36 - Rate of chemical reaction

36
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Rate of chemical reaction
Silver chlorid e pre cipitates imm e diately when silver nitrate solution is
Chapter preview a d d e d to sodium chlorid e solution. The re a ction is very fast.
36.1 Rate of re a ction

36.2 Avera g e rate, instantane ous rate and initial rate
36.3 Methods for following the progress of a che mic al re a ction
36.4 Following the pro gress of a che mic al re a ction b y m e asuring ch a ng es in g as
volum e
36.5 Follo win g th e pro gr e ss of a c h e mi c a l r e a c tio n b y m e a surin g c h a n g e s in
pressure of a re a ction syste m
36.6 Following the progress of a che mic al re a ction by m e asuring chang es in m ass
of a re a ction mixture
36.7 Following the progress of a che mic al re a ction by m e asuring chang es in c olour
intensity of a re a ction mixture
36.8 Following the progress of a che mic al re a ction by titrim etric analysis
36.9 Choosing an a p propriate m ethod to follow the progress of a re a ction
Prior knowledge & Quick review
(For Chapter 36)
All answers
High-speed rail ― Hong Kong section
Hong Kong has started its first high-speed rail, the Express Rail Link, in September 2018. In daily
operation, high-speed trains move at an average speed of about 200 kilometres per hour. In fact, their
maximum speed can reach 350 kilometres per hour.
Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong’s high-speed trains
It takes about 20 hours for us to travel to Shanghai by a through train, but it only takes about 8
hours by a high-speed train. In Chemistry, reactions also occur at different speeds. Some reactions
occur rapidly while some reactions occur slowly.
Think about...
1 Can you suggest one reaction that occurs rapidly and one that occurs slowly?
2 What is the meaning of the term ‘average rate of reaction’?
3 How can we follow the progress of a chemical reaction experimentally?
After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.
Express Rail Link 廣深港高速鐵路 through train 直通車

high-speed rail 高速鐵路
Rate of chemical reaction 36
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36.1 Rate of reaction
What does rate of reaction tell us?

Some chemical reactions are fast but some are slow. For example, the
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the ‘pop’ sound test is
extremely fast. Magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid at a
moderate rate. The reaction of iron with oxygen and water to form rust is
a very slow process. See Figure 36.1(a)–(c).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 36.1 Different chemical reactions occur at different rates. (a) Reaction between
hydrogen and oxygen in the ‘pop’ sound test is extremely fast. (b) Reaction between magnesium
and dilute sulphuric acid occurs at a moderate rate. (c) Rusting of iron is very slow.
Learning tip
Chemical kinetics is a The rate of chemical reaction tells us how fast a reaction occurs.
branch of physical
During a chemical reaction, reactants are converted into products. The
chemistry concerned
with the rates of concentration of reactants decreases while the concentration of products
chemical reactions. increases. The rate of reaction can be expressed as:
• the increase in concentration of one of the products per unit
time, or
• the decrease in concentration of one of the reactants per unit
time.
Key point
change in concentration of a product or a reactant
Rate of reaction =
time
Mathematically, we express the rate of reaction as follows.

∆[P] ∆[R]
Rate of reaction = or –
∆t ∆t
–3
where [P] and [R] represent the concentrations (usually in mol dm ) of a
product and a reactant respectively
∆ represents the change (final state – initial state)
t represents time
chemical kinetics 化學動力學
rate of reaction 反應速率
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IX Rate of Reaction
All answers TE
By convention, the rate of reaction is expressed as a positive value.
∆[R]
Therefore, we add a minus sign (–) to .
∆t
Example 36.1
Calculating the rate of formation of a product and the rate of consumption of a reactant
When acidified hydrogen peroxide solution is added to a solution of potassium iodide, iodine is
produced.
– +
H2O2(aq) + 2I (aq) + 2H (aq) I2(aq) + 2H2O(!)
In an experiment to study this reaction, the concentration of iodine in the reaction mixture is found
–4 –3
to increase from 0 to 4 × 10 mol dm in 8 seconds. Calculate
(a) the rate of formation of iodine; and
(b) the rate of consumption of iodide ions, over this time interval.
Solution
(a) Change in concentration of iodine, ∆[I2(aq)]
–4 –3 –4 –3
= (4 × 10 – 0) mol dm = 4 × 10 mol dm
Time taken for the change, ∆t = 8 s
∆[I2(aq)]
Rate of formation of I2(aq) =
∆t
–4 –3
4 × 10 mol dm –5 –3 –1
= = 5 × 10 mol dm s
8s
–
(b) From the equation, when 1 mol of I2 is produced, 2 mol of I is consumed.
–
Change in concentration of iodide ions, ∆[I (aq)]
–4 –3 –4 –3
= [0 – (2 × 4 × 10 )] mol dm = –8 × 10 mol dm
Time taken for the change, ∆t = 8 s
–
– ∆[I (aq)]
Rate of consumption of I (aq) = –
∆t
–4 –3
(–8 × 10 mol dm ) –4 –3 –1
=– = 1 × 10 mol dm s
8s
–
Alternatively, rate of consumption of I (aq) = 2 × rate of formation of I2(aq)
–5 –3 –1
= 2 × 5 × 10 mol dm s
–4 –3 –1
= 1 × 10 mol dm s
Self-test 36.1
Nitrogen reacts with oxygen in a sealed container to give nitrogen dioxide under suitable conditions.
N2(g) + 2O2(g) 2NO2(g)
–3
The concentration of nitrogen dioxide increases from 0 to 0.48 mol dm in 2 seconds. Calculate
(a) the rate of formation of nitrogen dioxide; and
(b) the rate of consumption of nitrogen, over this time interval.
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Class practice 36.1
2–
Peroxodisulphate ions (S2O8 ) react with iodide ions according to the following
equation:
2– – 2–
S2O8 (aq) + 2I (aq) 2SO4 (aq) + I2(aq)
–3 –3
The concentration of peroxodisulphate ions decreases from 9.0 × 10 mol dm
–3 –3
to 1.0 × 10 mol dm in 20 seconds. Calculate
(a) the rate of consumption of iodide ions,
(b) the rate of formation of sulphate ions; and
(c) the rate of formation of iodine, over this time interval.
36.2 Average rate, instantaneous rate and initial

rate
Interpreting a graph showing the progress of a

reaction
Consider the decomposition of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide and
oxygen under certain conditions:
2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g)
As shown in Figure 36.2, the concentration of CO2(g) decreases with

time. Meanwhile, the concentrations of CO(g) and O2(g) increase with time.
From the equation, when 2 moles of CO(g) is produced, 1 mole of O2(g) is
produced accordingly. The concentration of CO(g) is always twice the
concentration of O2(g). See Figure 36.3.
CO(g)
Concentration
Concentration
O2(g)
CO2(g)
Time Time
Figure 36.2 A plot of the concentration Figure 36.3 A plot of the concentrations
of CO2(g) against time of CO(g) and O2(g) against time
average rate 平均速率 instantaneous rate 瞬間速率

initial rate 初速
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IX Rate of Reaction
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We can get useful information about the rate of reaction from a plot of
the concentration against time. Figure 36.4 shows a typical graph for the
variation of concentration of product with time.
final concentration
of product F
Concentration of product
reaction completes
at this time
Time
Figure 36.4 A typical graph for the change in concentration of product with time
From the above graph, we can notice the following:
• The curve starts from the origin because at time t = 0, no product is

present.
• The curve is steep at first and becomes less steep with time. This
shows that the concentration of product increases with time and the
increase becomes smaller as time goes on.
• The curve becomes horizontal finally. This shows that the

concentration of product remains constant. The reaction completes
and no more products form. After point F, no further change in the
concentration of product can be detected.
Average rate of reaction

The average rate of reaction can be expressed as the change in
concentration of a product, ∆[P], over a certain time interval, ∆t. It can also
be expressed in terms of the change in concentration of a reactant, ∆[R],
Learning tip
over a certain time interval, ∆t.
The rates of reaction
calculated in Example
∆[P] ∆[R]
36.1 are average rates. Average rate of reaction = or –
∆t ∆t
Let us calculate the average rates of the reaction in Example 36.2.
average rate of reaction 反應的平均速率 origin 原點

6 steep 陡斜的
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Example 36.2
Calculating the average rates of reaction

An experiment was performed to study the rate of decomposition of nitrogen dioxide in a closed
container maintained at 300°C.
2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)
The concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen monoxide and oxygen in the reaction mixture
were measured and recorded at regular time intervals. The data obtained was then used to plot a
concentration-time graph.
NO2(g)
∆[NO2(g)]
–3
Concentration / mol dm
∆[NO(g)]
∆t
∆t
NO(g)
∆[O2(g)]
O2(g) ∆t
Time / s
(a) Calculate the average rate of

(i) formation of nitrogen monoxide, and that of
(ii) formation of oxygen,
th th
over the time interval from the 200 to the 300 second.
th th
(b) Calculate the average rate of consumption of nitrogen dioxide from the 50 to the 150 second.
Solution
th th
(a) (i) Average rate of formation of NO(g) from the 200 to the 300 second
change in concentration of NO(g)
=
change in time
–3
(0.00630 – 0.00520) mol dm
=
(300 – 200) s
–5 –3 –1
= 1.10 × 10 mol dm s
Cont’d
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IX Rate of Reaction
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th th
(ii) Average rate of formation of O2(g) from the 200 to the 300 second
change in concentration of O2(g)
=
change in time
–3
(0.00320 – 0.00265) mol dm
=
(300 – 200) s
–6 –3 –1
= 5.50 × 10 mol dm s
Alternatively,
th th
average rate of formation of O2(g) from the 200 to the 300 second
1 th th
= × average rate of formation of NO(g) from the 200 to the 300 second
2
1 –5 –3 –1
= × 1.10 × 10 mol dm s
2
–6 –3 –1
= 5.50 × 10 mol dm s
th th
(b) Average rate of consumption of NO2(g) from the 50 to the 150 second
change in concentration of NO2(g)
=–
change in time
–3
(0.00560 – 0.00790) mol dm
=–
(150 – 50) s
–5 –3 –1
= 2.30 × 10 mol dm s
Example 36.3
Deducing the chemical equation of a reaction from the concentration-time graph

A concentration-time graph for the following reaction in a sealed tube is shown below:
nX(g) Xn(g)
–3
Xn(g)
X(g)
Time / s
th
(a) The reaction is regarded to have completed at the 50 second. Suggest why.
(b) Deduce the value of n.
Cont’d
8
All answers
(c) State the relationship between the rate of formation of Xn(g) and rate of consumption of X(g).
Solution
th
(a) This is because the curves become horizontal at the 50 second. That means no more Xn(g) forms
or all X(g) is consumed.
–3 –3
(b) When 1.0 mol dm of X(g) is consumed, 0.5 mol dm of Xn(g) forms. This shows that 2 mol of
X(g) are converted into 1 mol of Xn(g). Thus, the value of n is 2.
(c) The rate of formation of Xn(g) is half that of the rate of consumption of X(g).
Class practice 36.2

Consider the decomposition of dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) at 55°C:
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
The graph below shows the variation of the concentrations of N2O5(g), NO2(g)
and O2(g) with time in the reaction mixture.
–3
NO2(g)
N2O5(g)
O2(g)
Time / s
(a) Calculate the average rate of

(i) formation of O2(g), and that of
(ii) consumption of N2O5(g),
th th
over the time interval from the 300 to the 400 second.
(b) Calculate the average rate of formation of NO2(g) over the time interval
th th
from the 600 to the 700 second.
dinitrogen pentoxide 五氧化二氮

9
IX Rate of Reaction
Instantaneous rate of reaction

Bolt, a Jamaican athlete, broke the 100-metre race world record with a time
of 9.69 seconds in the final of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing
100 m –1
(Figure 36.5). His average speed was = 10.32 m s . But was his
9.69 s
speed the same over that 9.69 seconds? No, his speed was different at
different instants.
Bolt
Figure 36.5 The snapshots of Bolt in his world record-breaking 100-metre race in 2008
Similarly, the rate of a reaction varies during the course of the reaction.
The rate of reaction at a particular instant is known as the instantaneous
rate.
Figure 36.6 shows the tangents drawn at different points on the curve
of a concentration-time graph. We can determine the instantaneous rate
by finding the slope (or gradient) of the tangent to the curve at that
instant.
)
rate
=0
itial
= in
at t
t2
at
1
tt
nt
ta
e
ent
ng nt at t 3
slop
en
tange
Concentration of product
ta
tang
ng
ta
(its
Figure 36.6 A concentration-

time graph with tangents drawn
at different points 0 t1 t2 t3 Time
As the reaction proceeds, the slope of the tangents decreases (from

t1 to t3) and eventually becomes zero. This indicates that the reaction
becomes slower and slower and eventually stops. In the next chapter, you
will learn why the reaction goes more slowly as the reaction proceeds.
instantaneous rate 瞬間速率 Berlin 柏林 Jamaican 牙買加的
10 Bolt 保特 tangent 切線
instant 瞬間
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Key point
The rate at a particular instant of the reaction is called the
instantaneous rate.
Math tip
Tangent tangent
point
Tangent is a straight line that touches (not crosses) a curve at a
point. Drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of interest means
drawing a straight line that touches the curve at that point, but does
not cross it.
curve
Example 36.4
Determining instantaneous rates by drawing tangents to a concentration-time graph

Hydrogen peroxide solution decomposes to water and oxygen in the presence of manganese(IV)
oxide as shown in the following equation:
MnO2(s)
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g)
The graph below shows the results obtained in an experiment to study the kinetics of decomposition
of H2O2(aq).
–3
Concentration of H2O2(aq) / mol dm
Time / s
th
(a) Suggest how the instantaneous rate of decomposition of H2O2(aq) at the 60 second can be
determined from the graph.
(b) Determine the instantaneous rates of decomposition of H2O2(aq) at
th
(i) the 60 second, and
th
(ii) the 150 second.
(c) How does the instantaneous rate change during the course of the reaction?
Solution
(a) Draw a tangent to the curve at time t = 60 s. Then calculate the slope of the tangent.
Cont’d
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IX Rate of Reaction
All answers
(b)
Math tip
–3
Concentration of H2O2(aq) / mol dm The slope of a tangent
can be calculated by:
change in y y)
tangent at slope =
t = 60 s
change in x x)
tangent
point
tangent at
t = 150 s
∆y
∆x
curve
Time / s
th
(i) Instantaneous rate at the 60 second
–3
(0.0040 – 0.0096) mol dm –5 –3 –1
=– = 8.0 × 10 mol dm s
(95 – 25) s
th
(ii) Instantaneous rate at the 150 second
–3
(0.0020 – 0.0036) mol dm –5 –3 –1
=– = 2.1 × 10 mol dm s
(190 – 115) s
(c) The instantaneous rate decreases during the course of the reaction.
Class practice 36.3

Consider the following reaction:
X(aq) + Y(aq) Z(aq)
The graph below shows the variation of the concentration of X(aq) in the reaction system with time. The
th th
tangents to the curve at the 10 and the 30 second respectively are given.
–3
Concentration of X(aq) / mol dm
Time / s
Determine the instantaneous rates of the reaction with respect to the consumption of X(aq) at (a) the
th th
10 second, and (b) the 30 second.
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Initial rate of reaction
Refer to Figure 36.6 again. The tangent drawn at time t = 0 is the
steepest and its slope is the largest. This shows that the rate of reaction
is the highest at the start. This is called the initial rate. Initial rate is the
instantaneous rate at time t = 0.
Example 36.5
Determining the initial rate from the tangent of a concentration-time graph

An experiment was performed to study the rate of the following reaction at a certain temperature.
2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)
The graph below shows the variation of concentration of NO2(g) with time during the reaction. The
tangent to the curve at the start of the reaction is given.
−3
[NO2(g)] / mol dm
Time / s
Determine the initial rate of the reaction at that temperature.
Solution
Initial rate of the reaction at that temperature
–3
(0.0247 – 0.0300) mol dm
=–
(126 – 0) s
−5 −3 −1
= 4.21 × 10 mol dm s
Key point
The instantaneous rate of a reaction at time t = 0 (the starting time of
the reaction) is called the initial rate.
initial rate 初速
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IX Rate of Reaction
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Class practice 36.4
An experiment was performed to study the rate of the following reaction at a certain temperature:
Cl2O2(g) 2ClO(g)
The experimental results were tabulated as follows:
Time / s 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

–3
[Cl2O2(g)] / mol dm 0.00600 0.00265 0.00125 0.00075 0.00055 0.00035 0.00020 0.00010 0
(a) Using the above data, plot a graph showing the variation of concentration of Cl2O2(g) with time.
Skill builder 36.1
Plotting different types

of line graphs
(Refer to p.S1–S3 for
details.)
(b) Draw a tangent to the curve at time t = 0 and then calculate the initial rate of decomposition of Cl2O2(g)
at that temperature.
(c) Calculate the average rate of decomposition of Cl2O2(g) over the first 200 seconds at that temperature.
36.3 Methods for following the progress of a

chemical reaction
To determine the rate of a reaction, the rate of change in an observable
property of a reaction system during the reaction is measured. The
following measurement methods can be used:
1. Methods that measure an observable physical property. For

example, they measure:
(a) changes in volume of a gaseous reactant/product (Section 36.4),
(b) changes in pressure of the reaction system (Section 36.5),
(c) changes in mass of the reaction mixture (Section 36.6),
(d) changes in colour intensity of the reaction mixture (Section 36.7).
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2. Methods based on titration, known as titrimetric analysis. In these
methods, a known volume of the reaction mixture is withdrawn at
regular time intervals. The concentration of one of the reactants/
products in a portion is determined by titrating the portion of reaction
mixture withdrawn against a standard solution (Section 36.8).
Sometimes, more than one method can be used to follow the progress
of a chemical reaction. We should choose a method which is efficient,
accurate, convenient and causes little disturbance to the reaction
system.
36.4 Following the progress of a chemical

reaction by measuring changes in gas
volume
Experiment 36.1 Consider the reaction between magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid
Studying the progress forming hydrogen.
of a reaction by
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
measuring changes in
volume of a gaseous
The progress of the reaction can be followed by measuring the volume
product
of hydrogen gas produced at regular time intervals.
Experiment video
Figure 36.7 shows the set-up for this purpose.
Studying the progress of
a reaction by measuring at start after a certain time
changes in volume of a
gaseous product
plunger
gas
cotton gas syringe collected
thread
dilute hydrochloric acid
(usually an excess is
magnesium used) magnesium
ribbon ribbon
Figure 36.7 Set-up used for measuring the volume of hydrogen gas produced in a reaction at regular time intervals
(Note: the hydrogen gas produced pushes the plunger. The plunger is tied with string to prevent it from shooting out from the
barrel.)
Learning tip When the above method is used, it is important that the set-up is
NH3, HCl and SO2 are very
soluble in water. CO2 and airtight. Otherwise, the gas produced will escape. In addition, this
Cl2 are quite soluble in method should not be used if the gas produced has a high solubility in
water.
water.
titrimetric analysis 滴定分析 airtight 密封的 plunger 柱塞

barrel 氣筒
不透氣的
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IX Rate of Reaction
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Example 36.6
Following the progress of the reaction between magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid
by measuring the volume of hydrogen gas produced
3
A student put a piece of magnesium ribbon into 30.0 cm of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid and recorded
the volume of hydrogen gas produced at 5-second intervals until all the magnesium reacted. The
experimental results are shown in the graph below.
3
Volume of hydrogen gas / cm
Time / s
(a) Suggest an apparatus that can be used for collecting and measuring the volume of hydrogen gas
produced.
(b) At what time did the reaction mixture cease to produce hydrogen gas?
(c) What volume of hydrogen gas was collected when the reaction completed?
(d) Calculate the average rate of production of hydrogen gas from the reaction mixture in the first 20
seconds.
Solution
3
(a) Gas syringe (d) The volume of hydrogen gas collected in the first 20 seconds was 70 cm .
th
(b) At the 35 second Average rate of production of hydrogen gas in the first 20 seconds
3 3
(c) 75 cm (70 – 0) cm 3 –1
= = 3.50 cm s
(20 – 0) s
Example 36.7
Following the progress of reaction by carrying out a microscale experiment

