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The Birth of Ethics
The Berkeley Tanner Lectures
The Tanner Lectures on Human Values were established by the American scholar, in-
dustrialist, and philanthropist Obert Clark Tanner; they are presented annually at nine
universities in the United States and England. The University of California, Berkeley
became a permanent host of annual Tanner Lectures in the academic year 2000–2001.
This work is the twelfth in a series of books based on the Berkeley Tanner Lectures. The
volume includes a revised version of the lectures that Philip Pettit presented at Berkeley
in April 2015, together with a printed response from Michael Tomasello, one of the in-
vited commentators on that occasion (also taking part in commentary and discussion were
philosophers Pamela Hieronymi and Richard Moran), with a final rejoinder by Professor
Pettit. The volume is edited by Kinch Hoekstra, who also contributes an introduction.
The Berkeley Tanner Lecture Series was established in the belief that these distinguished
lectures, together with the lively debates stimulated by their presentation in Berkeley,
deserve to be made available to a wider audience. Additional volumes are in preparation.
Martin Jay and R. Jay Wallace
Series Editors
Volumes Published in the Series
Joseph Raz, The Practice of Value
Edited by R. Jay Wallace
With Christine M. Korsgard, Robert Pippin, and Bernard Williams
Frank Kermode, Pleasure and Change: The Aesthetics of Canon
Edited by Robert Alter
With Geoffrey Hartman, John Guillory, and Carey Perloff
Seyla Benhabib, Another Cosmopolitanism
Edited by Robert Post
With Jeremy Waldron, Bonnie Honig, and Will Kymlicka
Axel Honneth, Reification: A New Look at an Old Idea
Edited by Martin Jay
With Judith Butler, Raymond Geuss, and Jonathan Lear
Allan Gibbard, Reconciling Our Aims: In Search of Bases for Ethics
Edited by Barry Stroud
With Michael Bratman, John Broome, and F.M. Kamm
Derek Parfit, On What Matters: Volumes 1 & 2
Edited by Samuel Scheffler
With T.M. Scanlon, Susan Wolf, Allen Wood, and Barbara Herman
Jeremy Waldron, Dignity, Rank, and Rights
Edited by Meir Dan-Cohen
With Wai Chee Dimock, Don Herzog, and Michael Rosen
Samuel Scheffler, Death and the Afterlife
Edited by Niko Kolodny
With Susan Wolf, Harry G. Frankfurt, and Seana Valentine Shiffrin
Eric L. Santner, The Weight Of All Flesh: On the Subject-Matter of Political Economy
Edited by Kevis Goodman
With Bonnie Honig, Peter E. Gordon, and Hent De Vries
F.M. Kamm, The Trolley Problem Mysteries
Edited by Eric Rakowski
With Judith Jarvis Thomson, Thomas Hurka, and Shelly Kagan
Didier Fassin, The Will to Punish
Edited by Christopher Kutz
With Bruce Western, Rebecca M. McLennan, and David W. Garland
Philip Pettit, The Birth of Ethics
Edited by Kinch Hoekstra
With Michael Tomasello
The Birth of Ethics
Reconstructing the Role and Nature of Morality
Philip Pettit
With Commentary by
Michael Tomasello
Edited by
Kinch Hoekstra
1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
Table of Contents
COMMENTS
Commentary on Philip Pettit’s The Birth of Ethics 333
Michael Tomasello
REPLY
Reply to Michael Tomasello’s Commentary 347
Philip Pettit
References 359
Name Index 371
General Index 373
The Birth of Ethics
Editor’s Introduction: The View
from Erewhon
Kinch Hoekstra
The naturalistic challenge that Pettit here sets out to meet is to show
how moral norms can arise in a world that is in principle fully scientif-
ically describable, without special built-in normative features or super-
natural guarantees. Although the inherent normativity of nature was
a common ancient idea, attempts to meet the naturalistic challenge are
also ancient. So Socrates in Plato’s Republic sets out to construct a city
in speech by positing a community of individuals who cooperate for
their own ends, and he aims to locate in its growth the origin and na-
ture of justice and the other virtues. There have been other influential
attempts to lay out how morality arises from some such undemanding
starting points, from the sophistic view of justice as a self-interested
convention that is articulated by Plato’s brother Glaucon, to David
Gauthier’s conception of morals by agreement. David Hume provided a
naturalistic account of the origin and nature of morals, and readers have
disputed whether in doing so he offered an ethical theory or a descrip-
tive theory about how human beings come to make the judgments that
we call ethical. Other figures clearly emphasized naturalistic starting
points in their attempts to discredit morality as amounting to an ar-
ticulation of mere power, for example, or a scheme for the profit of a
particular group. This is the strategy of Thrasymachus in the Republic,
and it still informs the arresting account provided in On the Genealogy
of Morality, which Friedrich Nietzsche identified as a polemic and has
proved enduring more for its provocation than its plausibility.
In The Birth of Ethics, Pettit insists on plausibility, attending to natu-
ralistic motivations for morality with a constructive rather than a critical
aim. He offers a reconstructive analysis, starting from a narrative about
the evolution of ethical practices and concepts, in which each phase must
be naturalistically intelligible. In Samuel Butler’s 1872 Erewhon, from
which Pettit takes the name of his imagined community, the principal
study in the colleges of Erewhon is that of ‘hypothetics.’ Pettit’s study
of his Erewhon is a hypothetical account that is designed to illustrate
the nature of morality better than a historical account could, especially
given the state of the evidence. Rather than trying to trace how ethics
emerged, however unlikely that actual emergence may have been, this
account suggests how ethics more or less had to emerge.
