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SroELTil\TG 's
A ESTHESIA AND
CO-EXISTING
DISEASE
Rollerta L. Hines
Katheri11e .E. Marschall
ELSD' II:R
Stoelting’s
ANESTHESIA AND
CO-EXISTING
DISEASE
Stoelting’s
ANESTHESIA AND
CO-EXISTING
DISEASE
Roberta L. Hines, MD
Nicholas M. Greene Professor and Chairman
Department of Anesthesiology
Yale University School of Medicine
Chief of Anesthesiology
Yale-New Haven Hospital
New Haven, Connecticut
Seventh Edition
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they
have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Printed in China.
In 1983 the first edition of Anesthesia and Co-Existing Disease care medicine. The chapters on geriatric medicine and cancer
by Drs. Robert K. Stoelting and Stephen F. Dierdorf was pub- medicine have major updates, but all chapters contain new
lished with the stated goal “to provide a concise description information, refer to major medical society guidelines and
of the pathophysiology of disease states and their medical recommendations that affect the practice of perioperative
management that is relevant to the care of the patient in the medicine, and contain many tables, figures, illustrations, and
perioperative period.” Since then, five more editions have been photographs to aid in understanding key concepts. We hope
published. The last two editions were published under our edi- that our readers will continue to find this book relevant to the
torial leadership. care of the patient in the perioperative period.
This seventh edition of Anesthesia and Co-Existing Disease
continues the tradition of presenting new and updated medi- Roberta L. Hines, MD
cal information to the anesthesiology community. New chap- Katherine E. Marschall, MD
ters include those on sleep-disordered breathing and critical
v
Contributors
vii
viii CONTRIBUTORS
1 Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders 1 17 Diseases of the Liver and Biliary Tract 345
Jean G. Charchaflieh Tricia Brentjens, Paul David Weyker,
xi
C H APT E R
Sleep-Related Breathing 1
Disorders
JEAN G. CHARCHAFLIEH
Scientific study of sleep in humans dates back only about introduced in 1975. Prior to that the term Pickwickian syn-
a century, whereas the development of sleep medicine as a drome was used. In 1974 one of the first cases of what would
medical discipline dates back only about 50 years. Rapid eye be considered obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) was described as
movement (REM) sleep was first described in cats in 1957. The a case of periodic nocturnal upper airway obstruction in an
genetic mutation of narcolepsy was first described in dogs in obese patient with normal control of breathing, a positional
1999. The clock gene mutation was first described in mice in increase in upper airway resistance, and associated dysrhyth-
2005, demonstrating that a mutation in the circadian system mias (bradycardia and asystole) that resolved with tracheos-
clock gene disturbed not only the sleep cycle but also energy tomy, which was the treatment of choice at that time. In 1981
balance, resulting in hyperphagia, hyperlipidemia, hypergly- the treatment of OSA was advanced by the understanding of its
cemia, hypoinsulinemia, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and pathophysiology and by demonstrating the therapeutic efficacy
hepatic dysfunction. The term sleep apnea syndrome was first of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) in a patient with
1
2 STOELTING’S ANESTHESIA AND CO-EXISTING DISEASE
severe OSA who was scheduled for tracheostomy but refused frequency waves; (2) on electromyography: low or absent
the surgery and elected to undergo the “experimental” therapy muscle tone (atonia); and (3) on electrooculogram (EOG):
with CPAP. rapid eye movements. Tonic REM sleep refers to REM sleep–
associated muscle atonia. Phasic REM sleep refers, in addition
to atonia, to phasic bursts of rapid eye movements, muscle
PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP
twitches, sympathetic activation, and dreaming that is likely to
Our current understanding of the wake/sleep state maintains be recalled upon awakening, unlike NREM dreaming, which
that wakefulness is accomplished by a brainstem neuronal path- is less likely to be recalled.
way known as the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS),
which involves several neurotransmitters including acetylcholine,
Physiologic Differences Between NREM and
dopamine, norepinephrine, histamine, and 5-hydroxytrypta-
REM Sleep
mine. Sleep is maintained by inhibition of the ARAS via a hypo-
thalamic nucleus known as the ventrolateral preoptic (VLPO) NREM sleep maintains homeostasis and autonomic stability
nucleus. This involves two neurotransmitters: γ-aminobutyric at low energy levels—that is, with a low basic metabolic rate
acid (GABA) and galanin. There is reciprocal inhibition between and a decreased heart rate, cardiac output, and blood pressure.
the ARAS and the VLPO nucleus. The neurotransmitter adenos- Hormonal secretion is maintained.
ine promotes sleep by inhibiting cholinergic ARAS neurons and REM is considered a more primitive state of sleep. It impairs
activating VLPO neurons. The timing and duration of sleep homeostasis and disrupts autonomic stability. REM-induced
are influenced by three factors: (1) sleep homeostasis, which autonomic instability manifests as irregularity in heart rate,
involves buildup of the inhibitory neurotransmitter adenosine cardiac output, blood pressure, and tidal volume and suppres-
during wakefulness, (2) circadian homeostasis, which is regu- sion of cardiac and respiratory chemoreceptor and barore-
lated by a hypothalamic nucleus that provides GABAergic input ceptor reflexes. REM sleep is associated with skeletal muscle
to the pineal gland, and (3) environmental zeitgebers (“time- atonia affecting all skeletal muscles including upper airway
givers”), which include light, temperature, eating, body position, dilator muscles and intercostal muscles but with significant
and environmental stimulation. Light is the most important zeit- sparing of the diaphragm.
geber. It provides input to the hypothalamus to suppress release
of melatonin from the pineal gland, whereas darkness stimu-
Respiratory Control During Wakefulness and
lates the release of melatonin, also known as “the hormone of
Sleep
darkness.” In normal circadian rhythm, time of onset of release
of melatonin under dim light conditions occurs about 2 hours The brainstem respiratory control center consists of two
before sleep onset. Temperature is another important zeitgeber. groups of neurons: a dorsal respiratory group that promotes
Falling core body temperature promotes falling to sleep, whereas inspiration and a ventral respiratory group that functions
rising body temperature promotes awakening. Caffeine inhibits as the respiratory pacing center. The ventral group contains
sleep by blocking the effects of adenosine. μ-opioid receptors that inhibit respiration when they are
activated by endogenous or exogenous opioids. The respira-
tory control center sends output to the phrenic nerve and the
Sleep Stages
hypoglossal nerve and receives input from three areas of the
Electroencephalography (EEG) is an important method of body: (1) electrical input from the forebrain regarding sleep/
studying wakefulness and sleep and defining sleep stages. The wake state, sleep stage, and voluntary control of breathing; (2)
electrical activity of the brain can be categorized into three chemical input from peripheral and central chemoreceptors
states: wakefulness, REM sleep, and non-REM (NREM) sleep. regarding pH, Paco2, and Pao2; and (3) input via the vagus
The latter can be further categorized into three stages: N1, N2, nerve from mechanoreceptors in the lungs and airway. REM
and N3, according to the progressive decrease in frequency and sleep decreases all three aspects of breathing control to a
increase in amplitude of EEG waveforms. Muscle tone as mea- greater extent than NREM sleep.
sured by electromyography (EMG) is normal during wakeful- The transition from wakefulness to sleep can be associated
ness, decreased during NREM sleep, and abolished during REM with breathing irregularity, including periodic breathing and
sleep. In terms of vegetative functions and energy expenditures, sleep-onset apnea. After this transition, sleep is usually asso-
REM sleep matches or exceeds that in awake levels and has been ciated with an increase in airway resistance and Paco2 (2–8
described as a state of an active brain in a paralyzed body. mm Hg) and a decrease in Pao2 (3–10 mm Hg), chemosensi-
Sleep occurs in all stages of human life, including in utero, tivity, CO2 production (10%–15%), tidal volume, and minute
but sleep duration and stage proportions differ according to ventilation.
age. Sleep stages are not equally distributed during the sleep
period. Stage N3, also known as slow wave sleep, occurs during
Effects of Aging and Disease on Sleep
the first third of the night. REM sleep periods increase in dura-
tion and intensity as sleep progresses. REM sleep is defined Aging decreases the percentage of sleep in its slow wave por-
by three electrical findings: (1) on EEG: low amplitude, mixed tion and in the REM portion and the total time in bed during
Chapter 1 Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders 3
which one is asleep (also known as sleep efficiency). Aging and interhemispheric neuronal connectivity and the presence
increases the time it takes to fall asleep (also known as sleep of REM-induced muscle atonia.
latency) and the incidence of daytime napping.
