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The Belt and Road
Initiative in South–
South Cooperation

The Impact on World Trade

and Geopolitics

l i sh e ng
dm i t r i f e l i x d o n a sc i m e n t o
The Belt and Road Initiative in South–South
Cooperation
Li Sheng · Dmitri Felix do Nascimento

The Belt and Road

Initiative
in South–South
Cooperation
The Impact on World Trade and Geopolitics
Li Sheng Dmitri Felix do Nascimento
Faculty of Social Sciences Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Macau University of Macau
Macao, China Macao, China

ISBN 978-981-16-6356-7 ISBN 978-981-16-6357-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6357-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
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general use.
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tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 Preface

On a visit to the Macao Museum, we would be surprised by the exhibi-

tion “Reminiscences of the Silk Road—Exhibition of Cultural Relics of
the Western Xia Dynasty,” which features artifacts from the Western Xia
Dynasty founded in 1038. The exhibition “deepens our understanding
of the historical background of the Belt and Road Initiative, which also
brings us to explore its important significance to modern and contempo-
rary development.”1 This reference is just one of the historical references
dating back to the Silk Road, the land route across the Eurasian conti-
nent, which was embryonically outlined before China’s Han Dynasty (206
BC–220 AD).
The period (2013–2021) in which we worked on the development of
the Belt and Road Initiative represents a contemporary historical experi-
ence that encompasses the areas of International Political Economy and
international relations. The structuring of the BRI during these years, as
an instrument of the People’s Republic of China, presented challenges,
changes, and potential within the concept of South-South Cooperation.
From a global perspective, considering a panorama of intense instability in
the global order (mainly on the issue of security) and the economic crises
in developed countries in the context of globalization, most developing

1 Macao Museum, 2021, “Reminiscences of the Silk Road—Exhibition of Cultural

Relics of the Western Xia Dynasty.” https://www.macaumuseum.gov.mo/en/exhibitions/
85027.

v
vi PREFACE

countries continued to have fragile economies aggravated by increased

technological competition and the financialization of central economies.2
These developments added to the already weakening traditional coop-
eration instruments of multilateral entities that intended to reduce the
distance and inequalities between the Global South and North.3
The purpose of this work is to seek visions, explanations, and anal-
yses that demonstrate, in the development process of the Belt and Road
Initiative, the formation of an architecture of integration and cooperation
aimed at economic and technological development, which has also had
an impact on geopolitics. We will try to demonstrate that, in addition
to being a proposal for financing infrastructure projects, the structuring
of the BRI and the economic corridors became an interface in the rela-
tionship dynamics among China and developing countries. Thus, from
conception to realization, the South-South Cooperation encountered
(and still encounters) geopolitical obstacles in the insertion of devel-
oping countries, especially due to the rise in the Chinese economy in
relation to developed countries. Regarding the impacts of investments
and partnerships in the areas of commerce and finance, the BRI follows
the dynamics of expansion of the Chinese economy and its geopolitical
pretensions, with the objective of creating power networks at different
levels of cooperation based on the shared hegemony of its decisions.
In the first chapter, The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): South-South
Cooperation (SSC) with Chinese Characteristics, we seek to demonstrate
the historical relationships between China and the Global South and show
how the BRI represents SSC with Chinese characteristics, as a theo-
retical framework for international relations and international political
economics. We will relate it to the process of erosion of neoliberalism in
the face of cooperation for development. As an alternative, China and its
developmental pathway are alternatives for countries in the Global South.
Our work also tries to answer questions that are pertinent to contempo-
raneity. Does South-SSC remain a horizon for the economic development
of countries on the periphery of the Global South? Why did the multilat-
eral instruments created in the post-Bretton Woods world fail to integrate