The reaction between hept-1-ene and hydrogen in the presence of palladium (Pd) catalyst can be
represented by the following equation:
Pd(s)
CH3(CH2)4CH=CH2(!) + H2(g) CH3(CH2)4CH2CH3(!)
hept-1-ene
An experiment was carried out to study the progress of this reaction using the set-up shown in the
diagram on p.17. The measuring cylinder was initially filled with hydrogen gas.
Cont’d
hept-1-ene 庚-1-烯 cease 停止
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flow of H2(g)
H2(g)
magnetic
measuring cylinder
stirrer bar
thin
plastic
0.10 g hept-1-ene in an Pd(s) tubing
organic solvent
water
magnetic stirrer-hotplate
(a) (i) What observable physical property was measured when following the progress of the reaction?
(ii) State the expected observation in the measuring cylinder when the reaction proceeded.
(b) Sketch a graph to show the variation of the observed physical property during the reaction.
(c) State THREE advantages of carrying out microscale experiments in following the progress of a
reaction.
Solution
(a) (i) The volume of the unreacted H2(g)

(ii) The gas volume inside the measuring cylinder decreased.
Or, the water level inside the measuring cylinder rose.
(b)
3
Volume of H2(g) / cm
Time / s
(c) This saves chemicals.

This saves time on carrying out the experiment.
This minimizes the potential hazards of the experiment/Less wastes is produced.
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IX Rate of Reaction
All answers TE
Class practice 36.5
A student performed an experiment at room temperature and pressure to
study the kinetics of catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution.
3
10.0 cm of 0.3 M hydrogen peroxide solution was allowed to decompose to
water and oxygen in the presence of manganese(IV) oxide catalyst.
MnO2(s)
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g)
O2(g)
MnO2(s)
H2O2(aq)
The volume of oxygen gas produced was measured at 10-second intervals

until no more gas was produced. The graph below shows the experimental
results obtained. The tangent to the curve at time t = 0 is given.
3
Volume of O2(g) / cm
Time / s
(a) Suggest why the volume of oxygen gas collected remains constant after
160 seconds.
(b) Calculate the initial rate of the reaction with respect to the volume of
oxygen gas produced.
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reaction by measuring changes in pressure
of a reaction system
Experiment 36.2 For reactions involving a change in the number of moles of gas, their
Studying the progress

progress can be followed by measuring the pressure of the reaction system
of a reaction by at regular time intervals. The reaction system has to be a closed system
with a constant volume.
pressure of a reaction
system
Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution in the
Experiment video presence of manganese(IV) oxide catalyst to give water and oxygen.
a reaction by measuring MnO2(s)
changes in pressure of a
2H2O2(!) 2H2O(!) + O2(g)
reaction system
Oxygen is the only gas among the reactant and products. When the
reaction proceeds, the amount of gas in the reaction system increases. This
increases the pressure of the reaction system. The more the gas produced,
the higher will be the pressure.
Think about it
The pressure of the reaction system can be measured with a pressure
Why is it important for
the reaction flask to be sensor connected to a data-logger that interfaces with a computer. Figure
airtight? 36.8 shows the set-up.
SBA note
To start the reaction,
shake the suction flask so
that MnO2 and H2O2 are
mixed.
pressure sensor data-logger computer
suction flask
manganese(IV) oxide
hydrogen peroxide
solution
Figure 36.8 Set-up used for measuring the pressure of the reaction system at regular time intervals
closed system 密閉體系 pressure sensor 壓強傳感器 interface 界面

data-logger 數據記錄器 suction flask 吸濾瓶
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IX Rate of Reaction
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Example 36.8
Following the progress of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution by monitoring

the pressure of the reaction system
A student investigated the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using a set-up similar
to the one shown in Figure 36.8. The pressure of the reaction system was measured at regular time
intervals. The experimental results are shown in the graph below.
Pressure of the reaction system / kPa
Learning tip
Both atm (atmospheric
pressure) and Pa (pascal)
are units of pressure, 1 atm
= 101 325 Pa = 101.0 kPa;
where 1 kPa (kilopascal) =
1000 Pa. The prefix ‘kilo’
means 1000 times.
Time / s
(a) Explain why the progress of this reaction can be followed by measuring the change in pressure of
the reaction system.
(b) At what time did the pressure of the reaction system become constant?
(c) Why was the pressure inside the suction flask not equal to zero at time t = 0?
–1 th th
(d) Calculate the average rate of this reaction in kPa s from the 0 to the 35 second.
(e) Is this method suitable for following the progress of the reaction below? Explain your answer.
Na2SO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(!)
(f) State the advantages of using a data-logger in experiments that study reaction rates.
Solution
(a) Oxygen was produced in the reaction, which increased the pressure of the reaction system.
th
(b) At the 35 second
(c) There was air inside the suction flask and the initial pressure was the atmospheric pressure.
(141.0 – 101.0) kPa –1
(d) Average rate of the reaction = = 1.14 kPa s
(35 – 0) s
(e) No. SO2 is very soluble in water. The change in pressure of the reaction system cannot reflect the
amount of SO2 evolved.
(f) A data-logger can collect and store data over very short time intervals.
Experimental data can be presented graphically on a computer immediately.
20
TE All answers
Class practice 36.6
An experiment was carried out to study the kinetics of the reaction between
magnesium and dilute sulphuric acid. The set-up used was similar to the one
shown in Figure 36.8. The results obtained are shown below:
Pressure of the reaction system / kPa

R
Time / s
–1 th
(a) Calculate the average rate of the reaction in kPa s from the 10 to the
th
26 second.
(b) At which point, P, Q or R, did the reaction occur most rapidly? Explain
your answer with reference to the above curve.
(c) Suggest another method that can be used to follow the progress of this
reaction.

reaction by measuring changes in mass of
Experiment 36.3
a reaction mixture
of a reaction by When a gas is given off from a reaction and is allowed to escape from the
reaction mixture, there is a decrease in mass of the reaction mixture. The
mass of a reaction
mixture progress of such reaction can be followed by measuring the mass of the
reaction mixture at regular time intervals.
Experiment video
Consider the reaction between limestone and dilute hydrochloric acid
a reaction by measuring
changes in mass of a from which carbon dioxide is given off.
reaction mixture
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g)
Think about it
The progress of this reaction can be followed by using the set-up
This method is not used
to follow a reaction shown in Figure 36.9. The mass of the reaction mixture is measured and
which produces H2 as the recorded at regular time intervals. The decrease in mass of the reaction
only gaseous product.
Why?
mixture is equal to the mass of gas given off.
21
IX Rate of Reaction
TE
SBA note
start of reaction after a certain time
A cotton wool plug is
placed in the neck of the cotton wool
flask. This is to allow the plug
measured volume
escape of CO2 but to of dilute
prevent the solution from hydrochloric acid limestone pieces
limestone pieces
splashing out.
electronic
balance
Figure 36.9 Set-up for measuring the mass of the reaction mixture at regular time intervals
Example 36.9
Following the progress of reaction between limestone and dilute hydrochloric acid by
monitoring the mass of the reaction mixture
A student used the set-up shown in Figure 36.9 to investigate the rate of the following reaction:
The graph below shows the results obtained.
y/g
x / min
(a) What do x and y in the above graph represent respectively?

(b) Calculate the total mass of carbon dioxide (in g) given off from the reaction mixture.
(c) Refer to Figure 36.9. Why is a cotton wool plug placed in the neck of the flask?
Solution
(a) x represents time and y represents the total mass of the conical flask and its contents.
(b) (150.0 – 146.3) g = 3.7 g
(c) This prevents the solution from splashing out while allowing carbon dioxide to escape.
22
TE All answers
Class practice 36.7
Refer to the experiment in Example 36.9.
(a) What causes the decrease in the total mass of the flask and its contents
during the reaction?
(b) The following graph shows the mass of CO2(g) produced against time.
The tangent to the curve at time t = 0 is given.
Mass of CO2 produced / g
Time / min
(i) Calculate the initial rate of the reaction.

(ii) Calculate the average rate of the reaction for the time interval from
nd th
the 2 to the 5 min.

reaction by measuring changes in colour
intensity of a reaction mixture
Experiment 36.4 In some reactions, one of the reactants or products is coloured. If it is a

product, the colour intensity of the reaction mixture will increase with time.
of a reaction by If it is a reactant, the colour intensity of the reaction mixture will decrease
measuring changes in with time. The colour intensity of a reaction mixture depends on the
colour intensity of a
reaction mixture concentration of the coloured reactant or product.
2–
Experiment video Consider the oxidation of oxalate ions (C2O4 ) by acidified
–
Studying the progress of permanganate ions (MnO4 ).
– 2– + 2+
changes in colour 2MnO4 (aq) + 5C2O4 (aq) + 16H (aq) 2Mn (aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(!)
intensity of a reaction purple colourless very pale pink
mixture
colour intensity 顏色深度

23
IX Rate of Reaction
TE
–
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of MnO4 (aq) ions
decreases. Hence, the solution becomes paler. The colour intensity of
the reaction mixture decreases with time. See Figure 36.10.
time
Figure 36.10 The colour intensity

–
of the reaction mixture, MnO4 (aq)
2–
and C2O4 (aq), decreases with time.
The progress of this reaction can be followed by measuring the

change in colour intensity of the reaction mixture at regular time intervals.
This can be done by using a colorimeter (Figure 36.11). Figure 36.12
cuvettes
shows the basic components of the colorimeter.
visible light of
suitable
visible light wavelengths
Figure 36.11 A colorimeter with

cuvettes for holding the solutions
to be analysed light source
reaction
Learning tip colour filter mixture detector meter (showing
the absorbance)
• A colorimeter can be
Figure 36.12 The basic components of a colorimeter
used alone or
connected to a data-
In the colorimeter, visible light of suitable wavelengths is shone upon
logger.
the reaction mixture. Then the absorbance of the reaction mixture
• We will learn about the
working principle of (increases with the amount of light being absorbed by the reaction
colorimetry in Book 7, mixture) is measured and recorded at regular time intervals. The higher the
Section 64.2.
concentration of the coloured reactant or product, the higher is the
absorbance of the reaction mixture.
Example 36.10
Following the progress of the reaction between oxalate ions and permanganate ions under
acidic conditions by monitoring the colour intensity of the reaction mixture
A student performed a colorimetric experiment to study the rate of the following reaction:
– 2– + 2+
2MnO4 (aq) + 5C2O4 (aq) + 16H (aq) 2Mn (aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(!)
The student recorded the variation of absorbance of the reaction mixture with time. The graph on the
next page shows the experimental results:
Cont’d
absorbance 吸光度 cuvette 比色杯
24 colorimeter 比色計
TE All answers
(a) What instrument was used to measure the
absorbance of the reaction mixture?
(b) With reference to the curve on the right,
describe and explain the variation of
–
concentration of MnO4 (aq) ions with time
during the reaction.
Absorbance
Solution
(a) Colorimeter
–
(b) The amount of light absorbed by MnO4 (aq)
becomes less as time passes. This indicates
–
that the concentration of purple MnO4 (aq)
decreases with time.
Learning tip
The initial rate of a reaction should be the highest in
the whole course of reaction. However, the rate of Time / s
–
consumption of MnO4 (aq) ions is relatively slow at the
beginning and then increases rapidly. This suggests
that a product acts as a catalyst, speeding up the
reaction.
Useful web link Class practice 36.8

Use of colorimeter
(a video) Consider the reaction below:
+
H (aq) – +
Br2(aq) + HCOOH(aq) 2Br (aq) + 2H (aq) + CO2(g)
reddish brown colourless colourless
Experiment 36.5
Below is a graph showing the variation of the absorbance of the reaction
Studying the progress mixture with time.
of a reaction by
height of foam
Experiment video
Absorbance
changes in height of
foam
Time / s
Describe and explain the variation of the absorbance of the reaction mixture
during the course of the reaction.
25
IX Rate of Reaction All answers TE

reaction by titrimetric analysis
Experiment 36.6 Titrimetric analysis involves withdrawing and analysing small portions

(of a known volume) of the reaction mixture at regular time intervals.
of a reaction by The reaction in these small portions has to be slowed down or even stopped
titrimetric analysis
(i.e. quenched) before carrying out the analysis. This prevents further
changes in the concentration of the reactant or product in the small
Experiment video
portions.
a reaction by titrimetric
analysis Quenching can be done by the following methods:
1. Cooling the reaction mixture rapidly in ice

Think about it
Why is it possible to 2. Diluting the reaction mixture with a sufficient amount of cold water
quench a reaction by
diluting the reaction
mixture with cold water?
Titrimetric analysis for studying the alkaline
hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate
Learning tip Consider the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate (an ester):
Alkaline hydrolysis will be
further discussed in Book CH3COOCH2CH3(!) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + CH3CH2OH(aq)
4B, Chapter 44, p.112– ethyl ethanoate sodium ethanoate
113.
The progress of the above reaction can be followed using titrimetric
analysis. See Figure 36.13.
measuring a small portion (e.g.

cylinder 3
10.0 cm ) of reaction
mixture withdrawn at
ethyl standard
2-minute intervals
ethanoate hydrochloric acid
dilute sodium reaction mixture

magnetic
hydroxide solution with a few drops
stirrer bar
of phenolphthalein
ice
white tile
distilled
magnetic water
stirrer-hotplate
(1) (2) and (3) (4)
Figure 36.13 Following the progress of alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate by titrimetric analysis
alkaline hydrolysis 加鹼水解

26 quenching 驟冷
TE All answers
The procedure of the analysis is as follows:
1. Mix ethyl ethanoate and dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
2. Withdraw small portions of the reaction mixture using a pipette at

regular time intervals.
3. Quench the reaction in the small portions by pouring them into ice-
cold distilled water.
Think about it 4. Titrate the sodium hydroxide present in the quenched portions
What is the colour
change at the end point against standard hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein as
of the titration? indicator.
Example 36.11
Following the progress of alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate by titrimetric analysis

3
In an experiment to study the kinetics of the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate, 100 cm of
3 3
0.20 M sodium hydroxide solution was mixed with 2.0 cm of ethyl ethanoate in a 250.0 cm conical
3
flask. At 2-minute intervals, 10.0 cm portions of the reaction mixture were withdrawn and poured
3
into 20 cm ice-cold distilled water. Each of these portions was then titrated against 0.10 M
hydrochloric acid using phenolphthalein as indicator.
The titration results were tabulated as follows:
Time / min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
3
Volume of HCl(aq) used / cm 20.00 9.00 5.50 3.50 2.70 2.40 2.00 1.90
3
(a) What apparatus was used to withdraw the 10.0 cm portions of reaction mixture?
(b) Why were the portions withdrawn poured into ice-cold distilled water?
th
(c) Calculate the concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction mixture at the 4 minute.
(d) Calculate the concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction mixture at other times of the experiment
and complete the table below.
Time / min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Concentration of
–3
NaOH(aq) / mol dm
(e) Sketch a graph to show the variation of the concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction mixture
with time.
(f) Suggest TWO limitations of using titrimetric analysis to follow the progress of a reaction.
Cont’d
27
IX Rate of Reaction
Solution
3
(a) 10.0 cm pipette
(b) This was to quench the reaction in the portions of reaction mixture.
Or, this was to prevent further changes in the concentration of NaOH(aq) in the portions.
(c) Number of moles of HCl used
–3 5.50 3
= 0.10 mol dm × dm
1000
–4
= 5.5 × 10 mol
From the equation,
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(!)
Mole ratio of NaOH to HCl = 1 : 1
Number of moles of NaOH present
–4
= 5.5 × 10 mol
th
Concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction mixture at the 4 minute
–4 1000 –3
= 5.5 × 10 mol × dm
10.0
–3
= 0.055 mol dm
(d)
Time / min 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Concentration of
–3 0.20 0.090 0.055 0.035 0.027 0.024 0.020 0.019
NaOH(aq) / mol dm
(e)
Concentration of NaOH(aq) /
–3
mol dm
Time / min
(f) The original reaction mixture is disturbed when small portions of the mixture are withdrawn for
titrimetric analysis.
Continuous monitoring of the progress of a reaction is impossible.
28
All answers
Class practice 36.9
Propanone reacts with iodine in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
+
H (aq)
CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) CH3COCH2I(aq) + HI(aq)
3
At regular time intervals, 10.0 cm portions of the reaction mixture were
3
withdrawn and added to 20 cm ice-cold distilled water. The third portion
3 –3 –3
required 6.50 cm of 5 × 10 mol dm sodium thiosulphate solution,
Na2S2O3(aq), to react completely with the unreacted iodine.
3
(a) Why were the portions of the reaction mixture withdrawn added to 20 cm
ice-cold distilled water?
(b) The ionic equation for the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and
iodine is shown below:
2– 2– –
2S2O3 (aq) + I2(aq) S4O6 (aq) + 2I (aq)
Calculate the concentration of iodine in the third portion.
36.9 Choosing an appropriate method to follow

the progress of a reaction
Table 36.1 summarizes different methods that can be used to follow the
progress of reactions.
Is the reaction
Property Method to follow
Example of reaction on-going or
measured the progress
quenched?
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) Measuring the volume of H2(g)

