BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION oo 33.1.24 Mechanism of Blood Flow By the time blood reaches the veins, its pressure is not affected much by the heart. It is due to peripheral resistance. The pumping heart can no longer propel the blood in veins. Contracting muscles nearby propel the blood in the vein. Contracting muscles squeeze the veins and one-way valves in the vein keep blood moving only toward the heart. The diagram given below ‘explains the action. (Fig. 33.21) 33.1.25LymphaticSystem Comprises ‘a Network of Lymph Capillaries Lymphatic system comprises lymphatic vessels and associated lymph nodes that transport lymph from the tissue fluids into the blood stream and the heart. Tissue fluid Rot returned to the circulation via blood capillaries is drained as lymph. Branches of lymph vessels join together and eventually unite into major ducts, the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The lymph is finally returned to the heart via subclavian veins. The flow of lymph in lymph vessels is unidirectional because these vessels have valves to prevent back flow. Lymphatic system works for defense and provides main route by which fats reach the blood stream from the intestine. Lymph nodes are a number of small swellings found at intervals along the ymphatic system. Groups of nodes are found in many parts of the body; for example, in the groin and armpit and behind the ear. They are composed of lymphoid tissue and act as filters for the lymph, preventing foreign particles from entering the bloodstream; they also produce lymphocytes. (Fig. 33.22) 33.1.26 Lymph Nodesare Accumulations of Lymphatic Tissues Lymph is the fluid present within the vessels of the lymphatic system, It consists of the fluid that bathes the tissues, which is derived from the blood and is drained by the lymphatic vessels. Lymph passes through a series of filters (lymph nodes) and is ultimately returned to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct. It is similar in ‘composition to plasma, but contains less protein the Veins Direction of blood fw Valve (closed) Skeletal Valve (open) muscle Fig. 33.21. Muscle contraction propels the blood inthe vein. Left subclavian Thoracic Lymph nodes. Lymphatics Fig. 38.22. Lymphatic system in the human body. Germinal centre Capsule Fi 33.23. Structure of a lymph nodeea BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE and some cells, mainly lymphocytes. Lymph nodes are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the body that ‘occur at various points along the major lymphatic vessels. Tonsils and adenoids are large Iymph nodes. : {As the lymph passes through them, it is filtered, and cells known as macrophages engulf bacteria and ‘other microorganisms. Lymph nodes are sometimes mistakenly called lymph ‘glands’. Fig. 33.23) 3.1.27 Lymph is the Fluid Contained in the Lymphatic Vessels Lymph is the colourless fluid present within the vessels of the lymphatic system. It consists of the fluid that bathes the tissues, which is derived from interstitial fiuid and is drained by the lymphatic vessels. Lymph passes through a series of filters (Iymph nodes) and is ultimately returned to the bloodstream via the thoracic duct. It is similar in composition to plasma, but contains less protein and some cells, mainly lymphocytes. Lymph is consisting mostly of water with dissolved salts and proteins. Fats are found in suspension and their presence varies with food intake. The Iymph eventually enters the bloodstream near the heart. 33.1.28 Blood is a Fluid Connective Tissue with Dissolved Matrix Blood is a fluid circulating in the arteries, veins, and capillaries of vertebrate animals. Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to each body cell and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide. It is composed of blood cells, which Eosinophi" are suspended in a liquid medium, the plasma. An average individual has approximately 70 ml of blood per kilogram body weight (about 5 litres in an average adult male). Blood cells constantly wear out and die and are replaced from the bone marrow. Red blood cells die at the rate of 200 billion per day but the body produces new cells at an average rate of 9,000 million per hour. Arterial blood, which is rich in oxygen, is bright red in colour; venous blood, containing litle oxygen, is dark red. Blood is slightly Neutrophitt heavier than water (specific gravity 1.06) and has an alkaline reaction. It has a circulatory movement, being pumped through the arteries and veins by the heart. Blood cells, ‘Thrombocytes Fig. 33.24. Blood corpuscies in the mammalian blood. Red cells (erythrocytes) form nearly half the volume of the blood, with about six million red cells in every milliliter of an adult’s blood. Their red color is caused by hemoglobin 2. White cells (leucocytes) are of various kinds. Some (phagocytes) ingest invading bacteria and so protect the body from disease; these also help to repair injured tissues. Others (lymphocytes) produce antibodies, which help provide immunity. 