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Predicting Heart Failure
Predicting Heart Failure
Edited by
Hassen M. Ouakad
Sultan Qaboos University
Muscat, Oman
Somaya Al-Maadeed
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
Huseyin C. Yalcin
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain
permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni, Hassen M. Ouakad, Somaya Al-Maadeed, Huseyin C. Yalcin, and Issam Bait Bahadur to
be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered Offices
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Office
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.
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Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard
print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Preface vii
Abbreviations ix
Acknowledgment xvii
9 Machine Learning Techniques for Predicting and Managing Heart Failure 189
Dafni K. Plati, Evanthia E. Tripoliti, Georgia S. Karanasiou, Aidonis Rammos,
Aris Bechlioulis, Chris J. Watson, Ken McDonald, Mark Ledwidge, Yorgos Goletsis,
Katerina K. Naka, and Dimitrios I. Fotiadis
Index 321
vii
Preface
Our knowledge of human biology, especially related to the heart, increases every day.
This makes it nearly impossible for physicians to stay current on the latest research in
their fields, let alone in all of the others that directly affect their ability to treat their
patients properly. This book will help in learning the mechanics and symptoms of heart
failure and the various approaches, including conventional and modern techniques for
diagnosing it. Moreover, the book provides a detailed presentation of the latest research
data for preventing and treating heart failure.
In this book, 13 chapters address different conditions related to the heart, with detailed
descriptions of each. The first chapter discusses invasive, non-invasive, machine learning,
and artificial intelligence-based methods for predicting heart failure. In addition, it dis-
cusses heart failure causes, symptoms, and treatment, as well as research related to heart
failure. In the second chapter, we examine the traditional methods of predicting heart
diseases and the implementation of artificial intelligence technology to predict heart dis-
eases accurately. A discussion of the main characteristics of cardiovascular biosensors is
presented in Chapter 3, along with their open issues for development and application.
We summarize the difficulties of wireless sensor communication and power transfer in
Chapters 4, 5, and 6, which outline the utility of artificial intelligence in cardiology.
Chapter 7 discusses how to predict heart diseases using data mining classification tech-
niques. Applied machine learning is discussed in Chapters 8 and 9 as are advanced
methods for estimating heart failure severity and for diagnosing and predicting heart
failure. In Chapter 10, the present state of artificial intelligence and biosensors based on
materials is briefly discussed. The underlying technologies of various invasive and non-
invasive devices, and their benefits, are discussed and analyzed in Chapter 11. A
discussion of the risks and issues associated with remote monitoring systems is also
included in this chapter. An overview of these heart failure prediction devices is pre-
sented in Chapter 12 along with their invasive and non-invasive alternatives. The chapter
also highlights the potential of artificial intelligence in mobile monitoring technologies
to provide clinicians with improved treatment options, ultimately easing access to
healthcare by all patient populations. Chapter 13 assesses the potential applications of
implantable and wearable devices in heart failure detection, summarizes the available
data for wearables and machine learning for improving patients’ cardiac health, and dis-
cusses the future of wearables for early prediction of heart failure.
viii Preface
Finally we strongly believe this book will provides a comprehensive but concise guide
to all modern cardiological practice, emphasizing practical clinical management in many
different contexts. The book provides readers with trustworthy insights into all aspects of
heart failure, including essential background information on clinical practice guidelines,
in-depth, peer-reviewed articles, and broad coverage of this fast-moving field. It provides
the latest research data needed for the diagnosis and treatment of heart failure. Moreover,
this book is an excellent resource for nurses, nurse practitioners, physician assistants,
medical students, and general practitioners to gain a better understanding of bedside
cardiology.
