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 the cambridge history of
NATIONHOOD AND NATIONALISM

This major new reference work with contributions from an

international team of scholars provides a comprehensive
account of ideas and practices of nationhood and nationalism
from antiquity to the present. It considers both continuities and
discontinuities, engaging critically and analytically with the
scholarly literature in the field. Volume I starts with a series of
case studies of classical civilizations. It then explores a wide range
of pivotal moments and turning points in the history of identity
politics during the age of globalization, from 1500 through to the
twentieth century. This overview is truly global, covering
countries in East and South Asia as well as Europe and the
Americas.

C A T H I E C A R M I C H A E L is Professor of European History at the

University of East Anglia. She has authored and edited several
previous books including Language and Nationalism in Europe, co-
edited with the late Stephen Barbour (2000) and Genocide before the
Holocaust (2009).
M A T T H E W D ’ A U R I A is Associate Professor of Modern European
History at the University of East Anglia. He is the author of The
Shaping of French National Identity: Narrating the Nation’s Past, 1715–1830
(2020).
A V I E L R O S H W A L D is Professor of History at Georgetown
University, Washington, DC. His publications include Ethnic
Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, Russia and the
Middle East, 1914–1923 (2001) and The Endurance of Nationalism: Ancient
Roots and Modern Dilemmas (2006).
 t h e ca m b r i d g e h i s t o r y of
NATIONHOOD AND NATIONALISM
Edited by
cathie carmichael, matthew d’auria, and aviel roshwald

The origins and nature of nationhood and nationalism continue

to be topics of heated scholarly debate. This major new reference
work with contributions from an international team of scholars
provides a comprehensive account of ideas and practices of
nationhood and nationalism from antiquity to the present. It
considers both continuities and discontinuities, engaging
critically and analytically with the scholarly literature in the
field. The History also explores nationhood and nationalism’s
relationships with a wide variety of cultural practices and social
institutions, in addition to the phenomenon’s crucial political
dimensions. Its wide range of regional case studies brings a truly
global, comparative perspective to a field long constrained by
Eurocentric assumptions. Volume I tracks turning points in the
history of nationhood and nationalism from ancient times to the
twentieth century. Volume I I theorizes the connections between
nationhood/nationalism and ideology, religion, and culture.
Together, they enable readers to understand the roots of and
how nationhood and nationalism function in the present day.

The Cambridge History of Nationhood and Nationalism, Volume I

EDITED BY CATHIE CARMICHAEL, MATTHEW D’AURIA, AND AVIEL ROSHWALD

The Cambridge History of Nationhood and Nationalism, Volume I I

EDITED BY CATHIE CARMICHAEL, MATTHEW D’AURIA, AND AVIEL ROSHWALD
 THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
NATIONHOOD AND NATIONALISM
*

VOLUME I

Patterns and Trajectories

over the Longue Durée
*

Edited by
CATHIE CARMICHAEL
University of East Anglia
MATTHEW D’AURIA
University of East Anglia
and
AVIEL ROSHWALD
Georgetown University, Washington DC
 University Printing House, Cambridge C B 2 8B S, United Kingdom
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108427050
D O I: 10.1017/9781108655385

© Cambridge University Press 2023

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
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First published 2023
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
N A M E S: Carmichael, Cathie, editor. | D’Auria, Matthew, editor. | Roshwald,
Aviel, editor.
T I T L E: The Cambridge history of nationhood and nationalism / edited by Cathie Carmichael,
Matthew D’Auria, and Aviel Roshwald.
D E S C R I P T I O N: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
C O N T E N T S: v. 1. Patterns and trajectories over the longue durée – v. 2. Nationalism’s fields of
interaction.
I D E N T I F I E R S: L C C N 2021050117 (print) | L C C N 2021050118 (ebook) | I S B N 9781108427050 (v. 1 ;
hardback) | I S B N 9781108447201 (v. 1 ; paperback) | I S B N 9781108427067 (v. 2 ; hardback) | I S B N
9781108781237 (set ; hardback) | I S B N 9781108655385 (ebook)
S U B J E C T S: L C S H: Nation-state – History. | Nationalism – History.
C L A S S I F I C A T I O N: L C C J C311 .C 29 2022 (print) | L C C J C 311 (ebook) | D D C 321/.05–dc23/eng/
20211122
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050117
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050118
ISBN – 2 Volume Set 978–1–108–78123–7 Hardback
ISBN – Volume I 978–1–108–42705–0 Hardback
I S B N – Volume II 978–1–108–42706–7 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of

URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

List of Figures page x

List of Contributors xi

General Introduction 1

part ONE
THE POLITICS OF ETHNICITY, NATIONHOOD,
AND BELONGING IN THE SETTINGS OF
CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

1 . Nationality and Ethnicity in the Ancient Near East 11

STEVEN GROSBY

2 . Nationhood: Was There Such a Thing in Antiquity? 31

ERICH S. GRUEN

3 . The Holy Roman Empire 54

LEN SCALES

4 . Ancient China 76
YURI PINES

5 . Politicized Ethnicity in Precolonial Southeast Asia 96

MICHAEL W. CHARNEY

6 . “India” before the Raj: Space and Identity in South Asian History 115
ANANYA CHAKRAVARTI

Conclusion to Part I 133

vii
 contents

part TWO
PARADIGM SHIFTS AND TURNING POINTS
IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION,
1500 TO THE PRESENT

7 . Colonial Expansion and the Making of Nations: The Spanish Case 145
TAMAR HERZOG

8 . The Reformation and National Identity 163

GABRIELE HAUG-MORITZ

9 . Europe’s Eighteenth Century and the Quest for the Nation’s Origins 186
MATTHEW D’AURIA

10 . Empire, War, and Racial Hierarchy

in the Making of the Atlantic Revolutionary Nations 208
MALICK W. GHACHEM

11 . The Rise of the Charismatic Nation:

Romantic and Risorgimento Nationalism, Europe, 1800–1914 231
JOEP LEERSSEN

12 . Revolution and Independence in Spanish America 256

JAIME E. RODRÍGUEZ O.

13 . A Tale of Two Cities: The American Civil War 281

SUSAN-MARY GRANT

14 . The Cycle of Inevitability in

Imperial and Republican Identities in China 301
PAMELA KYLE CROSSLEY

15 . Colonial Subjects and the Struggle for Self-Determination, 1880–1918 329

DANE KENNEDY

16 . The First World War 350

JAN VERMEIREN

17 . Anticolonialism and Nationalism in the French Empire 376

MICHAEL GOEBEL

viii
 Contents

18 . Patriotism in the Second World War:

Comparative Perspectives on Countries under Axis Occupation 399
AVIEL ROSHWALD

19 . Decolonization and the Cold War 421

LESLIE JAMES

20 . 1968: The Death of Nationalism? 442

ANNA VON DER GOLTZ

Conclusion to Part I I 463

Index 469

ix
 Figures

3.1 The Holy Roman Empire in the time of Charles IV (From Len Scales,
The Shaping of German Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2012).) page 57
C.1 Page 1 of the third Freising Fragment. © Digital facsimiles: Bayerische
StaatsBibliothek, Munich (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nd/2.5/si/deed.en). 134
11.1 Herman Wiscilenus, Apotheosis of Wilhelm I as Restorer of Imperial Germany
(SPIN imagebank, Amsterdam (ernie.uva.nl/viewer.p/21/52).) 238
13.1 Ruins in Charleston, South Carolina seen from the Circular Church
(Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, DC.) 286
15.1 Rabindranath Tagore (Photo by Hutton Archive/Stringer via Getty Images). 337
17.1 Celebrating the outcome of the 1962 referendum on Algerian independence
in Algiers. (Dominique BERRETTY/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images.) 390
17.2 Street scene with Algerian flags, Algiers, July 1962 (Photo by Reporters
Associés/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images). 392

x
 Contributors

A N A N Y A C H A K R A V A R T I is Associate Professor of History at Georgetown University. Her