2 Sheng, L. (2012) Dealing with Financial Risks of International Capital Flows: A

Theoretical Framework. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(3), 463–474.
3 Gu, X., & Sheng, L. (2010) A Sensible Policy Tool for Pareto Improvement: Capital
Controls. Journal of World Trade, 44(3), 567–590.
 PREFACE vii

the global economy? Why did the investment model of western devel-
opment cooperation organizations fail to achieve their goals? Why does
the BRI try to provide different answers than those of the Washington
Consensus? Will we see a reemergence of SSC after the creation of the
BRI? By presenting these questions, we will try to bring out the specifici-
ties of the meanings that the BRI has exercised in the multilateralism of
political relations and in the interrelations of the interests of the countries
that comprise it.
In chapter 2, The Belt and Road Initiative: China’s New Role in
Geopolitics and Security, we will elaborate on what conceptions were put
forward to characterize the BRI as a security and geopolitical risk and
what changes in liberal hegemony are implied by the expansion of the
BRI. We will address the security consideration of the BRI for China and
analyze the related perceptions and responses of China’s rivals, the United
States and NATO, whose understanding of the BRI will greatly influence
its development. We will describe the interpretation that US political and
military agents have formulated of the BRI and how Americans see the
BRI as a threat and not an instrument of cooperation. The dilemma of
the security issue in BRI countries with internal conflicts, the potential
risks in the geographical environment of China, and the BRI prospects in
the post-COVID-19 world are also discussed.
In chapter 3, BRI and the Economic Corridors: Opportunities for Devel-
opment, we describe an overview of the development of the BRI and
the six economic corridors it comprises: the China–Mongolia–Russia
Economic Corridor (CMREC), the New Eurasian Land Bridge (NELB),
the China–Central Asia–West Asia Economic Corridor (CCWAEC), the
China–Indochina Peninsula Economic Corridor (CIPEC), the China–
Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), and the Bangladesh–Chinese–
India–Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIMEC). Different perceptions
of the BRI are analyzed at length, such as from Russia in relation to the
Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) and the European Union (EU). Specif-
ically, we examine the fragmentation of northern and southern Europe
with the countries that are part of the BRI in the mechanism of Central
and Eastern European countries (16 + 1), as examples.
In chapter 4, Technological and Financial Integration in the BRI , we
will address the problem of the gaps of development in technology and
finance for developing countries. The role of New Development Banks
(NDBs) and Asia Infrastructure and Investment Banks (AIIB) in the
financial architecture of investments for the development of the BRICS
viii PREFACE

and BRI countries and their characterization as Multilateral Development

Banks (MDBs) are explored at length. The Digital Silk Road integration
proposal based on China’s digital ecosystem has also proved significant.
To conclude, we will seek to analyze the impacts of the US–China
trade war initiated by the Trump administration (2016–2021) on the
BRI, the perspective of US–China relations during the Biden administra-
tion (2021), and the disputes that COVID-19 have caused in the Covax
scheme, accelerating global political polarization. However, our task in
bringing the role of the BRI into the South-SSC panorama is a chal-
lenge for a historical process that seems to us to be unfinished. Despite
the recent historical experience of an unequal and excluding globalization
and that the BRI does not directly defy the West-led model, western hege-
mony (US–EU) presents a set of unilateral practices in the international
politics of its main agents, closing in on “ultranationalist” discourses and
practices to protect themselves from the “unknown other.” The rise of
China, the cooperation instruments built over the years and the expansion
of the BRI are part of this context in the search for greater decision-
making space and the right to development that the countries of the
Global South have not yet achieved.

Macao, China Li Sheng

Dmitri Felix do Nascimento
 Contents

1 The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The South-South

Cooperation (SSC) with Chinese Characteristics 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Development of SSC: Still a Long Way to Go 6
1.3 The BRI: A Chance for SSC Resurgence? 19
1.4 The Theoretical Framework to Interpret the Relations
Between the BRI and SSC 30
References 39
2 The Belt and Road Initiative: China’s New Role
in Geopolitics and Security Issue 45
2.1 The Relationship Between the BRI and China’s
Geopolitical Security 45
2.2 The Security Dilemma of China 49
2.3 BRI Under the Security Challenge 51
2.4 The Perspective of the United States 58
2.5 NATO’s Vision of the BRI 68
2.6 The Future of the BRI: When Will Go
in the Post-Pandemic Era? 75
References 77

