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The Right to Food
The Global Campaign
to End Hunger
and Malnutrition

Francis Adams
The Right to Food
 Francis Adams

The Right to Food

The Global Campaign to End Hunger
and Malnutrition
Francis Adams
Department of Political Science and Geography
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-60254-3 ISBN 978-3-030-60255-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60255-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: kenkuza_shutterstock.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my beloved boys, Jayden and Adryan
 Preface

The world’s problems can feel overwhelming. As I complete work on this

book, the spread of a novel respiratory infection is threatening the lives of
people across every continent. The current global pandemic only adds to a
lengthy and foreboding list of economic, social, and environmental threats
to our collective well-being. While these threats are serious and must be
recognized, attention should also be accorded to the response to these
threats. Every day international institutions, local governments, commu-
nity groups, and committed individuals are working to build more equi-
table, healthy, and sustainable communities. By highlighting this work,
which often goes unnoticed, this book challenges the all too common
narrative of endless crisis.
The global campaign to end hunger and malnutrition, which is the
focus of this project, is a prominent example of collective action in
response to an urgent humanitarian need. Because this campaign is led by
the United Nations, I am also challenging another commonly accepted
narrative. The UN is often considered either unable or unwilling to effec-
tively address the world’s major challenges. Yet each year the food assis-
tance agencies of the UN save countless lives from the scourge of hunger
and malnutrition in every corner of the globe. By highlighting these
efforts, which also go largely unnoticed, I am challenging the prevailing
narrative of a United Nations without power or purpose.
During the course of this project, I benefitted from the support of
various individuals to whom I would like to express my gratitude. I am

vii
viii PREFACE

especially grateful to Anca Pusca, Balaji Varadharaju, and Sham Anand

who were exceedingly helpful in guiding this project to a successful
conclusion. I would also like to acknowledge the support I received from
people at Old Dominion University. Kent L. Sandstrom, Dean of the
College of Arts and Letters, was a consistent source of assistance and
encouragement. I also received the continued support of my colleagues
in the Department of Political Science and Geography and the Graduate
Program in International Studies.
Although I could not have completed this project without the support
of these individuals, its shortcomings are solely my responsibility.

Norfolk, VA, USA Francis Adams

August 2020
 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 The Right to Food 25

3 Latin America 53

4 Africa 79

5 The Middle East 107

6 Asia 125

7 Conclusion 149

Bibliography 165

Index 189

ix
 Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank

AoA Agreement on Agriculture
APFC Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission
ARNS Africa Regional Nutrition Strategy
ASAP Adaptation for Small Holder Agriculture Program
AU African Union
CA Conservation Agriculture
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program
CaFAN Caribbean Farmers Network
CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute
CBT Cash-Based Transfers
CELAC Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
CESCR Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
CFA Comprehensive Framework for Action
CFS Committee on World Food Security
CFSVA Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis
CODA Conditional on-Demand Assistance
CPI Corruption Perceptions Index
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development
CSO Civil Society Organization
DESA Dietary Energy Supply Adequacy
DFA Depth of the Food Deficit
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

xi
xii ACRONYMS

ECTAD Eastern Caribbean Trading and Agricultural Development Orga-

nization
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EFSA Emergency Food Security Assessment
EMOP Emergency Operation
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
ETC Emergency Telecommunications Cluster
EU European Union
EWEA Early Warning Early Action
FAC Food Assistance Convention
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FFA Food-for-Assets
FFS Farmer Field School
FFT Food-for-Training
FFW Food-for-Work
FIAN Food First Information and Action Network
FIES Food Insecurity Experience Scale
FITTEST Fast IT and Telecommunications Emergency and Support Team
FIVIMS Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping
System
FNS Farmer Nutrition School
FSIN Food Security Information Network
FtMA Farm to Market Alliance
G8 Group of 8
GAM Global Acute Malnutrition
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GCF Green Climate Fund
GEF Global Environmental Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GHI Global Hunger Index
GIPB Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building
GM Genetically Modified
HAS Humanitarian Staging Area
HFLACI Hunger-Free Latin American and Caribbean Initiative
HGSF Home-Grown School Feeding
HLPE High Level Panel of Experts
HLTF High-Level Task Force
HRC Human Rights Council
HRF Humanitarian Response Facility
ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
ICARRD International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Develop-
ment
 ACRONYMS xiii