first book, The Empire of Apostles: Religion, Accommodatio and the Imagination of Empire in
Early Modern Brazil and India (2018), was awarded an honorable mention for the
Association for Asian Studies’ 2020 Bernard S. Cohn Book Prize.
M I C H A E L W . C H A R N E Y is Professor at the Centre for International Studies and
Diplomacy, School of Politics and International Studies, at SOAS, University of
London, as well as the Department of History. His publications include four
monographs on the history of Myanmar.
P A M E L A K Y L E C R O S S L E Y is Collis Professor of History at Dartmouth College. Her most
recent book is Hammer and Anvil: Nomad Rulers at the Forge of the Modern World (2019).
M A T T H E W D ’ A U R I A is Associate Professor of Modern European History at the
University of East Anglia. He is the author of The Shaping of French National Identity:
Narrating the Nation’s Past, 1715–1830 (2020).
M A L I C K W . G H A C H E M is Associate Professor of History at MIT. His publications
include The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution (2012), which won two awards,
including the American Historical Association’s J. Russell Major Prize for the best
work in English on French history.
M I C H A E L G O E B E L is Einstein Professor of Global History at Freie Universität Berlin. His
2015 book Anti-Imperial Metropolis won the American Historical Association’s 2016 Jerry
Bentley Prize in World History.
S U S A N - M A R Y G R A N T is Professor of American History at Newcastle University. Her
most recent books include the A Concise History of the United States of
America (Cambridge University Press, 2012) and Oliver Wendell Holmes: Civil War
Soldier, Supreme Court Justice (2016).
S T E V E N G R O S B Y is Professor Emeritus of Religion, Clemson University. His publications
include Nations and Nationalism in World History (2022), Hebraism in Religion, History, and
Politics: The Third Culture (2021), Nationalism: A Very Short Introduction (2005) and Biblical
Ideas of Nationality: Ancient and Modern (2002).

xi
 list of contributors

E R I C H S . G R U E N is Gladys Rehard Wood Professor of History and Classics Emeritus at the

University of California, Berkeley. He is the author or editor of seventeen books, including
Ethnicity in the Ancient World: Did it Matter? (2020) and Rethinking the Other in Antiquity (2011).
G A B R I E L E H A U G - M O R I T Z is Professor of Early Modern History in the History
Department of the Karl-Franzens-University Graz. She is editor-in-chief of the
“Imperial Diet Records: Imperial Assemblies, 1556–1662.”
T A M A R H E R Z O G is the Monroe Gutman Professor of Latin American Affairs at Harvard. Her
most recent books are A Short History of European Law: The Last Two and a Half Millennia
(2019) and Frontiers of Possession: Spain and Portugal in Europe and the Americas (2015).
L E S L I E J A M E S is Senior Lecturer in Global History at Queen Mary University of London.
She is the author of George Padmore and Decolonization from Below (2015) and co-editor
of Decolonization and the Cold War (2015).
D A N E K E N N E D Y is the Elmer Louis Kayser Professor of History and International Affairs
Emeritus at George Washington University in Washington, DC. He is the author of
seven books, including The Imperial History Wars: Debating the British Empire (2018) and
Decolonization: A Very Short Introduction (2016).
J O E P L E E R S S E N is Professor of Modern European Literature at the University of
Amsterdam; he also holds a research professorship at Maastricht University. He is the
author of National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History (2007) and the editor of
the Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe (2018).
Y U R I P I N E S is Michael W. Lipson Professor of Asian Studies at the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. His monographs include, most recently, Zhou History Unearthed: The Bamboo
Manuscript Xinian and Early Chinese Historiography (2020) and The Book of Lord Shang:
Apologetics of State Power in Early China (2017).
J A I M E E. R O D R ´I G U E Z O. taught as Professor of Latin American History at the University
of California, Irvine, from 1973 to 2008. His many books include “We Are Now the True
Spaniards”: Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence, and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of
Mexico, 1808–1824 (2012).
A V I E L R O S H W A L D is Professor of History at Georgetown University in Washington, DC.
His latest book, Occupied: European and Asian Responses to Axis Conquest, 1937–1945, is
forthcoming with Cambridge University Press in 2023.
L E N S C A L E S is Professor of History at Durham University, where his teaching focuses on
medieval Europe. He is the author of The Shaping of German Identity: Authority and Crisis,
1245–1414 (2012).
J A N V E R M E I R E N is Associate Professor in Modern German History at the University of
East Anglia. Among his recent publications is The First World War and German National
Identity: The Dual Alliance at War (2016).
A N N A V O N D E R G O L T Z is Associate Professor of History at Georgetown University. Her
publications include Hindenburg: Power, Myth, and the Rise of the Nazis (2009) and The
Other ‘68ers: Student Protest and Christian Democracy in West Germany (2021).