Disease states can also disrupt sleep quality and quantity
Effects of Sleep on Energy Balance and
and produce vicious cycles in which sleep disruption and the
Metabolism
disease state exacerbate each other until the cycle is broken
by treating the disease or the sleep disruption or both. Both Sleep and sleep deprivation are associated with hormonal
acute pain (including postoperative pain) and chronic pain changes that affect energy metabolism and other endocrine
disorders (e.g., fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome) also functions. Hormonal release can be regulated by sleep homeo-
disrupt the quality and quantity of sleep. Clinically, fibromy- stasis, circadian rhythms, or both. There are sleep deprivation–
algia and chronic fatigue syndrome manifest with insomnia, related postprandial increases in both insulin and glucose to
nonrefreshing sleep, excessive daytime sleepiness, and fatigue. levels greater than would occur without sleep deprivation,
which indicates insulin resistance. This might explain the
association between sleep deprivation and insulin resistance
Cardiovascular System Physiology During
and diabetes mellitus. Sleep deprivation–related thyroid stim-
NREM and REM Sleep
ulating hormone peak release indicates that sleep deprivation
NREM sleep increases vagal and baroreceptor control of is a hypermetabolic state.
the cardiovascular system and results in sinus dysrhythmia
through the coupling of respiratory activity and cardiorespira-
Effects of Drugs on Sleep
tory centers in the brain. REM sleep–induced loss of homeo-
stasis results in irregularity and periodic surges in heart rate, Drugs that affect the central nervous system, autonomic ner-
blood pressure, and cardiac output, which can present clinical vous system, or immune system may affect sleep architecture
risk in patients with cardiopulmonary disease or those with and cause sleep disorders. Many drugs are capable of these
underdeveloped cardiorespiratory systems, such as infants changes, and some are listed in Table 1.1. Alcohol, barbitu-
(which increases the risk of sudden infant death syndrome). rates, benzodiazepines, nonbenzodiazepine GABA receptor
Phasic REM sleep is associated with phasic increases in sympa- agonists such as zolpidem, opioids, acetylcholinesterase inhib-
thetic activity, resulting in heart rate and blood pressure surges itors such as donepezil (which is used to treat Alzheimer’s
without a corresponding increase in coronary blood flow. disease), antiepileptic drugs, adrenergic α1-agonists such as
This can result in nocturnal angina and nocturnal myocar- prazosin, adrenergic α2-agonists such as clonidine, β-blockers
dial infarction. Tonic REM sleep is associated with increased such as propranolol, β-agonists such as albuterol, nonsteroidal
parasympathetic activity, resulting in abrupt decreases in heart antiinflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, pseudoephedrine,
rate, including pauses, which in patients with a congenital long theophylline, diphenhydramine, tricyclic antidepressants,
QT syndrome or Brugada syndrome can trigger multifocal monoamine oxidase inhibitors, selective serotonin reuptake
ventricular tachycardia or even sudden unexplained nocturnal inhibitors, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibi-
death. tors, serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors, dopamine
and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, antimigraine drugs
(triptans), and statins can all cause sleep disruption and sleep
Cerebral Blood Flow, Spinal Cord Blood Flow,
disorders.
and Epileptogenicity During NREM and REM
Sleep
SPECIFIC SLEEP DISORDERS
NREM sleep is associated with a decrease in cerebral blood
flow and spinal cord blood flow, with maintenance of auto- Specific sleep disorders are disorders that manifest predomi-
regulation. REM sleep is associated with regional increases in nantly but not exclusively with sleep manifestations. They
cerebral blood flow and impaired autoregulation. Phasic REM include disorders that manifest primarily as: (1) decreased
sleep periods increase in intensity and duration toward early sleep (insomnia), which is the most common type of sleep dis-
morning, with resulting early morning surges in blood pres- order, (2) increased sleep (hypersomnias), (3) abnormal sleep
sure that can lead to an increased risk of stroke in the early behavior (parasomnias), (4) disruptions of circadian rhythm,
morning hours. OSA is also associated with early morning and (5) sleep-induced exacerbations of certain pathophysio-
surges in blood pressure, increased vascular reactivity to Pco2, logic problems such as sleep-related movement disorders and
and increased intracranial pressure that can result in addi- sleep-related breathing disorders (SRBDs).
tional risk of early morning stroke. Narcolepsy represents the loss of boundaries between the
NREM sleep is more epileptogenic than both wakefulness three distinct states of wakefulness, NREM sleep, and REM
and REM sleep because of increased thalamocortical synap- sleep. Parasomnias represent admixtures of wakefulness with
tic synchrony and neuronal hyperpolarization, which pro- either NREM sleep or REM sleep. The admixture of wakeful-
mote seizure propagation. REM sleep is least epileptogenic ness with NREM sleep results in NREM parasomnias that
because of decreases in thalamocortical synaptic synchrony include confusional arousal, sleep terror, and sleep acting
4 STOELTING’S ANESTHESIA AND CO-EXISTING DISEASE
MAOIs, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors; NREM, non-REM sleep; OSA, obstructive sleep apnea; REM, rapid eye movement sleep; SNRIs, serotonin and norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitors; SRBD, sleep-related breathing disorder; SSRIs, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
(talking, walking, cooking, or eating). REM parasomnias arousal response, and (3) instability of the ventilatory response
include REM nightmares and REM sleep behavior disorder, to chemical stimuli.
which is REM sleep without the usual atonia, which allows
physical enactment of dreams during REM sleep and can Narrowing of the Upper Airway
result in injury to self or others. Airway obstruction can be due to anatomic narrowing or to
functional collapse of the airway or to both factors. The most
common sites of upper airway obstruction are the retropala-
PATHOGENESIS OF SLEEP-RELATED
tal and retroglossal regions of the oropharynx. Obstruction
BREATHING DISORDERS
can be due to bony craniofacial abnormalities or, more com-
monly, excess soft tissue, such as thick parapharyngeal fat pads
Pathogenesis of Obstructive Sleep Apnea
or enlarged tonsils. Children have many reasons for anatomic
The hallmark of OSA is sleep-induced and arousal-relieved upper airway narrowing, including the very common enlarge-
upper airway obstruction. The pathogenesis of this airway ment of tonsils and adenoids, as well as the much less common
obstruction is not fully understood. Comorbid conditions that congenital airway anomalies. The latter include Pierre-Robin
are associated with increased prevalence rates for OSA include syndrome, Down syndrome, achondroplasia, Prader-Willi
hypertension, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, Arnold-Chiari malforma-
congestive heart failure, atrial fibrillation, stroke, type 2 dia- tion type II, maxillary hypoplasia, micrognathia, retrognathia,
betes mellitus, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), polycys- tracheomalacia, and laryngomalacia.
tic ovarian syndrome, Graves disease, hypothyroidism, and In adults, acromegaly, thyroid enlargement, and hypo-
acromegaly. Predisposing factors include genetic inheritance, thyroidism are additional causes of narrowing of the upper
non-Caucasian race, upper airway narrowing, obesity, male airway. Mallampati developed a clinical classification of oro-
gender, menopause, use of sedative drugs and alcohol, and pharyngeal capacity to predict difficult tracheal intubation,
cigarette smoking. Direct physiologic mechanisms involved in and this was later found useful in predicting the risk of OSA
the pathogenesis of OSA include (1) anatomic and functional as well. For every 1-point increase in the Mallampati score, the
upper airway obstruction, (2) a decreased respiratory-related odds ratio for OSA is increased by 2.5.