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
ICN2 Second International Conference on Nutrition
ICPD International Conference on Population and Development
IDP Internally Displaced Person
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IFSA International Food Security Assessment
IGA International Grains Arrangement
IGWG Intergovernmental Working Group
ILAC Latin American and Caribbean Initiative for Sustainable Develop-
ment
ILC International Land Coalition
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel of Experts on Climate Change
IPOA-IUU International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
IRC International Rescue Committee
IRRM Integrated Rapid Response Mechanism
IUU Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated
LDN Land Degradation Neutrality
LIFDC Low-Income Food Deficit Country
LRIMS Land Resources Information Management System
LRP Local And Regional Purchases
MAFAP Monitoring and Analyzing Food and Agricultural Policies
MAM Moderate Acute Malnutrition
MDD Minimum Dietary Diversity
MDER Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MPA Marine Protected Area
MRV Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification
NAFTA North American Free Trade Accord
NEPAD New Partnership for African Development
NERICA New Rice for Africa
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
ODA Official Development Assistance
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
P4P Purchase-for-Progress
PHL Post-Harvest Loss
xiv ACRONYMS

PoU Prevalence of Undernourishment

PRRO Protracted Relief and Recovery Operations
REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
REVA Refugee Influx Emergency Vulnerability Assessment
RFLP Regional Fisheries Livelihood Programme
RITA Relief Item Tracking Application
RTE Ready-to-Eat
RUFIN Rural Finance Institution Building Program
RUSF Ready to Use Supplemental Food
SAM Severe Acute Malnutrition
SAP Structural Adjustment Program
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
SPFS Special Program for Food Security
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
TAPS Technical Assistance for Project Start-Up Facility
TFR Total Fertility Rate
TI Transparency International
TPDS Targeted Public Distribution System
TSFP Targeted Supplementary Feeding Program
UN United Nations
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas
UNDFF United Nations Decade of Family Farming
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
UNECLAC United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific
UNHAS United Nations Humanitarian Air Service
UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
UNHRD United Nations Humanitarian Response Depots
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency
UNSCN United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition
UNU United Nations University
VGGT Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land,
Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security
WASH Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
WEAI Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
WFC World Food Council
WFP World Food Programme
 ACRONYMS xv

WFS World Food Summit

WHO World Health Organization
WSSD World Summit for Social Development
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
WTO World Trade Organization
WUE Water Use Efficiency
WWF World Wildlife Fund
ZHC Zero Hunger Challenge
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Today’s world is marked by a tragic injustice. Although the total amount

of food produced can easily feed all people, hunger and malnutrition
remain widespread. More than a billion people, mostly in the developing
world, lack regular access to safe, sufficient, and nutritious food.1 Chil-
dren are often the first to suffer. A quarter of the world’s children are
malnourished and thousands of children die each day simply because they
do not have enough food to eat.
This book examines the global campaign to end hunger and malnutri-
tion. Focus is placed on the work of the United Nations (UN) which
has led international efforts to improve food security in the world’s
poorest countries. This includes both a long-term project to establish
food as a universally recognized human right as well as the work of
three affiliated agencies—the World Food Programme (WFP), Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), and International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD)—in each region of the developing world.2

Hunger, Malnutrition, and Food Insecurity

The terms hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity are referred to
repeatedly throughout this volume and require careful definition. Hunger
occurs when a person’s average daily caloric intake is less than their
minimum dietary energy requirement (MDER).3 A continued and severe

© The Author(s) 2021 1

F. Adams, The Right to Food,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60255-0_1
2 F. ADAMS

imbalance between caloric intake and energy expenditure will eventu-

ally lead to illness, organ failure, and mortality.4 In addition to total
caloric intake, it is also important to consider the nutritional content
of the food consumed.5 Malnutrition occurs when a person does not
consume sufficient vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and other
essential micronutrients to meet their basic nutritional needs.6 Because
malnutrition weakens the body’s immune system, the risk of contracting
communicable and parasitic diseases is heightened.7
Hunger and malnutrition are typically caused by food insecurity. FAO
defines food insecurity as a “… lack of secure access to sufficient amounts
of safe and nutritious food for normal human growth and development
and an active and healthy life.”8 A distinction is also drawn between
moderate and severe food insecurity. A person is considered moderately
food insecure if they have been forced to reduce the quality and/or quan-
tity of food they consume while a person is considered severely food
insecure if they have completely exhausted their food supplies.9 Food
insecurity is caused by one or more of the following four factors: a lack
of food availability due to shortages in domestic production or imports;
a lack of food access due to an inability to procure food; a lack of food
utility due to poor nutritional content; and a lack of food stability due
to recurrent shortages.10 Food insecurity can be transitory (occurring at
a time of crisis), seasonal (occurring during certain times of the year), or
chronic (occurring on a continuing basis).
Food insecurity is more common for women than men for a number
of reasons discussed below. Women who are pregnant or nursing are
especially susceptible to malnutrition. During these periods, women need
to consume significantly more vitamins, minerals, and other micronutri-
ents. Iron-Deficient Anaemia during pregnancy, for example, endangers a
woman’s health and increases the risk of adverse maternal and neonatal
outcomes.11 Anemia is extremely common among women of reproduc-
tive age in the developing world.12
Meeting the nutritional needs of women throughout pregnancy is also
critical for the health of their babies.13 A lack of Folic Acid can lead to
cerebral and spinal birth defects, a lack of Iodine can impair the baby’s
nervous system, a lack of Calcium can impede development of the baby’s
heart, muscles, and nerves, and a lack of Vitamin D can compromise
growth of the baby’s bones. If a woman is malnourished during preg-
nancy, there is a greater likelihood of restricted intrauterine growth and
low birth weight of the baby.14 The risk of death for an infant born
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