Gas volume On-going
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) produced with a gas syringe
Measuring the pressure of the

Gas pressure 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g) reaction system with a pressure On-going
sensor
Measuring the mass of the

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)
Mass reaction mixture with an On-going
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g)
electronic balance
– 2– + Measuring the colour intensity

Colour 2MnO4 (aq) + 5C2O4 (aq) + 16H (aq)
2+ of the reaction mixture with a On-going
intensity 2Mn (aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(!)
colorimeter
Determining the concentration

CH3COOCH2CH3(!) + NaOH(aq)
Concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction Quenched
CH3COONa(aq) + CH3CH2OH(aq)
mixture by titrimetric analysis
Table 36.1 Methods for following the progress of reactions
29
IX Rate of Reaction
All answers TE
Example 36.12
Choosing appropriate methods to follow the progress of a reaction

(a) The progress of the following reaction can be followed by titrimetric analysis.
+ –
CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) CH3COCH2I(aq) + H (aq) + I (aq)
(i) Suggest another method that can also be used to follow the progress of this reaction. Explain
your answer.
(ii) Explain why using the method suggested in (i) is preferred to using titrimetric analysis in
following the progress of this reaction.
(b) Suggest THREE methods that can be used to follow the progress of the reaction:
Explain your answer in each case.
Solution
(a) (i) I2(aq) is brown in colour and is the only coloured species in the reaction. During the course
of the reaction, the concentration of I2(aq) decreases and the solution becomes paler in colour.
Thus, we can use a colorimeter to measure the colour intensity of the reaction mixture.
(ii) Measuring the colour intensity of the reaction mixture with a colorimeter can monitor the
progress of reaction continuously. It also causes negligible disturbance to the reaction
mixture.
(b) Since CO2(g) is produced in the reaction, we can measure
1. the volume of CO2(g) produced at regular time intervals by using a gas syringe.
2. the pressure of the reaction system at regular time intervals if the reaction is taken place in a
closed container with a fixed volume.
3. the variation of the mass of the reaction mixture over time if CO2(g) is allowed to escape from
the reaction mixture.
Learning tip
+
HCl(aq) is a strong acid which completely ionizes in water. As the reaction proceeds, the H (aq) is consumed and the
+
concentration of H (aq) decreases. Consequently, the pH of the reaction mixture increases. Therefore, the progress of
the reaction discussed in part (b) can also be followed by monitoring the pH of the reaction mixture using a pH meter.
Class practice 36.10

Suggest a method, with an explanation, to follow the progress of each of the
reactions below.
1. CH3COOCH3(!) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + CH3OH(aq)
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction
mixture decreases. So, the progress of reaction can be followed by
(a) . Small portions of the reaction
Cont’d
30
All answers
mixture are withdrawn at regular time intervals, (b) and

then titrated with standard (c) using
(d) as the indicator. At the end point, the colour of the
indicator changes from (e) to (f) .
2. 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g)

The reaction involves a (a) in the number of moles of gas
(from 4 mol to 3 mol). So, the progress of reaction can be followed by
measuring the (b) of the reaction system in an airtight
container at regular time intervals, by using a (c) sensor
connected to a (d) .
– – + –
3. BrO3 (aq) + 6I (aq) + 6H (aq) 3I2(aq) + Br (aq) + 3H2O(!)
(a) is brown in colour and is the only (b)
species in the reaction. As the reaction proceeds, the solution changes
from (c) to brown. So, the progress of reaction can be
followed by measuring the colour (d) of the reaction
mixture at regular time intervals by using a (e) .
STSE issue 36.1

Researches into reaction rates for the development of explosives
In January 2018, two unexploded bombs were found at a construction
site in Wan Chai. The bombs might have been dropped by the US Air
Force during the Second World War.
The two bombs were of the same type and each contained about
225 kg of explosives. 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was one of the two
chemical explosives used in making these bombs. When
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene decomposes, it liberates a large amount of gases
as shown in the equation below. The reaction may create hundreds of
thousands of atmospheric pressures within millionths of a second. A bomb disposal expert investigating
an unexploded bomb
TNT
Explosives used for different purposes should have different reaction rates. Scientists have done a lot of
research studies so as to control the reaction rate of explosives.
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene 2,4,6-三硝基甲苯 explosive 炸藥

31
IX Rate of Reaction
All answers
Extended learning 36.1
Deducing the rate of consumption of a reactant from the rate of formation of a product and vice versa
Consider the following chemical reaction:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
For every molecule of N2(g) that reacts, one molecule of O2(g) reacts and two molecules of NO(g) form. That
is, the rate of [N2(g)] decrease is the same as the rate of [O2(g)] decrease, but both are only half the rate of
[NO(g)] increase. If we relate the changes in [O2(g)] and [NO(g)] to the change in [N2(g)], we have
∆[N2(g)] ∆[O2(g)] 1 ∆[NO(g)]
rate of reaction = – =– = …… (1)
∆t ∆t 2 ∆t
If we relate the changes in [N2(g)] and [O2(g)] to the change in [NO(g)], we have
∆[NO(g)] ∆[N2(g)] ∆[O2(g)]
rate of reaction = = –2 = –2 …… (2)
∆t ∆t ∆t
Note that expression (2) gives a rate that is double the expression (1). Thus, the expression for the rate of
reaction and its numerical value depend on which substance is used for comparison.
We can summarize the above results for a general reaction,

aA + bB cC + dD
where a, b, c and d are stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced equation, as follows:
1 ∆[A] 1 ∆[B] 1 ∆[C] 1 ∆[D]
rate of reaction = – =– = = …… (3)
a ∆t b ∆t c ∆t d ∆t
Let us look at the following reaction that we have discussed in Example 36.1 on p.4 again,
– +
H2O2(aq) + 2I (aq) + 2H (aq) I2(aq) + 2H2O(!)
–
can you express the rate of the reaction by relating the change in [I (aq)] to the change in [I2(aq)]?
32
TE
Chapter review
Progress check
Chapter review
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
understand what is the meaning of the term ‘rate of reaction’
interpret a graph showing the progress of a reaction
determine instantaneous rate and average rate from a suitable graph (e.g. concentration-time
graph)
recognize that the initial rate of a reaction equals its instantaneous rate at time t = 0
describe the following techniques to follow the progress of a reaction (a): measurement of changes
in (i) volume/pressure of gases, (ii) mass of a reaction mixture, and (iii) colour intensity of a reaction
mixture and (b) titrimetric analysis
discuss the nature of rate studies with respect to methods of ‘quenching’ and ‘on-going’
select and explain the appropriateness of using different techniques to follow the progress of
chemical reactions
e-Dictionary
Key terms (For Chapter 36)
Page Page
1. average rate of reaction 6 6. instantaneous rate 10
2. colorimeter 24 7. pressure sensor 19
3. colour intensity 23 8. quenching 26
4. data-logger 19 9. rate of reaction 3
5. initial rate 13 10. titrimetric analysis 15
Key equations
change in concentration of a product or a reactant
1. Rate of reaction =
time
(Section 36.1, p.3)
∆[P] ∆[R]
2. Average rate of reaction = or –
∆t ∆t
(Section 36.2, p.6)
33
IX Rate of Reaction
Key concepts
36.1 Rate of reaction
Chapter review
1. The rate of reaction is defined as the change in concentration of a product or a reactant per unit
time.
36.2 Average rate, instantaneous rate and initial rate
2. The average rate of reaction is the change in concentration of a product or a reactant over
a certain time interval.
3. The instantaneous rate of a reaction is the rate at a particular instant of the reaction. It can
be determined by finding the slope (or gradient) of the tangent to the curve at that instant in a
graph.
4. The initial rate of a reaction is its instantaneous rate at time t = 0. It can be determined from the
slope of the tangent to the curve at time t = 0 in a graph.
36.3 Methods for following the progress of a chemical reaction
5. The progress of some chemical reactions can be followed by using more than one method. The
one which is efficient, accurate, convenient and causes little disturbance to the reaction system
should be chosen.
36.4 Following the progress of a chemical reaction by measuring changes in gas volume
6. For reactions involving the production of a gas, the progress of the reaction can be followed by
measuring the volume of the gas produced at regular time intervals using a gas syringe.
36.5 Following the progress of a chemical reaction by measuring changes in pressure of a

reaction system
7. For reactions involving a change in the number of moles of gas, the progress of the reaction can
be followed by measuring the pressure of the reaction system (a closed system) at regular time
intervals, using a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger.
36.6 Following the progress of a chemical reaction by measuring changes in mass of a reaction
mixture
8. For reactions involving the production of a gas and the gas is allowed to escape from the
reaction mixture, the progress of the reaction can be followed by measuring the mass of the
reaction mixture at regular time intervals using an electronic balance.
36.7 Following the progress of a chemical reaction by measuring changes in colour intensity
of a reaction mixture
9. For reactions involving a change in the concentration of a coloured reactant or product, the
progress of the reaction can be followed by measuring the colour intensity of the reaction
mixture at regular time intervals using a colorimeter.
34
TE All answers
36.8 Following the progress of a chemical reaction by titrimetric analysis
10. The progress of a chemical reaction can be followed by titrating quenched portions of the
reaction mixture at regular time intervals.
Chapter review
36.9 Choosing an appropriate method to follow the progress of a reaction
11. Different methods for following the progress of reactions are summarized in Table 36.1 on
p.29.
Concept map
Complete the concept map by filling in the items listed below:
average, colour intensity, concentration, initial, instantaneous, mass, pressure, time, volume
(c) (d)
rate = the change (e)
in concentration of a product or a rate = the rate at a rate = the
reactant over a certain time interval particular instant instantaneous rate at time t = 0
(a)
The change in
of a product or a reactant per unit
(b)
defined as
RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
followed by
quenching
is needed
no quenching
is needed
Titrimetric analysis
Measuring Measuring changes Measuring changes Measuring changes

(g) (h) (i)
changes in gas in ___________ in ___________ in __________________
(f)
__________________ of a reaction system of a reaction mixture of a reaction mixture
35
IX Rate of Reaction
All answers TE
Chapter exercise
A. Fill in the blanks
Section 36.1 Section 36.3
1. The rate of a chemical reaction can be defined as 4. The progress of a chemical reaction can be followed
either the in concentration of a by measuring
product per unit time, or the in (a) changes in gas ,
concentration of a reactant per unit time.
Chapter exercise
(b) changes in of a reaction

Section 36.2 system,
2. The rate of a reaction is the (c) changes in of a reaction
change in concentration of a product or a reactant mixture,
over a certain time interval. (d) changes in colour of a reaction
mixture.
3. The rate is the rate of a reaction
at a particular instant. It can be determined by 5. The progress of a chemical reaction can be followed
finding the slope of the to the curve by a method based on titration, called
at that instant in its concentration-time graph. .
B. Multiple-choice questions
6. Consider the following reaction: 8. For which of the following reactions can their
2– +
S2O3 (aq) + 2H (aq) SO2(g) + S(s) + H2O(!) progress be monitored by colorimetry?
At a certain instant, the rate of consumption of (1) CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) CH3COCH2I(aq) +

2– –3 –1
S2O3 (aq) ions is 0.25 mol dm s . What is the rate HI(aq)
– – +
+
of consumption of H (aq) ions? (2) BrO3 (aq) + 5Br (aq) + 6H (aq) 3Br2(aq) +
–3 –1 3H2O(!)
A. 0.125 mol dm s – 2– +
–3 –1 (3) 2MnO4 (aq) + 5C2O4 (aq) + 16H (aq)
B. 0.25 mol dm s 2+
–3 –1 2Mn (aq) + 8H2O(!) + 10CO2(g)
C. 0.50 mol dm s
D.
–3 –1
0.75 mol dm s A. (1) and (2) only B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only D. (1), (2) and (3)
7. Consider the following reaction:
2– + 2– Section 36.9
Cr2O7 (aq) + 8H (aq) + 3SO3 (aq)
3+ 2–
2Cr (aq) + 4H2O(!) + 3SO4 (aq) 9. Consider the following reaction:
At a certain instant, the rate of formation of Cr (aq)

3+ NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g)
–3 –1
ions is 0.02 mol dm s . What is the rate of Which of the following properties can be measured
2–
consumption of SO3 (aq) ions? in order to follow the progress of the reaction?
–3 –1
A. 0.01 mol dm s (1) Mass of the reaction mixture
–3 –1
B. 0.02 mol dm s (2) Volume of the gaseous product
–3 –1
C. 0.03 mol dm s (3) Colour intensity of the reaction mixture
–3 –1
D. 0.06 mol dm s A. (1) and (2) only B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only D. (1), (2) and (3)
36
C. Structured questions
Section 36.1
− 2− + 2+ 2−
2MnO4 (aq) + 5SO3 (aq) + 6H (aq) 2Mn (aq) + 5SO4 (aq) + 3H2O(!)
2− −3 −3
If the concentration of SO3 (aq) ions decreases from 0.08 mol dm to 0.03 mol dm in 10 seconds, calculate
2−
(a) the rate of consumption of SO3 (aq) ions, (1 mark)
−
(b) the rate of consumption of MnO (aq) ions, 4 (1 mark)
2+
(c) the rate of formation of Mn (aq) ions, and (1 mark)
Chapter exercise
2−
(d) the rate of formation of SO (aq) ions, over this time interval.
4 (1 mark)
Section 36.4
3
11. 100 cm of hydrogen peroxide solution undergoes decomposition in the presence of a solid catalyst. The graph
below shows the volume of oxygen gas collected at regular time intervals.
catalyst
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g)
3
Volume of O2(g) collected / cm
Time / min
(a) Draw a labelled diagram of a set-up that can be used in this experiment. (2 marks)
(b) At what time would you expect the reaction to have completed? (1 mark)
(c) What is the volume of oxygen collected when the reaction completes? (1 mark)
3 –1 th th
(d) Calculate the average rate (in cm min ) of oxygen produced over the time interval from the 0 to the 20
minute. (1 mark)
(e) Describe the shape of the curve. (1 mark)
Learn more: Building a better answer (see p.129–130)
37
IX Rate of Reaction
All answers TE
Exam practice
A. Multiple-choice questions
3 –3
1. When 50.0 cm of 0.10 mol dm acidified potassium 3. Refer to the following concentration-time graph for a
3
permanganate solution is mixed with 50.0 cm of reaction taking place in a closed container with a
–3
0.10 mol dm potassium iodide solution, the fixed volume.
following reaction occurs:
– + –
2MnO4 (aq) + 16H (aq) + 10I (aq)
2+
2Mn (aq) + 8H2O(!) + 5I2(aq)
Given that 0.0025 mol of I2 is produced in the first
–3
25 s, what is the rate of formation of I2(aq) over this
period of time?
–3 –1
A. 0.008 mol dm s Y(g)
–3 –1
B. 0.004 mol dm s
Exam practice
–3 –1
C. 0.0001 mol dm s
–3 –1
D. 0.001 mol dm s
X(g)
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g)
Time / min
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
(1) The rate of formation of H2O(!) is twice the rate Which of the following equations correctly
of formation of O2(g). represents the reaction?
(2) The rate of formation of O2(g) is twice the rate of A. X(g) Y(g)
consumption of H2O2(aq). B. 2X(g) Y(g)
(3) The rate of consumption of H2O2(aq) is equal to C. 2X(g) Y(g)
the rate of formation of H2O(!). D. Y(g) 2X(g)
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
38
All answers
4. In an experiment, 1.31 g of Zn(s) is allowed to react with 0.05 mol of HCl(aq). Which of the following graphs can
best represent the results of the experiment?
(Relative atomic mass: Zn = 65.4)
A. B.
Number of moles of H2(g) formed / mol

Time / min Time / min
Exam practice
C. D.
Time / min Time / min
Section 36.4 Which of the following statements about the reaction

5. An experiment was carried out to study the kinetics over the time interval from P to Q is/are correct?
of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution in (1) All H2O2(aq) has decomposed.
the presence of manganese(IV) oxide: (2) The average rate of the reaction is the highest.
MnO2(s) (3) The total volume of oxygen produced remains
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(!) + O2(g) unchanged.
The graph below shows the variation of the volume A. (1) only
of oxygen produced with time. B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
P Q
Volume of oxygen
3
produced / cm
Time / s
39
IX Rate of Reaction
All answers
6. An experiment was carried out to study the kinetics 7. Consider the following reaction:
of the following reaction. 5NaBr(aq) + NaBrO3(aq) + 6HCl(aq) 3Br2(aq) +
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) (colourless) 6NaCl(aq)
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(!) + CO2(g) + 3H2O(!)
In the experiment, excess CaCO3(s) powder was Which of the following can be measured in order to
3
added to 100 cm of 0.1 M HCl(aq). The progress of follow the progress of the reaction?
the reaction was followed by measuring the change (1) pH of the reacting mixture
of a certain parameter of the reaction system/mixture (2) Pressure of the reaction system
with time using common apparatus found in the (3) Colour intensity of the reacting mixture
school laboratory. The graph below shows the results
A. (1) and (2) only
from the start of the reaction.
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
D. (1), (2) and (3)
(HKDSE 2019 Paper 1A Q35)
Parameter
Exam practice
Time
Which of the following parameters of the reaction

system/mixture might be measured?
(1) Colour intensity
(2) pH
(3) Pressure
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
B. Structured questions
Section 36.2
3
8. 2.00 g of lumps of calcium carbonate was added to 50.0 cm of 2.0 M nitric acid under room conditions. The
th
reaction ended at the 120 second.
(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved, showing all state symbols. (1 mark)
(b) Show by calculation which reactant, calcium carbonate or nitric acid, is in excess. (2 marks)
(c) State an expected observation when the reaction was completed. (1 mark)
(d) Calculate the average rate of the reaction over the 120 seconds, expressed in terms of
–1
(i) the consumption of calcium carbonate in g s ,
–3 –1
(ii) the consumption of nitric acid in mol dm s , and
–1
(iii) the production of carbon dioxide in g s .
(6 marks)
(Assume that the volume of the reacting solution remains unchanged during the course of the reaction. Relative
atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)
40
9. The concentration-time graph for the decomposition of An(g) to A(g) in a closed container of fixed volume
is shown below.
An(g) nA(g)
–3
A(g)
An(g)
Time / s
(a) Explain why the curve for A(g) starts from the origin. (1 mark)
nd
(b) Would you expect the reaction to have ended at the 22 second? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
(c) Calculate the decrease in concentration of An(g) over the first 8 seconds. (1 mark)
(d) Calculate the increase in concentration of A(g) over the first 8 seconds. (1 mark)
Exam practice
(e) Deduce the value of n. (1 mark)
Section 36.5
10. An experiment, using the set-up shown in the diagram below, was carried out to investigate the kinetics of the
reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and zinc.
gas syringe
gas collected
dilute hydrochloric acid zinc strip
The volume of gas collected was measured and recorded at regular time intervals. The graph below shows the
experimental results.
tangent at time t = 0
3
Volume of gas collected / cm
Time / min
41
IX Rate of Reaction
(a) What gas was collected in the syringe? (1 mark)