Chapter 1 Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders 5
Graves disease can cause OSA by extraluminal compres- both. Instability of respiratory control may include increased,
sion of the upper airway, and thyroid mass lesions can cause decreased, or oscillating respiratory drive.
snoring, stridor, or sleep apnea. Toxic goiter may “burn out,”
leading to hypothyroidism, which increases the risk of OSA Primary/Idiopathic Central Sleep Apnea
by inducing obesity and macroglossia. Acromegaly increases Primary/idiopathic CSA has an unknown cause and manifests
the risk of OSA by maxillofacial skeletal changes, upper airway as periodic breathing with a cycle length composed of apnea
soft tissue enlargement (including tongue size), and obesity. plus the subsequent hyperpnea. There is then an oscillation
Functional collapse of the upper airway occurs when forces between hyperventilation and apnea. Increased chemosensi-
that can collapse the upper airway overcome the forces that tivity to Pco2 predisposing to respiratory control system insta-
can dilate the upper airway. Collapsing forces consist of intra- bility may be the underlying pathogenesis.
luminal negative inspiratory pressure and extraluminal posi-
tive pressure. Dilating forces consist of pharyngeal dilating Secondary Central Sleep Apnea
muscle tone and longitudinal traction on the upper airway by The most common form of secondary CSA is narcotic-
an increased lung volume, so-called tracheal tug. Excessive induced CSA, which is encountered in up to half of patients
inspiratory efforts to help overcome upper airway obstruc- using opioids chronically. It can manifest either as periodic
tion can lead to even more upper airway collapse by gener- Biot’s breathing or irregular ataxic breathing. The latter is usu-
ating excessive negative intraluminal pressure. The supine ally associated with significant hypoxia and prolonged apnea.
position enhances airway obstruction by increasing the
effect of extraluminal positive pressure against the pharynx, Central Sleep Apnea With Cheyne-Stokes Breathing
which lacks any bony support. Sleep, particularly REM sleep, CSA with Cheyne-Stokes breathing was the first form of a
decreases muscle tone generally, including that of the upper sleep-related breathing disorder to be described. In 1818
airway, and decreases lung volume, which decreases the tra- John Cheyne described the periodic nature of breathing in an
cheal tug effect. Patients with OSA have a more collapsible obese patient who suffered from a stroke and heart failure. He
upper airway with altered neuromuscular control. Their upper described the patient as:
airway muscles have inflammatory infiltrates and denervation A.B., sixty years, of a sanguine temperament, circular
changes, which might decrease their ability to dilate the airway chest, and full habit of body, for years had lived a very
during sleep. sedentary life, while he indulged habitually in the luxuries
The respiratory-related arousal response is stimulated by of the table….The patient suddenly developed palpitations
(1) hypercapnia, (2) hypoxia, (3) upper airway obstruction, and displayed signs of severe congestive heart failure. The
and (4) the work of breathing, which is the most reliable stim- only particularity in the last period of his illness, which
ulator of arousal. lasted eight or nine days, was in the state of respiration.
For several days his breathing was irregular; it would
Obesity entirely cease for a quarter of a minute, then it would
Obesity is a risk factor for OSA in all age groups. A 10% become perceptible, though very low, then by degrees it
increase in body weight is associated with a 6-fold increase became heaving and quick, and then it would gradually
in the odds of having OSA and a 32% increase in the apnea- cease again. This revolution in the state of his breathing
hypopnea index. A 10% weight loss is associated with a 26% occupied about a minute…this symptom, as occurring in
decrease in the apnea-hypopnea index. Besides affecting the its highest degree, I have only seen during a few weeks pre-
size of subcutaneous cervical fat, obesity could be associated vious to the death of the patient.
with increased amounts of fat in the tongue and larger para- Congestive heart failure, stroke, and atrial fibrillation are
pharyngeal fat pads. the three most common conditions during which CSA with
Cheyne-Stokes breathing is encountered. It is postulated that
Genetic Factors a significant decrease in ejection fraction and consequent
Genes can affect the pathogenesis of OSA by influencing the increase in circulation time is at least partially responsible
regulation of sleep, breathing, energy metabolism, and cranio- for this condition. The pathophysiology of this form of peri-
facial anatomy; certain alleles have been found to be associ- odic breathing is described in terms of its four cyclical com-
ated with OSA. Heredity as a factor in OSA development is ponents: hypopnea, apnea, hypoxia, and hyperventilation
suggested by familial aggregation of cases of OSA. (Fig. 1.1).
of major adverse perioperative cardiac and cerebrovascular The major consequences of hypoxia and hypercarbia include
events. They also have a greater risk of significant dysrhyth- pulmonary hypertension, cor pulmonale, and an increased
mias and atrial fibrillation in this setting. risk of sudden unexplained nocturnal death. Patients with
interstitial lung disease (e.g., interstitial pulmonary fibrosis)
Neurologic Consequences usually suffer from even more severe hypoxia and sleep dis-
The EEG changes of chronic sleep deprivation include overall ruption than those with COPD.
slowing of the EEG, a decrease in deeper stages of sleep, and a
compensatory increase in lighter stages of sleep. Psychomotor
PREVALENCE OF SLEEP-RELATED
vigilance task testing demonstrates an increase in the num-
BREATHING DISORDERS
ber of lapses. OSA-induced disruption of sleep is associated
with extensive daytime sleepiness, a decrease in cognition Sleep-related breathing disorders are the second most com-
and performance (attention, memory, executive functioning), mon category of sleep disorders (after insomnia disorder) and
decreased quality of life, mood disorders, and increased rates are the most common sleep disorders encountered in sleep
of motor vehicle collisions. Caffeine consumption in OSA medicine clinics. OSA accounts for about 90% of sleep-related
patients could be a behavioral compensatory mechanism to breathing disorders. Snoring is more common than OSA and
overcome their daytime sleepiness. is the most common reason for referral for a sleep study.
The mortality impact of OSA is evident in moderate to
severe OSA. The economic impact is due to increased health-
Prevalence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea
care utilization, decreased productivity, and years of potential
life lost. It is estimated that the yearly incidence of OSA-related In 2014 the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM)
motor vehicle accidents alone costs about $16 billion and 1400 estimated that OSA affects at least 25 million adults in the
lost lives. Treating all drivers with OSA with positive airway United States. The proportion of OSA patients who are not
therapy (at a cost of ≈ $3 billion a year) would save about $11 clinically diagnosed is estimated to be roughly 80% among men
billion and about 1000 lives. and 90% among women. Patients with hypertension (includ-
ing drug-resistant hypertension), type 2 diabetes mellitus,
Metabolic Consequences coronary artery disease, atrial fibrillation, permanent pace-
With OSA, multiple mechanisms interact to produce meta- makers, various forms of heart block, congestive heart failure,
bolic derangements and disorders that can worsen OSA and a history of stroke, and those coming for bariatric surgery have
produce a vicious cycle that must be broken by treating both of a much greater prevalence of OSA than the general popula-
its elements. Pathophysiologic mechanisms of these metabolic tion, and many of them are undiagnosed.
derangements include hypoxic injury, systemic inflamma-
tion, increased sympathetic activity, alterations in hypotha-
Prevalence of Central Sleep Apnea
lamic-pituitary-adrenal function, and hormonal changes. The
metabolic derangements include insulin resistance, glucose CSA is not common. About 50% of cases of CSA are found in
intolerance, and dyslipidemia. Metabolic disorders include patients with congestive heart failure. Other common comor-
type 2 diabetes mellitus, central obesity, and metabolic syn- bidities include chronic renal failure, stroke, multiple sclero-
drome. OSA is encountered in 50% of patients with NASH and sis, neuromuscular disorders, chronic opioid use, and living at
in 30%–50% of patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome. higher altitudes.
TABLE 1.3 Physiologic Functions Studied During TABLE 1.4 Rules for Scoring Respiratory Events During
Polysomnography Polysomnography in Adults
Electroencephalogram to measure and evaluate sleep stages Respiratory Event Scoring Criteria
Electrooculogram to measure eye movements
Chin electromyogram to measure muscle tone and the presence Obstructive apnea Apnea for longer than 10 seconds with a ≥
of REM sleep without atonia 90% air flow reduction despite respira-
Limb electromyogram to detect periodic limb movements and tory effort
restless legs syndrome Central apnea Apnea for longer than 10 seconds with a ≥
Electrocardiogram to detect dysrhythmias 90% air flow reduction without respira-
Upper airway sound recording to detect snoring tory effort
Nasal and oral airflow via a thermal sensor to detect apnea Hypopnea A > 30% reduction in air flow for longer
Nasal airflow via a pressure sensor to detect hypopnea and than 10 seconds associated with a ≥ 3%
arousals decline in oxygen saturation OR arousal
Thoracoabdominal inductance plethysmography to detect Hypoventilation A 10-minute period with a Pco2 > 55 mm
respiratory efforts Hg or a ≥ 10 mm Hg increase in Pco2 to
Pulse oximeter to detect oxygen saturation/desaturation ≥ 50 mm Hg
Capnography to detect hypercarbia/hypoventilation Periodic breathing ≥3 consecutive cycles of Cheyne-Stokes
Body position sensor to note body position effects breathing with a cycle length ≥ 40 sec-
Video recording or sleep technologist observation to detect onds or ≥ 5 episodes of Cheyne-Stokes
parasomnias breathing in 2 hours
sleep disorders into six categories: insomnias, hypersomnias, 2 testing is unattended PSG done at home (rarely done); level
parasomnias, circadian rhythm sleep disorders, sleep-related 3 testing is home apnea testing in combination with an acti-
movement disorders, and sleep-related breathing disorders. graph (a device that keeps track of movements as an assess-
The latter are further divided into four categories: OSA, CSA, ment of sleep state); and level 4 testing uses 1–2 channels to
sleep-related hypoventilation disorders, and sleep-related monitor pulse oximetry and airflow. Level 4 testing is inad-
hypoxemia disorder. equate for a diagnosis of OSA, since it lacks information about
respiratory effort.