at two-thirds of normal weight is ten times greater than for a infant

born at normal weight. Low birth weight also slows the development
of the baby’s immune system and thus heightens the risk of contracting
illnesses.15
Malnutrition during childhood can be highly debilitating over the
course of an entire lifetime.16 When children are poorly nourished, their
growth, health, and cognitive skills are all compromised.17 Iron and
Iodine deficiency impedes physical and cognitive development, Vitamin
A deficiency can cause blindness, Vitamin D deficiency endangers bone
health and increases the risk of diabetes, and Zinc deficiency impairs
overall growth. When children do not consume sufficient protein, they
risk developing Kwashiorkor (which causes a distended stomach and
swollen feet) and Marasmus (which causes skin to be damaged and
loosen). Because malnutrition weakens the immune system, children
are far more susceptible to illness and infectious diseases. Nearly half
of child mortality in the developing world is due to malnutrition or
malnutrition-related diseases.18
Malnutrition can cause children to be too short for their age, a condi-
tion known as stunting, or too thin for their height, a condition known
as wasting.19 Stunting impairs physical and cognitive development and
can lead to immune system disorders that increase the risk of developing
chronic diseases. The consequences of stunting are largely irreversible
regardless of nutritional intake in later years. At present, approximately
150 million children, roughly a quarter of all children under five in the
developing world, are stunted.20 Wasting causes delayed cognitive devel-
opment, reduced muscular strength, and lower bone density.21 When
children suffer from wasting much of their body energy is directed toward
continually fighting off infections and disease. For girls, wasting is asso-
ciated with adverse pregnancy outcomes later in life, including delivery
complications, preterm birth, and low birth weight of their babies.22 At
present, over fifty million children, approximately eight percent of all chil-
dren under five in the developing world, are wasted.23 A third of these
children are severely wasted.24

Food Insecurity Measurements

A number of measurements have been developed to assess the prevalence
and severity of food insecurity. The Integrated Food Security Phase Clas-
sification (IPC), developed by FAO, is among the most commonly used
4 F. ADAMS

measurements. IPC identifies the following five phases of food insecu-

rity: IPC 1, Generally Food Secure, when more than eighty percent of
households can meet their basic food needs without resorting to atypical
coping strategies; IPC 2, Borderline Food Insecure, when food consump-
tion is reduced for at least twenty percent of households but is minimally
adequate; IPC 3, Acute Food and Livelihood Crisis, when at least twenty
percent of households have significant food consumption gaps and levels
of acute malnutrition are above normal; IPC 4, Humanitarian Emer-
gency, when at least twenty percent of households face extreme food
consumption gaps, resulting in high levels of acute malnutrition; and IPC
5, Famine/Humanitarian Catastrophe, when at least twenty percent of
households face a complete lack of food, acute malnutrition exceeds thirty
percent of the population, and starvation is evident.
FAO also employs a range of additional instruments to assess the
level of food insecurity in a country. The Prevalence of Undernourish-
ment (PoU) indicator estimates the proportion of the population whose
habitual food consumption is insufficient to provide the dietary energy
levels that are required to maintain an active and healthy life.25 The
measurement is based on national estimates of dietary energy supply,
minimum dietary energy requirements for an average individual, and the
distribution of food within a country. While the PoU compares food
availability to estimated needs, it does not identify which population
groups are the most food insecure. The Depth of the Food Deficit (DFD)
estimates the overall food shortage of a country. Researchers first deter-
mine the number of calories the average individual would need to meet
their energy requirements. The difference between the average energy
requirement and average caloric consumption is then calculated. This
food deficit is then multiplied by the number of undernourished individ-
uals and then divided by the total population of the country. The Dietary
Energy Supply Adequacy (DESA) measurement also focuses on whether
the dietary energy supply of a country is able to meet the dietary energy
requirements of all people. A country’s supply of calories is normalized
by the average energy requirement estimated for its population. Like
PoU and DFD, this measurement assesses whether undernourishment is
primarily due to a lack of food availability. The Food Insecurity Experi-
ence Scale (FIES) estimates the percentage of people who have serious
constraints on their ability to access nutritious food.26 This measurement
relies on the responses of people at the individual and household level
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