Editor’s Introduction . 3
H.L.A. Hart’s (1961) book The Concept of Law already caught my fancy
as an undergraduate student in Ireland. It seemed to do more in illumi-
nation of its theme than most of the tomes in analytical, continental or
scholastic philosophy to which I was introduced in a wonderfully idio-
syncratic syllabus. What I attempt here, many years later, is guided by a
desire to explore the possibility of providing for ethics and morality the
sort of perspective that Hart gave us on the law.
As Hart tried to explain what law is by seeing how it might have
evolved, so this study tries to provide a similar story—a similar, coun-
terfactual genealogy—for ethics. And as Hart argued that a pre-legal
society would have supported practices prompting, even necessitating
the emergence of law, so this study begins from an argument that a pre-
moral society would also have supported practices sufficient to make
ethics or morality relatively inescapable.
This study of ethics is motivated, then, by two theses that The Concept
of Law underlines. One of them is the methodological claim that a good
way to understand any phenomenon—or at least any human phenom-
enon like law or morality—is to see how it might have come about.
The other is the anthropological claim that in a society that lacked the
phenomenon there would have been pressures sufficient to bring it
about: pressures that would have led, in a series of ad hoc adjustments,
to its emergence.
There is also a third thesis that drives the study, although it becomes
visible only in the final chapter. This is a metaphysical claim to the effect
that morality is not just socially important, as almost all accounts main-
tain; it is also important in our individual lives. The personal importance
of morality derives from the fact that it is only by virtue of immersion
6 . The Birth of Ethics
in the practices that lie at its origin that we can hope to establish our-
selves as persons, in particular, integrated persons, whether in our own
eyes or those of others.
The methodological and anthropological theses were central to the
Tanner Lectures that I gave at the University of California, Berkeley in
April 2015. The present work is an expanded version of the text I relied
upon in presenting those lectures and supersedes the text that appears
in the Tanner Lectures volume. The text is expanded, in particular, by
the addition of a first chapter on the methodology followed and by a
final chapter on the significance of the approach for a range of issues in
moral philosophy. It is in the course of that final chapter that I introduce
the third, metaphysical thesis that guides the inquiry.
services they require. The members of this society will face a problem,
however, for no matter how well resourced someone is, they may have
nothing to trade that is wanted by those from whom they seek a good
or a service. But there is a way out of this difficulty that is more or less
bound to materialize, and it points the way to money.
It will become salient at a certain point that one or another
commodity—perhaps gold or cigarettes, for example—is particularly
attractive for most people. And at that point everyone with access to
that good will be able to use it, or to use suitable IOU’s, to purchase what
they want. Thus, everyone will have a motive to obtain that commodity,
using it as a medium of exchange. And once it comes to be used in that
way it will count as money. Not only will it constitute a medium of ex-
change; it will also provide a metric for putting prices on other things
and, of course, a means of accumulating wealth or purchasing power. It
will serve the role that, on reflection, money plays in our society.
Just as this counterfactual genealogy can be illuminating about the
role and nature of money, explaining how monetary practices and con-
cepts might have co-evolved, the methodological thesis behind this
book is that a parallel genealogy of ethics or morality can serve a similar
function. The methodology employed is described in the first chapter,
it is applied in the narrative developed over chapters 2 to 6, and the
philosophical lessons of the narrative are sketched in the final, seventh
chapter.
Acknowledgments
In developing the ideas that appear in this work I benefitted from the
comments of many of those who read or heard the original lectures.
Among those in that audience, I am especially indebted to the insights
of my Berkeley commentators, Pamela Hieronymi, Richard Moran, and
Michael Tomasello. The fact that I decided to expand and revise the orig-
inal text means, alas, that the current volume appears without those
three commentaries; the contribution of Michael Tomasello in the ex-
change that appears later is a response to the new text.
I not only benefitted from the comments of participants in the Berkeley
audience; I also benefited greatly from comments made by participants
in the audiences at a pre-run of the lectures in the Australian National
10 . The Birth of Ethics
“It is easy to leave the world; but if the heart is gross, and you cannot cease
thinking of the mud and trouble of life, your living in a deep hill is vain.”
“To be a Buddhist is easy, but to keep the regulations is difficult.”
“It is easy to preach doctrines (taali), but to apprehend principles is difficult.”
“If you do not put forth your works, but only preach, your strength is emptily
wasted; and if you talk till you break your teeth, even then it will be in vain.”
“If you are entirely without belief and desire (will), and do not attend to the
prohibitions, then your strength will have been uselessly wasted, and your head
shaved to no purpose.”
“May the precious ground (of the monastery) be renewed.”
“To be intimate, and not divided, consists in the virtuous roots being gathered in
a place.”
“When the image was asked why it turned round and fell backward, it said,
‘Because the people of the time would not turn their heads;’” [they probably being
a stiff-necked generation, like the people of many other times and places.]
“Peacefully seclude and regulate yourselves.”
Much more than that in which lies the tomb of Shelley is the
situation of some of these Celestial graves fitted to make one “in love
with death,” and there is much consoling in the thought which the
Chinaman can entertain, that when the cold hand has stilled the
beatings of the troubled heart, his disembodied spirit does not want
a home, his name and memory are perpetuated in the ancestral hall,
his wants are provided for, and the daughter whom he left a child
feels that he is near her even to her old age. How different these
convictions from the melancholy complaint of Abd-el-Rohaman, the
Arab poet, as, fancying himself in the grave, forsaken and forgotten
by all his kin, he wrote:—
“They threw upon me mould of the tomb and went their way,—
A guest, ’twould seem, had flitted from the dwellings of the tribe.
My gold and my treasures, each his share, they bore away,
Without thanks, without praise, with a jest and with a jibe.
“My gold and my treasures, each his share, they bore away;
On me they left the weight, with me they left the sin.
That night within the grave, without hoard or child, I lay:
No spouse, no friend was there, no comrade and no kin.