Overnight home oximetry is an example of a level 4 home
Polysomnography
sleep apnea test. Data derived from this monitoring include
Polysomnography (PSG) can be used to differentiate CSA the hourly frequency of a drop in Sao2 by 3% or more and the
from OSA; assess its severity; detect associated hypoventi- T90, which is the total time spent with an oxygen saturation of
lation and hypoxia; detect associated EEG, ECG, and limb less than 90%.
movement events; and, when indicated, titrate positive airway
pressure (PAP) therapy and perform follow-up assessments
Morphometric Models
of any implemented therapy for the sleep-related breath-
ing disorder. Rules for performing and interpreting PSG are The association of anatomic risk factors with sleep apnea has
published in the AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and been used to produce morphometric models to predict the
Associated Events. The manual covers the performance and likelihood of OSA. One morphometric model uses the triad
interpretation of polysomnographic studies and home sleep of BMI, neck circumference, and oral cavity measurements
apnea testing. The impact of these rules extends beyond per- and has a very high sensitivity and specificity. The oral cav-
forming and scoring an individual sleep study. These rules also ity measurements include palatal height, maxillary intermo-
affect diagnosis rates, which then affect calculations in epide- lar distance, mandibular intermolar distance, and overjet (the
miologic studies and the implementation of individual and horizontal distance between the edge of the upper incisors and
public health therapeutic interventions. the labial surface of the lower incisors). Note that overjet is not
Standard PSG consists of simultaneous recording of mul- the same as overbite.
tiple (7–12) physiologic parameters during a full night of sleep
in a sleep laboratory with a sleep technologist in attendance
Questionnaires
(Table 1.3). It should contain 6 or more hours of recordings.
The recorded PSG study is divided into 30-second periods Multiple tools in the form of questionnaires have been devel-
called epochs for scoring purposes. During scoring, each indi- oped for screening populations for OSA. The Epworth Sleepi-
vidual epoch must be scored for sleep stage and any respiratory ness Scale is used to assess excessive daytime sleepiness. The
events such as apnea or hypopnea with or without obstruction, Berlin Questionnaire has three categories assessing snoring,
cardiac or limb events, and associated arousal. Respiratory sleepiness, and risk factors. The AASM developed a 10-item
events are scored if they last 10 seconds or longer (Table 1.4). questionnaire to detect classic symptoms of OSA, and a 6-item
Sleep apnea testing can be done in several ways, each with checklist to identify patients who are at high risk for OSA. The
a decreasing degree of complexity: level 1 testing is PSG; level American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) created an OSA
Chapter 1 Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders 9
checklist with three categories: predisposing physical charac- congestive heart failure, stroke, end-stage renal disease, and
teristics, history of apparent airway obstruction during sleep, opioid use. PSG will show apneic periods without respiratory
and somnolence. Chung et al. used an acronym of some of the efforts.
clinical features and risk factors of OSA to develop the STOP-
BANG scoring model. The acronym STOP stands for Snor-
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Sleep-Related
ing, Tired (daytime sleepiness), Observed apnea, and high
Hypoventilation Disorders
blood Pressure; and the acronym BANG stands for BMI 35
or greater, Age 50 years or older, Neck circumference 40 cm Clinical findings in patients with sleep-related hypoventilation
(17 inches) or larger, and male Gender. Ramachandran et al. disorders can be divided into three categories: (1) specific signs
developed the Perioperative Sleep Apnea Prediction (P-SAP) and symptoms of diseases associated with an increased likeli-
score based on logistic regression analysis of surgical patient hood of a hypoventilation disorder, including neuromuscular
data. It has nine elements: age, male gender, obesity, snoring, diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, postpolio syn-
diabetes mellitus type 2, hypertension, thick neck, Mallampati drome, and facial muscle weakness in muscular dystrophy; (2)
class 3 or greater, and reduced thyromental distance. (These clinical findings due to chronic hypoxia (plethora) and hyper-
questionnaires are available as appendixes to this chapter in capnia; and (3) clinical findings due to systemic complications
Expert Consult online.) of chronic hypoxia and hypercapnia, including polycythemia,
Compared to PSG, most questionnaires demonstrate a trade right heart failure, liver congestion, and peripheral edema. The
off between sensitivity and specificity, with a trend toward BMI is typically over 30 kg/m2. PSG will demonstrate signifi-
decreased specificity as the questionnaire score increases or cant increases in Pco2 during both wakefulness and sleep.
the severity of OSA increases.
Criterion for the Diagnosis of Sleep-Related
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Obstructive Sleep Hypoxemia Disorder
Apnea in Adults
The criterion for diagnosis of this disorder is 5 minutes of a
Elements of the diagnosis of adult OSA include: (1) signs and sleep-related decrease in oxygen saturation to less than 88%
symptoms such as extreme daytime sleepiness, fatigue, insom- with or without hypoventilation.
nia, snoring, subjective nocturnal respiratory disturbance,
and observed apnea; (2) associated medical or psychiatric
TREATMENT OF SLEEP-RELATED
disorders such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, atrial
BREATHING DISORDERS
fibrillation, congestive heart failure, stroke, diabetes mellitus,
cognitive dysfunction, and mood disorders; and (3) predomi-
Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea
nantly obstructive respiratory events recorded during sleep
center nocturnal PSG or during out-of-center sleep testing. Because of its high prevalence rate and a general lack of diag-
The sum of apnea and hypopnea events per hour is defined as nosis, the first step in management of OSA is detection. In cases
the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI). The sum of apnea, hypop- of suspected obstructed sleep apnea, objective testing should
nea, and arousal events is defined as the respiratory disturbance be performed to confirm the diagnosis and assess its severity
index (RDI). using PSG. Testing should be followed by patient education,
Clinical findings of OSA in adults can be divided into three initiation of treatment, and long-term follow-up to assess the
categories: (1) anatomic features; (2) nocturnal and diurnal effect of therapy.
signs and symptoms of OSA, including loud snoring, gasping,
choking, breath-holding, breathing interruption, insomnia, Positive Airway Pressure Therapy
restless sleep, nocturia, bruxism, morning headache, non- The PAP device is an air compressor that delivers air pres-
refreshing sleep, fatigue, decreased cognitive and executive surized to specific levels. The device-patient interface can be
function, depression and irritability; and (3) commonly asso- a facemask, a nasal mask, or nasal pillows. PAP can be con-
ciated comorbidities. tinuous (CPAP), bilevel (BiPAP) or autotitrating (APAP). The
goal of PAP titration is to select the lowest airway pressure
that would eliminate all respiratory events, including apneas,
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Central Sleep
hypopneas, arousals, and snoring, so that the respiratory dis-
Apnea
turbance index decreases to less than 5 per hour, with accept-
Clinical findings of CSA can be divided into two categories: able oxygenation (Spo2 ≥ 90%) and an acceptable mask leak
(1) nocturnal and diurnal signs and symptoms, including level. Suggested mechanisms for the efficacy of PAP therapy
insomnia, frequent nocturnal awakenings with breath-hold- include (1) increasing the pharyngeal transmural pressure
ing, gasping or choking, mild snoring, breathing interrup- (pneumatic splint effect), (2) reducing pharyngeal wall thick-
tions reported by bed partner, nonrestorative sleep, fatigue, ness and airway edema, (3) increasing airway tone by mecha-
and excessive daytime sleepiness; and (2) clinical findings of noreceptor stimulation, and (4) increasing end-expiratory
associated comorbidities, including neuromuscular diseases, lung volume and producing a tracheal tug effect.
