redactional additions such activities of shaping the tradition can better seen in the
books of Kings.

M. Noth maintains one single author Deuteronomist wrote the entire volume (Deut –
II Kgs), however, his hypothesis need to be corrected. It is now argue that these
books were written by a Deteronomist School. This explains the unevenness an
addition with Deuteronomic History, even though these are mark by a related style.
This also suggests the school will remain.
Aim of the Author

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The aim of the author or authors is not to present the real political history of Israel. In
another words he/they were not interested to present the past but who were simply
collected and organized their „fact.‟ So therefore the Deuteronomic School presents
a history that in the final analysis of the story of humans‟ relationship with YHWH and
His law.

Date of I & II Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah

We do not know the exact time in which the Chronicles History was written.
However taking the resources that, the chronicler used in his opposition of his
chroniclers‟ history. We assure that most probably these books were written after
400 B.C. Just like the Deuteronomic School the Chronicler interpreted the history of
Israel. The syncretism or Idolatry are either disappear or have been observed in
such a way as no longer to be recognize above in the chroniclers history. The
government of Israel is now Theocratic and social injustice are now dealt with, the
priestly worship at Jerusalem was now renewed, and this shows the chronicler
history was written during second temple period.

Wisdom Literature

The books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs are grouped
as „writings‟ (Kethubin). These books focus on men‟s reflections on God and His
responses rather than on God‟s church for man. In the Masoretic Text grouped Job,
Proverbs and Psalms as in code „The Books of Truth (Emeth) and the other books in
the writings were included in the five Scrolls (Megiloth), namely Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther. The Song of Songs is red during the
Feast of Passover. Ruth during the Day of Pentecost. Lamentations during the Fast
of the Ninth of Ab (This is usually observed in remembrance of the destruction of the
Jerusalem temple). Esther is red during the Feast of Purim and the book of
Ecclesiastes is red during the Feast of Tabernacle.

Three of the poetic books constitute the wisdom literature of the Old Testament
which most of books of Psalms and possibly the Song of Songs cannot be strictly
classified as wisdom in the technical sense. However, several of Psalms may be
classified as “Wisdom Psalms” and the Songs of Songs shares the didactic nature of
the wisdom literature and literary form. Therefore, one can classify these five books
as wisdom literature.

Dimensions of Wisdom Literature

The Biblical wisdom was dynamic in ancient Israel that operated in three
dimensions they are, personal, universal and literary.

 Personal: It gives theological and practical insights. The wisdom literature

gives a personal life guide line and it tells the struggle of righteous
man/woman to understand his/her suffering while to understand the human
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 struggle the wise man/woman acknowledges the sovereign will of the Lord
God is present and active in the midst of human busyness. The wisdom
literature puts the Decalogue in wisdom mode.

 Universal: Wisdom literature also has a universal dimension. In this

personally feels as divine (Pro 8: 22-31). Some scholars believes that this
passage presents wisdom as an hypothesis, having a existence distant from
God though expressing his nature such idea is also presented in the
apocryphal books like Wisdom of Solomon 1:6-7; 6: 12-24; 7: 1-8, 18. The
logos Christology in John have its nature in the wisdom tradition of Old
Testament (Jn 1: 1-18).

 Literary: The wisdom in Old Testament takes a literary form such as

proverbs, riddles, allegory, and dialogue, autobiographical, narrative and
prophetic address.
Prophetical Books

The Prophetic Books are the sixteen books of the Old Testament, from Isaiah to
Malachi, including Lamentations as well. They are further subdivided into the four
Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel) and the twelve Minor
Prophets.

This enumeration and sub-division is not to be found in the Hebrew Bible. It is

divided into the Torah (Law), Neviim (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The second
section, the Prophets, consists of eight books: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings (the
Former Prophets), and Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, The Twelve (the Latter Prophets).
The reasons for the omission of Daniel, which belongs to the Writings, are
considered in ch. XVII. For the moment it is sufficient to say that the rabbis made a
correct distinction between normal prophecy and the apocalyptic visions we find in
Daniel.