(b) The slope of the tangent at time t = 0 gives the initial rate of the reaction.
(i) Calculate the initial rate of the reaction.
nd rd
(ii) Calculate the average rate of the reaction from the 2 minute to the 3 minute.
(2 marks)
th
(c) Would you expect the reaction to have ended at the 5 minute? Explain. (1 mark)
(d) Suggest another method that can follow the progress of this reaction. Explain your answer briefly. (2 marks)
Section 36.9
11. Suggest a method, with an explanation, to follow the progress of each of the reactions below.
(a) C6H5N2Cl(aq) + H2O(!) C6H5OH(aq) + N2(g) + HCl(aq) (2 marks)
(b) C3H6(g) + H2(g) C3H8(g) (2 marks)
2– – 2–
(c) S2O (aq) + 2I (aq)
8 2SO (aq) + I2(aq)
4 (2 marks)
Exam practice
42
Answers to Chapter exercise 9. A
(2): CO2(g) is soluble in water. The reaction mixture
Chapter 36 can be saturated with CO2 gas before the start of
the experiment. This ensures that no CO2(g) formed
A. Fill in the blanks (p.36)
in the reaction can dissolve in the reaction mixture.
1. increase; decrease
2. average C. Structured questions (p.37)
2–
3. instantaneous; tangent 10. (a) Rate of consumption of SO3 (aq)
–3
4. (a) volume (0.03 – 0.08) mol dm
=–
(b) pressure 10 s
–3 –3 –1
(c) mass = 5 × 10 mol dm s 1
2–
(d) intensity (b) From the equation, mole ratio of SO3 to
–
5. titrimetric analysis MnO4 = 5 : 2.
–
Rate of consumption of MnO4 (aq)
B. Multiple-choice questions (p.36) 2 –3 –3 –1
= × 5 × 10 mol dm s
6. C 5
–3 –3 –1
2– +
From the equation, mole ratio of S2O3 to H = 1 : 2. = 2 × 10 mol dm s 1
2–
+
Rate of consumption of H (aq) (c) From the equation, mole ratio of SO3 to
2+
2–
= 2 × Rate of consumption of S2O3 (aq) Mn = 5 : 2.
2+
= 2 × 0.25 mol dm s
–3 –1 Rate of formation of Mn (aq)
–3 –1 2 –3 –3 –1
= 0.50 mol dm s = × 5 × 10 mol dm s
5
7. C –3 –3 –1
3+ 2– = 2 × 10 mol dm s 1
From the equation, mole ratio of Cr to SO3 = 2 : 3. 2–
2– (d) From the equation, mole ratio of SO3 to
Rate of consumption of SO3 (aq) 2–
SO4 = 1 : 1.
3 3+
= × Rate of formation of Cr (aq) 2–
Rate of formation of SO4 (aq)
2 –3 –3 –1
3 –3 –1 = 5 × 10 mol dm s 1
= × 0.02 mol dm s
2 11. (a) gas syringe
–3 –1
= 0.03 mol dm s
8. D
(1) CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq)
colourless brown O2(g)
CH3COCH2I(aq) + HI(aq)
colourless colourless
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of
I2(aq) decreases and the solution becomes MnO2(s) H2O2(aq) 2
paler in colour. (1 mark for correct drawing; 1 mark for correct
– – +
(2) BrO3 (aq) + 5Br (aq) + 6H (aq) labelling)
colourless colourless colourless nd
(b) At the 22 minute 1
3Br2(aq) + 3H2O(l) (c) 150 cm
3
1
brown colourless
(d) Average rate of oxygen produced from the
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of th th
0 to the 20 minute
Br2(aq) increases and the solution becomes 3
(149 – 0) cm
more intense in colour. =
– 2– + (20 – 0) min
(3) 2MnO4 (aq) + 5C2O4 (aq) + 16H (aq) 3 –1
= 7.5 cm min 1
purple colourless colourless
2+ (e) The curve starts from the origin. It is steep
2Mn (aq) + 8H2O(l) + 10CO2(g)
very pale pink colourless
at first and becomes less steep with time.
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of Finally, the curve becomes horizontal. 1
–
MnO4 (aq) decreases and the solution
becomes paler in colour.
T1
Chapter 37 11. C
A. Fill in the blanks (p.71) The reaction using 0.5 M HNO3(aq) occurs faster
1. energy; collide; effective because HNO3(aq) is a strong acid while
2. closer; increases; effective; increases CH3COOH(aq) is a weak acid. The concentration of
+
3. energy; faster; frequently; increases H (aq) in 0.5 M HNO3(aq) is higher than that in
4. increase; increases, increases 0.5 M CH3COOH(aq). Besides, the reaction using
5. Catalysts 0.5 g powdered CaCO3 occurs faster because
6. Enzymes powdered CaCO3 has a larger surface area than
lumps of CaCO3.
B. Multiple-choice questions (p.71) 12. C
7. A Option (A): using a catalyst would not increase the
The rate of a reaction is affected by the concentration amount of CO2(g) formed.
of a reactant but not its volume. Option (B): using more calcium carbonate would
8. B not increase the amount of CO2(g) formed because
As sulphuric acid was used in excess in both it is already in excess.
experiments, equal volumes of hydrogen would be Option (C): as hydrochloric acid is the limiting
produced even a more concentrated acid was used reactant of the reaction. Using a more concentrated
in the repeated experiment. However, the reaction acid would increase both the reaction rate and the
would take a shorter time to complete when a more amount of CO2(g) formed.
concentrated sulphuric acid was used. Option (D): same amount of CO2(g) would form at
9. A a higher rate because the reaction temperature is
(1): the initial rate of the reaction would be the higher.
same as that of the original experiment because 13. A
the experiment is repeated using the same 14. D
concentration of HCl(aq) at the same temperature.
10. A C. Structured questions (p.73)
As shown from the graph, the reaction occurs 15. (a) (i) Absorbance 1
–
faster in Trial I than in Trial II. In the oxidation of maltose, MnO4 (aq)
2+
Option (A): the reaction would occur faster in Trial ions (purple) are reduced to Mn (aq)
I than in Trial II. This is because an increase in ions (very pale pink or colourless).
temperature increases the reaction rate. As the oxidation proceeds, the
–
Option (B): the reaction would occur faster in Trial concentration of MnO4 (aq) ions
II than in Trial I. This is because an increase in the decreases. Hence, the amount of light
concentration of a reactant increases the reaction being absorbed by the reaction mixture
rate. decreases with time. 1
Option (C): a larger volume of hydrogen would form (ii) Colorimeter 1
from the reaction in Trial II compared with Trial I. (b) (i) Repeat the experiment with the same
Magnesium is the limiting reactant of the reaction in amount of maltose and same
both trials and it determines the volume of hydrogen concentration and volume of acidified
formed in the reaction. potassium permanganate solution but
Option (D): the reaction would occur faster in Trial at different temperatures. 1
II than in Trial I. This is because an increase in (ii)
surface area of solid reactant increases the
Parameter
reaction rate.
1
Time
T2
16. (a) 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 1 8. A
(b) The oxygen gas produced in the Volume of C3H6
decomposition of H2O2(aq) was trapped in 1.125 g 3 –1
= –1 × 24 dm mol
the soap solution. 1 (12.0 × 3 + 1.0 × 6) g mol
3
(c) The time needed to produce a certain = 0.643 dm
3
height of lather is inversely proportional to = 643 cm
the rate of reaction. 1 9. A
(2): number of moles of C2H4
Chapter 38 =
42 g
–1 = 1.5 mol
A. Fill in the blanks (p.108) (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 4) g mol
1. molar (3): number of moles of NH3
3
2. 25; 1 12 000 cm
= 3 –1 = 0.5 mol
3. same 24 000 cm mol
4. same; mole Based on Avogadro’s Law, equal numbers of moles
of different gases at the same temperature and
B. Practice question (p.108) pressure occupy the same volume. Hence, 1.5 mol
5. of He and 42 g of C2H4 occupy the same volume as
Volume of
Number of Number of 1.5 mol of SO2 at room temperature and pressure.
Gas gas at
moles / mol 3 molecules 10. B
r.t.p. / dm
22 Volume of N2
(a) H2 0.02 0.48 1.20 × 10
22.4 g 3 –1 3
21 = –1 × 24 dm mol = 19 dm
(b) Cl2 0.01 0.24 6.02 × 10 (14.0 × 2) g mol
3 –1 3
(c) C2H6 0.1 2.40 6.02 × 10
22
Volume of H2 = 1.3 mol × 24 dm mol = 31 dm
3
(d) NH3 0.15 3.60 9.03 × 10
22 Volume of Cl2 = 12 dm (given)
24 Volume of CO2
(e) O2 4.00 96.1 2.41 × 10 23
4.22 × 10 3 –1 3
= –1 × 24 dm mol = 17 dm
24
(f) HCl 2.51 60.2 1.51 × 10 23
6.02 × 10 mol
23
(g) SOCl2 1.20 28.8 7.22 × 10 11. C
From the equation, mole ratio of CH3CH2OH to CO2
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.108) = 1 : 2.
6. C Volume of CO2 formed
From the equation, mole ratio of CH2=CHCH=CH2 16.0 g 3 –1
= –1 × 2 × 24 dm mol
to H2 = 1 : 2. By applying Avogadro’s Law, volume (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 + 16.0) g mol
3
ratio of CH2=CHCH=CH2 to H2 = 1 : 2. Hence, = 17 dm
3 3
volume of H2 needed = 100 × 2 cm = 200 cm . 12. C
7. D From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to CO2 = 2 : 1.
3
Number of atoms in 100 cm of C2H4 Volume of CO2 produced
3
100 cm 23 –1 20.00 1
–1 × 6.02 × 10 mol × 6 –3 3 3 –1
= 3 = 0.175 mol dm × dm × × 24 dm mol
24 000 cm mol 1000 2
22
= 1.505 × 10 3
= 0.042 dm = 42 cm
3
3
Number of atoms in 100 cm of N2O4
3
100 cm 23 –1 D. Structured questions (p.109)
= 3 –1 × 6.02 × 10 mol × 6
24 000 cm mol 13. From the equation, mole ratio of H2O to O2 = 2 : 1.
22
= 1.505 × 10 Theoretical volume of O2 produced
3
Number of atoms in 200 cm of Cl2O 4.50 g 1 3 –1
3 = –1 × × 24 dm mol 1
200 cm 23 –1 (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) g mol 2
= 3 –1 × 6.02 × 10 mol × 3 3
24 000 cm mol = 3 dm 1
22
= 1.505 × 10
T3
14. (a) MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 3. I, III, II, IV
MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
B. Practice questions (p.171)
Number of moles of MgCO3 2
1.50 [N2O(g)]eqm
= mol = 0.0178 mol 4. (a) Kc = 2 ;
24.3 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 [N2(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm
–1 3
Number of moles of HCl the unit of Kc is mol dm
2
50 [NO(g)]eqm[Br2(g)]eqm
= 0.10 × mol = 0.005 mol (b) Kc = 2 ;
1000 [NOBr(g)]eqm
From the equation, mole ratio of MgCO3 to the unit of Kc is mol dm
–3
HCl = 1 : 2. Since 0.005 mol of HCl 2

[HF(g)]eqm[Cl2(g)]eqm
required only 0.0025 mol of MgCO3 for (c) Kc = 2 ; the Kc has no unit.
[HCl(g)]eqm[F2(g)]eqm
complete reaction, MgCO3 was in excess. 4
[CO2(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to CO2 (d) Kc = 2 ;
[H2O(g)]eqm[CH4(g)]eqm
= 2 : 1. 2 –6
the unit of Kc is mol dm
∴ theoretical volume of CO2 produced 2
[SO3(g)]eqm[CO2(g)]eqm
1 3 –1 (e) Kc = ;
= 0.005 mol × × 24 dm mol 1 4
[CS2(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm
2 –2 6
3
= 0.06 dm (or 60 cm )
3
1 the unit of Kc is mol dm
+ 3 3–
(b) CO2(g) is soluble in water. The actual [H (aq)]eqm[PO4 (aq)]eqm
(f) Kc = ;
volume of CO2(g) collected is less than the [H3PO4(aq)]eqm
3 –9
theoretical volume of CO2(g) produced the unit of Kc is mol dm
because some CO2(g) produced might 5. (a)
Concentration A + 2B AB2
have dissolved in the reaction mixture. 1
Initial 0.02 0.04 0
Chapter 39 Change –x –2x +x
A. Fill in the blanks (p.146) Equilibrium 0.02 – x 0.04 – 2x x
1. Irreversible
(b)
2. Reversible Concentration A + 3B AB3
3. (a) concentrations Initial 0.08 0.16 0
(b) equal Change –x –3x +x
(c) either
Equilibrium 0.08 – x 0.16 – 3x x
(d) closed
(c)
B. Multiple-choice questions (p.146) Concentration 2X + Y 3Z
4. D Initial 0.04 0.04 0
5. B Change –2x –x +3x
6. A
Equilibrium 0.04 – 2x 0.04 – x 3x
7. A
(3): the concentration of the reactant cannot drop (d)
Concentration 2A + 3B C + 2D
to zero. Otherwise, the reaction does not go
backward. Initial 0.8 0.8 0 0
8. D Change –2x –3x +x +2x
9. C Equilibrium 0.8 – 2x 0.8 – 3x x 2x
Chapter 40 C. Multiple-choice questions (p.172)

