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SENSES, C OGNITION, AND RITUAL EXPERIENCE
IN THE ROMAN WORLD
Series Editors
Esther Eidinow, University of Bristol
Thomas Harrison, University of St Andrews
This series seeks to take advantage of a critical moment in the development of the
study of ancient religion. This is one in which previous models (especially the sharp
oppositions frequently drawn between ritual and belief, or between the social and
the individual) are increasingly being questioned, and in which scholars of the
ancient world are more and more drawing on cognitive approaches in the search
for new paradigms. The ‘cognitive science of religion’ draws on insights developed in
a wide range of fields: cognitive and evolutionary psychology, social anthropology,
and neurobiology, amongst others. In essence, however, it seeks to understand
religious experience as rooted in the ordinary cognitive capacities of the human
brain. The series covers not only Greek and Roman religion but a range of ancient
cultures from the Mediterranean and Near East, including Greece, Rome, Egypt,
Babylonia, Persia, and Phoenicia, as well as cultures from Iron Age Europe. It will
also explore the implications for the study of these cultures of a range of different
cognitive approaches to religion and will include work by scholars from a wide range
of disciplines in anthropology, the study of religion, evolutionary psychology, and
neuroscience in addition to that by historians and archaeologists of the ancient
world.
Titles in the series:
Cognitive Approaches to Ancient Religious Experience
Esther Eidinow, Armin W. Geertz, and John North
edited by
BLANKA MISIC
Champlain College Lennoxville
ABIGAIL GRAHAM
Institute of Classical Studies
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009355544
doi: 10.1017/9781009355513
© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2024
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
First published 2024
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
A Cataloging-in-Publication data record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
isbn 978-1-009-35554-4 Hardback
Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence
or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this
publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will
remain, accurate or appropriate.
Index 225
We started working on this volume in early 2020, shortly after the world came
to an abrupt halt. We owe our gratitude first and foremost to our families who
supported (and endured) our research endeavours through numerous lock-
downs and a global pandemic. This work is dedicated to them.
There are many people who contributed to this volume in a number of
ways. The past and present editors of the Ancient Religion and Cognition
series, Esther Eidinow and Tom Harrison, supported us throughout the
publication process – we could not have asked for more helpful, dedicated,
and kind individuals. Many thanks to Michael Sharp and Katie Idle at
Cambridge University Press who have been very generous and supportive
along the way, and to our anonymous peer reviewers who provided
invaluable feedback. We are deeply grateful to Thorsten Opper and the
team at the British Museum, Carlotta Caruso and the Museo Nazionale
Romano Baths of Diocletian museum, and Mojca Vomer Gojkovič and
the Pokrajinski muzej Ptuj-Ormož, who allowed excellent access to mater-
ials in their collections.
Our gratitude is also extended to many scholars who we may not have
met in person, but who have influenced our own scholarship and inspired
this work, notably Armin W. Geertz, Dimitris Xygalatas, Harvey
Whitehouse, Jörg Rüpke, Angelos Chaniotis, and Douglas Cairns.
The research in this volume was originally presented as part of a TRAC
panel in 2019, and we appreciated the opportunity to present to such an
innovative and engaged audience. The present chapters have evolved signifi-
cantly based on suggestions and discussions between contributors that took
place both during and after this panel. These discussions played a key role in
shaping the content of this volume and illustrating the strengths of dynamic
and diverse approaches to rituals and lived experiences. We are greatly
indebted to the contributors of this volume without whose kindness,
patience, and stellar scholarship this volume would not be possible.
Last but not least, we thank you, dear reader.
x
xi
Experiencing Rituals
Abigail Graham and Blanka Misic
Seeing Is Believing?
Pluris est oculatus testis unus, quam auriti decem.
Qui audiunt, audita dicunt: qui vident, plane sciunt.
One eyewitness weighs more than ten hearsays.
Seeing is believing, all the world over.
Plautus, Truc. Act II. Sc. 6 line 8.
The ways in which we engage with rituals are tied inextricably to cognitive
experiences: sound, sight, scent, taste, touch, and space. It is through these
mechanisms that an understanding and a memory of a ritual experience are
created and codified. But can we trust our senses or the cognitive process
that encodes experiences as memories? Plautus’s evaluation assumes that an
eyewitness account of an event is more valuable than hearsay; while this
may be true, it does not mean that one person’s version of events is
a reliable or definitive account. When assessing the ancient world, eyewit-
ness accounts seldom survive (one would be lucky to have ten hearsays) and
surviving sources must be approached with caution. Rituals are not only
scripted events but performed experiences, designed to ensnare the senses
of performers and participants alike. How these senses are engaged impacts
the perception and memory of an event. To understand how ritual mem-
ories were made, therefore, one must assess the sensory engagement and
cognitive processes through which ritual memories were created and codi-
fied; namely the experience of rituals.