xii
 General Introduction
the editors

Since the early 1980s, the study of nationalism has been revived as a distinct
subject of enquiry in its own right.1 The seminal works of Ernest Gellner,
Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm, and Anthony D. Smith, published in the
1980s and 1990s and now classics, have contributed to radically changing our
reading of nationalism, offering paradigms for both its deeper understanding
and radical deconstruction.2 Crucially, these scholars set the main terms of
a debate that is still ongoing today. The major distinctions among the
advocates of perennialism3 (fewer and fewer), the so-called modernists (still
the predominant school), and Anthony Smith’s ethno-symbolists (ever grow-
ing in number), have remained largely intact to this day, more than thirty
years later. Central to the discussion was the issue of the nation’s origins and
whether or not premodern structures of community, tradition, and identity
were or were not important in shaping the seemingly “modern” phenom-
enon of nationalism – whether or not, to use Gellner’s humorously dismis-
sive expression that has become common currency in the field, it matters if

1
Earlier works include: Lord Acton’s 1862 essay, “Nationality,” in John Emerich
Edward Dalberg-Acton, The History of Freedom and Other Essays (London: Macmillan,
1919); Ernest Renan’s 1882 lecture, “What is a Nation?” trans. Martin Thom, in
Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny (eds.), Becoming National: A Reader (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1996); Carlton Hayes, The Historical Evolution of Modern
Nationalism (New York: R. R. Smith, 1931); the many works by Hans Kohn, such as
The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background (New York: Macmillan,
1948); Karl Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations
of Nationality (Cambridge, MA: Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1953).
2
See in particular Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983);
Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986);
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991); Eric Hobsbawm,
Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
3
The work of Adrian Hastings is often seen as belonging within this category; see, for
example, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge;
Cambridge University Press, 1997).

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 general introduction

“nations have navels.”4 Largely, the discussion hinged on the problem of

whether nations were invented, or were, rather, more organic social and
historical constructions. Although the genealogical dimension was clearly
pivotal to it, the debate was at the time dominated by sociologists, political
theorists, anthropologists, and philosophers. One of the few historians who
did play an important role, Hobsbawm, famously defined the nation as an
“invented tradition,” that is, as a series of practices of a ritual or symbolic
character meant to inculcate specific views that implied a continuity with the
past. Within the nationalist discourse, he argued, history was essentially
a “legitimator of action and cement of group cohesion.”5 National histories
were artifacts of historical fabrication by his reckoning. It was a view that was
in some respects illuminating, but could also – and partly did – lead to
a pervasive devaluation of the premodern past and its study in the under-
standing of nationalism.
Over the years, historians have been influenced (implicitly or explicitly) by
these paradigms even as social scientists have, in turn, drawn upon their work
in the course of their ongoing theoretical controversies. But, although the
theoretical debate among modernists and their critics continues, it has grown
somewhat stale and repetitious. Moreover, some of the positions in that
debate are themselves premised on historical assumptions that are increas-
ingly contested among historians: e.g. the sharpness of division between
premodernity and modernity, the triumph of secularism in modern history,
a variety of other Eurocentric assumptions about the nature and trajectory of
modernity, the exclusively Western origins of nationalism, etc. Hence, rather
than simply rehashing and reengaging in the existing theoretical debate, what
we have attempted in these volumes is to step outside its confines by doing
what, as historians, we think we can do best: looking empirically and
comparatively at the linked phenomena of “politicized ethnicity,”6 national