to a series of questions regarding their direct experiences of food inse-

curity. The questions focus on behaviors when respondents encounter
difficulties meeting their basic food needs due to a lack of money or other
resources.27 Because FIES disaggregates at sub-national levels and across
different population groups, it identifies the geographic distribution of
people who face serious constraints obtaining sufficient food. Similarly,
the Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems
(FIVIMS) assembles information about food insecurity at both national
and global levels. FIVIMS draws upon a range of data sources related to
household food security and nutritional availability to assess where and
why people are food insecure.
Three additional measurements have been developed to assess food
insecurity. The WFP’s Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability
Analysis (CFSVA) draws upon household interviews, feedback from focus
groups, and secondary data to measure the nutritional status of various
segments of a population. The Global Hunger Index (GHI) combines
the following four indicators into a single score: the share of the popu-
lation that is undernourished, the percentage of children under five who
are stunted, the percentage of children under five who are wasted, and
the mortality rate of children under five. Countries are ranked on a 100-
point GHI Severity Scale, where 0 is the best score and 100 is the worst.
The GHI Severity Scale indicates whether the level of hunger in a country
is low, moderate, serious, alarming, or extremely alarming.28 Lastly, the
World Health Organization (WHO) employs the Global Acute Malnu-
trition (GAM) measurement to assess the nutritional status of children
during protracted humanitarian crises. The measurement is based on the
weight and height of children between 6 and 59 months of age. The
average weight-to-height ratio of a representative group of children in
crisis is compared to a reference group of children not experiencing nutri-
tional deficits. Children in the first group who weigh less than eighty
percent of the minimum weight of children with the same height in the
reference group are classified as GAM. A further division is made between
Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM) for children within the seventy and
seventy-nine percent range and Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) for chil-
dren who fall below seventy percent. If at least fifteen percent of children
in a given population group fall into one of these two categories for more
than a year, the situation is classified as Persistent GAM.
6 F. ADAMS

Causes of Food Insecurity

Although the global community has long called for marshaling all avail-
able resources to combat hunger and malnutrition, devising effective
strategies to meet this challenge is an exceedingly complex and highly
contested process. A comprehensive understanding of the central causes
of food insecurity is essential. Although these causes vary considerably
between and within countries, food insecurity is almost always the product
of multiple factors—economic, political, environmental, and interna-
tional—operating simultaneously within the context of a specific time
and place. These factors typically interact with each other in ways that
compound and intensify food insecurity.29

Economic Causes
Poverty is the primary cause of chronic hunger and malnutrition most
everywhere in the world. While food might be available in local markets,
it is often beyond the reach of the poorest households.30 In fact, hunger
and malnutrition frequently exist within the context of food surpluses.
Not only do the poor struggle to purchase sufficient food, but they
rarely have the land, water, seeds, tools, technology, and other resources
needed to grow food for themselves and their families. The food that is
consumed is generally of lower quality and lacks the vitamins, minerals,
and other micronutrients needed to maintain good health. Because
poor communities spend a larger portion of their income on food than
wealthy communities, price increases have a more adverse and destabi-
lizing impact. Poverty and hunger are mutually reinforcing outcomes:
poverty causes hunger by depriving people of the means to buy or
produce sufficient food while hunger causes poverty by limiting the ability
of people to work to their fullest potential.31
Food insecurity is almost always higher in the countryside than in
cities.32 On average, people living in rural areas are almost three times
more likely to be impoverished than those living in urban environ-
ments. The rural poor also have less access to safe water, sanitation,
health care, and other critical public services. Seventy-five percent of the
world’s poor live in rural areas and obtain part or all of their income
from some form of agriculture. However, many of these people do
not have formal titles for the lands that they work. Because govern-
ments rarely recognize communal or customary rights, small-scale farmers
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