ix
x CONTENTS

3 The BRI and Its Economic Corridors: Opportunities

for Development 83
3.1 Introduction: What BRI Can Bring to Developing
Countries 84
3.2 Case Studies: The Main Economic Corridors
and Related Countries 87
3.3 The Comparison Between China’s BRI and Russia’s
EEU: Competitor or Complementary? 121
3.4 The BRI in Europe: Divisions of the North and South 130
References 143
4 Technological and Financial Integration in the BRI 151
4.1 Introduction: The Gaps of Development in Technology
and Finance 151
4.2 Financial Integration: The New Development Bank
(NDB) and the AIIB 154
4.3 The Digital Silk Road: The BRI’s Solution to Bridge
the Technology Gap 179
References 198
5 Conclusion 205
5.1 Factor I. The Impact of the Sino–US Trade War
on the BRI: From Donald Trump to Joe Bidden 207
5.2 Factor II. The BRI Amid the Covid-19
Pandemic: US–China Rivalry, the Covax Scheme,
and Accelerating Global Polarization in Politics 219
References 229

Index 233
 List of Charts

Chart 1.1 China’s Foreign Aid in three categories, 2013–2018

(Source http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/whitepaper/
202101/10/content_WS5ffa6bbbc6d0f72576943922.
html) 26
Chart 1.2 China’s Foreign Aid recipients by income group,
2013–2018 (Source http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/
whitepaper/202101/10/content_WS5ffa6bbbc6d0f7
2576943922.html) 27
Chart 1.3 Distribution of China’s Foreign Aid by region,
2013–2018 (Source http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/
whitepaper/202101/10/content_WS5ffa6bbbc6d0f7
2576943922.html) 27

xi
 CHAPTER 1

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): The

South-South Cooperation (SSC)
with Chinese Characteristics

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and South-South Cooperation (SSC)
mirror each other in the current international environment and develop-
ment cooperation system. On the one hand, China’s foreign policies are
deeply shaped by the Third World’s historical experience of being invaded
and dominated by western powers, which can still be observed today in
China’s relations with countries in the Global South. This point of view
is key for comprehending China. Moreover, as neoliberalism has declined
in the last decade, China and its developmental pathways are regarded as
alternatives by an increasing number of countries in the Global South.
In this context, the BRI has become a vital topic for understanding the
future of the Global South and SSC. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze
the relationship between China’s BRI and SSC. This chapter will explain
their interconnections and try to show that the BRI is an example of SSC
with Chinese characteristics by introducing the evolution of SSC and the
BRI in the context of the theoretical frameworks of international relations
and International Political Economy.

1.1 Introduction
Throughout history, the journey to national development and prosperity
has not been an easy one, especially for countries in the Global South

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
L. Sheng and D. F. do Nascimento, The Belt and Road
Initiative in South–South Cooperation,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6357-4_1
2 L. SHENG AND D. F. DO NASCIMENTO

that have suffered colonial exploitation for centuries. The South here is
not an exclusively geographical term. In the discourse of international
geopolitics, the countries in the world tend to be categorized into “the
West” and “the Non-West” and “the South” and “the North” to indicate
their degree of development and geographic power relations from a global
perspective. The North refers to those nations with developed economies
and industrial bases, but they are not necessarily located in the geographic
north. In contrast, as a binary opposition to the North, the South
broadly refers to nations in the regions of Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin
America that are confronting a series of shared problems such as undevel-
oped economics and marginalized politics in the international community.
Those problems are deeply rooted in their historical experience, including
colonialism. This colonial background not only identifies those coun-
tries as “the South” or “the Global South” but also “the Third World,”
“Developing Countries” and even countries that are “underdeveloped,”
“premodern” and “backward.” According to the South Commission, the
majority of the planet’s countries are in the South, with populations that
take up four-fifths of the world and that are endowed with rich natural
resources and large territory; nevertheless, existing on the periphery of the
developed countries of the North, the benefits of prosperity and progress
have largely bypassed them.1
For centuries, the Global South has suffered from underdevelopment.
During the hundred years before the middle of the twentieth century,
most of the countries in the South were under the yoke of western colo-
nialism. They have continued to be in an unfavorable position, constantly
haunted by colonial legacies, even though colonialism was largely aban-
doned with the ending of imperial games following WWII. After the
colonial era, the countries of the South are commonly deficient in financial
support, technological capabilities, and discourse power in the interna-
tional system. Driven by historical experience and common problems,
countries in the South are striving for paths to national development
and prosperity. On the one hand, with the bitter historical memories of