A. Fill in the blanks (p.171) 6. C
d c
[D]eqm[C]eqm 7. B
1. ; equilibrium constant; –3 –3
a b
[A]eqm[B]eqm (mol dm )(mol dm )
The unit of Kc is –3 –3 2
concentrations (mol dm )(mol dm )
1 –1 3
2. temperature; initial = –3 = mol dm
(mol dm )
T4
8. C 2 15. (a) Initial concentration of CO2(g)
[Z]eqm
For X2 + 2Y 2Z, Kc = 0.001 mol –3
2
[X2]eqm[Y]eqm = 3 = 0.001 mol dm
1.0 dm
2
[X2]eqm[Y]eqm
For 2Z X2 + 2Y, Kc’ = 2 Concentration
[Z]eqm –3 2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g)
1 / mol dm
Kc =
Kc ’ Initial 0.001 0 0
1
When 5 = , then Kc’ = 0.2.
Kc ’ 1 × 10
–4
9. C 2 –4 –4 +
[C]eqm Change –1 × 10 +1 × 10 2
For A + 2B 2C, Kc = 2 = +0.5 × 10
–4
[A]eqm[B]eqm
1 –4
0.001 – 1 × 10 –4 –4
1 [A] 2eqm[B]eqm Equilibrium –4 1 × 10 0.5 × 10
For C A + B, Kc’ = = 9 × 10
2 [C]eqm
1 1
Kc ’ = 1
2
[CO(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm
(Kc) 2 Kc = 2 1
–3 1 [CO2(g)]eqm
When Kc = 1.2 × 10 , then Kc’ = 1 –4 –3 2 –4 –3
= 28.9.
–3
(1.2 × 10 ) 2 (1 × 10 mol dm ) (0.5 × 10 mol dm )
= –4 –3 2
10. B (9 × 10 mol dm )
–7 –3
= 6.2 × 10 mol dm 1
Concentration
–3 N2O4(g) 2NO2(g) (b) The extent of the reaction at equilibrium is
/ mol dm
very small as the value of Kc is very small. 1
Initial 0.125 0 2
[F(g)]eqm
0.075 – 0.125
16. (a) Kc = 1
Change +0.05 × 2 = +0.1 [F2(g)]eqm
= –0.05 (b) Let the change in concentration of F2(g) be
–3
Equilibrium 0.075 0.1 x mol dm .
2 –3 2
[NO2(g)]eqm (0.1 mol dm ) Concentration
Kc = = –3 F2(g) 2F(g)
[N2O4(g)]eqm (0.075 mol dm–3) / mol dm
–3
= 0.133 mol dm Initial 0.2 0
11. A Change –x +2x
At dynamic equilibrium, the concentrations of all Equilibrium 0.2 – x 2x
chemical species are constant. The colour intensity 1
2
of reaction mixture and the pressure of reaction –4 (2x)
1.2 × 10 =
system both remain constant. The mass of this (0.2 – x)
–4 2
reaction mixture is always the same no matter the 1.2 × 10 × (0.2 – x) = 4x
–5 –4 2
system is at equilibrium or not. 2.4 × 10 – 1.2 × 10 x – 4x = 0
–3 –3
12. C x = –2.46 × 10 (rejected) or x = 2.43 × 10
13. B ∴ [F2(g)]eqm = (0.2 – 2.43 × 10 ) mol dm
–3 –3
–3
The magnitude of Kc does not indicate the rate of a = 0.198 mol dm 1
–3 –3
reaction. [F(g)]eqm = (2 × 2.43 × 10 ) mol dm
–3 –3
= 4.86 × 10 mol dm 1
D. Structured questions (p.173) (c) Percentage of F2(g) that has undergone
2
[SO3(g)]eqm dissociation
14. Kc = 1 –3 –3
2
[SO2(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm 2.43 × 10 mol dm
–3 2
= –3 × 100% = 1.22% 1
(2.25 mol dm ) 0.2 mol dm
= –3 2 –3
(1.75 mol dm ) (1.50 mol dm )
–1
= 1.10 mol dm
3
1 Chapter 41
A. Fill in the blanks (p.208)
1. position
2. gases
3. reaction quotient; equilibrium constant
T5
(a) does not Change in
Denominator Numerator Qc
(b) right; product concentration
(c) left; reactant [SO2(g)]
A. Increases / Decreases
4. constant; position increases
5. endothermic; exothermic [O2(g)]
6. counteract B. Increases / Decreases
increases
7. yield [SO3(g)]
C. / Increases Increases
increases
B. Practice questions (p.208)
8. (a) To the right/product side [SO3(g)]
D. / Decreases Decreases
decreases
(b) To the left/reactant side
(c) To the left/reactant side 17. B
(d) To the left/reactant side 18. C
9. (a) To the right/product side For graphs in options (B) and (C), a sudden
(b) To the left/reactant side increase in the concentration of H2(g) at time t
10. indicates that H2(g) is added to the equilibrium
Direction of
mixture at that time. From the equation, for every 1
shift in mole of H2 and 1 mole of I2 that are consumed, 2
Trial [A(aq)] [B(aq)] [C(aq)] Qc
equilibrium moles of HI forms when the equilibrium position
position shifts to the right. But the graph in option (B) shows
To the left/ that 1 mole of HI forms when 2 moles of H2 and 1
1 0.10 0.20 0.30 75 mole of I2 are consumed.
reactant side
19. B
Does not
2 0.25 0.10 0.15 60 20. B
shift
21. C
To the right/ 22. C
3 0.30 0.25 0.10 5.33
product side
D. Structured questions (p.211)
11.
23. (a) The magnitude of K2 is greater than that
Direction of of K1. 1
Chemical shift in the (b) From equation (3), a higher concentration
∆H Kc
equilibrium position of
of O2 shifts the equilibrium position to the
equilibrium
right/product side. 1
H2(g) + CO2(g) To the right/ Thus, CO is released from the
(a) >0 Increases
H2O(g) + CO(g) product side carboxyhaemoglobin/HbCO. Moreover,
2SO2(g) + O2(g) To the left/ more HbO2 forms. 1
(b) <0 Decreases 4
2SO3(g) reactant side [HCHO(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm
24. (a) Kc = 2 2 1
N2(g) + 3H2(g) To the left/ [C2H4(g)]eqm[O3(g)]eqm
(c) <0 Decreases 4
2NH3(g) reactant side [HCHO(g)] [O2(g)]
(b) Qc = 2 2 1
[C2H4(g)] [O3(g)]
CH4(g) + H2O(g) To the right/
(d) >0 Increases (c) (i) Increasing [C2H4(g)] will make Qc < Kc.
CO(g) + 3H2(g) product side
Thus, the equilibrium position shifts to
the right/product side. 1
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.209)
(ii) Decreasing [O3(g)] will make Qc > Kc.
12. A
13. A
the left/reactant side. 1
14. D
(iii) Increasing [O2(g)] will make Qc > Kc.
15. D
16. C 2
[SO3(g)] the left/reactant side. 1
Qc = 2
[SO2(g)] [O2(g)]
T6
25. (a) As the Kc is smaller than 1, the system gives 5. C
a greater proportion of reactants when 6. D
it attains equilibrium. 1 (2): the initial pH of the reaction mixture was above
(b) Since there are equal numbers of moles of 0 because the pH of 0.1 M HCl(aq) is 1. As the
gases on the two sides of the equation, an reaction proceeded, the concentration of HCl(aq)
increase in pressure of the system has no decreased. This increased the pH of the reaction
effect on its equilibrium position. 2 mixture. When all HCl(aq) was used up, the pH of
(Correct prediction: 1 mark; correct the reaction mixture remained unchanged.
explanation: 1 mark) (3): there was air inside the reaction flask and the
(c) Kc remains unchanged as it only depends initial pressure was the atmospheric pressure. As
on temperature. It is independent of the reaction proceeded, the volume of CO2(g) in
concentration of reactants and products. 2 the reaction system increased. This increased the
(Correct prediction: 1 mark; correct pressure of the reaction system. When HCl(aq) was
explanation: 1 mark) used up, the pressure of the reaction system
remained unchanged.
7. B (86%)
Answers to Exam practice
B. Structured questions (p.40)
8. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Chapter 36
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 1
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.38)
(b) Number of moles of CaCO3
1. D 2.00
Molarity of the I2(aq) formed = mol
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
50.0 1 = 0.0200 mol 1
0.10 × × mol
1000 2 Number of moles of HNO3
=
50.0 + 50.0 3 50.0
dm = 2.0 × mol = 0.10 mol
1000 1000
–3
= 0.025 mol dm From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 to
(KI(aq) is the limiting reactant of this reaction.) HNO3 = 1 : 2. 0.020 mol of CaCO3 requires
Rate of formation of I2(aq) only 0.040 mol of HNO3 for complete
–3
0.025 mol dm reaction. However, there is 0.10 mol of
=
25 s HNO3 available. Hence, nitric acid is in
–3 –1
= 0.001 mol dm s
excess. 1
2. C
(c) Effervescence stopped/no more colourless
3. B
gas bubbles evolved/calcium carbonate
The concentration of X(g) drops to zero starting
th
lumps had all dissolved in nitric acid. 1
from the 80 minute, suggesting that the reaction is
–3
(d) (i) Average rate of consumption of CaCO3
irreversible. When 8.0 mol dm of X(g) is consumed, (0 – 2.00) g
–3
4.0 mol dm of Y(g) forms. Thus, the mole ratio of =– 1
120 s
–1
X(g) to Y(g) = 8 : 4 = 2 : 1. = 0.0167 g s 1
4. C (ii) Number of moles of HNO3 consumed
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) = 0.040 mol
Number of moles of Zn Number of moles of HNO3 left
1.31 = (0.10 – 0.040) mol = 0.060 mol
= mol = 0.0200 mol
65.4 Concentration of HNO3(aq) at the 120
th
Number of moles of HCl = 0.05 mol (given)

second
From the equation, mole ratio of Zn to H2 = 1 : 1. 0.060 –3 –3
∴ number of moles of H2 formed = 0.02 mol = mol dm = 1.2 mol dm
50.0
(Zn(s) is the limiting reactant of this reaction.) 1000
The graph must be a curve with a decreasing slope Average rate of consumption of HNO3(aq)
–3
because the rate of formation of H2(g) decreases (1.2 – 2.0) mol dm
=– 1
as more and more Zn(s) is consumed after the 120 s
–3 –3 –1
reaction starts. = 6.7 × 10 mol dm s 1
T7
(iii) From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 This is because N2(g) is the only gaseous
to CO2 = 1 : 1. product of this reaction. The volume of
∴ number of moles of CaCO3 used N2(g) collected will increase with time. 1
= number of moles of CO2 produced OR
= 0.020 mol Measure the pressure of the reaction
Mass of CO2(g) produced system in an airtight container with a fixed
–1
= 0.020 mol × (12.0 + 16.0 × 2) g mol volume at regular time intervals by using a
= 0.88 g pressure sensor connected to a data-
Average rate of production of CO2(g) logger. (1)
(0.88 – 0) g This is because N2(g) is the only gas
= 1
120 s among the reactants and the products.
–3 –1
= 7.3 × 10 g s 1 The pressure of the reaction system will
9. (a) A(g) is the product. The reaction has not increase with time. (1)
started at time t = 0 and no product is OR
present. The concentration of A(g) at that Measure the mass of the reaction mixture
time is zero. 1 at regular time intervals by using an
(b) No. This is because the concentration of electronic balance. (1)
An(g) has not dropped to zero at that time. 1 This is because N2(g) is the only gas
(c) Decrease in concentration of An(g) among the reactants and the products. If it
–3 –3
= (0.05 – 0.025) mol dm = 0.025 mol dm 1 is allowed to escape from the reaction
(d) Increase in concentration of A(g) mixture, the mass of the reaction mixture
–3 –3
= (0.05 – 0) mol dm = 0.05 mol dm 1 will decrease with time. (1)
(e) From the answers of parts (c) and (d), (b) Measure the pressure of the reaction
mole ratio of An to A system in an airtight container with a fixed
= 0.025 : 0.05 volume at regular time intervals by using a
= 1 : 2 (in the same closed container of pressure sensor connected to a data-
fixed volume) logger. 1
∴n=2 1 This is because the reaction involves a
10. (a) Hydrogen/H2 1 decrease in the number of moles of gas.
(b) (i) Initial rate of the reaction The pressure of the reaction system will
3
(40 – 0) cm 3 –1 decrease with time. 1
= = 40 cm min 1
(1 – 0) min
(c) Measure the colour intensity of the reaction
(ii) Average rate of the reaction from the
nd rd mixture at regular time intervals by using
2 minute to the 3 minute
3 a colorimeter. 1
(43 – 37) cm 3 –1
= = 6 cm min 1 This is because I2(aq) is brown in colour
(3 – 2) min
(c) Yes. This is because the total volume of and is the only coloured species in the
gas collected became constant at that reaction. The colour intensity of the
th
time/starting at the 4 minute. 1 reaction mixture will increase with time. 1
(d) Measure the pressure of the reaction
system in an airtight container with a fixed Chapter 37
volume at regular time intervals by using a A. Multiple-choice questions (p.75)
pressure sensor connected to a data- 1. C (73%)
logger. 1 Consider Trials 1 and 2 of the same final volume of
This is because hydrogen is produced in reaction mixture. [B(aq)] is increased while [A(aq)]
the reaction. The pressure of the reaction is the same because a larger volume of B(aq) is
system will increase with time. 1 used. Comparing the experimental data of Trials 1
11. (a) Measure the volume of N2(g) produced at and 2, an increase in [B(aq)] increases the rate of
regular time intervals by using a gas reaction (it takes a shorter time for the cross to
syringe. 1 become invisible).
T8
Consider Trials 1 and 3 of the same final volume of Number of moles of HCl used for giving curve B
the reaction mixture. [A(aq)] is increased while 50
= 1.50 × mol = 0.075 mol
[B(aq)] is the same because a larger volume of 1000
As a smaller number of moles of HCl is used, a
A(aq) is used. Comparing the experimental data of
smaller volume of hydrogen would form. Moreover,
Trials 1 and 3, an increase in [A(aq)] does not
as a higher concentration of HCl(aq) is used, the
increase the rate of reaction.
initial rate of the reaction would be higher.
Thus, the rate of reaction increases with [B(aq)],
5. D (86%)
but does not increase with [A(aq)].
Among the four conical flasks, the concentration of
2. D (57%)
Br2(aq) in Conical flask D is the highest. Hence, the
CaSO4(s) is insoluble in water but it does not
reaction in this flask has the highest initial rate.
disperse evenly in the solution. Instead, it
6. B (62%)
precipitates at the bottom of the beaker.
The concentration-time graph should be a curve
3. C
but not a straight line.
Option (A): as a smaller mass of marble chips was
Number of moles of HCO2H
used, the total volume of carbon dioxide evolved
5.0 –4
would be smaller. (Note: marble chips were the = 0.05 × mol = 2.5 × 10 mol
1000
limiting reactant of this reaction.) Number of moles of Br2 in Conical flask B
Option (B): as marble with a larger surface area 2.0 + 3.0 –4
= 0.05 × mol = 2.5 × 10 mol
was used, the rate of the evolution of carbon 1000
dioxide would increase. The total volume of carbon From the equation, mole ratio of HCO2H to Br2 =
dioxide evolved would be the same as same mass 1 : 1. Br2(aq) would be used up eventually in the
of marble was used. reaction.
Option (C): the concentration of nitric acid would
be lower when water was added to it. This leads to
7. (a)
a lower rate of evolution of carbon dioxide. The
total volume of carbon dioxide evolved would be Volume of
Concentration Volume of
the same as same mass of marble chips was used. distilled
of 0.1 M
Trial water
Option (D): the rate of evolution of carbon dioxide Na2S2O3(aq) / Na2S2O3(aq)
3 added /
would increase as the reaction temperature was M used / cm 3
cm
increased.
1 0.100 20 0
4. D (76%)
Option (A): an increase in temperature does not 2 0.075 15 5
increase the volume of hydrogen formed. 3 0.050 10 10
Option (B): HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant of this 4 0.025 5 15
reaction. As there is no change in the number of
(1 mark for each row of correct answers.) 3
moles of the acid used, the volume of hydrogen
(b) The number of drops of HCl(aq) added
formed would be the same.
was equal in each trial. 1
Option (C): number of moles of HCl used for
All the trials were carried out at the same
reaction giving curve A
temperature. 1
100
= 1.0 × mol = 0.10 mol (c)
1000
Number of moles of HCl used for reaction giving
curve B
200
= 0.80 × mol = 0.16 mol
1000 1 –1
When HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant, as a greater /s
Time
number of moles of HCl is used, a larger volume of
hydrogen would form.
Option (D): number of moles of HCl used for giving
curve A
= 0.10 mol (already calculated in Option (C))
T9
Concentration of Na2S2O3(aq) used / M 2
(1 mark for correct line; 1 mark for correct (1 mark for correct curve for Experiment 1; 1
labelling of axes) mark for correct curve for Experiment 2)
(d) 0.068 M 1 (Note: sodium hydrogencarbonate solution is
1 used in excess in these experiments.)
(e) As increases linearly with the
Time (e) A data-logger can collect and store data
concentration of Na2S2O3(aq) used, 1
over very short time intervals. 1
the rate of the above reaction increases
Experimental data can be presented
with the concentration of Na2S2O3(aq). 1
graphically on a computer immediately. 1
OR 2– +
1 10. (a) S2O3 (aq) + 2H (aq) SO2(g) + S(s) +
As the rate of the above reaction ∝ , (1)
Time H2O(l) 1
the rate of the above reaction is directly (b) Temperature was the only factor that varied
proportional to the concentration of in this experiment (or temperature was the
Na2S2O3(aq). (1) independent variable of this investigation). 1
(f) Disagree. (c) As the reaction proceeded, more and more
When the cross was just ‘blotted out’, it sulphur formed and eventually there was
means that the reaction had just produced just enough sulphur to ‘blot out’ the cross
enough sulphur to ‘blot out’ the cross. The under the beaker. 1
reaction (in the beaker) would keep going (d) Sulphur dioxide was produced in the
until the reactants were used up. 1 reaction and it has a choking smell. 1
8. HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q13 (e) Perform this experiment in a fume
– +
9. (a) HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g) 1 cupboard. 1
(b) Initial rate of reaction is the instantaneous (f) The time taken to ‘blot out’ the cross is
rate of a reaction at time t = 0 (the starting inversely proportional to the average rate
time of the reaction). 1 of the reaction. 1
(c) (i) It is expected that the initial rate of OR
reaction in Experiment 3 is higher The longer the time to ‘blot out’ the cross,
than that in Experiment 1. 1 the lower is the average rate of the
Nitric acid is a strong acid while reaction. (1)
3
ethanoic acid is a weak acid. 10 cm (g) Immerse the small beaker containing the
of 1 M nitric acid has a higher sodium thiosulphate solution in cold water
+ 3
concentration of H (aq) than 10 cm (or iced water). Measure the temperature
of 1 M ethanoic acid for reacting with of the solution until it falls to 17°C. 1
–
HCO3 (aq). 1 (h)
(ii) It is expected that the initial rate of
Rate of reaction
reaction in Experiment 2 is higher

than that in Experiment 3. 1
Sulphuric acid is a dibasic acid while
3
nitric acid is a monobasic acid. 10 cm
of 1 M sulphuric acid has a higher
+ 3
concentration of H (aq) than 10 cm
of 1 M nitric acid for reacting with Temperature / °C 1
–
HCO3 (aq). 1 At higher temperature, reactant particles
(d) have more energy and move faster. This
Experiment 2 results in a greater chance for reactant
Pressure / kPa
particles to collide with each other. 1

Experiment 3 In addition, more reactant particles have
sufficient energy to react. This increases the
Experiment 1 frequency of effective collisions between
reactant particles. Hence, the rate of
reaction increases with temperature. 1
Time / min 2
T10
11. Perform several trials by adding the same mass 13. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)
of magnesium ribbon to equal volumes but CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1
excess of dilute hydrochloric acid 1 OR
+
at different temperatures (while keeping the CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
other conditions the same). 1 Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (1)
Follow the progress of the reaction in each trial (b) Number of moles of CaCO3
by measuring the volume of hydrogen produced 10.0
= mol = 0.0999 mol
at regular time intervals using a gas syringe. 1 40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
OR Number of moles of HCl
100.0
Follow the progress of the reaction in each trial = 2.5 × mol = 0.25 mol
1000
by measuring the pressure of the reaction From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3
system in an airtight container with a fixed to HCl = 1 : 2. As 0.0999 mol of CaCO3
volume at regular time intervals using a required only 0.200 mol of HCl for
pressure sensor connected to a data-logger. (1) complete reaction, HCl was in excess and
Plot graphs of the volume of hydrogen CaCO3 was the limiting reactant. 1
produced (or pressure of the reaction system) (c) When 10.0 g of limestone was used in the
against time. The slope of the curve represents experiment, the total mass of carbon dioxide
the rate of reaction. Determine and compare produced was (120.0 – 116.3) g = 3.7 g 1
the initial rates of reaction for different trials to CaCO3 was the limiting reactant of this
find the effect of temperature on the rate of the reaction. When the mass of limestone
reaction. 1 used is reduced by half, the total mass of
Communication mark 1 carbon dioxide produced would be
12. (a) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 1 3.7
g = 1.85 g 1
OR 2
+ 2+
Zn(s) + 2H (aq) Zn (aq) + H2(g) (1) (d) The temperature was changed (or
(b) Number of moles of Zn increased) in the repeated experiment while
1.00 the mass and state of division of limestone,
= mol = 0.0153 mol
65.4 concentration and volume of hydrochloric
Number of moles of HCl 1
acid were the same. 1
50
= 2.0 × mol = 0.10 mol OR
1000
Powdered limestone was changed to use
As 0.0153 mol of Zn required only
in the repeated experiment while the mass
0.0306 mol of HCl for complete reaction,
of limestone, concentration and volume of
HCl was in excess and Zn was the limiting
hydrochloric acid, and the temperature
reactant. 1
were the same. (1)
(c) (i) The initial rate of reaction in Trial 2
OR
was higher than that in Trial 1 because
A more concentrated hydrochloric acid was
zinc with a larger surface area was
changed to use in the repeated experiment
used in Trial 2 . 1
while the mass and state of division of
(ii) Equal total volumes of hydrogen gas
limestone, and temperature were the
were collected in both trials because
same. (1)
same mass of zinc was used. 1
(Besides, the same conical flask, weighing
(d)
3
bottle and electronic balance were used in