Through engagement with different senses and cognitive processes,
rituals are transformed from a series of scripted actions in a specific place
to an interactive experience, whose outcome depends on several different
factors: the performance, the audience, the context, and the atmosphere of
the ritual event. While these factors often serve to strengthen the emotive
context and meaning of a ritual, they can also act as variables, resulting in
a plurality of different outcomes for a ritual event: some positive/inclusive,
(i.e. that we learn from these others), extended (i.e. that we exude our emotions, thoughts and
experiences into the world), materialized (i.e. that we materially manifest and ground our cognition
in material culture) and encultured (i.e. that our cognition is deeply anchored in and realized by
cultural ideas, models, values and so on).’ See also Ambasciano 2017: 142, Geertz 2010, Kundtová
Klocová and Geertz 2019, and Eidinow et al. 2022: 3–4.
4
Anderson et al. (2018: 15) state: ‘notions of cognition can be shown to be fundamental to how we
conceptualise debates in every discipline – the study of cognitive phenomena cannot be considered
a specialist niche, but is rather a necessary underpinning of any study of humans in the world.’
5
Some of these studies include: Chaniotis 2006, Chaniotis 2013, Cusumano et al. 2013, Day 2013,
Hamilakis 2013, Rüpke 2013, Rüpke 2016, Van der Ploeg 2016, Cairns and Nelis 2017, Mackey 2017,
Driediger-Murphy and Eidinow 2019, and Papadopoulos et al. 2019, among others.
6
Eidinow 2022: 70, n.4. 7 Eidinow et al. 2022: 7.
The year 2020 marked the thirty-year anniversary since the founding of
cognitive science of religion (CSR) as a discipline.9 To understand the ways
in which cognitive studies have shaped approaches to religion, and specif-
ically to rituals, a brief exploration of this emerging field and its method-
ologies is necessary. The interdisciplinary field of CSR was initially
established to challenge the approaches and theories of cultural determin-
ism and extreme cultural relativism, which predominated in the study of
religion in the second half of the twentieth century, and which lacked
a comprehensive explanation for how religious concepts are formed,
learned and diffused. Departing from earlier approaches, CSR asserts
that religion and its components can be studied scientifically; that humans
have innate inclinations to hold certain cognitive biases (such as the
tendency to anthropomorphise10 divinities); and that cognitive processes,
influenced by evolutionary, environmental, and cultural factors, can
mould and constrain religious ideas, beliefs, and behaviours. As such,
CSR scholars explore how religions are formed, and how religious ideas,
8 9
Geertz et al. 2017/2019: 2. Geertz 2017: 36–37.
10
Anthropomorphism (i.e. the tendency to imagine and depict divinities in human form) has been
attested in cultures throughout the world, dating back to the Late Stone Age. The ancient Greeks
and Romans were aware of this cognitive bias, with the Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon
famously remarking that humans tend to depict their gods looking and behaving like humans, and
that if horses could draw their gods they would draw them as horses (fragments B14 and B15).
human cognitive processes and biases. See Bulbulia 2004, McCauley 2020: 112–115 and White 2021:
66–69, 257, and 315–316.
17
White 2021: 49.
18
See Legare and Nielsen 2015 and Watson-Jones et al. 2016. White (2021: 262) states: ‘As Legare and
colleagues have argued, from an evolutionary perspective, given the variability and limitations of
personal experience and intuition, and the cognitive effort involved in inferring intentions and goals,
natural selection ought to favor a social learning strategy where we imitate ritual behaviors as closely
as possible. In other words, what you know about the world is limited, and when uncertain about
something, a sound strategy is to copy others whom you think know better.’
19
White 2021: 65, 285. On the anxiety-relieving effects of rituals and sense of control see: Whitson and
Galinsky 2008, Sosis and Handwerker 2011, Lang et al. 2015, and Lang et al. 2020, among others.
McNamara (2014: 162–163) notes that several studies in neurosciences have found that religious
practices have beneficial effects on individuals, such as increased happiness and self-control.
Language: French
Nelson Calmann-Lévy
Éditeurs Éditeurs
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Paris Paris
LÉON DE TINSEAU
né en 1844
Pages
UN NID DANS LES RUINES 7
LA LAMPE DE PSYCHÉ 189
UN NID DANS LES RUINES