10 STOELTING’S ANESTHESIA AND CO-EXISTING DISEASE
CPAP consists of a single fixed PAP that is maintained average airway pressure by allowing higher PAP during periods
during both inhalation and exhalation. BiPAP consists of of greater obstruction, such as the supine position and REM
two fixed airway pressures: a higher inspiratory pressure and sleep, and lower PAP during periods of lesser obstruction.
a lower expiratory pressure. The transition from inspiratory Expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP) devices are dis-
to expiratory pressure is based on the machine’s detection of posable adhesive valves that direct exhaled airflow into small
expiratory effort. BiPAP mode allows a lower expiratory pres- channels to increase resistance to exhalation and thereby cre-
sure than what would be required with CPAP. BiPAP is an ate a degree of expiratory positive airway pressure.
alternative therapy for OSA in patients requiring high levels of
PAP who have difficulty exhaling against a fixed pressure, or Oral Appliance Therapy
who develop gastric distention from swallowing air while on Oral appliance therapy is considered second-tier treatment
CPAP, or who have co-existing central hypoventilation. in the management of OSA. The most common forms of oral
PAP therapy can be titrated either manually or automatically. appliances for OSA treatment include mandibular advancement
Manual in-laboratory, PSG-guided, full night titration of fixed devices and tongue retaining devices. Mandibular advancement
PAP is considered the norm. APAP titration consists of a single devices are usually custom-made devices that are fitted to the
variable PAP that is maintained during both inhalation and teeth like a mouth guard and act to advance and stabilize the
exhalation, with variation from breath to breath according to mandible to increase upper airway capacity (Fig. 1.2). Tongue
the presence or absence of apnea, hypopnea, or snoring. APAP retaining devices advance and retain the tongue in an anterior
is an acceptable alternative for the treatment of uncomplicated position by holding it in a suction cup placed over the front
moderate to severe OSA that is associated with snoring. APAP teeth. (See video at aveotsd.com.) Mandibular advancement
mode may improve patient adherence and may minimize the devices are more costly but have greater efficacy and patient
A B
C
FIG. 1.2 An oral appliance (mandibular advancement device) for use in obstructive sleep apnea.
A, Device. B, Natural occlusion of this patient. C, Mandibular advancement device in position. Note
the forward movement of the lower teeth/jaw with this device. (From Marcussen L, Henriksen JE,
Thygesen T. Do mandibular advancement devices influence patients’ snoring and obstructive sleep
apnea? A cone-beam computed tomography analysis of the upper airway volume. J Oral Maxil-
lofacial Surg. 2015;73:1816-1826.)
Chapter 1 Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders 11
compliance. Oral appliance therapy is indicated for the treat- This can be augmented with BiPAP or drug therapy with
ment of snoring, mild to moderate OSA, and selected cases of acetazolamide and theophylline after medical optimization
moderate to severe OSA, such as that due predominantly to the of congestive heart failure. Therapies for CSA associated with
supine position or to a disproportionally large tongue relative to end-stage renal disease include CPAP, supplemental oxygen,
oral cavity capacity. This modality has been shown to be effec- use of bicarbonate during dialysis, and nocturnal dialysis.
tive in reducing sleep interruption, daytime sleepiness, neuro-
cognitive impairment, and cardiovascular complications. Side
Treatment of Sleep-Related Hypoventilation
effects include excessive salivation, temporomandibular joint
Disorders
discomfort, and long-term occlusion changes.
Hypoglossal nerve stimulation uses a nerve stimula- Treatment of sleep-related hypoventilation disorders should
tor that is implanted in the chest and has electronic sensing enhance airway patency and ventilation, which is best achieved
leads implanted between the internal and external intercostal using noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) in one
muscles in the fourth intercostal space. These sensors detect of three modes: (1) spontaneous mode, in which the patient
breathing and signal the device to stimulate the hypoglos- cycles the device from inspiratory PAP to expiratory PAP;
sal nerve during inhalation, which results in enlargement of (2) spontaneous timed mode, in which a backup rate delivers
upper airway capacity. The system is turned on by the patient PAP for a set inspiratory time if the patient does not trigger
before going to sleep and turned off upon awakening. the device within a set period of time; and (3) timed mode, in
which both the inspiratory time and respiratory rate are fixed.
Surgical Therapy NIPPV is recommended for the treatment of hypoventilation
Surgical treatment of the airway in the form of tracheostomy due to any sleep-related breathing disorder.
is the oldest form of therapy for OSA and has a very high rate
of efficacy. However, its invasiveness is its major deterrent. In
PERIOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
adults, in whom anatomic causes of OSA are relatively uncom-
IN PATIENTS WITH SLEEP-RELATED
mon, airway surgery treatment for OSA is considered third-
BREATHING DISORDERS
tier therapy. These surgical procedures target soft tissue and
bony tissue to enlarge airway capacity at the levels of the nose, Management of sleep-related breathing disorders are a topic of
palate, and/or tongue base and include maxillomandibular special interest within the specialties of anesthesiology and sleep
advancement, laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty, uvulopalato- medicine. In 2011 this combined interest by the two specialties
pharyngoplasty, and palatal implants. resulted in the establishment of the Society of Anesthesia and
Bariatric surgery aims to restrict caloric intake or absorp- Sleep Medicine (SASM), which is an international society with
tion or both. Bariatric surgery can be the sole therapy or an a stated mission “to advance standards of care for clinical prob-
adjunctive treatment to PAP therapy in patients with morbid lems shared by Anesthesiology and Sleep Medicine, including
obesity associated with OSA or OHS. Screening for OSA should perioperative management of sleep disordered breathing, and
be performed in all patients undergoing bariatric surgery. to promote interdisciplinary communication, education and
research in matters common to anesthesia and sleep.”
Medical Therapy The prevalence of OSA among surgical patients is higher
Adjunctive medical therapy for OSA can be used in combina- than the overall prevalence of 2%–4% in the general popula-
tion with any of the other forms of OSA therapy: PAP, oral tion. The perioperative period can exacerbate sleep-related
appliances, or surgery. These adjuncts include diet, exercise, breathing disorders because of (1) sleep deprivation due to
positional therapy, avoidance of alcohol and sedatives before anxiety, pain, alterations in circadian rhythms, and nursing
sleep, supplemental oxygen, and pharmacologic therapy, such interventions; (2) REM sleep rebound, which worsens OSA;
as with a stimulant drug like modafinil (Provigil). Positional and (3) the suppressant effects of anesthetics, sedatives, and
therapy consists of devices that discourage or prevent the analgesics on airway patency, respiratory drive, and arousal.
patient from sleeping in the supine position. The effect of sleep-disordered breathing on perioperative out-
Comorbid conditions should be treated. Thyroid disorders comes has been the subject of many observational studies and
should be treated surgically, medically, or both as indicated. systematic reviews, with conflicting findings based on study
Acromegaly should be treated surgically, medically, or both population, examined outcomes, and study design. The evi-
as indicated. Bromocriptine and somatostatin therapy can dence is, however, mostly negative.
reduce the apnea-hypopnea index in patients with acromeg-
aly by 50%–75%. However, continued PAP therapy is usually
PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR
required owing to persistent skeletal changes.
PERIOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT OF
PATIENTS WITH OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP
Treatment of Central Sleep Apnea APNEA
In CSA related to congestive heart failure, first-tier therapy con- The AASM, the ASA, and the Society for Ambulatory Anes-
sists of CPAP therapy and nocturnal oxygen supplementation. thesia (SAMBA) have provided practice parameters for the
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freundlich gegen die Fremden, bewahrten aber doch eine so steife
Zurückhaltung, daß ein herzlicher Ton unmöglich aufkommen wollte.
So kam es, daß Frau Haidacher gezwungen war, ihren
Bekanntenkreis in zwei Teile zu trennen. Der eine bestand aus den
Vertreterinnen der alten Familien der Stadt, der andere aus denen
der eingewanderten Familien. Diese völlig verschiedenen Elemente
einander näher zu bringen, sie gesellschaftlich zu vermischen, war
ein Ding der Unmöglichkeit. Sie lebten so ganz und gar getrennt
voneinander, daß sie sich selbst nach vielen Jahren des
gemeinsamen Aufenthaltes kaum dem Namen nach kannten.