3 both experiments.)
14. HKDSE 2019 Paper 1B Q11
Time / s 1
T11
7 3
Chapter 38 ∴ volume of O2 required for burning C2H6 = 20 × cm
3 2
= 70 cm
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.110) 3 3
Total volume of O2 required = (80 + 70) cm = 150 cm
1. B
4. B
By applying Avogadro’s Law,
Number of moles of Z
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) N2(g) + 2CO2(g) 3
500 cm
mole ratio 2 2 1 2 = 3 –1 = 0.0208 mol
24 000 cm mol
volume ratio 2 2 1 2
3 3 3 3 0.583 g –1
volume 200 cm 300 cm ? cm ? cm Molar mass of Z = = 28.0 g mol
0.0208 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of NO to CO = 1 : 1. –1 –1
3 3 Molar mass of CO = (12.0 + 16.0) g mol = 28.0 g mol
Since 200 cm of NO requires only 200 cm of CO
5. B
for complete reaction, CO is in excess.
3 Number of moles of H2
Volume of CO left unreacted = (300 – 200) cm = 144 cm
3
100 cm
3 = 3 –1 = 0.006 mol
24 000 cm mol
From the equation, mole ratio of NO to N2 = 2 : 1. From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to Fe = 4 : 3.
1 3 3
∴ volume of N2 produced = 200 × cm = 100 cm Theoretical mass of Fe obtained
2 3 –1
From the equation, mole ratio of NO to CO2 = 1 : 1. = 0.006 mol × × 55.8 g mol = 0.251 g
3
4
∴ volume of CO2 produced = 200 cm 6. D
Total volume of gases left at the end of the reaction From the equation, mole ratio of Mg(NO3)2 to NO2 to
3 3
= (100 + 100 + 200) cm = 400 cm O2 = 2 : 4 : 1.
2. C Number of moles of NO2 produced = 0.300 mol × 2
By applying Avogadro’s Law, = 0.600 mol
3P(g) + 2Q(g) R(g) Volume of NO2 produced = 0.600 mol × 24 dm mol
3 –1
mole ratio 3 2 1 = 14.4 dm

3
volume ratio 3 2 1 1
Number of moles of O2 produced = 0.300 mol ×
volume
3
60 cm 50 cm
3
? cm
3 2
= 0.150 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of P to Q = 3 : 2. Volume of O2 produced = 0.150 mol × 24 dm mol
3 –1
3 2 3 3
Since 60 cm of P requires only 60 × cm = = 3.6 dm
3 3
3 Total volume of gases produced = (14.4 + 3.6) dm
40 cm of Q for complete reaction, Q is in excess. 3
3 3 = 18.0 dm
∴ volume of Q left unreacted = (50 – 40) cm = 10 cm
7. B
From the equation, mole ratio of P to R = 3 : 1.
2C6H14(l) + 19O2(g) 12CO2(g) + 14H2O(l)
1 3 3
∴ volume of R produced = 60 × cm = 20 cm Mass of C6H14 used = 0.660 g cm × 30.0 cm =
–3 3
3
19.8 g
Volume of the resultant gaseous mixture at the end
3 3 From the equation, mole ratio of C6H14 to CO2 = 1 : 6.
of the reaction = (10 + 20) cm = 30 cm
Volume of CO2 formed
3. C
19.8 g 3 –1
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) Equation (1) = –1 × 6 × 24 dm mol
3 3 (12.0 × 6 + 1.0 × 14) g mol
40 cm ? cm 3
= 33 dm
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) Equation (2)
3 3 8. C (84%)
20 cm ? cm
From the equation, mole ratio of Fe to H2 = 3 : 4.
From Equation (1), mole ratio of CH4 to O2 = 1 : 2.
Minimum volume of H2 required
By applying Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of CH4 to 0.168 g 4 3 –1 3 3
O2 = 1 : 2. = –1 × × 24 dm mol = 0.096 dm = 96 cm
55.8 g mol 3
3
∴ volume of O2 required for burning CH4 = 40 × 2 cm 9. C (65%)
3
= 80 cm
From Equation (2), mole ratio of C2H6 to O2 = 2 : 7. B. Structured questions (p.111)
By applying Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of C2H6 10. (a) Weigh the gas cylinder before and after
to O2 = 2 : 7. butane evaporated into the gas syringe. 1
T12
(b) (i) Number of moles of butane that had (b) Number of moles of C3Hx burnt
3
evaporated 436.7 cm
= 3
0.110 g 24 000 cm
= –1
(12.0 × 4 + 1.0 × 10) g mol = 0.01820 mol
–3 1
= 1.90 × 10 mol 1 Molar mass of C3Hx
(ii) Molar volume of butane gas at r.t.p. 0.80 g
=
45.0 3 0.01820 mol
dm –1
1000 = 44.0 g mol
= –3 1
1.90 × 10 mol Relative molecular mass of C3Hx = 44.0
3 –1
= 23.7 dm mol 1 44.0 = 12.0 × 3 + 1.0 × x
(c) Any TWO of the following: x =8 1
The liquid butane was not pure. Chemicals (c) C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) 1
with special odour might have been added 13. (a) Mass of hydrogen in hydrazine
to warn consumers in case of any gas 1.0 × 2
= 2.925 g × = 0.325 g
leakage. 1 1.0 × 2 + 16.0
The temperature of the butane gas in gas Number of moles of hydrogen atoms in
syringe might not be at 25°C because hydrazine
butane absorbed heat when it evaporated. 1 0.325 g
= –1 × 2 = 0.325 mol 1
Not all butane gas evaporated from the 2.0 g mol
Number of moles of nitrogen in hydrazine
gas cylinder went into the gas syringe. (1) 3
1950 cm
The gas syringe might not be airtight. (1) = 3 –1 = 0.08125 mol
24 000 cm mol
11. By applying Avogadro’s Law,
Number of moles of nitrogen atoms in
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
hydrazine
mole ratio 4 5 4 6
= 0.08125 mol × 2 = 0.1625 mol 1
volume ratio 4 5 4 –
3 3 3 Mole ratio of H atoms to N atoms
volume 40 cm ? cm ? cm
= 0.325 : 0.1625 = 2 : 1.
5 3 3
Volume of O2 required = 40 × cm = 50 cm 1 ∴ the empirical formula of hydrazine is H2N. 1
4
3 (b) Molar mass of hydrazine
Volume of NO formed = 40 cm
0.6496 g –1
By applying Avogadro’s Law, = = 32.0 g mol
0.0203 mol
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Let the molecular formula of hydrazine be
mole ratio 2 1 2
(H2N)n, where n is an integer.
volume ratio 2 1 2
3 3 3 32.0 = (1.0 × 2 + 14.0) × n 1
volume 40 cm ? cm ? cm
n=2
1 3 3
Volume of O2 required = 40 × cm = 20 cm 1 ∴ the molecular formula of hydrazine is H4N2. 1
2
Theoretical volume of O2 required
3
= (50 + 20) cm = 70 cm
3
1
Chapter 39
12. (a) Since each formula unit of C3Hx produces A. Multiple-choice questions (p.148)
3 mol of CO2 upon complete combustion, 1. C
mole ratio of C3Hx to CO2 = 1 : 3. 2. B
By applying Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio From the equation, mole ratio of HI to H2 to I2 is
of C3Hx to CO2 = 1 : 3. 2 : 1 : 1. Thus, the decrease in concentration of
Volume of C3Hx burnt HI(g) should be larger (or faster) than the increase
1310 3 in concentrations of H2(g) and I2(g) by double.
= cm 1
3 Besides, at equilibrium, the concentrations of
3
= 436.7 cm 1 HI(g), H2(g) and I2(g) are constant, but not
necessarily the same.
T13
3. D (c)
Option (A): at equilibrium, the concentrations of
NO2(g) and N2O4(g) remain unchanged but not
necessarily the same. Furthermore, the changes in
concentrations of NO2(g) and N2O4(g) should be in
Rate
the ratio of 2 : 1 according to the equation.
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g)
Option (B): NO2(g) is the reactant, its concentration
at the start of the reaction cannot be zero. PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
Option (C): from the equation, the mole ratio of NO2
to N2O4 is 2 : 1. The decrease in concentration of
Time 3
NO2(g) should be double (or larger than) the
time at which equilibrium is just established
increase in concentration of N2O4(g).
OR
4. (a) Figures V and VI 1
Starting from Figure V, the concentrations
of H2(g), I2(g) and HI2(g) remain unchanged
(containing 3 H2 molecules, 3 I2 molecules
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g)
Rate
and 14 HI molecules). 1
(b) I2(g) is purple in colour. As the reaction PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
proceeds, the concentration of I2(g)
decreases. So the colour intensity of the
reaction mixture decreases with time. 1
When equilibrium is established, the Time (3)
concentration of I2(g) becomes constant. As time at which equilibrium is just established
a result, the colour intensity of the reaction
(1 mark for correct drawing of the two curves;
mixture remains unchanged. 1
1 mark for correct labelling of the two axes; 1
5. (a) Y(g) 1
mark for correct indication of the time)
The concentration of Y(g) decreases after
the start of the reaction until the system
Chapter 40
reaches equilibrium. Y(g) is consumed in
the course of reaction. 1
th 1. B (69%)
(b) At the 8 minute 1
X is the reciprocal of Kc as Reaction (1) is reversed
(c) Change in concentration of Y(g)
–3 –3 to give Reaction (2). There are equal numbers of
= (0.8 – 2.0) mol dm = –1.2 mol dm 1
moles of gases on the two sides of the equation.
Change in concentration of X(g)
–3 –3 The concentration units cancel out each other in
= (1.2 – 0) mol dm = +1.2 mol dm 1
the expression for Kc. Therefore, Kc has no units.
Change in concentration of Z(g)
–3 –3 2. C
= (0.6 – 0) mol dm = +0.6 mol dm 1
For Cl2(g) + 3F2(g) 2ClF3(g),
(d) 2Y(g) 2X(g) + Z(g) 1 2
[ClF3(g)]eqm
6. (a) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) 1 K= 3
(b) The pressure of the system remains [Cl2(g)]eqm[F2(g)]eqm
constant when it reaches the equilibrium For 2Cl2(g) + 6F2(g) 4ClF3(g),
4
state. 1 [ClF3(g)]eqm
Kc = 2 6
[Cl2(g)]eqm[F2(g)]eqm
∴ Kc = K2
T14
3. A 2 Concentration
[SO3(g)]eqm –3 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
K1 = 2 / mol dm
[SO2(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm
1 Initial 0.5 0.8 0 0
[SO2(g)]eqm[O2(g)] 2eqm
K2 = 0.3 – 0.5 0.2
[SO3(g)]eqm Change –0.2 +0.2 + = +0.1
= –0.2 2
[SO3(g)]eqm
K1 = 1 Equilibrium
0.8 – 0.2
0.3 0.2 0.1
[SO2(g)]eqm[O2(g)] 2
eqm
= 0.6
1 [SO3(g)]eqm 2
[CO2(g)]eqm[N2(g)]eqm
= 1 Kc =
K2 2 2
[CO(g)]eqm[NO(g)]eqm
[SO2(g)]eqm[O2(g)] 2
eqm
–3 2 –3
1 (0.2 mol dm ) (0.1 mol dm )
K1 = = –3 2 –3 2
K2 (0.3 mol dm ) (0.6 mol dm )
–1 3
4. B (65%) = 0.123 mol dm
+ –
For H2A(aq) H (aq) + HA (aq) 7. B
+ –
[H (aq)]eqm[HA (aq)]eqm
K1 = Concentration
[H2A(aq)]eqm –3 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
– + 2–
/ mol dm
For HA (aq) H (aq) + A (aq)
+ 2– Initial 0.08 0 0
[H (aq)]eqm[A (aq)]eqm
K2 = – 0.06 – 0.08 0.02 0.02
[HA (aq)]eqm Change + = +0.01 + = +0.01
– 2–
= –0.02 2 2
For 2HA (aq) H2A(aq) + A (aq)
2– Equilibrium 0.06 0.01 0.01
[H2A(aq)]eqm[A (aq)]eqm
X= – 2
[HA (aq)]eqm [H2(g)]eqm[I2(g)]eqm
Kc = 2
Rearrange the above expressions, [Hl(g)]eqm
1 –3
(0.01 mol dm )(0.01 mol dm )
–3
X= × K2 =
K1 –3 2
1 –6 –3 (0.06 mol dm )
= × 3.1 × 10 mol dm
–3
1.3 × 10 mol dm
–3
= 0.0278
= 2.4 × 10
–3
8. D
5. D (78%) 9. D
3
The chemical equation of this decomposition is Let the volume of the container be V cm .
2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g). Let the change in number of moles of A(g) be x mol.
[H2(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm Concentration
Kc = 2 A(g) + B(g) C(g) + D(g)
[Hl(g)]eqm / mol dm
–3
0.60 –3 0.60 –3
1 1
( mol dm )( mol dm ) Initial 0 0
3.0 3.0 V V
=
0.10 –3 2
( mol dm ) x x x x
3.0 Change – – + +
–3
(0.20 mol dm )(0.20 mol dm )
–3 V V V V
= –3 2
(0.0333 mol dm ) 1–x 1–x x x
Equilibrium
V V V V
= 36.0
6. D [C(g)]eqm[D(g)]eqm
Initial concentration of CO(g) Kc =
[A(g)]eqm[B(g)]eqm
0.5 mol –3 x x
= 3 = 0.5 mol dm ( )( )
1 dm V V
4=
Initial concentration of NO(g) 1–x 1–x
( )( )
0.80 mol –3 V V
= 3 = 0.8 mol dm 2
1 dm x
4= 2
Equilibrium concentration of CO(g) (1 – x)
0.30 mol –3 2
= 3 = 0.3 mol dm x=
1 dm 3
T15
10. A (60%) 13. (a) (i) Initial concentration of H2(g)
2
[X2(g)]eqm[Y2(g)]eqm 4.0 mol –3
Kc = 2
= 3 = 2.0 mol dm
[XY2(g)]eqm 2.0 dm
n 2.0 2 Initial concentration of Br2(g)
( )( ) 4.0 mol
10.0 10.0 = 3 = 2.0 mol dm
–3
0.60 = 2.0 dm
1.0 2
( )
10.0 Let the change in concentration of
n 2 H2(g) be x mol dm .
–3
( )(0.2)
10.0
0.60 = 2 Concentration
(0.1) –3 H2(g) + Br2(g) 2HBr(g)
n = 1.5 / mol dm
Initial 2.0 2.0 0
D. Structured questions (p.175)
2 Change –x –x +2x
[NO2(g)]eqm
11. (a) Kc = 2 1 Equilibrium 2.0 – x 2.0 – x 2x
[NO(g)]eqm[O2(g)]eqm 1
–1 3
The unit of Kc is mol dm 1 [HBr(g)]
2
eqm
(b) Equilibrium concentration of NO(g) Kc = 1
[H2(g)]eqm[Br2(g)]eqm
0.40 mol –3 2
= 3 = 0.10 mol dm
(2x)
4.0 dm 12.0 = 2
1 (2.0 – x)
Equilibrium concentration of O2(g) 2
8.0x – 48.0x + 48.0 = 0
0.80 mol –3
= 3 = 0.20 mol dm x = 4.732 (rejected) or x = 1.268
4.0 dm
2 ∴ [H2(g)]eqm = [Br2(g)]eqm
[NO2(g)]eqm –3
45 = 2 1 = (2.0 – 1.268) mol dm
(0.10) (0.20) –3
–3 = 0.732 mol dm 1
[NO2(g)]eqm = 0.30 mol dm 1 –3
[HBr(g)]eqm = (2 × 1.268) mol dm
Amount, in mol, of NO2 in the equilibrium –3
= 2.536 mol dm 1
mixture
–3 3 (ii) Initial concentration of H2(g)
= 0.30 mol dm × 4.0 dm = 1.2 mol 1
6.0 mol –3
1.87 mol = 3 = 3.0 mol dm
12. (a) (i) [XY(g)]eqm = 3 = 0.935 mol 1 2.0 dm
2.0 dm Initial concentration of Br2(g)
[X2(g)]eqm[Y2(g)]eqm 4.0 mol
(ii) Kc = 2 = 3 = 2.0 mol dm
–3
[XY(g)]eqm 2.0 dm
From the equation, mole ratio of X to Y Let the change in concentration of
–3
= 1 : 1. H2(g) be y mol dm .
∴ [X2(g)]eqm = [Y2(g)]eqm
2 Concentration
[X2(g)]eqm –3 H2(g) + Br2(g) 2HBr(g)
0.0198 = 1 / mol dm
2
(0.935)
–3 Initial 3.0 2.0 0
[X2(g)]eqm = [Y2(g)]eqm = 0.132 mol dm 1
(iii) Initial concentration of XY(g) Change –y –y +2y
–3
= (0.935 + 0.132 × 2) mol dm Equilibrium 3.0 – y 2.0 – y 2y
1
–3
= 1.20 mol dm 1 2
[HBr(g)] eqm
Explanation: Kc =
[H2(g)]eqm[Br2(g)]eqm
2
Concentration (2y)
–3 2XY(g) X2(g) + Y2(g) 12.0 =
/ mol dm (3.0 – y)(2.0 – y)
2
0.935 + 0.264 8.0y – 60.0y + 72.0 = 0
Initial 0 0
= 1.20 y = 6 (rejected) or y = 1.5
Change
–0.132 × 2
+0.132 +0.132
∴ [H2(g)]eqm = (3.0 – 1.5) mol dm–3
= –0.264 –3
= 1.5 mol dm 1
–3
Equilibrium 0.935 0.132 0.132 [Br2(g)]eqm = (2.0 – 1.5) mol dm
–3
1 = 0.5 mol dm 1
(b) K1 = = 50.5 1 [HBr(g)]eqm = (2 × 1.5) mol dm
–3
0.0198
–3
= 3.0 mol dm 1 T16
(b) Chapter 41
–3
HBr(g)
1. C
2. A (68%)
H2(g) (1): when Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position will shift
to the right, producing more X2(g). As the [X2(g)]
Br2(g) increases and the [X3(g)] decreases after a period
–3
of time, the Qc will be larger than 2.0 mol dm .
3. C
4. A
Time / min 3
(1): when HCl(aq) is added to aqueous ammonia, it
(1 mark for each correct sketching of the –
neutralizes the OH (aq) and this reduces the
concentration-time graph for the three –
concentration of OH (aq). The equilibrium position
chemical species)
will shift to the right.
14. (a) 2NOCl(g) 2NO(g) + Cl2(g) 1
(2): a change in pressure has no effect on the
(b) Let the initial concentration of NOCl(g) be
–3 equilibrium position because no gases are involved
x mol dm .
in the system.
Concentration (3): as the forward reaction is endothermic, a
–3 2NOCl(g) 2NO(g) + Cl2(g)
/ mol dm decrease in temperature causes the equilibrium
Initial x 0 0 position to shift to the left. Thus, fewer ammonia
1.0 molecules will ionize in water.
Change –1.0 +1.0 + = +0.5
2 5. A
Equilibrium x – 1.0 1.0 0.5 6. B (71%)
1
2
Option (A): equilibrium constant (Kc) remains
[NO(g)] [Cl2(g)]eqm eqm constant when there is no change in the temperature
Kc = 2 1
[NOCl(g)]eqm of the system.
2
(1.0) (0.5) Option (B): as the forward reaction is
0.5 = 2
(x – 1.0) endothermic, an increase in temperature causes
x = 2.0 1 the equilibrium position to shift to the right. So,
∴ the initial concentration of NOCl(g) more (CH3)2C(OH)CN would form.
–3
is 2.0 mol dm . Option (C): the concentrations of the reactants and
3
15. Let the volume of the container be V dm . the products may not necessarily be the same at
Concentration equilibrium.
2NO2(g) N2O4(g)
/ mol dm
–3
Option (D): the system can only remove some of
4.00 the added HCN in order to restore the value of Kc.
Initial 0 When a new state of equilibrium is attained, the
V
0.40 0.80 0.40
concentration of HCN is still higher than that in the
Change – ×2=– + original equilibrium system.
V V V
4.00 0.80 0.40
7. D
Equilibrium – There is a sudden increase in the concentration of
V V V
NO at time t.
[N2O4(g)]eqm
Kc = 2 1 8. B (71%)
[NO2(g)]eqm
0.40 B. Structured questions (p.215)
V 9. (a) From yellow to orange 1
0.0781 = 1
4.00 – 0.80 2 (b) When water is added to the yellow solution
( )
V
of potassium chromate, the concentration
0.4
0.0781 = 2 of H2O(l) increases. This causes the
(3.20)
V equilibrium position to shift to the left/
V = 2.0 1 reactant side. The backward reaction will
∴ the volume of the container is 2.0 dm3. occur faster. 1
T17
Thus, the rate of backward reaction is (ii) If the operating pressure is very high,
higher than the rate of forward reaction. 1 the construction cost and maintenance
10. (a) (i) The equilibrium position shifts to the cost of pipelines and reaction
right/product side. 1 chambers that can withstand a high
This is because there are a greater pressure will be very high. 1
3
number of moles of gases on the [C2H2(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm
13. (a) Kc = 1
left-hand side of the equation. 1 2
[CH4(g)]eqm
(ii) The rate of decomposition of CH3OH(g) (b) (i) Number of moles of H2 in the
decreases. 1 equilibrium mixture
As the equilibrium position shifts to the = 0.168 mol × 3 = 0.504 mol 1
right/product side, less CH3OH(g) (ii) Equilibrium concentration of CH4(g)
–2
decomposes per unit time. 1 9.36 × 10 mol –3
= 3 = 0.0234 mol dm
(iii) No effect 1 4.00 dm
Kc only depends on temperature. It is Equilibrium concentration of C2H2(g)
independent of concentration of 0.168 mol –3
= 3 = 0.0420 mol dm
reactants and products. 1 4.00 dm
(b) Equilibrium concentration of H2(g)
–3
0.504 mol
CH3OH(g) =
–3
3 = 0.126 mol dm
4.00 dm
–3 –3 3
(0.0420 mol dm )(0.126 mol dm )
Kc = –3 2 1
(0.0234 mol dm )
2 –6
= 0.153 mol dm 1
(iii) Number of moles of CH4 that originally
added to the container
–2
= (9.36 × 10 + 2 × 0.168) mol 1
Time / min 1 = 0.430 mol 1
11. HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q9 (c)
12. (a) (Finely divided) iron 1 Equilibrium
Initial
(b) Change Kc amount of
(i) Adding a (ii) Increasing the rate
C2H2(g) / mol
catalyst to the temperature of
equilibrium the equilibrium The container
mixture mixture is heated at
greater greater greater
constant
Effect on rate pressure
of the forward Increases Increases
A smaller
reaction
container is same smaller greater
Effect on rate of used
the backward Increases Increases
A catalyst is
reaction
added to CH4 same same greater
Effect on the at the start
Shift to the left/
equilibrium No effect
reactant side (1 mark for each column of correct answers)
position
(1 mark for each correct answer)