3. Blood platelets (thrombocytes) assist in the clotting of blood. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets which were circulating in the blood stick to the collagen of the adventitia and surrounding tissues to “plug” the hole. (Fig, 33.24) 33.1.29 Differentiation of Blood Cells: Hemopoi All types of blood cells are formed in the bone marrow in adult mammal. During embryonic stage the blood cells form in the liver and spleen. The process of blood formation is termed as hhemopoiesis. All blood cells differentiate from a common source. Stem cells produced in the red bone marrow are pluripotent. Some of these cells differentiate into lymphoid stem cells; lymphoidBIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE 1. Erythrocytes are biconcave discs that transport Hematoest ‘oxygen. It lacks nuclei and mitochondria, Gener- § >> ates ATP. exclusively by anaerobic metabolism. Contains hemoglobin, an iron containing protein that reversibly bonds with oxygen. Kidneys. se- | 55% plasma crete a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimu- lates the production of red cells by the bone marrow. | bess tan 1% 2. Leucocytes function in body defense and immunity. cal ‘These are white blood cells that contain a nucleus. bs rs ‘There are 5 types (basophils, eosinophils, neutrophil, blood cols Iymphocytes, and monocytes) 3. Platelets (thrombocytes) are minute disc shaped non- Fg. 33.27. Blood in atest tube cellular structures (cell fragments of megakaryocytes) that function in blood clotting. There are about 250 OOOplateles per cubic milimetre of blood. (Fig. 33.27) 33.1.32 Blood Banks: Procedure for Saving Life Blood bank is a department within a hospital or blood transfusion centre in which blood collected from donors is stored prior to transfusion. Blood must be kept at a temperature of 4 °C. and may be used up to four weeks after collection. The supply must be continually renewed because certain blood components last for only a short time. Platelets, for example, can be banked for only a few days before they must be used. In contrast, some clotting substances and certain blood ‘components, such as hemoglobin, can last for years when frozen or dehydrated. Blood is separated in a process called centrifugation, which is usually done after the whole blood has been collected, ‘The blood is placed in a spinning vessel and the component blood cells separate according to different weights. Red blood cells are heavier than granulocyte white cells, which in turn are heavier than platelets and lymphocytes. 33.1.33 Composition of Blood Plasma Blood plasma is a straw-colored liquid made up of water and dissolved substances. Plasma constitutes about 55 % of the blood volume. Blood plasma contains nutrients, hormones, respiratory gases, wastes, and a variety of ions and salts. It also contains high concentrations of the protein serum albumin, which functions to Keep the blood plasma in osmotic equilibrium with the cells of the body. The dissolved substances can be grouped into three categories: 1, Nutrients, hormones, respiratory gases, and waste: Dissolved within the plasma are substances that are used or produced by the metabolism of cells. These substances include glucose, lipoproteins (a soluble form of lipid), amino acids, vitamins, hormones, and the respiratory gases. 2. Salt sand ions: Plasma isa dilute salt solution. In water, salts dissociate into their component ions. The chief plasma ions are sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-). In addition, there are trace amounts of other ions, such as calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), (Zn++), and potassium (K+). In living systems, these ions are called electrolytes. Electrolytes serve three general functions in the body. First, many are essential forthe various Physiological processes such as the proper functioning of muscles and nerves, and the proper formation of bone. Second, they play a role in the movement of water by osmosis. Third, they help maintain the acid-base (pH) balance required for normal cellular activities. Plasma Proteins: Blood plasma is approximately 90% water but contains a concentration of proteins that helps balance osmotic pressure between the cells and the blood. For this reason, ‘water is not osmotically sucked out of the blood. Some of plasma proteins are antibodies ‘and other proteins that are active in the immune system. Fibrinogen and prothrombin are key 3=a BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE 33.1.36 Blood Clotting is the Conversion of id Blood to a Solid State Blood cloting is the production of a mass of semisolid material atthe site of an injury that closes the wound, helping to prevent further blood loss and bacterial invasion. The clot is formed by the ation of cloting factors and places, Platlets break upon iting the rough area of a wound. Itreleases a chemical called thromboplastin, which Damaged tau, pals changes prothrombin (floating in the blood) to result in the production of: thrombin. Thrombin now will react with several | rthomiin cther chemicals and eventually cause fibrinogen (found in the blood) to get changed into an insoluble PF#¥EMM activator —r no material called fibrin. RBCs embedded in the mesh Trontin—> | of fibrin make a clot. When clotting happens, the Fibon fluid plasma changes into serum. (Fig. 33.28) eee eas en nee 33.1.37 Mechanism of Blood Clotting ‘The clotting process begins when the endothelium ofa vessel is damaged and connective tissue in the vessel wall is exposed to blood, Platelets adhere to collagen fibers in the connective tissue ‘and release a substance that makes nearby platelets sticky. The platelets form a plug that provides emergency protection against blood Paid loss. Clotng factors eventually forms an activator, which converts ronti | a plasma protein called prothrombin fin twits active form, thrombin. Caeium and vitamin K are among the plasma 4 + factors required for this step. Thus in — cascade of reactions, injury prothrombin, which then activates fibrinogen. The threads of fibrin become interwoven into a patch, in which red blood cells become trapped forming a clot. Clotting time is defined as the time between injury and the arrest of bleeding (normally 2-4 minutes). (Fig. 33.29) 33.1.38 Plasma and Serum Plasma is the liquid part of blood. It can be separated from whole blood by adding an anticoagulant, such as citrate (to complex with calcium ions needed for clotting), and then removing. the blood cells and plateléts. On the other hand, serum is the liquid left after blood has clotted. It has a composition similar to plasma, except that the proteins that go into making the blood clot are ‘missing. Cells and platelets are missing from serum, too, since they are caught in the web like clot as itis formed. Because water is absorbed by a clot, serum also contains less water than plasma, ‘An antiserum is a serum preparation that contains antibodies, substances produced to fight off an infection, 33.1.39 Blood Coagulation Factors (Clotting Factors) Blood coagulation factors are proteins and ions present in blood plasma that, under certain ‘umstances, undergo a series of chemical reactions leading to the conversion of blood from a liquid to a solid state. Although they have specific names, most coagulation factors are referred to by an agreed set of Roman numerals. Lack of any of these factors inthe blood results in the inability of the blood to clot. There are twelve coagulation factors listed below. ‘plug opening Fig. 33.29. Steps involved in the clotting of blood.BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION 1. Factor one- Fibrinogen. 2. Factor two- Prothrombin. 3. Factor three- Thromboplastin. 4. Factor four- Calcium fons. '5. Factor five- Labile factor (accelerator globulin). {6 Factor seven- Stable factor (proconvertin. 7. Factor eight- Anti-hemophilic factor A. ‘8 Factor nine- Christmas factor (anti-hemophilic B).. 9, Factor ten- Stuart factor. 10. Factor eleven- Anti-hemophilic factor C. 11, Factor twelve- Hageman factor (glass factor) 12, Factor thirteen- Fibrin stabilizing factor. 33.1.40 Anticoagulant is an Agent that Reduces the Tendency of Blood to Clot Anticoagulant is a chemical substance used to prevent the normal coagulation (clotting) of blood. Anticoagulant drugs are administered to treat and prevent blood clots. They are often used in the treatment of thrombophlebitis, the formation of a clot in a damaged vein. When a vein is ‘damaged, a series of reactions change an inactive blood chemical called prothrombin into thrombin. ‘Thrombin, in turn, helps cause the formation of fibrin, the protein that makes up the most important. part of a clot. Anticoagulant drugs reduce the speed of one of these steps. Certain anticoagulants, are added to blood stored for transfusions and to blood samples used for laboratory tests. These anticoagulants work by joining with calcium ions in the blood. Free calcium must be in the blood for clotting to occur. 