Bei Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner war man stets vollkommen
sicher, nur ganz intime Bekannte zu treffen. Frauen, von denen man
alles haarklein wußte, deren Gesinnung einem genau vertraut war,
die zu einem paßten und deren Familien, Väter, Großväter und
Urgroßväter Innsbrucker waren und zum Teil eine Rolle in dieser
Stadt gespielt hatten.
Es waren die Angehörigen der Patrizierfamilien Innsbrucks, die
sich da trafen. Frauen, die stolz waren auf ihre bürgerliche Abkunft
und die ihre gesellschaftliche Stellung um keinen Adelstitel
vertauscht hätten. Sie waren Bürgerinnen, Töchter altangesehener
Familien. Als solche fühlten sie sich, wollten nicht mehr sein und
strebten nach keinem auch noch so hoch stehenden
Bekanntenkreis. Die Gesinnung dieser Frauen war vererbt, pflanzte
sich fort von den Eltern auf die Töchter und wurde von den Männern
dieser Frauen bestärkt und genährt.
Ein stolzer Zug von Freiheit und Unabhängigkeit lebte in diesen
Männern. Sie waren Männer, die aufrecht gingen, ohne Strebertum,
selbstbewußt, zufrieden und selbstherrlich. Sie alle liebten die alte
Stadt am Inn mit ehrlicher, aufrichtiger Begeisterung. Liebten sie,
weil es ihre Heimat war, ein deutsches, berggekröntes Juwel, wie ein
zweites wohl nicht mehr zu finden war. Und sie hielten diese Stadt
hoch, ehrten sie und vertraten ihre Interessen nach bestem Wissen
und Gewissen.
Diese starke Gesinnung der Männer spiegelte sich wider in der
Art der Frauen. Da gab es keine unter ihnen, die auch nur das
leiseste Verlangen gehabt hätte, aus ihrem Kreis herauszukommen.
Sie waren zufrieden miteinander, klatschten manchesmal ein wenig
unter sich und belächelten mit Nachsicht ihre Schwächen und
Eigenheiten. Aber sie hielten fest und unerschütterlich zusammen
und duldeten kein Eindringen eines fremden Elementes.
Wenn Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner eine Einladung gab, dann
verursachte das jedesmal eine kleine Umwälzung in ihrem
Hausstand. Die Tiefenbrunners hatten eine altmodische, aber recht
gemütliche Wohnung am Innrain. Die Zimmer waren klein und für
große Gesellschaften nicht geeignet. Da aber Frau Tiefenbrunner
den Ehrgeiz besaß, genau so viele Damen auf einmal bei sich zu
sehen, wie das die andern taten, so mußte jedesmal eine
Umgestaltung ihrer Wohnräume stattfinden.
Da wurde gerückt und geändert, und die Möbel wurden
umgestellt, bis der nötige Platz für so viele Menschen gefunden war.
Alle die überflüssigen kleinen Gegenstände, die Tischchen, Truhen,
Blumenständer und Vogelkäfige, welche die Zimmer so behaglich
erscheinen ließen, mußten weichen, um nur der notwendigsten
Einrichtung Platz zu machen.
Trotzdem waren die Damen so eng aneinander gepfercht wie die
Sardinen in der Büchse. Sie unterhielten sich aber ganz vortrefflich,
schwatzten und lachten miteinander, tranken Tee oder Kaffee und
verzehrten den herrlichen Kuchen, den die Apothekerin selbst
gebacken hatte.
Ungefähr zwanzig Damen hatte Frau Tiefenbrunner zu sich
gebeten. Sie saßen alle um einen großen runden Tisch, der in der
Mitte des Zimmers stand. Und vor ihnen lagen wahre Berge der
verschiedensten Bäckereien und delikaten Brötchen. Auf dem Büfett,
das in seinem behaglichen Ausbau fast eine ganze Wand einnahm,
standen große verkorkte Flaschen neben fein geschliffenen
Weinkelchen und harrten geduldig des Augenblicks, in dem sie zur
Erhöhung der allgemeinen Stimmung beitragen durften.
Ein fröhliches Plaudern und Lachen erfüllte den nicht sehr hohen
viereckigen Raum des Zimmers. Wenn die Damen unter sich waren,
dann konnten sie fast ausgelassen lustig sein, und von der ihnen
sonst eigenen steifen Zurückhaltung war nichts mehr zu bemerken.
Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner strahlte vor innerer Zufriedenheit.
Sie war froh, wenn es ihren Gästen gut bei ihr gefiel und diese den
dargebotenen Genüssen nach Herzenslust zusprachen. Immer
wieder bot sie den Damen an und nötigte sie mit etwas
ungeschickter Aufdringlichkeit zum Essen und Trinken.
„Aber so essen’s doch! Nehmen’s doch, Frau Patscheider!“ Die
Apothekerin hielt der Frau Patscheider, die neben ihr saß, eine
große Platte belegter Brötchen hin. Das Dienstmädchen hatte sie
gerade wieder neu gefüllt auf den Tisch gestellt.
„Ich bitt’ Ihnen, Frau Tiefenbrunner,“ lachte die Frau Patscheider,
„ich kann ja schon bald nimmer schnaufen vor lauter Essen!“ Und sie
biß herzhaft mit ihren gesunden weißen Zähnen ein großes Stück
von dem Kuchen herunter, den sie in der Hand hielt.
„Kochen kann sie, unsre Apothekerin! Das muß man ihr lassen!“
rühmte die Frau Direktor Robler. „Nirgends in der ganzen Stadt
kriegt man so einen guten Kuchen zu essen.“
„Und die Bröterln! Die erst!“ sagte die Frau Professor Haidacher
und nickte der Apothekerin lustig zu. „So was Feins! Ich halt’ mich
am liebsten bei die Bröterln auf. Her damit!“ kommandierte sie heiter.
Die Apothekerin reichte ihr dienstbeflissen die Platte über den Tisch.
Zur Feier des Tages hatte Frau Tiefenbrunner ein schwarzes
Kleid von ganz besonders schwerer Seide angezogen und sah darin
sehr vorteilhaft aus. Es war merkwürdig mit Frau Therese
Tiefenbrunner. Die Zeit vermochte ihr nichts anzuhaben. Blieb bei ihr
stehen und ließ sie aussehen wie vor zehn Jahren.
Die Frau Baurat stellte innerlich diesen Vergleich an und war der
Apothekerin fast etwas neidisch. Frau Tiefenbrunner war ja niemals
eine schöne Frau gewesen. Sie war stets robust und von derber
Gesundheit gewesen. Eine einfache, simple Frau, die sich immer
gleich blieb und an deren Äußerem das Alter keine Verheerung
anrichten konnte.
Frau Goldrainer gestand es sich ein, daß sie froh gewesen wäre,
wenn sie sich wenigstens noch einen Schimmer ihres einstigen
blühenden Aussehens mit in das Alter gerettet hätte. Aber das lag
wohl nicht in ihrer Familie, beruhigte sie sich dann selbst. Die
alterten alle rasch. Auch ihre Schwester, die Frau Doktor Storf, war
eine schon vor der Zeit gealterte Frau geworden. Kein Mensch hätte
geglaubt, daß diese blasse, verfallene, kleine Frau kaum Mitte
dreißig zählte.
Frau Hedwig Storf war seit einiger Zeit bedeutend ruhiger
geworden. Ihre Schwester bemerkte es mit Befriedigung, und sie
kannte auch die Ursache dieser Besserung. Doktor Storf hatte seine
Beziehungen zu Sophie Rapp nun vollständig aufgegeben, und die
Frau des Rechtsanwaltes schien jetzt tatsächlich nur mehr für den
Maler Altwirth zu schwärmen. Der Gedanke an Felix Altwirth war es
bei der Frau Baurat, der sie die Rede auf den Maler bringen ließ.
„Da fallt mir grad’ ein, Frau Patscheider,“ sagte die Frau Baurat,
„Sie haben Ihnen ja gar noch nit einmal von dem Altwirth malen
lassen!“
„Ich? Was fallt denn Ihnen ein!“ rief die Frau Patscheider entsetzt.