The distinction between Major and Minor Prophets is first found in the Latin
Churches, and Augustine rightly explains that it means a difference in size, not in
value (De Civitate Dei: 18. 29). Though we are not dealing with the Former Prophets
in this book, we shall profit by grasping the implications of books we call historical
being considered prophetic.

Israelite Prophecy

Prophets are intermediaries between divine and human words. They are channels of
God‟s message to the people. They have magnific power and people consider them
as fascinating figures. There is long history of prophecy in the Old Testament. There
are four types of Prophets in the Old Testament.
1. Unnamed Prophets

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In some cases the names of the prophets were preserved (Num 11:24ff; Jdgs 6:7-
10; I Sam 10:10-13; 19:18-24; I Kgs 13; 18:4; II Kgs 17:13; 21:10; 23:2).
2. Appeared briefly and disappeared Entirely
i. Ahijah (II Kgs 11:29-39; 4:4-16)
ii. Shemaiah (I Kgs 12:22-24)
iii. Jehu (I Kgs 16: 1-4)
iv. Huldah (II Kgs 22:14-20)
v. Nathan (II Sam 1,7,12 Chs)
vi. Gad (I Sam 22:5)
3. Not much Prophetic Activity but called as Prophets

In the Old Testament there are some people who were called as prophets without
prophetic activity.
 Abraham (Gen 20:7)
 Miriam (Exo 15:20)
 Moses (Dt 18:15-22)
 Deborah (Jdgs)
4. Extensive Tradition about Some prophets
Samuel, Elijah, Elisha and other prophets.

Titles or Names or Terminology of Prophet

Prophets were prominent personalities in the Old Testament. The titles and
terms used of prophets are found in most of the books of Old Testament. There are
several terms used of the prophets in English and Hebrew. Every title has
significance and reveals of the function of the prophets in the society.
In Hebrew language, there are four technical terms used of a prophet.
1. Nabhi (Prophet)

Geseniers derived its meaning as „to bubble forth.‟ It implies that the prophets
proclaim their message by inspiration.

A.J. Meck said that the root word of Nabhi is „to speak‟, so he considers prophets as
speaker or a spokesperson.
Deut 18:18b mentions “I will put my words in his mouth and he will tell them
everything I command him.”

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Here the function of prophet is to declare the word of God which God has given to
them. On the basis of the above information the function of Nabhi is to speak a
message on behalf of God, to function as mouth piece of God and to proclaim Word
of God. But there is no much room for ecstatic experience.
2. Roeh (Seer)

I Samuel 9:9 refer Samuel as Seer. The seer id found attached to a Shrine. Seer
means to „to see‟ or „the one who see‟. He is consulted by people about their
problems. He is given a token of fee. Samuel is pictures as a seer and a man of
God. The principle characteristic of a prophet is all that which he speaks will surely
(come to past) will be fulfilled.

P.R. Johnson thinks that Nabhi was ecstatic and Seer was interpreter. But this view
is not accepted by the scholars. The Nabhi stresses speaking forth the message of
God and Roeh expresses the experience of Seer (I Kgs 21).
3. Hozeh (Chozh)

The root meaning Hozeh is also to see. Roeh and Hozeh perform similar functions.
Both these words are synonyms. Hozeh also declares the message of God. Hozeh
also stress on the reception of the message.