ix
Abbreviations
Chapter 1
3-D Three-dimensional, 10
BNP Brain Natriuretic Peptide, 9
CAD Coronary Artery Disease, 2
CHF Congestive Heart Failure, 3
CRP C-reactive Protein, 8
HF Heart Failure, 3
HRV Heart Rate Variability, 24
IoT Internet of Things, 11
LS-SVM Least Squares SVM, 24
LV Left Ventricular, 23
SVM Support Vector Machine, 18
Chapter 2
LI Lumen-intima, 19
LII Lumen-Intima Interface, 20
MA Media Adventitia, 19
MAI Media-Adventitia Interface, 20
MLP Multilayer Perceptron, 21
MPI Myocardial Perfusion Imaging, 22
NSR Normal Sinus Rhythm, 20
PND Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea, 11
Chapter 3
TG Triglycerides, 9
TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, 7
Chapter 4
AC Alternative Current, 9
BSN Body Sensor Network, 2 CE Counter Electrode, 5
CMT Coupled-Mode Theory, 12
EDAS European Aeronautic Defense and Space Company, 10
EM Electromagnetic Interference, 11
EMF Electromagnetic Field, 9
HPF High-Pass Filter, 17
IoT Internet of Things, 2
LPF Low Pass Filter, 17
MEMS Micro-Electromechanical Systems, 4
MPT Microwave Power Transmission, 8
RE Reference Electrode, 5
RF Radio Frequency, 3
SHM Structural Health Supervising, 2
SoC System on a Chip, 5
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio, 24
WBAN Wireless Body Area Network, 2
WE Working Electrode, 5
Chapter 5
BCG Ballistocardiography, 13
BLUE Bedside Lung Ultrasound, 10
BNP B-type Natriuretic Peptide, 14
C.A.USE Cardiac Arrest Ultrasound Exam, 10
CHF Chronic Heart Failure, 2
DNN Deep Neural Network, 12
ECG Electrocardiography, 3
EVLW Extravascular Lung Water, 8
FALLS Fluid Administration Limited by Lung Sonography, 10
GPS Global Positioning System, 6
HF Heart failure, 2
ICD Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator, 12
LuCUS Lung and Cardiac Ultrasound, 10
LUS Lung Ultrasound, 8
LV Left Ventricular, 7
MEMS Microelectromechanical System, 6
MFCCs Mel-frequency Cepstral Coefficients, 12
NT-proBNP Amino-terminal Pro-B-type Natriuretic Peptide, 14
PA Pulmonary Arterial, 7
PCG Phonocardiogram, 12
xii Abbreviations
PPG Photoplethysmogram, 14
RCTs Randomized Control Trials, 15
ReDS Remote Dielectric Sensing Technology, 5
RPM Remote Patient Monitoring, 15
RV Right Ventricular, 7
SCG Seismocardiography, 12
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
DT Decision Tree, 2
K-NN K-Nearest Neighbor, 5
LDA Linear Discriminant Analysis, 2
MAFIA Maximal Frequent Itemset Algorithm, 4
NB Naïve Bayes, 2
NN Neural Networks, 4
RF Random Forest, 2
SVM Support Vector Machine, 2
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
AF Atrial Fibrillation, 9
AFL Atrial Flutter, 10
AUC Area Under the Roc Curve, 8
BN Bayes Network, 31
CART Classification and Regression Trees, 15
CFS Correlation-based Feature Selection, 31
CMR Cardiac Magnetic Resonance, 6
CNN Convolutional Neural Network, 9
CTCA Computed Tomography Coronary Angiography, 6
DL Deep Learning, 8
DNN Deep Neural Network, 9
DUNs Deep Unified Networks, 20
ECG Electrocardiogram, 6
EF Ejection Fraction, 5
EFFECT Enhanced Feedback for Effective Cardiac Treatment, 10
EHR Electronic Health Record, 8
ELM Extreme Learning Machine, 10
ESC European Society of Cardiology, 6
GDS Generalized Discriminant Analysis, 16
GLM Generalized Linear Model, 23
HF Heart Failure, 1
HFmrEF HF with Mid-range or Mildly Reduced EF, 5
HFpEF Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction, 5
HFrEF Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction, 5
HRV Heart Rate Variability, 9
K-NN K-nearest Neighbor, 8
LGE Late Gadolinium Enhancement, 6
LMT Logistic Model Trees, 31
LR Logistic Regression, 8
LS-SVM Least Square SVM, 9
LSTM Long Short-term Memory, 9
MAGGIC Meta-analysis Global Group in Chronic, 24
ML Machine Learning, 7
MLP Multilayer Perceptron, 8
NB Naïve Bayes, 34
NLP Natural Language Processing, 16
NN Neural Network, 8
NRD Nationwide Readmissions Database, 21
NYHA New York Heart Association, 5
RBF Radial Basis Function, 18
RDW Red Blood Cell Distribution Width, 26
RF Random Forest, 9
RNN Recurrent Neural Network, 8
Abbreviations xv
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
AI Artificial Intelligence, 3
ANN Artificial Neural Networks, 4
AUC Area Under Curve, 6
CNN Convolutional Neural Network, 4
CRT Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy, 6
DL Deep Learning, 3
DNN Deep Neural Network, 5
ECG Electrocardiographic, 5
xvi Abbreviations
HF Heart Failure, 1
k-NN k-Nearest Neighbors, 5
LVAD Left Ventricular Assist Device, 7
ML Machine Learning, 3
PPGs Photoplethysmograms, 8
RF Random Forest, 4
RNN Recurrent Neural Network, 5
RV Right Ventricular, 2
RVF Right-ventricular Failure, 7
RVFRS Right Ventricular Failure Risk Score, 7
SVM Support Vector Machine, 4
Chapter 13
Acknowledgment
This publication was supported by Qatar University Internal Grant No. IRCC-2020-013
and Sultan Qaboos University through Grant # CL/SQU-QU/ENG/20/01, respectively.
The findings achieved herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.