33.1.41 Clot-Buster is a Thrombolytic (Clot-Dissolving) Agent Clot-buster isa popular term for a small group of thrombolytic (clot dissolving) drugs used in the treatment of heart attack. Blood clots are designed to be temporary. After the clot has formed, the process of vessel repair begins. When the vessel is healed, the blood clot is no longer needed. The Clot itself stimulates the secretion of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) from the surrounding ‘vascular epithelium. TPA is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin. Plasminogen is an inactive precursor molecule found in the blood, but plasmin is an enzyme that dissolves clos. By the time the clot has been completely dissolved by plasmin, the vessel has had a chance to hea itself. Two principal clot-busters are 1, Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) was recently cloned and is now produced in mass ‘by the biotech firm; Amgen. Itis used clinically to dissolve clots in coronary arteries, a heart attack. It is also used to dissolve clots ‘in the brain following stroke. aren directly dissolves blood clots. It is produced by streptococcus bacteria. The bacteria use streptokinase to dissolve clots that negatively effects their growth in the human host. Thi clot dissolving enzyme is apparently as effective as recombinant TPA. Fig. 33.30. Mechanism of clot removal. (Fig. 3330) Plasmin dissolves the blood cotBIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE 33.1.42 Role of Erythropoietin in the [Oxygen defconey] Red Blood Cell Production Erythropoietin is a naturally occurring hormone that increases the production of red blood cells, which carry oxygen around the body. It is released in response to a lowered percentage of oxygen in the blood reaching the kidneys, such as in anaemic subjects. Recombinant human erythropoietin is used therapeutically to treat the anaemia associated with chronic kidney failure. Athletes to enhance their performance also use it illegally. (Fig. 3331) 33.1.43 The Cells of the Blood: Blood Count ‘The following are average values per microliter (Ijil= 1 mm) for the formed elements of the blood: (Fig. 33.32) Erythrocytes 4.5.5.5 million Leukocytes 4000-8000 Tarombocytes 15000-35000 ‘The white blood cells (leukocytes) are further subdivided into (differential white cell count: ‘Neutrophils (neutrophil granulocytes) 60-70% Eosinophils (eosinophil granulocytes) 2-3% Basophils (basophil granulocytes) 0.5-1 % Lymphocytes 20-30% Stimulates Stimulates ig. 33.31. Erythropoietin stimulates red blood Cell production in bone marrow. Mowe @ yO oe ° one tae eh teem le a Granloones ‘aranlogtas Fig. 33.32. Formed elements of the blood. 33.1.44 Blood Groups: ABO System Blood group is the classification of human blood types according to antigenic activity. Since 1900 it has been known that human blood can be divided into four groups, A (42% of the population), B (9%), AB (3%), and © (46%), based on the presence or absence of certain proteins (antigens), called A and B, on the surface of the red blood cells. In group AB, for example, both antigens are present, while group O has neither antigen. Knowledge of a patient’s blood group is essential when a blood transfusion is to be given. If blood from a group A donor is given to a group B recipient, the recipient's anti-A antibodies willa BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE is between 9-11 mg. per 100 ml of blood. Arise of calcium concentration induces the thyroid gland to secrete calcitonin, which lowers the calcium concentration by increasing bone deposition and reducing the calcium uptake in the intestine and the kidneys. When the calcium concentration falls below the recommended level PTH reverses the effects of calcitonin, PTH is secreted by the parathyroid gland. 39.1.18 Endocrine Functions of Pancreas ‘The pancreas is a digestive gland that secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. The islets of Langerhans are groups of cells within Abb=.ot the pancreas that secrete insulin and glucagon) glucagon. The islets are endocrine a lands becaise they are dUctless, taco ee ‘the circulatory system carries their (secretes, and duct cells) hormones to target cells ‘nsuin) 1. Insulin: Insulin promotes. the Feet removal of glucose from the blood (eocranee for storage as glycogen (muscle, ie liver), fats (fat cells), and protein. Someatoctat Itpromotes the buildup of fats and proteins and inhibits their use as an energy source. 