4
Ernest Gellner first used this image shortly before his untimely death, during a debate
with his former student Anthony D. Smith at Warwick University in 1995. That debate is
reproduced at www.lse.ac.uk/researchAndExpertise/units/gellner/Warwick.html
(accessed 13 September 2020). Their presentations were published in the
following year as Anthony D. Smith, “Opening Statement: Nations and their Pasts,”
Nations and Nationalism, 2/3 (November 1996), 358–365; Ernest Gellner, “Reply: Do
Nations have Navels?” Nations and Nationalism, 2/3 (November 1996), 366–370.
5
Eric Hobsbawm. “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in Eric Hobsbawm and
Terence Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983), 12.
6
Victor Lieberman introduced the term “politicized ethnicity” in his two-volume mag-
num opus, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c.800–1830, 2 vols. (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2003–2009). Azar Gat coined the term “political ethnicity”

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 General Introduction

consciousness, and nationalism across a range of cases that are not limited to
the modern era and not confined to the Western world.
It is, after all, through the accumulation of new evidence that does not fit
existing paradigms that paradigm shifts happen. As historians, we don’t set
out to articulate a new social-scientific model, but we do refuse to be
confined by existing ones. What our approach does assume is the formation
and evolution of nationhood as a complex set of historical processes stem-
ming from a superimposition of several successive layers of social represen-
tations, the later ones readapting in complex, unpredictable, and often
conflicting ways the previous ones. Although nationalism is no more static
than any other historical phenomenon, it draws on and adapts sentiments of
kin-culture affinity that appear quasi-universal. If we are to understand the
workings and distinguishing dynamics of modern nationalism – above all, its
mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion and the roots of its emotional
strength – we must study how nations are gradually constructed and con-
tinuously reconstructed in ways that both draw upon and reshape preexisting
mentalities, sentiments, traditions, and practices.
In many collections on the history of nationalism, the perspective adopted
is clearly and firmly the modernist one. The seemingly indisputable starting
point of the history of nationalism is the French Revolution, and the
emphasis tends to be placed on discontinuities with earlier feelings of com-
munality and solidarity. Our aim, by contrast, has been to consider continu-
ities as much as discontinuities, engaging critically and analytically with
sweeping assertions about the primordial nature of kinship and ethnotypes
without disdaining, a priori, longue durée analysis; this all in acknowledging
the distinctive features of modern nationalism. By the same token, we aim to
explore nationalism’s relationships with, manifestations in, and impacts upon
a variety of cultural practices and social institutions – in addition to the
phenomenon’s crucial political dimensions. The aim is to broaden and enrich
the debate, not by offering a new, overarching theory of the nation and of
nationalism, but by introducing new and more holistic perspectives to the
phenomenon by approaching the history of nationalism through the prisms
of other – intimately related – categories of conceptual and historical analysis.
Indeed, one of the central concerns animating The Cambridge History of

in Azar Gat with Alexander Yakobson, Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political
Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). For a concise
version of Lieberman’s argument about how ethnic and political identities could overlap
in precolonial Southeast Asia, see Victor B. Lieberman, “Ethnic Politics in
Eighteenth-Century Burma,” Modern Asian Studies, 12/3 (1978), 455–482.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 general introduction