can easily be displaced through land acquisitions by more powerful

domestic and foreign actors.33 Land ownership has become increasingly
concentrated throughout the developing world.34 Although approxi-
mately eighty percent of the world’s farms are small, they occupy just
twelve percent of the world’s agricultural land.35
Food insecurity can also be linked to ethnic and gender inequali-
ties. While ethnic divisions have a long and troubled history in most
societies, they were often intensified during the colonial period when
European powers drew arbitrary boundaries and favored some ethnic
groups over others. Marginalized ethnic groups continue to have less
access to nutritious food, clean water, health care, education, and other
public resources.36 It is also important to recognize that women are
typically more food insecure than men.37 Women living in urban areas
tend to be concentrated in low-paid jobs with long hours, poor working
conditions, and limited social protections. Gender differences are even
more pronounced in rural areas.38 Although women do at least half of all
agricultural work, they often lack the resources needed to improve their
incomes and living conditions. Legal restrictions and societal norms work
against the interests of women, especially with respect to owning land or
obtaining the credit, tools, technology, and extension services needed to
become more food secure. When men migrate to urban areas in search
of employment, the number of female-headed households in the coun-
tryside increases and these households typically have the highest levels of
food insecurity.39

Political Causes
Governments also contribute to food insecurity. Because rural commu-
nities have little political influence, public sector policies are rarely
structured to meet their needs. Most public resources flow to cities rather
than the countryside. A long-standing bias against agriculture often leaves
rural communities without the tools, technology, and basic infrastructure
needed to increase food production or generate higher incomes. Small-
scale farmers are invariably characterized by low levels of productivity and
glaring inefficiencies in the use of critical inputs. Agricultural sectors are
also characterized by high levels of post-harvest loss. About a quarter of
all crops produced in the developing world are lost because of inade-
quate harvesting techniques, storage facilities, and distribution systems.40
There are also sizable losses in the fishing sector due to poor refrigeration,
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Librarian
Walters Gallery
Baltimore, Md.
More, Hermon
Curator
Whitney Museum of American Art
New York, N. Y.
Morley, Dr. Grace McCann
Director
San Francisco Museum of Art
San Francisco, Calif.
Morse, John D.
Editor
Magazine of Art
New York, N. Y.
Myer, John Walden
Assistant Director
Museum of the City of New York
New York, N. Y.
Myers, George Hewitt
President
Textile Museum of the District of Columbia
Washington, D. C.
Nagel, Charles, Jr.
Director
The Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn, N. Y.
O’Connor, John, Jr.
Assistant Director
Carnegie Institute
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Packard, Miss Elizabeth G.
Walters Gallery
 Baltimore, Md.
Parker, Thomas C.
Director
American Federation of Arts
Washington, D. C.
Peat, Wilbur D.
Director
John Herron Art Institute
Indianapolis, Ind.
Phillips, John Marshall
Assistant Director and Curator of the Garvan
Collections
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Poland, Reginald
Director
Fine Arts Society of San Diego
San Diego, Calif.
Porter, Allen
Secretary
The Museum of Modern Art
New York, N. Y.
Porter, Vernon
Director
Riverside Museum
New York, N. Y.
Post, Chandler
Fogg Museum of Art
Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass.
Rathbone, Perry T.
Director
City Art Museum of St. Louis
St. Louis, Mo.
Reed, Henry Hope
New York, N. Y.
Rich, Daniel Catton
Director
The Art Institute of Chicago
Chicago, Ill.
Riefstahl, Mrs. Elizabeth
Librarian
Wilbour Egyptological Library
The Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Ritchie, Andrew C.
Director
Albright Art Gallery
Buffalo, N. Y.
Robinson, Professor David M.
Department of Art and Archaeology
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Md.
Ross, Marvin Chauncey
Curator of Medieval Art
Walters Gallery
Baltimore, Md.
Rowe, Margaret T. J.
Curator
Hobart Moore Memorial Collection
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Saint-Gaudens, Homer
Director
Carnegie Institute
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Scholle, Hardinge
Director
 Museum of the City of New York
New York, N.Y.
Setze, Josephine
Assistant Curator of American Art
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Sexton, Eric
Camden, Me.
Shelley, Donald A.
Curator of Paintings
New York Historical Society
New York, N. Y.
Sizer, Theodore
Director
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Slusser, Jean Paul
Professor of Painting and Drawing
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Smith, Professor E. Baldwin
Department of Art and Archaeology
Princeton University
Princeton, N. J.
Soby, James Thrall
New York, N. Y.
Spinden, Dr. Herbert J.
Curator
Indian Art and Primitive Cultures
The Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Sweeney, James Johnson
Director
 Department of Painting and Sculpture
The Museum of Modern Art
New York, N. Y.
Sweet, Frederick
Associate Curator, Painting and Sculpture
The Art Institute of Chicago
Chicago, Ill.
Tee Van, John
Department of Tropical Research and Special
Events
New York Zoological Park
Bronx, N. Y.
Vail, R. W. G.
Director
New York Historical Society
New York, N. Y.
Walker, Hudson D.
President
American Federation of Arts
New York, N.Y.
Wall, Alexander J.
New York Historical Society
New York, N. Y.
Washburn, Gordon
Director
Museum of Art
Rhode Island School of Design
Providence, R. I.
Weissman, Miss Polaire
Museum of Costume Art
New York, N. Y.
Wissler, Dr. Clark
American Museum of Natural History
New York, N. Y.
 Wind, Edgar
Smith College
Northampton, Mass.
York, Lewis E.
Chairman
Department of Painting
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Zigrosser, Carl
Curator of Prints and Drawings
Philadelphia Museum of Art
Philadelphia, Pa.
Stoddard, Whitney S.
Assistant Professor of History and Art
Williams College
Williamstown, Mass.