2. Glucagon: Glucagon is produced in te islets of Langerhans by different cells than those that produce insulin. The effects of glucagon are opposite those of insulin, It raises the level of slucose in the blood. It is normally secreted between meals to maintain the concentration of slucose inthe blood. (Fig. 39.14) Fig. 39.14. Iselet of Langerhans, 39.1.19 Control of Blood Glucose Level Hormonal control of blood glucose involves negative feedback system ‘working with 2 antagonistic hormones, insulin and glucagon. The ideal glucose level in humans is 90 mg /100 ml of blood. A rise of glucose in the blood triggers the beta cells of the pancreas to Lore ood produce and release insulin, which acts siucose level fon the target cells. When blood sugar is too low, the alpha cells of the pancreas respond to release glucagon that causes the break down of glycogen in the liver into glucose. This glucose is released into the blood. (Fig. 38.15) Fig. 39.15. Regulation of blood glucose level 39.1.20 Two Types of Diabetes (A) Diabetes Insipidus: Diabetes insipidus is a rare disease caused by deficiency of vasopressin, one ofthe hormones ofthe posterior pituitary land, which controls the amount of urine seereted by the kidneys. The symptoms of diabetes insipidus are marked thirst and the excretion of large quantities of urine, as much as 4to 10 liters a day. This urine has a low specific gravity and contains no excess sugar.CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND REGULATION (B) Diabetes Mellitus: Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin, a hormone that helps the body's tissues absorb glucose so that it can be used as a source of energy. The condition may also develop if muscle, fat, and liver cells respond poorly to insulin. In people with diabetes, glucose levels build up in the blood and urine, causing excessive urination, thirst, hunger, and problems with fat and protein metabolism. 39.1.21 Adrenal Glands are situated immediately Above the Kidneys ‘Adrenal gland ot suprarenal glandis a gland situated on top of the kidney. The adrenals are soft and yellow, and consist of two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex is derived embryologically from mesoderm and is stimulated by pituitary hormones (principally ACTH) to produce three kinds of corticosteroid hormones, which affect carbohydrate metabolism (e.g. Cortex Medulla cortisol), electrolyte metabolism (e.g. aldosterone), and Right adrenal Lo aerenal the sex glands (oestrogens and androgens). The medulla land. sland is derived embryologically from ectoderm, forms the grey core of the gland; it consists mainly of chromaffin tissue and is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system t0 produce adrenaline and noradrenaline. The hormones of the medulla are called catecholamines. Adrenaline and noradrenaline constrict the blood vessels of the belly and skin 50 that more blood is available for the heart, lungs, and voluntary muscles in emergency. Adrenal hormones Kidney Koy prepare the body for sight or flight’. Unlike the adrenal gig. 39,46, adrenal glands comprise cortex, the medulla can be removed without endangering "cortex and edule the life of an individual, (Fig. 39.16) 39.1.2 Corticosteroids are Steroid Hormones Secreted From Adrenal Cortex ‘The adrenal cortex is subdivided into three zones. Each zone synthesizes different steroids, in response to specific regulatory mechanism. 1. Zona glomerulosa secrete mineralocorticoids: Mineralocorticoids regulate the excretion of | sodium and potassium by the kidneys. Aldosterone is the most important mineralocorticoid. Renin, a hormone secreted by the kidneys, controls the production of aldosterone, 2. Zona fasciculata secrete glucocorticoids: Glucocorticoids regulate the use of digested foods and help the body adapt to stress. The most important glucocorticoid is cortisol, also called hydrocortisone. The secretion of the glucocorticoids is controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH is produced by the pituitary gland, SF capsie —- inerbcorcod YF oa glomensose mmm reborn cocotcid 1 zonafescoisia mam Custer ‘Androgens e.g. DHEA [° Zonaretevars E> Srs‘sdroserocone Catecholamines 9, adrenaline Medulla Fig. 39.17. Hormones secreted by adrenal cortex and medullaaaa BIOLOGY FOR MEDICAL ENTRANCE 3. Zona reticularis secrete androgens: Only small amounts of sex hormones, chiefly the male sex hormones called androgens are secreted. The adrenal androgens help regulate the development of pubic hair and other early sexual characteristics in both males and females during the period just prior to puberty. (ig. 39.17) 39.1.23 Cushing’s Syndrome is a Rare Disorder, Mainly of Females vafpaie Moon face Cushing's syndrome is the condition in which me ee the body chemistry is upset by excessive production of ponguous steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex. Symptoms — Sbdomen include weight gain in the face and trunk, raised blood Pressure, excessive growth of facial and body hair pe (hirsutism), demineralization of bone, and, sometimes, diabetes like effects. The condition is caused by over secretion of adrenal steroids. It is a disorder mainly of females. Patients of Cushing's syndrome are protein depleted because of excess protein catabolism. Wounds heal poorly. Body fat i