Ekonig (sh) believed the Hozeh is used to the false prophets and Roeh is used to
the true prophets. But this view cannot be stand for proof.
In Isa 30:9-10 these two men are declared in right things.
3. Ish Elohim

A man with super natural gifts. He bestowed divine qualities upon him. The prophet
being man of God brings good fortunes with him (Shalom). The visit of man of God
could also be fear.
In English sometimes terms are used expressing the different types of the prophets.
1. Messenger

The prophet Haggai was called as messenger of God. He brings the message of
God to the people.
2. Servant of God
The relation between God and prophet is like servant and master.
3. Herald of God
He prepares the way of God; he prepares the minds of the people.
Conclusion
The role of a prophet is Israel basic upon the terminology used of them is very
complex. They were having several duties. However they functioned as mouth
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pieces of God. They did not proclaim their own words. Prophets played very
important role in Israel (Jonah 8:4).
History of Israel
2000-1550 BC

In this period nomadic people were seeking to settle in the fertile lands of
Mesopotamia and Egypt, and to share the advantages of agriculture. So also
Abraham and his descendants Isaac, Jacob and sons of Joseph they moved from
Mesopotamia to Palestine and then into Egypt. After 1500 BC the Egyptians
regained their independence from nomadic settlers, and the Israelites became
slaves in Egypt.
1550-1250 BC

In this period the Egyptians were the most powerful nation, and they had control of
Palestine for most of the time. The descendants of Abraham were slaves in Egypt.
The God called Moses to bring them out of Egypt to Mount Sinai, where they made a
covenant with God. They also received Ten Commandments.
1250-1000 BC
In this period the Egyptians were weak, and had little control over events in
Palestine. Many nomadic tribes including the Israelites were fighting for control of
land there. Joshua led the Israelites into Palestine and the Judges helped them in
their conflicts with foreign tribes.
1000-922 BC

In this period Philistines had become a serious threat to the Israelites. Judges could
not control Philistines increasing control over Israel. So to countercheck the growth
of Philistines the Israelites wanted to have a monarchy. Samuel appointed Saul, and
later David, to be kings over Israel. Saul was unsuccessful, but David had great
success not only over the Philistines, but also over many of the neighbouring
kingdoms.
922-802 BC

After the death of Solomon the kingdom was split into two parts as Judah in the
South and Israel in the North. Judah was rules by kings of the family of David and
Israel was rules by kings chosen by the prophets or who came to power by
revelation. As a result, the Israelites lost their power over other nations in Palestine
and across the Jordan.
802-610 BC

In the early part of this period there was no nation strong enough to conquer and
control the Israelites. It was a tome of peace and prosperity for Judah and Israel.
Assyrians conquered Israel in 721 B.C. and took its people into exile. This as the end

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of the Northern Kingdom. Judah submitted to the Assyrians, but several times
rebelled against their control, relying on Egypt for help.
610-539 BC

Three nations against Assyria: Egypt, Media and Babylonia. Assyria was defeated
and its empire was divided between the victorious nations. The Egyptians were
defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 B.C. In 586 B.C. the Babylonians
attacked Judah and destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple.
539-331 BC

Cyrus, the king of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 B.C. and gave permission for
the Jews to return to Judah and to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. In 445 B.C.
Nehemiah was permitted to return to Judah to repair the walls of Jerusalem. In 397
B.C. Ezra came to Babylon, bringing a written record of the Law of God (First five
books). These were to be used as the rules for the life of the Jewish community in
Jerusalem.
331-65 BC

Alexander the Great conquered a large area of the Mediterranean and the Near
East, including the Persian Empire. After his death the Greeks continued to rule.
From 323-198 the Jews were ruled from Egypt by a Greek family, the Ptolemy. In
198 the family of Seleucus took control of Judah, and rules the Jews from Antioch.
King Antiochus IV attempted to destroy the Jewish religion and to enforce Greek
customs upon the Jews. A group of Jews known as Maccabees led the resistance to
Antiochus IV, and they were able to appoint their own kings over Judah.
65 BC –AD 70

Conflict among the Maccabees about the appointment of a new king led them to
invite the Romans to settle the matter for them. Herod the Great was the first who
was appointed by the Romans to rule Palestine. In his reign Jesus Christ was born,
and the new religious movement called Christianity sprang from the life and work of
Jesus Christ.

The history of Israel is very largely a story of conflict with other nations great and
small. But through it all there runs a story of God‟s revelation of Himself and of His
purposes.

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