„Da tät’ mir mein Mann schön kommen!“
„So? Warum denn?“ forschte die Baurätin neugierig.
„Mein Mann halt nix von dem Altwirth seiner Malerei!“ erwiderte
die Patscheiderin ausweichend.
„Konsequent liebe ich den Mann!“ spottete Frau Haidacher mit
lustigem Hohn.
„Aber Felix Altwirth ist ein großer Künstler!“ versuchte Hedwig
Storf mit schüchterner Stimme den Freund ihres Gatten zu
verteidigen. „Er hat jetzt so schöne große Bilder ausg’stellt!“
„Haben Sie die Ausstellung g’sehen?“ wandte sich die Frau
Patscheider nicht ohne Bosheit an die Apothekerin.
„Nein!“ sagte Frau Tiefenbrunner mit Würde. „Wenn ich einmal
mit einem Menschen fertig bin, dann bin ich fertig! Dann gehe ich
auch nicht hin und beseh’ mir seine Kunstwerke.“ Das Wort
„Kunstwerke“ betonte die Apothekerin doch nicht ganz ohne Stolz.
„Sie haben auch nix versäumt, Frau Tiefenbrunner!“ tröstete sie
die Patscheiderin. „Mein Mann sagt ...“
„Aber,“ fiel ihr Frau Storf jetzt resolut ins Wort, „die Kritik ist doch
ganz begeistert von den Werken!“
„Hm! Die Zeitungen!“ machte Frau Robler verächtlich. „Was die
sagen, da kann man sich auch nicht darnach richten.“
„O ja!“ kam nun die Baurätin ihrer Schwester zu Hilfe. „Da muß
ich schon bitten. Dazu ist die Kritik da, und die versteht’s auch!“
sagte sie mit einer Schärfe im Ton, die keinen Widerspruch zuließ.
„Die Hauptsache ist,“ stellte die Professorin fest, „daß der Altwirth
jetzt ein Heidengeld verdient. Drei Bilder sollen ja schon wieder
verkauft sein von der Ausstellung. Und die ist ja erst seit einer
Woche.“
„Was das betrifft,“ meinte nun die Apothekerin, „so ist meinem
Neffen, dem Maler Altwirth, dieser Erfolg schon zu vergönnen. Es
kommt halt doch immer als das heraus, als was ich es gesagt habe
...“ behauptete Frau Tiefenbrunner mit bescheidener Würde. „Und
ich hab’ immer gesagt zu meinem Mann ... Simon, hab’ ich gesagt,
wirst sehen, unser Felix wird noch ein großer Künstler werden. Und
der Simon hat mir auch geglaubt!“ versicherte die Apothekerin.
„Ich hätt’ ihm auch nit anders g’raten, dem Siemanndl!“ flüsterte
die Professorin ihrer Nachbarin boshaft ins Ohr und stieß sie leise
an, so daß diese vor unterdrücktem Lachen einen leichten
Hustenanfall bekam.
Frau Tiefenbrunner sah mit vorwurfsvollem Blick in dem Kreis der
Damen herum, die ihr jetzt alle aufmerksam zuhörten. „Es hat da in
Innsbruck Leute gegeben,“ fuhr sie in ihrer langsamen Redeweise
fort, „die für die Kunst des Felix Altwirth kein richtiges Verständnis
haben aufbringen können. Aber das hat nix geschadet, wie Sie
sehen, meine Damen!“ meinte die Apothekerin mit nachsichtigem
Lächeln. „Und was ein Künstler ist, das bleibt halt eben ein Künstler!“
fügte sie weise hinzu.
„Besonders wenn sich eine Frau Doktor Rapp für so eine Kunst
zu interessieren anfangt!“ sagte Frau Patscheider boshaft. Sie fühlte,
daß die Apothekerin darauf ausging, ihren Gatten in den Augen der
Damen herabzusetzen.
Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner parierte den Hieb. „Was das
anbetrifft,“ fing sie langsam und gemächlich an, „so muß ich da
schon sagen, daß ich es nicht unschön finden kann, wenn eine
Dame ...“
„Dame!“ höhnte die Patscheiderin.
„Alsdann eine Frau,“ verbesserte die Apothekerin, „sich für einen
Künstler und seine Kunst begeistern tut!“ Frau Therese
Tiefenbrunner sah forschend in dem Kreise der Damen herum, um
den Eindruck zu ergründen, den ihre Rede hervorgerufen hatte.
„Begeistern!“ machte die Patscheiderin. „Die und sich für die
Kunst begeistern! Verliebt ist sie, und überg’schnappt ist sie, das
närrische Weibsbild! Vor lauter Lieb’!“
Die Damen lachten hellauf. Sie gönnten es der Tiefenbrunnerin,
daß die Patscheiderin sie so abfahren ließ. Sie kannten ja alle den
Gesinnungswechsel der Apothekerin und wußten, daß sie jetzt, da
der Erfolg für Felix Altwirth sprach, sich wieder zu ihm bekannte.
„Was glauben’s, was der jetzt eing’fallen ist!“ Die Patscheiderin
machte ein hochwichtiges Gesicht. „Jetzt rennt das Weibsbild mei’m
Mann nach. M e i ’m Mann, sag’ ich Ihnen! Und wissen’s, warum? Weil
sie sich einbildet, mein Mann, m e i n Mann ...“ die Patscheiderin wies,
so oft sie das Wort „mein“ betonte, mit dem Zeigefinger auf ihren
vollen Busen ... „soll dem Felix Altwirth eine Galerie bauen.
Natürlich, damit er da drinnen alleweil seine Bildlen aufhängen
könnt’!“ sagte sie eifrig. „Aber mein Mann will nix wissen von der
Sach’ und sagt, daß der Altwirth spinnt. Und das ist auch a so! Dem
fehlt’s im obern Stübel. Ich hab’ schon immer erzählen g’hört, daß
alle Maler spinnen. Wird der keine Ausnahm’ machen!“
Die Patscheiderin hatte sich in eine förmliche Aufregung
hineingeredet und sah jetzt wie eine Siegerin auf die Runde der
Damen, die zum Teil laut aufschrien vor Lachen.
„A Galerie! So was!“ sagte die Frau Robler kopfschüttelnd. „Ja,
ja! Unser Herrgott hat halt verschiedene Kostgänger!“ spottete sie
dann.
„Wo soll denn die Galerie hinkommen?“ forschte die Baurätin
neugierig. „Daß du davon nichts weißt?“ wandte sie sich vorwurfsvoll
an ihre Schwester.
„Die kommt nirgends hin. Verlassen Sie sich drauf!“ erklärte die
Frau Patscheider mit Bestimmtheit. „Wenn einmal mein Mann nein
sagt, nacher bleibt’s auch dabei!“
Der Apothekerin war die Wendung, welche das Gespräch
genommen hatte, entschieden unangenehm. Sie hatte einen ganz
roten Kopf bekommen und meinte jetzt zu der Frau Baurat
Goldrainer: „Überhaupt tu’ ich nit gerne sprechen von meinem
Neffen, dem Maler Altwirth. Seitdem ich mich mit ihm überworfen
hab’ ...“
„Ja, sagen’s mir einmal, Frau Tiefenbrunner,“ erkundigte sich die
Frau Robler teilnehmend, „hat sie sich denn gar nit entschuldigt bei
Ihnen, die Frau Altwirth?“
„Die?“ Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner blähte sich ordentlich auf in
dem Bewußtsein schwer gekränkter Würde. „Die ... Wenn mir die da
bei der Tür einer kommen tät’ ... wenn ...“
„Ah! Tun’s nit so, Frau Tiefenbrunner!“ lachte die Professorin.
„Froh wären’s, wenn sie wieder zu Ihnen käm’ und ...“
„Da tun Sie Ihnen aber doch recht gewaltig täuschen, Frau
Professor!“ sagte die Apothekerin jetzt ganz bissig. „Mit der Person
will ich nix zu tun haben. Die ist an allem Schuld! Wenn die nit wär’
...“ Frau Tiefenbrunner verdrehte, als ob sie einen großen Schmerz
zu erdulden hätte, die Augen und zog dann ihr weißes
Taschentüchlein heraus, um sich damit die ohnedies schon sehr
trockenen Augenwinkel noch ein wenig trockener zu reiben.