Nationhood and Nationalism is the need to break the “internalistic” frame of

reference that still largely informs many studies of nationalism. It is a matter
that sociologists have long debated, following Ulrich Beck’s famous indict-
ment of “methodological nationalism”7: the tendency to consider society as
coincident with, and coextensive to, the nation. It is, importantly, an assump-
tion that has led many scholars to search for the causes of the workings of
nationalism from within the nation itself, thus ignoring the crucial import-
ance of cultural transfers and overarching geopolitical forces. It is a fault that
much historiography still suffers from today. Even when looking at the
curricula of universities worldwide, the study of the past is still largely
organized around single nations.
Although an entirely transnational history of nationalism might be, at best,
problematic – not least because of the historical weight of the principle of
nationality, which has so strongly tied the nation to bounded forms of
political sovereignty – there remains a pressing need to escape the perspec-
tival trap associated with the internalist view of nationalism. There are at
least two reasons for this. First, because, as Anne-Marie Thiesse cogently
argued some time ago, nationalism emerges always in confrontation with
other groups. If we are to accept that “there is nothing more international
than the creation of national identities,” then we must recognize that intern-
alism can lead to serious misconceptions and misunderstandings.8
The second reason is that methodological nationalism causes knowledge,
a specific form of knowledge, to continuously reproduce itself – and its faults
and merits – rather than to evolve and change in response to new research
needs. Moreover, we seek paths beyond, not just the empirical internalism of
the nation-by-nation case study, but the conceptual internalism of studying
nationalism in isolation from the multiple other frameworks of identity,
power, and behavior with which, historically, its development has been so
intimately connected.
Against the practices of historiographical and theoretical internalism,
many of the chapters in these volumes adopt a comparative as well as
a transnational approach that sheds new light on the history of nationalism(s).
Thus, rather than having a series of case studies on individual nations, we
have included chapters that look at the history of peoplehood across a cross-
section of societies within any given era. In some sections, contributors

7
Ulrich Beck, “The Cosmopolitan Condition: Why Methodological Nationalism Fails,”
Theory, Culture and Society, 24/7–8(2007), 286–290.
8
Anne-Marie Thiesse, La création des identités nationales: Europe, XVIIIe–XXe siècle (Paris:
Seuil, 1999), 11.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 General Introduction

explore the history of nationalism in the context, not of ethnic groups and
nation-states, but of religions and of empires (be they territorially contiguous
polities or overseas colonial enterprises). The final part includes chapters on
the intertwined relationship between nationalism and a variety of sociocul-
tural, political, and institutional practices, ranging from war and violence to
tourism.
A second aim of The Cambridge History of Nationhood and Nationalism is
a global engagement with the history of nationhoods and nationalism. It is
a truism that modern nationalism acquired many of its traits within the
European setting and that it has then been adopted and readapted in other
contexts which, in turn, have deeply influenced its shape(s). Yet, for all the
truth in truisms, they can become analytical traps. Amidst all the talk, in
recent years, of globalizing the study of history, much of the historical (as
well as theoretical) study of nationalism has remained overwhelmingly
Eurocentric; either it has focused explicitly and exclusively on the Euro-
Atlantic sphere, or it has assumed that national identities outside that sphere
can only be explained and understood as byproducts of, and responses to,
Western imperialism. The attention to the various and complex forms of
cultural and ideological hybridization deriving from contact with or domin-
ation by European nationalities and empires has, on the one hand, led to the
assumption that there are no significant indigenous antecedents to national-
ism in the non-European parts of the world, a view only recently contested,
and, on the other, produced the belief that the nation was the sole possible
way of organizing political spaces and communities in the modern age.
We face, then, the paradox that nationalism is widely viewed as a Western
export, even as it has been celebrated as the primary means of resistance to
the West in many cases. The effort to wrestle with this seeming contradiction
in terms continues to play out in the historiography of nationalism, as
reflected in the idea of multiple modernities, the Subaltern Studies school’s
indictment of Indian nationalism as a form of internal colonialism, the recent
efforts by some historians to find proto-nationalisms in the precolonial
histories of South and East Asia, etc.9 By the same token, the relationship
between the nation and the world is an ever contested issue within each of
the Western great powers themselves (Little Englanders vs. Imperial

9
See, for instance, Atsuko Ichijo, Nationalism and Multiple Modernities: Europe and Beyond
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and its Fragments:
Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993);
Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern
China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995); Lieberman, Strange Parallels.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 general introduction