Dr. Clapp and Mrs. Force subsequently announced that they had
received eight additional signatures which arrived too late to be
affixed to the original copy of the resolution. They included: Frances
A. Comstock, Donald Drew Egbert, Henry A. Judd, Sherley W.
Morgan, Richard Stillwell—all of Princeton University; Robert Tyler
Davis, Portland Museum, Portland, Maine; Frederick Hartt, Acting
Director, Smith College Museum of Art; and George Rowley,
Princeton Museum of Historic Art.

Statement by the American Commission for the

Protection and Salvage of Artistic and Historic
Monuments in War Areas, Owen J. Roberts, Chairman.
National Gallery of Art, Washington 25, D. C.
Washington, May 14, 1946: The members of the
Commission have received copies of a resolution signed by
Dr. Frederick M. Clapp, Director of the Frick Collection; Mrs.
Juliana Force, Director of the Whitney Museum of American
Art, and others who criticize the action of the United States
Government, taken at the Direction of the President and the
United States Army Command in Germany, in bringing to this
country certain paintings from German museums for
safekeeping until conditions in Germany warrant their return.
The Clapp resolution compares the action taken by the United
States Government to looting operations carried on by the
Nazis during the war.
The Commission has also noted the statements issued by
the White House on September 26, 1945, and by the War
Department on December 6, 1945, that the works of art of
bona fide German ownership, which may be brought to this
country for safekeeping, will be kept in trust for the German
people and will be returned to Germany when conditions
there warrant.
The Commission has also noted the statement issued by
the late Chief Justice Stone, Chairman of the Board of
Trustees of the National Gallery of Art, on December 14,
1945, that the Trustees of the National Gallery, at the request
of the Secretary of State, had agreed to arrange for the
storage space for such paintings as might be brought to this
country by the United States Army for safekeeping, and that
he felt the Army “deserved the highest praise for the care
exercised in salvaging these great works of art and in making
provisions for their safety until they can be returned to
Germany.”
The Commission accepts without reservation the promise
of the United States Government, as voiced by its highest
officials, that the works of art belonging to German museums
and brought to this country for safekeeping, will be returned to
Germany when conditions there warrant.
The Commission is strongly of the opinion that the
resolution sponsored by Dr. Clapp, Mrs. Force, and others is
without justification and is to be deplored.
 Hon. Owen J. Roberts, Chairman
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
David E. Finley, Vice Chairman
Director, National Gallery of Art
Washington, D.C.
Huntington Cairns, Secretary
Secretary, National Gallery of Art
Washington, D.C.
Dr. William Bell Dinsmoor
Columbia University, New York
Hon. Herbert H. Lehman
New York
Paul J. Sachs
Professor of Fine Arts, Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Francis Cardinal Spellman
Archbishop of New York
Francis Henry Taylor
Director, Metropolitan Museum of Art
New York

The following letters were released on June 10, 1946:

THE WHITE HOUSE

Washington
May 22, 1946
Dear Mrs. Force:
This is in acknowledgment of the letter to the President,
signed by yourself and Dr. Frederick M. Clapp, Director, The
Frick Collection, with which you enclosed a resolution signed
by ninety-five of your colleagues in connection with the two
hundred valuable paintings removed from Germany to this
country for safekeeping.
These paintings were removed to this country last year on
the basis of information to the effect that adequate facilities
and personnel to ensure their safekeeping did not exist in
Germany. Our military authorities did not feel that they could
take the responsibility of safeguarding them under such
conditions and it was therefore decided that they would have
to be shipped to this country until such time as they could
safely be returned to Germany. It was realized at the time that
this action might lead to criticism but it was taken,
nevertheless, because it was considered that the most
important aspect was to safeguard these priceless treasures.
It was hoped that the President’s pledge that they would be
returned to Germany, contained in a White House press
release on September 26, 1945, would satisfy those who
might be critical of this Government’s motives.
I know of no plans to make any further shipments of art
objects from Germany to the United States nor of any plans
for the exhibition of the two hundred paintings now in this
country. While a definite date for the return of these pictures
has not as yet been set, I can assure you that this
Government will honor its pledge to effect their return as soon
as conditions warrant.
Very sincerely yours,
(signed) William D. Hassett
Secretary to the President.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE
Washington
May 22, 1946
My dear Mrs. Force and Dr. Clapp:
I have received your letter of May 9, 1946, and its enclosed
resolution, signed by 95 of your colleagues, urging the
President to order the immediate safe return to Germany of
the 200 paintings which were brought to this country last year.
When these paintings were found by our forces in southern
Germany every effort was made to assure their preservation.
It soon became evident that adequate facilities and personnel
to ensure their safe keeping could not be guaranteed.
Consequently our military authorities, realizing the magnitude
of their responsibility in preserving these priceless treasures,
requested that they be relieved of this heavy responsibility
and that the paintings be shipped to this country where they
could be properly cared for. This Government reluctantly gave
its approval to this request, knowing that such action would
lead to criticism of its motives. The decision was taken
because there seemed no other way to ensure preservation
of these unique works of art. In order to dispel doubts as to
the reasons for this action the White House released a
statement to the press on September 26, 1945, which
explained the situation and included a pledge that the
paintings would be returned to their rightful owners. That
pledge still holds good and while a definite date for the return
of the paintings to Germany has not as yet been set, you may
rest assured that this will be done as soon as conditions
warrant.
The resolution also recommended that plans to exhibit
these paintings in this country be cancelled and that further
shipments of German works of art to this country be
countermanded. I have never heard of any plans to make
additional shipments of works of art from Germany to the
United States nor do I know of any plans to exhibit the
paintings which are now in this country.
Sincerely yours,
For the Secretary of State:
(signed) Dean Acheson
Under Secretary.
 Following are Dr. Clapp’s and Mrs. Force’s replies, also released
on June 10:

June 3, 1946
My dear Mr. President:
Permit us to thank you for your kind attention to the
resolution, signed by us and ninety-five of our colleagues
prominent on the staffs of museums or experts in the history
and preservation of art, relative to the shipment to this country
of two hundred famous paintings formerly in the Kaiser
Friedrich and other museums of Berlin.
In addressing the resolution in question to you we felt that
we were following the time-honored American custom of
bringing to our government’s attention a consensus of opinion
on the part of those who have special practical familiarity with
old pictures and personal, sometimes long, acquaintance with
European history and culture in its emotional and intellectual
aspects.
Should you, in the course of events, undertake further
inquiries into the problem created by the shipment referred to
in our resolution, we shall be happy to be so informed.
Respectfully yours,

June 3, 1946
Dear Mr. Hassett:
In reply to your letter of the twenty-second permit us to say
that should the President make further inquiries into the
subject covered by our resolution with reference to two
hundred pictures selected chiefly from the collections of the
Kaiser Friedrich Museum and brought to this country, we
should be pleased to be kept informed.
We, and our ninety-five colleagues in museums and
universities who have had long experience with old paintings
and are interested in the history and preservation of works of
art, would also be glad to know when the pictures referred to
are returned to Germany since we are as yet uninformed
whether the conditions which are held not to warrant their
return are of a practical or a political nature.
This question obviously cannot but be uppermost in our
minds in view of the fact that present conditions in Germany
are apparently such as to warrant leaving there thousands of
German-owned works of art of great moment which belong
not only to the Kaiser Friedrich Museum but to the museums
of other cities in the American zone, including the great
collection of the Alte Pinakothek in Munich, where under
satisfactory conditions and auspices an exhibition of early
German art, including masterpieces by Dürer, Grünewald and
others, is now being held.
It is in fact one of our perplexities that we have never been
told why our officials discriminated against important pictures
and art objects (many times the number of those urgently
transported to this country for safekeeping) which were also
formerly in the Kaiser Friedrich and other museums, not
forgetting those which were in South German churches. Were
they just left to their fate?
If it were convenient at any time to pass on to the President
our continued anxieties on these important points we should
be happy to have you do so.
Sincerely yours,