„Hm!“ machte die Patscheiderin und zuckte verächtlich mit den
Achseln. „Ist nit zu neiden, die junge Frau ... mit d e m Mann!“
Frau Therese Tiefenbrunner wurde jetzt lebendig. Sie vergaß die
ruhige Würde, die sie für gewöhnlich zur Schau trug, und fuhr die
Patscheiderin sprühgiftig an: „Das sag’ ich Ihnen, Frau Patscheider.
Mit der brauchen’s kein Mitleid nit zu haben. Das ist so ein
hochnasig’s, eingebildetes Ding ...“
„Nein! Das ist nit wahr!“ warf sich die kleine Frau Storf zur
Verteidigerin auf. „Frau Altwirth ist eine gute und auch eine gescheite
Frau!“ versicherte sie und gab ihrer schüchternen Stimme einen
festen Klang. „Die kennen Sie nur nit!“
„Ich will sie auch gar nicht kennen!“ sagte die Apothekerin
obstinat. „Und was die Gescheitheit von der anbetrifft, so glaub’ ich
kaum, daß sie’s jetzt gelernt hat, wie man ordentliche Kartoffel
rösten tut. Der Felix, das können’s mir glauben, der hat auch sein
Kreuz mit ihr. Und was für eins!“
Frau Tiefenbrunner seufzte schwer und laut hörbar, als sie von
dem Hauskreuz des Felix Altwirth sprach. „Überall fehlt’s da in der
Wirtschaft!“ erzählte sie weiter. „Was ich da überall hab’
nachschauen müssen! Nit glauben täten Sie mir’s, wenn ich’s Ihnen
auch erzählen tät’. Keine Knöpf’ in die Hosen, Löcher in die Strümpf’
... so große!“ Frau Tiefenbrunner beschrieb mit beiden Händen einen
Kreis, der beiläufig den Umfang eines Suppentellers hatte. „Dann,
wenn ich zu ihr kommen bin und bei die Pfanndeln in der Küch’
nachg’schaut hab’ ...“ Frau Tiefenbrunner machte jetzt noch
nachträglich ein ganz entgeistertes Gesicht vor lauter Entsetzen.
„Wenn Sie die Pfannen g’sehen hätten, Frau Patscheider ...“ wandte
sie sich nun mit ihrer Erzählung an diese, „wie die ausg’schaut
haben! So was täten Sie nit für möglich halten. Innen drein, da
waren’s geputzt, als wenn a Katz oder a Hunderl sie ausg’leckt hätt’.
Aber ausg’waschen haben die nit ausg’schaut, sag’ ich Ihnen. Und
außen erst!“ Frau Tiefenbrunner schlug die Hände über dem Kopf
zusammen. „Kohlrabenschwarz sein die g’wesen! Rußig und dreckig
und ...“
„Ja mei!“ Die Patscheiderin zuckte sehr geringschätzig die
Achseln und tat sehr wissend. „Das beweist noch gar nix!“ sagte sie,
die Apothekerin in ihrem Wortschwall unterbrechend. „Gar nix, sag’
ich Ihnen! Deshalb kann die Frau Altwirth doch a g’scheite Frau sein,
wie die Frau Doktor Storf behauptet.“
„Das mein’ ich auch!“ stimmte die Baurätin bei. „Und daß es ihr
Mann so treibt mit der Frau Rapp, das find’ ich einfach eine
Gemeinheit!“
„Und ich kann Ihnen sagen, Frau Baurätin,“ widersprach jetzt die
Apothekerin, „daß mich in meinem ganzen Leben noch nie etwas so
gefreut hat, als wie mir das vom Felix und der Sophie zu Ohren
gekommen ist. Das g’schieht dem Weibsbild, der Adele, vollkommen
recht! Der Simon hat’s auch g’sagt!“ fügte sie zur Bekräftigung ihrer
Ansicht hinzu.
„Sie, Frau Tiefenbrunner,“ ergriff nun die Professorin das Wort,
„jetzt will einmal ich Ihnen etwas sagen! Sind Sie in Ihrem Zorn und
Haß nit so ungerecht gegen die junge Frau! Ich kenn’ die Frau
Altwirth so wenig, daß ich eigentlich nit reden kann über sie. Aber es
g’fällt mir vieles an ihr, was ich hab’ beobachten können.“
„Ja, mir auch!“ stimmte die Patscheiderin eifrig bei. Sie freute
sich, daß sie die Apothekerin ärgern konnte mit ihrem Lob über die
Frau des Malers. „Und wenn sie nit gerade die Frau vom Felix
Altwirth wär’, dann hätt’ mein Mann nix dagegen, daß ich mit ihr
verkehren tät’. So gut g’fallt sie mir!“ behauptete sie.
„Was hat denn Ihr Mann gegen den Altwirth einzuwenden?“
forschte die Professorin erstaunt.
„Es ist doch auch ein Innsbrucker!“ sagte die Frau Robler.
„Natürlich!“ stimmte die Baurätin bei. „Da kann man schon
verkehren damit! Man weiß ja, wo er her ist!“ beruhigte sie dann
selber ihr Gewissen.
„Mein Mann halt nix vom Altwirth seiner Malerei!“ sagte die
Patscheiderin hochfahrend. „Das hab’ ich Ihnen schon g’sagt. Und
deshalb will er auch nix weiter zu tun haben mit ihm!“ erklärte sie im
bestimmten Ton.
Es trat für einen Augenblick Schweigen ein in der Gesellschaft.
Die Apothekerin ärgerte sich innerlich so wütend, daß sie in ihrer
Aufregung eine Schale Kaffee nach der andern hinunterstürzte. Sie
wußte gar nicht, daß sie es tat, sondern schluckte und schluckte nur
immer krampfhaft, bis ein lustiges Lachen der Professorin sie darauf
aufmerksam machte.
„Um Gotteswillen, Frau Tiefenbrunner! Sie trinken uns ja den
ganzen Kaffee weg!“ rief die Professorin neckisch und zwinkerte der
Apothekerin schalkhaft zu. „Krieg’ ich noch ein Schalerl, oder darf ich
jetzt einen Wein trinken?“
„Einen Wein natürlich!“ sagte die Apothekerin und erhob sich
geschäftig, um dem Dienstmädchen beim Verteilen der Gläser
behilflich zu sein.
Die heitere, harmlose Art der Professorin hatte bewirkt, daß Frau
Therese ruhiger geworden war. Und nicht ohne Dankbarkeit
schenkte sie jetzt der Frau Haidacher als der allerersten von dem
guten Tropfen ein. Das war eigentlich gegen das herkömmliche
Zeremoniell. Denn da ging’s in solchen Fällen strenge zu, je nach
Alter und Rang der einzelnen Damen.
Die Frau Direktor Robler stocherte mit der Gabel nachdenklich in
dem Kuchen herum, der vor ihr auf dem Teller lag, und sagte zu ihrer
Nachbarin laut, so daß es alle hören konnten: „Der Patscheider ist
doch ein recht g’scheiter Mann! Mein Mann sagt’s immer, wenn wir
den nit hätten in Innsbruck, nacher wär’s g’fehlt!“ sprach sie
anerkennend.
„Ja, das ist wahr!“ bestätigte die Baurätin. „Viel’ haben wir nit wie
den Patscheider!“
„Ja, aber der Doktor Rapp ...“ warf die Patscheiderin mit
spöttischer Miene ein. „Der ist ja alleweil noch der G’scheiteste!“
„Nein. Jetzt nimmer!“ Die Frau Haidacher schüttelte ernst den
Kopf. „Das mit der Sophie hat ihm doch etwas geschadet. Ist’s
eigentlich nit wert, das Frauenzimmer!“ fügte sie bedauernd hinzu.
„Wär’ er ledig blieben!“ sagte die Patscheiderin bissig.
Frau Haidacher sah die Frau Patscheider einen Moment scharf
an, dann meinte sie ruhig: „Ja ... für i h n wär’s auch besser g’wesen
... Aber für Ihren Mann ist’s besser so, wie’s ist!“
Die Frau Professor Haidacher spielte darauf an, daß der Einfluß
und die Macht, die Valentin Rapp einmal in der Stadt besessen
hatte, jetzt langsam, aber sicher im Abnehmen begriffen war ... und
daß Johannes Patscheider heute mehr als je eine mächtige Stellung
innehatte.
Siebzehntes Kapitel.