redistributed in the characteristic way as illustrated. The increased subcutaneous fat depots stretch the thin skin of abdomen. The disease is characterized by virilism, obesity, hyperglycemia, Fig. 39.18. Cushing’s syndrome. slycosurea and hypertension. (Fig. 39.18) 39.1.24 Male Sex Hormones 1, Androgens are male sex hormones that stimulate development of the testes and of male secondary sexual characteristics (such as deepening of the voice, muscle development and ‘growth of facial and pubic hair in men). Testosterone is the most important in them. Androgens are produced principally by the testes when stimulated with luteinizing hormone but they are also secreted in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and the ovaries 2. Inkibins are hormones produced by Sertoli cells in testes and granulosa cells in ovary. Inhibin production occurs under FSH stimulation, and it depresses the secretion of FSH by the anterior pituitary. Throughout life, testosterone and inhibin interact to maintain sperm production at normal levels. 39.1.25 Female Sex Hormones 1. Oestrogens ate female sex hormones, produced principally by the ovaries, that promote the onset of secondary sexual characteristics (such as breast enlargement and development in women) and control the oestrous cycle (menstrual cycle in humans) 2. Progesterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary, the placenta, and also (in small amounts) by the adrenal cortex and testes. Its responsible for preparing the inner tining (endometrium) ofthe uterus for pregnancy. If fertilization occurs it maintains the uterus throughout pregnancy and prevents the futher release of eggs from the ovary. 3. Relaxin is a mammalian hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta during the terminal stages of pregnancy. It relaxes the pubic symphysis and dilates the cervix of the ‘Thin skin Poor muscle development Poor wound healing 4. Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is a hormone, similar to the pituitary gonadotrophins that is produced by the placenta during pregnancy. Large amounts are excreted inthe urine, and this is used as the basis for most pregnancy tests. HCG maintains the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum of the ovary, the secretion of pituitary gonadotrophins being blocked during pregnancy.CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND REGULATION 39.1.26 Hormonal Regulation of Insect Development cc Svelpmcan is rogaine by su opel nom (ROWS in veubtadoctin shot. oe tec es caps Soi as Hugh A Sn GF ua ages aking Sr Muniauy OF 01 Camis IE & gE rl Nem AO GG Us Wal Poe bran hrmone (BH tat sored and released from an organ called Neurosecretory cells. corpus cardiacum (pl. corpora cardiaca). The target organ for BH is prothoracic gland that fase ata sa Ths ee teas 0 Scy ioe oct ng] Be Pap are a erase, sora dead tse pai of amall glands the carpora Ma balances bein homone tnd ecdysone, Juvenile hommone promotes the retention of larval 9 Gam The real BOOS! pee Stppreses mamerpesie ue ea, won Teves of 1H al bellow 2 certain threshold level, a pupa Fig, 38.19, Hormonal regulation of insect development. foes] Bey one eee ot cedysone (Fig 39.49) 39.1.27 Corpora Allata and Corpora Cardiaca 1, Corpora allata: The corpora allata lie behind the corpora cardiaca and are yellow. Its small ectodermal endocrine glands in the insect head, connected by nerves to the corpora cardiaca and producing juvenile hormone (neotenin) which is responsible for maintenance of the larval condition during moulting. Decreasing concentration of their product is associated with progressive sequence of larval stages. Their relative inactivity in fina larval stage brings about Pupation, and their complete inactivity in the pupa is responsible for differentiation into the final adult stage. Corpora cardiaca: The corpora cardiaca lie posterior to the brain and are usually blue in colour. It is a pair of long slender neurohaemal organs that lie immediately behind the brain in insects. Corpora cardiaca is a transformed nerve ganglia derived from the insect foregut, usually closely associated with the heart. Connected by nerves to, or fusing with, the corpora allata and producing hormones which stimulates thoracic (prothoracic) glands to secrete ecdysone. 39.1.28 Pheromones: Volatile Hormones Pheromone is a type of ectohormone secreted by an individual and perceived by another that is used in ‘communication within a species producing a change in sexual or social behavior. One individual releases the ‘material asa signal and another responds after smelling. Pheromones serve as sex attractants, drawing males to Fig. 39.20. Male gypsy moth having large females. One female gypsy moth, by the emission of antennae with pheromone receptors.