Unionists, American isolationists vs. liberal internationalists, etc.). The Janus-

faced nature of the nation is, of course, a well-known issue to scholars of neo-
and postcolonialism – and an ironic conundrum for many of them. But the
implicit theoretical concern that should interest us, here, is the need to grasp,
through comparison, differences and similarities between European and
extra-European nation-building experiences in order to comprehend not
only how different histories have interacted and merged, but how they
may have both paralleled one another in precolonial times and how they
may diverge in our own ever more connected world. It is a crucial concern in
this era of globalization, in which the autonomy and sovereignty of every
single nation is constantly challenged, amidst the persistence of nationalism
itself – a phenomenon that, notwithstanding periodic rumors of its imminent
demise, is still far from defunct.

Plan of Organization
The two volumes are divided into five major parts, as follows:

Volume I: Patterns and Trajectories over the Longue Durée

Part I: The Politics of Ethnicity, Nationhood, and Belonging in
the Settings of Classical Civilizations
The chapters under this heading investigate images of community and practices
of inclusion and exclusion in the ancient world and up to the sixteenth century.
Taking into account a variety of geographical regions throughout several
centuries, the authors consider continuities and discontinuities in feelings of
solidarity and interaction across different civilizations and societies. These
chapters try to create a framework for analytical comparison and for the
dissection of continuities and discontinuities across space and time, without
becoming stuck in the binary trap of arguing over whether any given case does
or does not merit the label of “nationalism.” The aim is to create the basis for
more substantive and informed discussions about the evolution of cultural and
political identities, and the relationship between universalistic and particularistic
conceptions of community, over the longue durée of history.

Part I I: Paradigm Shifts and Turning Points

in the Era of Globalization, 1500 to the Present
This part examines the evolution of ethnocultural, ethnopolitical, and/or
national identities from the sixteenth century onwards. Each chapter

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 General Introduction

considers a global turning point or a specific era from a transnational per-

spective. Particular attention is given to cross-cultural practices in the defin-
ition of otherness and to patterns of convergence and divergence in the
evolution of ethnic and national identities in an era when networks of
cultural and economic exchange and patterns of domination, conquest,
collaboration, and resistance were becoming steadily more global in scope.

Volume I I: Nationalism’s Fields of Interaction

Part I: Imperial and Postcolonial Settings
Empires are commonly thought of as, in some sense, the opposite of nations
and nation-states. In fact, as recent scholarship has highlighted, imperial elites
both fostered and provoked the crystallization of national identities in
a variety of forms, even as they struggled to contain various manifestations
of popular nationalism. This part once again steps outside the bounded
analytical framework of the nation-state, looking at the development of
national identities, movements, and polities from the perspective of imperial,
colonial, and postcolonial history.

Part I I: Transnational and Religious Missions and Identities

Nationalism has shaped, and been shaped by, a variety of internationalist and
universalistic forces and ideologies, the study of which has all too often been
siloed away from that of nationalism. It is the interaction among these fields
of national, transnational, civilizational, and cosmopolitan identity, loyalty,
and conflict that concerns us in this part.

Part I I I: Intersections: National(ist) Synergies and Tensions

with Other Social, Economic, Political, and Cultural
Categories, Identities, and Practices
How does nationalism permeate everyday life? How does nationalism inter-
act with and shape diverse activities, behavior patterns, and cultural practices
in the modern world? Conversely, to what extent do these practices in turn
influence the ever-evolving forms and expressions of national identity? In this
part, we examine some of the principal ways that national identity is experi-
enced, with particular emphasis on its intersection with other social and
political identities and practices. In so doing, we also hope to bring the
historical and the contemporary together by looking at the effects of politics,
the internet, social media, sport, and other cultural practices on historically
evolving nationalisms.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
 As this book was about to go to press, we were deeply saddened to learn of
the passing in 2022 of one of the co-authors of this work, Professor Jaime E.
Rodríguez O. We are grateful he was able to contribute to these volumes
with a chapter which is a distillation of his years of outstanding scholarship in
his field.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108655385.001
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