1 For more details about the definitions of “the countries in the South,” please refer to
Burnell, P. (2017). Politics in the developing world. Oxford University Press; Dados, N., &
Connell, R. (2012). The global south. Contexts, 11(1), 12–13; Modi, R. (Ed.). (2011).
South-South Cooperation (pp. 1–26). Palgrave Macmillan; Slater, D. (2008). Geopolitics
and the postcolonial: Rethinking North–South relations . Wiley; The South Centre. (1990).
The Challenge to the South: The Report of the South Commission. Oxford University Press.
 1 THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) … 3

being invaded and exploited, they have been aware of the deficiencies of
colonialism and war as approaches to wealth accumulation. On the other
hand, being disadvantaged, the countries of the South want to join forces
in a united front to pursue their common interest. In such circumstances,
South-South Cooperation emerged.
South-SSC is an international regime originally designed for inter-
state cooperation among countries in the Global South. It is still the
core of the various definitions of SSC. According to the United Nations
Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC), SSC is a “broad frame-
work of collaboration among countries of the South in the political,
economic, social, cultural, environmental, and technical domains.”2 The
basis of the framework is diverse, from bilateral, regional, intraregional
to interregional, under which “developing countries share knowledge,
skills, expertise, and resources to meet their development goals through
concerted efforts.” The form of SSC includes “increased volume of
South-South trade, South-South flows of foreign direct investment,
movements toward regional integration, technology transfers, sharing of
solutions and experts, and other forms of exchanges.”3 The Department
of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations (UNDESA) gives
a different explanation:

South-South Cooperation refers to technical cooperation among devel-

oping countries in the Global South. It is a tool used by the states,
international organizations, academics, civil society and the private sector to
collaborate and share knowledge, skills and successful initiatives in specific
areas such as agricultural development, human rights, urbanization, health,
climate change, etc.4

Based on the mentioned definitions given by different branches of

the United Nations, it can be seen that SSC is a multilevel regime for
cooperation among countries in the South in various fields, such as poli-
tics, economics, technology, and human rights. In these contexts, SSC is
perceived as a broad concept that has recently emerged as an important
poverty reduction strategy, sometimes supplanting prescriptive market-
driven orthodoxies by neoliberalism, which might further suggest a retreat

2 UNOSSC. About South-South and Triangular Cooperation.

3 Ibid.
4 UN. (2019, March 20). What is ‘South-South Cooperation’ and why does it matter?
4 L. SHENG AND D. F. DO NASCIMENTO

by the state.5 Kevin Gray and Barry K. Gills also hold a similar idea
regarding SSC as an organizing concept, combining a set of practices in
pursuit of these historical changes through a vision of mutual benefit and
solidarity among the disadvantaged of the world system. It is worth high-
lighting in their explanation that SSC conveys the hope that development
may be achieved by the poor themselves through their mutual assis-
tance to one another, and the whole world order transformed to reflect
their mutual interests vis-à-vis the dominant Global North. Significantly,
SSC is endowed with a dual economic and political nature, considering
the historical experiences of the Third World.6 As Gosovic emphasizes,
SSC is also “a political project of emancipation, liberation, political, and
economic independence, of transcending the unidirectional links with the
North and vestiges of the colonial era, and of gaining influence and voice
in world affairs by pooling forces and acting collectively.”7
Admittedly, SSC reflected the common interests of countries in the
South, especially in the first two decades after WWII. With the support of
the United Nations, SSC has been expanded in more fields. However, it is
also an uneasy journey to have more development for SSC, especially after
the new millennium. On the one hand, the emergence of untraditional
security after the end of the Cold War has shaken global stability and
triggered a series of conflicts, both domestically and regionally. On the
other hand, rapid globalization has further enlarged the gap between the
North and the South, creating more obstacles to poverty eradication. As
a result, both countries in the South and SSC are currently confronting
severe challenges.
As a member of the Third World as well as a victim of colonialism and
imperialism, China deeply understands the eagerness for national devel-
opment of the countries in the South. Since 1949, China has attached
high importance to relations with countries of the South and SSC. For a
long time, China has defined itself as “a staunch supporter, active partic-
ipant and key contributor of South-South Cooperation” and committed
to “further expand South-South Cooperation, to promote joint efforts