1
1.1 Introduction
Heart diseases are the deadliest in the world. Of the many diseases included in the cate-
gory of heart disease, the most prominent is coronary artery disease (CAD), which causes
heart attacks. CAD, high blood pressure, and many other heart diseases cause heart fail-
ure (HF). With HF being a consequence of heart disease, the prediction of HF is related
to the prediction of diseases categorized as heart disease.
In this chapter, the diagnosis of HF is discussed in terms of invasive/non-invasive
and artificial intelligence/machine learning techniques. Invasive and non-invasive
techniques are distinct in the way the patient is treated. Invasive methods are usually
associated with a physical intervention in the body. This intervention involves opera-
tions such as taking blood for blood analysis and not pressing strongly on the abdomi-
nal area. Non-invasive methods include physical therapy, taking blood pressure, and
temperature measurement. In today’s world, where information technologies have
evolved in every field, the field of health has also received its share. Computer-aided
clinical decision support systems provide the strongest support for diagnostic studies
today. The most important components of computer-aided diagnosis are artificial
intelligence and machine learning systems that offer a wide range of services from
smart assistant applications to imaging techniques. Artificial intelligence and machine
learning have a healing role in electrocardiography, echocardiography, and similar
invasive and non-invasive techniques.
In the second section of this chapter, HF will be described and its causes, symp-
toms, and treatment revealed. The third section will explain diagnosis by invasive
and non-invasive methods. Computer-aided diagnosis and decision support systems
are briefly mentioned in the fourth section. The fifth section looks first at what arti-
ficial intelligence is and then presents fields and examples of artificial intelligence
supported studies. The sixth section explains machine learning, learning types,
machine learning algorithms, and machine learning based diagnostic studies. The
chapter’s concluding section summarizes studies and comments upon diagnostic
studies for HF.
Predicting Heart Failure. Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni, Hassen M. Ouakad, Somaya Al-Maadeed, Huseyin C. Yalcin, Issam
Bait Bahadur
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN: 9781119813040
2 1 Invasive, Non-Invasive, Machine Learning, and Artificial Intelligence
HF belongs to a class of diseases that occur due to several diseases known as heart dis-
eases and can be fatal if left untreated. In this section, HF is defined and the factors caus-
ing it, its symptoms, and its treatment are examined.
1.2.2 Causes of HF
As mentioned, the causes of HF are CAD, high blood pressure, and other heart diseases,
and it occurs because of the damage to the heart muscle brought about by these and simi-
lar conditions. While oxygen is regularly carried to a normal heart, it is not possible to
carry enough oxygen in the case of a damaged heart. Although HF usually occurs on the
left side of the heart, it can develop on the right or both sides. Table 1.1 lists multiple HF
types and their results.
Some of the prominent causes of HF are:
● CAD and heart attack: CAD is the most prominent heart disease and the most com-
mon cause of HF. The disease occurs when blood circulation is not normal due to fat
deposits, called plaques, in the blood vessels. Heart attacks are divided into mild
heart attack and major heart attack. Mild heart attacks occur in a small portion of the
heart muscle. However, a mild heart attack should be taken seriously because it can
cause a second attack. Major heart attack affects a large part of the heart muscle.
1.2 Heart Failure 3
HF Type Outcome
The blood flow to the heart is completely blocked or there is no blood flow for a long
time. Major heart attack can cause cardiac arrest and death.
● High blood pressure (hypertension): High blood pressure is one of the factors that
makes it difficult for the heart to pump blood to the body. This strain causes the heart
muscle to work more than normal, damaging it.
● Faulty heart valves: The function of the heart valves is to keep the blood flowing in
the right direction. Failure of heart valves to function is known as heart valve malfunc-
tion. Heart valve malfunctions can be caused by genetic factors, old age, and infection.
A faulty valve tires the heart, forcing it to work harder and causing it to weaken over
time.
● Damage to the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy): Cardiomyopathy can have many
causes, such as various diseases, infections, alcohol use, and the toxic effect of drugs
like cocaine or chemotherapy drugs. Sometimes it can be due to genetic factors.
● Heart muscle inflammation: This is caused by viruses and can lead to left-sided HF.
● Congenital heart defects: If the heart and chambers or valves aren’t formed cor-
rectly, the healthy parts of the heart have to work harder to pump blood, which can
lead to HF.
● Heart arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms will show heart-damaging output in
both fast heartbeat and slow heartbeat. Its rapid beating will tire the heart, and its slow
beating will cause problems in circulation.
● Other diseases: Diabetes, HIV, hyperthyroid and similar diseases can also cause HF.
Heart diseases and the factors that affect the HF that occur as a result may be genetic,
sometimes congenital abnormalities, and sometimes related to our lifestyle. Overweight,
having a sedentary life, smoking, and stressful work life are also harmful factors for the
heart [1].
BALTHAZAR CLAËS.
Il paraissait âgé de plus de
soixante ans, quoiqu’il en eût
environ cinquante.