June 3, 1946
Dear Mr. Acheson:
In reply to your letter of the twenty-second with reference to
our resolution supported by the signatures of ninety-five of our
colleagues prominent in museums or experts in the history
and preservation of old masters and other works of art, permit
us to say that, in the absence of Secretary Byrnes, we took
the liberty of sending you the resolution.
We are aware of the statement released by the White
House on September 26, 1945 explaining the situation and
promising to return the pictures to Germany when conditions
there should warrant such action. We are, however, still
uninformed why the unanimous advice of the monuments
officers, who had special training and technical knowledge not
only of the conditions required for the preservation of old
masters but of the certain dangers to which journeys subject
them, was disregarded.
We have also never been told whether the conditions
believed to jeopardize the safety of these important pictures
were of a practical or of a political nature. Neither do we know
why, out of the great and extensive collections of the Kaiser
Friedrich only two hundred pictures were selected nor by
whom the selection was made. More serious still no official
mention has ever been made of the fact that there were in the
possession of the other museums of Berlin and other cities,
including the famous collection of the Alte Pinakothek in
Munich, as well as in the churches of the American Zone, art
objects and pictures many times more numerous than the
paintings actually brought to this country for safekeeping. One
cannot but ask: Were satisfactory conditions found for them or
were they merely left to their fate?
These are questions that have given and still give rise to
rumors, unhappy conjectures and ambiguous interpretations
which we deplore. Unreasonably or otherwise the whole
situation is confused by implications that we feel will not be
laid until the pictures deposited in Washington have been sent
back with the least possible delay to their rightful owners on
whom devolves an unequivocable responsibility for their care
and preservation.
Sincerely yours,
 FOOTNOTES
[1] E(insatzstab) R(eichsleiter) R(osenberg)—Reichsleiter
meaning realm leader. The Rosenberg Task Force was commonly
referred to by these initials.
[2] See article “German Paintings in the National Gallery: A
Protest,” by Charles L. Kuhn, in College Art Journal, January
1946. This and subsequent references printed by permission.
[3] See article “German Paintings in the National Gallery: A
Protest,” by Charles L. Kuhn, in College Art Journal, January
1946.
[4] As printed by Kuhn in College Art Journal, January 1946, p.
81; also in Magazine of Art, February 1946, and New York Times,
February 7, 1946.
[5] See in this connection the statements released to the press
by the White House on September 26, 1945, and by the War
Department on December 6, 1945. They are printed in Magazine
of Art for February, 1946.
[6] These letters are printed on pages 83 and 84 of College Art
Journal for January 1946; in Magazine of Art for February 1946,
and in the New York Times of February 7, 1946.
INDEX
 INDEX

Aachen crown jewels, 119

Abbey of Monte Cassino, 152
Adams, Capt. Edward, 240
Adcock, Maj. Gen. C. L, 272
Administration Building, 64, 65
Adoration of the Magi, Master of the Holy Kinship, 206
Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, The, van Eyck, 144, 146, 243,
291.
See also Ghent altarpiece
Adulteress, The, see “Vermeer” fake
Akhnaton, 287
Allen, Maj., 125
Allied air attacks over Germany, 48
Allied Forces, 274
Allied Group Control Council for Germany, 15, 49
Almanach de Gotha, 27
Almelo, 195
“Alpine Specials,” 161
Alt Aussee, evacuation of pictures at, 130-170;
last ten days at, 171ff.;
other trips to, 178, 258;
Goudstikker pictures, 267;
mentioned, 58, 107, 118, 177, 184, 186, 192, 202, 204,
210, 213, 217, 225
Alt Aussee mine, evacuation of pictures, 65, 130-170, 240, 254,
269, 271, 277;
team arrives, 128;
mentioned, 176, 207, 244, 251
Altdorfer, Albrecht, 161
Altdorfer panels, 162, 165
Alte Pinakothek, 255
Alte Post, 237
Amalienburg, 215
American Embassy, London, 20
American Embassy, Paris, 265
American Fine Arts program, 235
American Military Government (AMG), 195, 259, 292
American Occupied Zone, 196, 243, 246, 260, 262, 268, 272,
275, 282, 291, 292, 293
Amsterdam, 149, 154, 257, 259, 261, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270
Anderson, Lt. George, 84, 85, 86, 102, 112, 190
Anderson, Maj. Harry, 180, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 222, 225
Angerer, ⸺, 219
Annunciation, Lippi, 152
Annunzio, Gabriele d’, 64
Arabian Nights, The, 20
Archival Collecting Point, Oberammergau, 282
Army Engineers, 38, 148
Army Museum at Prague, 271
Army redeployment program, 282
Arnhem, 266