(c) (i) The formation of ammonia from
nitrogen and hydrogen involves a
decrease in number of moles of gases. 1
Thus, an increase in pressure will shift
the equilibrium position to the right/
product side. 1
T18
Answers to Part exercise The numbers of moles of HCl in Solutions W, X, Y
and Z are 0.01 mol, 0.02 mol, 0.02 mol and
Chapter 38 0.01 mol respectively. The volumes of carbon
dioxide produced shown by Curves III and IV are
smaller. Hence, these curves represent the
1. B
reactions using Solutions W or Z. Moreover, Curve
Since the concentration of A(g) decreases with
–3 III is steeper than Curve IV at first. This suggests
time, A(g) is the reactant. When 4.0 mol dm of
–3 that Curve III is given by the reaction using a more
A(g) is consumed, 2.0 mol dm of B(g) is
concentrated HCl(aq), i.e., Solution W.
produced. This shows that 2 mol of A(g) is
10. C
converted into 1 mol of B(g). Hence, the mole ratio
11. C
of A(g) to B(g) is 2 : 1.
Let the chemical formula of Z be YnOm.
2. B
3. D Y2(g) O2(g) YnOm(g)
4. A (39%) Volume / cm
3
50 25 50
5. D Volume ratio 2 1 2
6. C (51%)
Mole ratio (By
7. D applying 2 1 2
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Avogadro’s Law)
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to HCl = 1 : 2.
Chemical equation for the reaction: 2Y2(g) + O2(g)
30.0
Number of moles of HCl = 1.0 × mol = 0.030 mol 2YnOm(g)
1000
As 0.01 mol of Mg required only 0.02 mol of HCl for By comparing the numbers of atoms of Y and O on
complete reaction, HCl was in excess and so its both sides of the equation, we get n = 2, m = 1.
concentration would not drop to zero at the end of Therefore, the chemical formula of Z is Y2O.
the reaction. 12. C
3
Final concentration of HCl(aq) Mass of 50 cm of SO2
3
(0.03 – 0.02) mol 50 cm –1
= = 0.333 mol dm
–3 = 3 –1 × (32.1 + 16.0 × 2) g mol
30.0 dm3 24 000 cm mol
1000 = 0.1335 g
3
8. C Mass of 100 cm of O2
3
Concentration of HX(aq) in Solution P 100 cm –1
= 3 –1 × (16.0 × 2) g mol
75 1000 24 000 cm mol
= 0.500 × × M = 0.375 M
1000 75 + 25 = 0.1333 g
3
Concentration of HY(aq) in Solution Q Mass of 50 cm of SiH4
3
50 1000 50 cm –1
= 0.750 × × M = 0.375 M = 3 –1 × (28.1 + 1.0 × 4) g mol
1000 50 + 50 24 000 cm mol
As equal numbers of moles of acids and same size = 0.0669 g
3
of Mg ribbons are used in both experiments, equal Mass of 200 cm of CH4
3
volumes of gases are produced. As the reaction 200 cm –1
= 3 –1 × (12.0 + 1.0 × 4) g mol
using Solution P has a higher initial rate and takes 24 000 cm mol
a shorter time to complete, Solution P has a = 0.1333 g
+
higher concentration of H (aq) than Solution Q. 13. B
This indicates that HX is a stronger acid and it PbCl2(s) Pb(s) + Cl2(g)
ionizes more completely in water than HY. From the equation, mole ratio of PbCl2 to Cl2 = 1 : 1.
9. A Volume of Cl2 obtained
6.955 g 3 –1
The volume of carbon dioxide produced depends = –1 × 24 dm mol
(207.2 + 35.5 × 2) g mol
on the number of moles of HCl used because 3 3
= 0.60 dm = 600 cm
HCl(aq) was the limiting reactant of these reactions.
T19
14. A B. Structured questions (p.116)
3
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 16. (a) (i) 10.0 cm pipette 1
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to H2 = 1 : 1. (ii) This is to quench the reaction in the
Volume of H2 produced portions of reaction mixture so as to
0.08 g 3 –1 3 prevent further changes in the
= –1 × 24 000 cm mol = 79.0 cm
24.3 g mol concentration of sodium hydroxide
Average rate of the production of H2(g) solution in the portions. 1
3
79.0 cm 3 –1
Then there will be enough time for
= = 31.6 cm min
2.5 min carrying out titrimetric analysis. 1
15. C
(iii) Phenolphthalein 1
Copper has no reaction with dilute sulphuric acid.
From pink to colourless 1
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
3 (b) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
100 cm
Number of moles of H2 formed = 3 –1 From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to
24 000 cm mol
NaOH = 1 : 1.
From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to Zn = 1 : 1.
Concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction
Mass of Zn reacted th
100 cm
3
–1
mixture at the 5 minute
= 3 –1 × 65.4 g mol = 0.2725 g 3.70 1000 –3
24 000 cm mol = 0.10 × × mol dm 1
1000 10.0
Percentage by mass of Zn in the sample –3
0.2725 g = 0.037 mol dm 1
= × 100% = 77.9%
0.35 g
(c)
Concentration of NaOH(aq) in the
–3
reaction mixture / mol dm
Time / min 2
(1 mark for correct curve; 1 mark for correct labelling of axes)
(d) The curve is steep at first and becomes (e) (i) Average rate of the hydrolysis from the
th th
less steep with time. 1 25 minute to the 40 minute w.r.t. the
This shows that the concentration of concentration of NaOH(aq) consumed
–3
sodium hydroxide solution in the reaction (0.0100 – 0.0116) mol dm
=– 1
mixture decreases with time and the (40 – 25) min
–4 –3 –1
decrease becomes smaller as time passes. 1 = 1.07 × 10 mol dm min 1
The curve becomes horizontal finally. This (ii) From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH
shows that the concentration of sodium to CH3COONa = 1 : 1.
hydroxide solution in the reaction mixture ∴ average rate of the hydrolysis from
th th
becomes constant at that time. 1 the 25 minute to the 40 minute
w.r.t. the concentration of
CH3COONa(aq) formed
–4 –3 –1
= 1.07 × 10 mol dm min 1
T20
17. HKDSE 2018 Paper 1B Q11 (c) Iron powder has a large surface area and
18. (a) Trial 2 this can greatly increase the rate of
The volumes of hydrogen produced in oxidation of iron. 1
Trials 1 and 2 were equal. This indicates (d) The pore size of the bag determines the
that equal amounts of zinc foils were used rate of oxygen entering the bag and hence
in both trials. 1 the concentration of oxygen available for
Besides, the reaction in Trial 2 has a the oxidation of iron. The rate of heat
higher initial rate because it was carried production increases with the
out at a higher temperature. 1 concentration of oxygen. 1
(b) (e) Salt acts as a catalyst to speed up the
3
Trial 4
Volume of hydrogen / cm
oxidation of iron. 1
22. (a) The CO2(g) produced in the reaction was
Trial 3
allowed to escape from the reaction
mixture. 1
th
(b) At the 5.7 minute 1
(c) (i) Initial rate of the reaction
(147.0 – 150.0) g –1
Time / s 1 =– = 3 g min 1
(1 – 0) min
Zn(s) was the limiting reactant of this (ii) Average rate of the reaction from the
reaction. As equal masses of Zn foils were nd th
2 to the 6 minute
used in Trials 3 and 4, same volume of (146.3 – 147.5) g –1
=– = 0.3 g min 1
hydrogen would be produced. 1 (6 – 2) min
Besides, the initial rate of reaction in Trial (d) Mass of CO2 produced
4 would be twice that of the reaction in = (150.0 – 146.3) g = 3.7 g
Trial 3 because a doubled concentration Volume of CO2 produced
of H2SO4(aq) was used in Trial 4. 1 3.7 g 3 –1
= –1 × 24 000 cm mol
19. HKDSE 2016 Paper 1B Q11 (12.0 + 16.0 × 2) g mol
3
20. (a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 1 = 2018 cm 1
(b) A pressure sensor connected with a (e) From the equation, mole ratio of CO2 to
data-logger 1 K2CO3 = 1 : 1.
(c) Hydrochloric acid X was more concentrated ∴ number of moles of K2CO3
because the initial rate of reaction using 3.7 g
= –1 = 0.084 mol
this acid was higher. 1 (12.0 + 16.0 × 2) g mol
Mass of K2CO3 used
(d) Hydrochloric acid Y was the limiting –1
= 0.084 mol × (39.1 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol 1
reactant of the reaction because when
= 11.6 g 1
compared to hydrochloric acid X, less gas
23. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)
(hydrogen) was produced when same
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 1
mass of magnesium was used. 1
OR
(e) (i) Temperature 1 +
CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq)
(ii) Mass of magnesium ribbon 1 2+
Ca (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) (1)
Concentration and volume of
(b) Perform a flame test on the sample of
hydrochloric acid 1
3 1 eggshell. 1
21. (a) Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s) If the eggshell contains calcium ions, a
4 2
–1
∆H = –824.2 kJ mol 1 brick-red flame would be observed. 1
(b) Number of moles of Fe used (c) Number of moles of CO2 formed
3
8.0 g 86.0 cm –3
= –1 = 0.14 mol 1 = 3 –1 = 3.58 × 10 mol 1
55.8 g mol 24 000 cm mol
Theoretical amount of heat produced From the equation in (a), mole ratio of CO2
–1
= 824.2 kJ mol × 0.14 mol = 115 kJ 1 to CaCO3 = 1 : 1.
T21
∴ mass of CaCO3 in the sample 4. D 2+
–3 –1 [Ni(NH3)6 (aq)]eqm
= 3.58 × 10 mol × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol Kc = 2+ 6
[Ni (aq)]eqm[NH3(g)]eqm
= 0.358 g 1 –3
Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the sample (0.046 mol dm )
= –3 –3 6
0.358 g (0.003 mol dm )(0.055 mol dm )
= × 100% = 71.6% 1 8 –6 18
0.5 g = 5.54 × 10 mol dm
(d) Any TWO of the following: 5. C 2
[NH3(g)]eqm
By measuring the volume of CO2(g) Kc = 3
produced at regular time intervals using a [N2(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm
2
gas syringe 1 [NH3(g)]eqm
0.16 =
0.5 0.5 3
By measuring the pressure of the reaction ( )( )
2.5 2.5
system in an airtight container with a fixed
[NH3(g)]eqm = 0.016
volume at regular time intervals using a
∴ number of moles of NH3 in the equilibrium
pressure sensor connected to a
mixture
data-logger 1 –3 3
= 0.016 mol dm × 2.5 dm
By measuring the mass of the reaction
= 0.040 mol
mixture at regular time intervals using an
6. D
electronic balance if the CO2(g) formed is
7. C
allowed to escape from the reaction
8. A
mixture (1)
9. B
(e) Any TWO of the following (2 marks for
10. B (56%)
each correct way and explanation)
Let the change in concentration of W(l) be
By using hydrochloric acid of a higher –3
x mol dm .
concentration 1 1.0 mol –3
Initial concentration of W(l) = 3 = 5.0 mol dm
Reaction rate increases with the 0.20 dm
concentration of reactants. 1 1.0 mol –3
Initial concentration of X(l) = 3 = 5.0 mol dm
By increasing the surface area of eggshell 0.20 dm
by grinding 1
Concentration
Reaction rate increases with the surface –3 W(l) + X(l) Y(l) + Z(l)
/ mol dm
area of solid reactant. 1
By increasing the temperature of the Initial 5.0 5.0 0 0
hydrochloric acid by heating (1) Change –x –x +x +x
Reaction rate increases with temperature. (1) Equilibrium 5.0 – x 5.0 – x x x
24. HKDSE 2021 Paper 1B Q10
[Y(l)]eqm[Z(l)]eqm
Kc =
Chapter 41 [W(l)]eqm[X(l)]eqm
2
x
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.217) 2.5 = 2
(5.0 – x)
1. B
x = 13.6 (rejected) or x = 3.06
2. C
∴ number of moles of Y
3. B –3 3
= 3.06 mol dm × 0.20 dm = 0.61 mol
The equilibrium constant for that reaction
11. C (72%)
1
=
Kc B. Structured questions (p.218)
1
= 12. (a) Initial concentration of ethanol
–3
0.08 mol dm 110 g dm
–3
–
1 3 = –1
= 3.54 mol 2 dm 2 (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 + 16.0) g mol
–3
= 2.39 mol dm 1
[RCOOC2H5(l)]eqm[H2O(l)]eqm
(b) Kc = 1
[RCOOH(l)]eqm[C2H5OH(l)]eqm
T22
(c) [RCOOH(l)]eqm Thus, the equilibrium position will shift to
–3 –3
= (0.10 – 0.027) mol dm = 0.073 mol dm 1 the right/product side. As more
2+
[C2H5OH(l)]eqm Cu(H2O)4 (aq) is produced, the colour of
–3 –3
= (2.39 – 0.027) mol dm = 2.36 mol dm 1 the solution will change from green to blue. 1
–3 –3
(0.027 mol dm )(60.0 mol dm ) 16. (a) Initial concentration of CO(g)
(d) Kc = –3 –3 1 0.30 mol
(0.073 mol dm )(2.36 mol dm ) = = 0.60 mol dm
–3
= 9.4 1 500 3
dm
13. HKDSE 2017 Paper 1B Q11 1000
Initial concentration of H2O(g)
14. (a) 0.30 mol –3
= = 0.60 mol dm
Concentration 500 3
–3 SO2Cl2(g) SO2(g) + Cl2(g) dm
/ mol dm 1000
Initial 0.02 0 0 Let the change in concentration of CO(g) be
–3
x mol dm .
Change –0.012 +0.012 +0.012
0.02 – 0.012 Concentration
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
Equilibrium 0.012 0.012 / mol dm
–3
= 0.008 1
Initial 0.60 0.60 0 0
[SO2(g)]eqm[Cl2(g)]eqm
Kc = 1 Change –x –x +x +x
[SO2Cl2(g)]eqm
–3 –3 Equilibrium 0.60 – x 0.60 – x x x
(0.012 mol dm )(0.012 mol dm ) 1
= –3
(0.008 mol dm ) [CO2(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm
–3 Kc = 1
= 0.018 mol dm 1 [CO(g)]eqm[H2O(g)]eqm
2
(b) x
250 = 2
–3
(0.60 – x)
2
x = 249x – 300x + 90 = 0
x = 0.6405 (rejected) or x = 0.5643
Cl2(g)
∴ [CO2(g)]eqm = [H2(g)]eqm = 0.5643 mol dm–3 1
(b) From part (a), [CO(g)]eqm = [H2O(g)]eqm
–3 –3
SO2Cl2(g) = (0.60 – 0.5643) mol dm = 0.0357 mol dm
Concentration of H2(g) reduced
0.12 mol –3
= = 0.24 mol dm
500 3
Time / s 2 dm
1000
(1 mark for each correct curve) Concentration of H2(g) at the instant of time
15. (a) When concentrated hydrochloric acid is it is removed
–3 –3
added to the solution, the concentration of = (0.5643 – 0.24) mol dm = 0.3243 mol dm
–
Cl (aq) increases. This makes the reaction [CO2(g)][H2(g)]
Qc =
quotient of the reaction larger than its [CO(g)][H2O(g)]
–3 –3
equilibrium constant. 1 (0.5643 mol dm )(0.3243 mol dm )
= –3 –3
Thus, the equilibrium position will shift to (0.0357 mol dm )(0.0357 mol dm )
2–
the left/reactant side. As more CuCl4 (aq) = 143.6 1
is produced, the colour of the solution will As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position will
change from green to yellow. 1 shift to the right/product side in order to
(b) When silver nitrate solution is added to the establish a new equilibrium state. 1
+
solution, the Ag (aq) ions react with the
–
Cl (aq) ions to form a precipitate of AgCl(s)
and this reduces the concentration of
–
Cl (aq). This makes the reaction quotient of
the reaction smaller than its equilibrium
constant. 1
T23
(c) Let the change in concentration of CO(g) be ∴ [PCl3(g)]eqm = (0.300 – 0.0779) mol dm–3
–3 –3
y mol dm . = 0.222 mol dm 1
–3
[Cl2(g)]eqm = (0.300 – 0.0779) mol dm
Concentration
–3 CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g) = 0.222 mol dm
–3
1
/ mol dm
–3
[PCl5(g)]eqm = (0.800 + 0.0779) mol dm
Initial 0.0357 0.0357 0.5643 0.3243 –3
= 0.878 mol dm 1
Change –y –y +y +y
18. (a) (i) There is an increase in pressure or a
Equilibrium 0.0357 – y 0.0357 – y 0.5643 + y 0.3243 + y decrease in volume of the reaction
system. 1
1
[CO2(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm This is because there is a sudden
Kc =
[CO(g)]eqm[H2O(g)]eqm increase in the concentration of both
(0.5643 + y)(0.3243 + y) the reactant (or X(g)) and the product
250 = 2 1
(0.0357 – y) (or Y(g)). 1
2
249y – 18.74y + 0.1345 = 0 (ii) Since the number of moles of gaseous
–3
y = 0.06723 (rejected) or y = 8.035 × 10 1 reactant is greater than that of gaseous
[CO2(g)]eqm product, a higher pressure causes the
–3 –3
= (0.5643 + 8.035 × 10 ) mol dm equilibrium position to shift to the
–3
= 0.5723 mol dm 1 right/product side. 1
[H2(g)]eqm The system consumes more X(g) and
–3 –3
= (0.3243 + 8.035 × 10 ) mol dm produces more Y(g). So, the [X(g)]
–3
= 0.3323 mol dm 1 decreases while the [Y(g)] increases
nd rd
17. (a) (i) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) 1 from the 2 to the 3 minute. 1
[PCl5(g)]eqm (b)
(ii) Kc =
[PCl3(g)]eqm[Cl2(g)]eqm
–3
–3
(0.800 mol dm )
= –3 –3
(0.300 mol dm )(0.150 mol dm ) X(g)
–1 3
= 17.8 mol dm 1
[PCl5(g)]
(b) (i) Qc =
[PCl3(g)][Cl2(g)]
–3 Y(g)
(0.800 mol dm )
= –3 –3
(0.300 mol dm )(0.300 mol dm )
–1 3
= 8.89 mol dm 1
As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position will Time / min
shift to the right/product side. 1 2
(ii) Let the change in concentration of (1 mark for each correct curve)
–3
PCl3(g) be x mol dm . (Note: the two lines become horizontal at the
th th
4.2 minute. The [X(g)] is higher at the 4.2
Concentration nd
–3 PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) minute than at the 2 minute. Besides, the
/ mol dm
decrease in the [X(g)] is double the increase in
Initial 0.300 0.300 0.800 the [Y(g)].)
th
Change –x –x +x 19. (a) At the 10 second 1
2
Equilibrium 0.300 – x 0.300 – x 0.800 + x [Hl(g)]eqm
(b) Kc =
[H2(g)]eqm[l2(g)]eqm
(0.800 + x) –3 2
17.8 = 2 (6.0 mol dm )
(0.300 – x) = –3 2
2
17.8x – 11.68x + 0.802 = 0 (0.75 mol dm )
x = 0.578 (rejected) or x = 0.0779 = 64 1
T24
(c) Some HI(g) has been removed from the Number of oxygen atoms
equilibrium mixture. 1 1 23 –1
= mol × 2 × 6.02 × 10 mol
This is because only the concentration of 200
HI(g) drops at that time. 1 1
= ×2×L
–3 2 200
(4.8 mol dm )
(d) Kc = –3 2 = 64 1 1
(0.6 mol dm ) = L
100
–3 2
(3.5 mol dm ) 6. C
(e) Kc = –3 2 = 1.96 1
(2.5 mol dm ) By applying Avogadro’s Law,
There is a change in the value of Kc. This 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
suggests that a change in temperature has mole ratio 2 7 4 6
th
been made to the system at the 30 volume ratio 2 7 4 –
second. 1
Volume of oxygen
(f) The Kc of this reaction decreases when the
Volume of ethane needed for complete Volume of oxygen
temperature is increased. As an increase 3
/ cm (given) combustion of
3
/ cm (given)
3
in temperature favours the endothermic ethane / cm
change of an equilibrium system, the 7
A. 0.5 0.5 × = 1.75 1.8
forward reaction is exothermic. 1 2
7
B. 1.0 1.0 × = 3.5 4.2
2
Answers to Revision test C. 2.0
7
2.0 × = 7.0 6.5
2 (∴ insufficient O2)
7
Chapter 38 D. 2.5 2.5 × = 8.75
2
9.0
7. D
1. B – –
∆[BrO3 (aq)] 1 ∆[Br (aq)] Gas SO2 NH3 Cl2
rate of reaction = – = –
∆t 5 ∆t 3
+
Volume / cm (given) 100 100 200
1 ∆[H (aq)] 1 ∆[Br2(aq)] 1 ∆[H2O(l)] Volume ratio 1 1 2
=– = =
6 ∆t 3 ∆t 3 ∆t
– – Mole ratio of molecules
∆[BrO3 (aq)] 1 ∆[Br (aq)] (By applying 1 1 2
(1): rate of reaction = – =– ,
∆t 5 ∆t Avogadro’s Law)
–
the rate of consumption of BrO3 (aq) is one-fifth the Mole ratio of atoms 1×3=3 1×4=4 2×2=4
–
rate of consumption of Br (aq).
– 8. A
∆[BrO3 (aq)] 1 ∆[Br2(aq)]
(2): rate of reaction = – = , By applying Avogadro’s Law, mole ratio of P to Q =
∆t 3 ∆t
– volume ratio of P to Q (under the same conditions)
the rate of consumption of BrO3 (aq) is one-third
Option (A): volume ratio of P to Q = mole ratio of P
the rate of production of Br2(aq).
– to Q = 90 : 45 = 2 : 1
1 ∆[Br (aq)] 1 ∆[Br2(aq)]
(3): rate of reaction = – = , Option (B): P(g) is the reactant, its volume
5 ∆t 3 ∆t
– decreases with time
∆[Br (aq)] 5 ∆[Br2(aq)]
and rate of reaction = – = , Option (C): volume ratio of P to Q = mole ratio of P
∆t 3 ∆t
to Q = 50 : 100 = 1 : 2
– 5
the rate of consumption of Br (aq) is times the Option (D): volume ratio of P to Q = mole ratio of P
3
rate of production of Br2(aq). to Q = 100 : 100 = 1 : 1
2. B 9. A
3. C (2) & (3): equal amounts of zinc powder will react
4. B and equal volumes of H2(g) will be produced as
5. A long as the concentrations and volumes of the two
Number of moles of O2 acids (i.e. HX(aq) and HY(aq)) used are the same.
3
120 cm 1
= 3 –1 = mol
24 000 cm mol 200
T25
10. D (ii) The rate of reaction at t1 should be
By applying Avogadro’s Law, higher than that at t2. 1
y y The mass of magnesium (ribbon) and
CxHy(g) + (x + )O2(g) xCO2(g) + H2O(g)
4 2 the concentration of HCl(aq) in the
3 3 3 3
volume 40 cm ? cm 160 cm 200 cm reaction mixture decreased as the
volume y y reaction proceeded. Hence, the rate of
1 x+ x
ratio 4 2 reaction would decrease with time. 1
y y (d)
mole ratio 1 x+ x
4 2
By comparing the volume and mole ratio of CxHy(g) magnesium powder
and CO2(g), we get
3
3 magnesium ribbon
40 cm 1
3 =
160 cm x
x=4
By comparing the volume and mole ratio of CxHy(g)
and H2O(g), we get
3
40 cm 1
3 =
200 cm y
2
y = 10
∴ the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon is C4H10.
11. A Time / min
1
B. Structured questions (p.124) (e) The rate of the reaction will increase if the
12. (a) Absorbance 1 reaction is carried out at 35°C because
Br2(aq) is brown in colour and was the only reaction rate increases with temperature. 1
coloured species in the reaction. As the 3
14. (a) Volume of O2 in 500 cm of air
reaction proceeded, the concentration of 3
= 500 cm × 21% = 105 cm
3
1
Br2(aq) decreased and the reaction mixture From the equation, mole ratio of O2 to
became paler in colour. 1 CH3NO2 = 3 : 4. By applying Avogadro’s
(b) This is to ensure that the concentration of Law, volume ratio of O2 to CH3NO2 = 3 : 4.
bromine solution was the only factor to be ∴ theoretical volume of CH3NO2 burnt
varied in the experiment. 1 3 4 3
= 105 cm × = 140 cm 1
(c) (i) Draw a tangent to the curve at time 3
t = 0 s. Then calculate the slope of the (b) From the equation, mole ratio of O2 to CO2
tangent. 1 to N2 to H2O = 3 : 4 : 2 : 6. By applying
(ii) Initial rate of consumption of Br2(aq) Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of O2 to CO2
–3
(0.010 – 0.100) mol dm to N2 to H2O = 3 : 4 : 2 : 6.
=– 1
(290 – 0) s ∴ volume of CO2 formed = 140 cm
3
1
–4 –3 –1
= 3.1 × 10 mol dm s 1 2 3
13. (a) Gas syringe 1 ∴ volume of N2 formed = 105 × cm
3 3
(b) H2(g) has a very low density. The change in = 70 cm 1
3
mass of the reaction mixture may be too ∴ volume of H2O formed = 105 × 2 cm
3
small to be detected by common electronic = 210 cm 1
balances. 1 Total volume of gaseous products formed
3 3
(c) (i) Draw a tangent to the curve at time = (140 + 70 + 210) cm = 420 cm 1
t = t1. Then calculate the slope of the (c) Overall volume change of the gases
3
tangent. 1 = [(420 – (140 + 105)] cm 1
3
= 175 cm 1
T26
Chapter 41 9. C
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.222) Change in number of moles of H2
1. B = (0.0480 – 0.152) mol = –0.104 mol
Option (A): although the mole ratio of CO2 to CH3OH From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to CH3OH =
is 1 : 1 as shown in the chemical equation, their 2 : 1.
concentrations may not necessarily be the same at ∴ number of moles of CH3OH produced at
equilibrium. equilibrium
–0.104
Option (B): at equilibrium, the rate of forward = –( ) mol = 0.0520 mol
2
reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction. 0.0520 mol –3
And in this equilibrium system, the mole ratio of [CH3OH(g)]eqm = 3 = 0.26 mol dm
0.20 dm
CO2 to H2O is 1 : 1 as shown in the chemical 10. B
equation. This suggests that for every molecule of Initial concentration of H2(g)
0.152 mol
CO2 that reacts, one molecule of H2O forms. That = 3 = 0.76 mol dm
–3
is, the rate of [CO2(g)] decrease is the same as 0.20 dm

Equilibrium concentration of H2(g)
the rate of [H2O(g)] increase.
0.0480 mol –3
Option (C): at equilibrium, the relative amounts of = 3 = 0.24 mol dm
0.20 dm
all chemical species may not necessarily be the –3
Let the initial concentration of CO(g) be x mol dm .
same as the mole ratio as shown in the chemical
equation. Concentration
–3 CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)
Option (D): the equilibrium constant of this reaction / mol dm
remains unchanged as long as the temperature is Initial x 0.76 0
kept constant. 0.52 0.24 – 0.76
Change – = –0.26 +0.26
2. A 2 = –0.52
3. C Equilibrium x – 0.26 0.24 0.26
3+
Initial concentration of Fe (aq)
0.20 M [CH3OH(g)]eqm
= = 0.10 M Kc = 2
2 [CO(g)]eqm[H2(g)]eqm
–
Initial concentration of SCN (aq) (0.26)
0.20 M 14.6 = 2
= = 0.10 M (x – 0.26)(0.24)
2
x = 0.569
Concentration 3+
Fe (aq) + SCN (aq)
– 2+
Fe(SCN) (aq)
11. D
–3
/ mol dm
Initial 0.10 0.10 0
12. (a) P and S 1
0.042 – 0.10
Change –0.058 +0.058 The concentrations of X and Y remain
= –0.058
unchanged. 1
Equilibrium 0.042 0.042 0.058 (b) R, Q, P and S 1
2
2+
[Fe(SCN) (aq)]eqm [Y]eqm
Kc = (c) Kc =
3+ – [X]eqm
[Fe (aq)]eqm[SCN (aq)]eqm
–3 0.02 × 8 mol 2
(0.058 mol dm ) ( 3
)
= –3 –3 2 dm
(0.042 mol dm )(0.042 mol dm ) = 1
–1 3
0.02 × 8 mol
= 32.9 mol dm ( 3 )
2 dm
4. A –3
= 0.08 mol dm 1
5. B
13. (a)
6. B
7. B
8. A 1
T27
[COCl2(g)]eqm
(b) Kc = 1 The Kc for the decomposition is
[CO(g)]eqm[Cl2(g)]eqm
greater in Trial 1 than in Trial 2. This
10 [COCl2(g)]eqm
2.9 × 10 = –5 –6 indicates that a higher proportion of
(1.8 × 10 )(7.3 × 10 )
–3 SO2Cl2(g) decomposes to SO2(g) and
[COCl2(g)]eqm = 3.8 mol dm 1
Cl2(g) in Trial 1 compared to Trial 2.
Mass of COCl2(g) in the flask
–3 3 Hence, Trial 1 was carried out at a
= 3.8 mol dm × 6 dm × (12.0 + 16.0 + 35.5
–1 higher temperature. 1
× 2) g mol
(e)
= 2257 g 1
Concentration of SO2Cl2(g)
14. (a) Any TWO of the following:
• Both reactants and products are
present and their concentrations
remain unchanged. No net change in
the chemical system is observed. 1
• The rate of forward reaction is equal to
the rate of backward reaction, and not
equals zero. 1
• Equilibrium can be reached from Time
either direction of a reversible
1
reaction. (1)
• Equilibrium can only be reached in a
closed system. (1)
(b) (i) When the pressure of the system is
increased at constant temperature, the
equilibrium position shifts to the left/
reactant side. 1
This is because the number of moles
of gaseous reactant is smaller than
that of gaseous products. 1
(ii) When the temperature of the system is
increased at constant pressure, the
equilibrium position shifts to the right/
product side. 1
This is because the forward reaction
is endothermic. An increase in
temperature favours the endothermic
change of an equilibrium system. 1
[SO2(g)]eqm[Cl2(g)]eqm
(c) Kc = 1
[SO2Cl2(g)]eqm
(d) (i) For Trial 1, Kc for the decomposition
–3 –3
(0.56 mol dm )(0.56 mol dm )
= –3
(0.44 mol dm )
–3
= 0.71 mol dm 2
For Trial 2, Kc for the decomposition
–3 –3
(0.0298 mol dm )(0.0298 mol dm )
= –3
(0.0198 mol dm )
–3
= 0.045 mol dm 2
(ii) As the forward reaction is endothermic,
a higher temperature favours the
decomposition of SO2Cl2(g). 1
T28

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36

Rate of chemical reaction

36.1 Rate of re a ction

Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong’s high-speed trains

2 What is the meaning of the term ‘average rate of reaction’?

3 How can we follow the progress of a chemical reaction experimentally?

Express Rail Link 廣深港高速鐵路 through train 直通車

What does rate of reaction tell us?

(a) (b) (c)

Mathematically, we express the rate of reaction as follows.

36.2 Average rate, instantaneous rate and initial

Interpreting a graph showing the progress of a

2CO2(g) 2CO(g) + O2(g)

As shown in Figure 36.2, the concentration of CO2(g) decreases with

average rate 平均速率 instantaneous rate 瞬間速率

From the above graph, we can notice the following:

• The curve starts from the origin because at time t = 0, no product is

• The curve becomes horizontal finally. This shows that the

Average rate of reaction

Let us calculate the average rates of the reaction in Example 36.2.

average rate of reaction 反應的平均速率 origin 原點

Calculating the average rates of reaction

(a) Calculate the average rate of

Deducing the chemical equation of a reaction from the concentration-time graph

Class practice 36.2

(a) Calculate the average rate of

dinitrogen pentoxide 五氧化二氮

Instantaneous rate of reaction

Figure 36.6 A concentration-

As the reaction proceeds, the slope of the tangents decreases (from

Determining instantaneous rates by drawing tangents to a concentration-time graph

Class practice 36.3

Determining the initial rate from the tangent of a concentration-time graph

Determine the initial rate of the reaction at that temperature.

Time / s 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Skill builder 36.1

Plotting different types

36.3 Methods for following the progress of a

1. Methods that measure an observable physical property. For

36.4 Following the progress of a chemical

titrimetric analysis 滴定分析 airtight 密封的 plunger 柱塞

Following the progress of reaction by carrying out a microscale experiment

(a) (i) The volume of the unreacted H2(g)

(c) This saves chemicals.

The volume of oxygen gas produced was measured at 10-second intervals

Studying the progress

closed system 密閉體系 pressure sensor 壓強傳感器 interface 界面

Following the progress of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution by monitoring

Pressure of the reaction system / kPa

36.6 Following the progress of a chemical

(a) What do x and y in the above graph represent respectively?

Mass of CO2 produced / g

(i) Calculate the initial rate of the reaction.

36.7 Following the progress of a chemical

Experiment 36.4 In some reactions, one of the reactants or products is coloured. If it is a

colour intensity 顏色深度

Figure 36.10 The colour intensity

The progress of this reaction can be followed by measuring the

Figure 36.11 A colorimeter with