5 Chaturvedi, S., Fues, T., & Sidiropoulos, E. (2012). Development cooperation and
emerging powers: New partners or old patterns? Zed Books.
6 Gray, K., & Gills, B. K. (2016). South–South cooperation and the rise of the Global
South. Third World Quarterly, 37 (4), 557–574.
7 Gosovic, B. (2016). The resurgence of South–South cooperation. Third World
Quarterly, 37 (4), 733–743.
 1 THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) … 5

for common development.” Lately, at the beginning of 2021, amid the

global crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic, China reaffirmed its commit-
ment to international development cooperation in which SSC was placed
in the focal position and the Belt and Road Initiative served as a major
platform.8
The BRI, also known as One Belt One Road or the New Silk Road,
is an ambitious infrastructure project launched in 2013 by China’s presi-
dent Xi Jinping. Strictly speaking, the project consists of two subprojects,
the Silk Road Economic Belt and the Twenty-First-Century Maritime
Silk Road. From China’s standpoint, the BRI is a significant public good
for the whole world in various fields, such as peace, economic growth,
opening up, innovation, green development, and cultural exchanges.
More specifically, the BRI consists of five pillars: infrastructure connec-
tions, financial integration, policy coordination, unimpeded trade, and
people-to-people exchanges. Unlike how the BRI is depicted in western
discourse, it is an inclusive cooperative project rather than a scheme of
formal alliances with China. In fact, China has always emphasized prin-
ciples such as national sovereignty, non-interference in other countries’
domestic affairs and mutual development evolving from its own histor-
ical experiences. As Tom Fowdy points out, more countries in Africa and
Latin America have grown to see China as an alternative pathway to their
national development, with Beijing’s traditional policies allowing these
countries to find empathy in the form of a common history, worldview
and legacy. To some extent, SSC is a channel for the world to understand
the BRI and even the foreign policy of China.9
The authors believe that the BRI and SSC mirror each other and that
the BRI is a form of SSC with Chinese characteristics. On the one hand,
China’s foreign policies are deeply shaped by historical experiences of
being invaded and dominated by western powers, which can be observed
in China’s relations with countries in the South today. It is a key point
of view for increasing comprehension of China. On the other hand, as
neoliberalism has declined in recent decades, China is regarded as an

8 For more details about China’s latest foreign policies on the international development
cooperation, please refer to: The State Council of PRC. (2021). China’s International
Development Cooperation in the New Era.
9 Fowdy, T. (2020). South-South Cooperation is how we should understand China’s BRI
diplomacy. CGTN.
6 L. SHENG AND D. F. DO NASCIMENTO

alternative path to develop by more countries in the Global South.10

In this context, the BRI has become a vital topic in discussions of the
future of the Global South and SSC. Therefore, it is necessary to deter-
mine the relationship between China’s BRI and SSC, which is the goal
of this chapter. In the first section of this chapter, the focus is on SSC
from the perspective of its evolution, relations with China, and obsta-
cles under the international system dominated by the Global North. In
the second section, attention will be given to the BRI. At the beginning
of this section, the history of the Silk Road and the background of the
BRI are introduced. It then proceeds with a review of relations among
the BRI, China’s development pathways and Chinese history. Further-
more, it will analyze the cooperation between the BRI and SSC and the
achievements they have made. Additionally, it will briefly introduce their
latest cooperation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the third
section, the analytical framework of the theories will be presented for the
analysis of the BRI and SSC.

1.2 The Development of SSC:

Still a Long Way to Go
1.2.1 SSC Evolvement: An Uneasy Journey
SSC is the result of the decline in the western empires after WWII and
the failures of the post-war arrangements. During the decades of the post-
war era, SSC ebbed and flowed. To date, there are various approaches to
chronicle the development of SSC. The authors would like to argue that
the evolution of SSC can be chronicled in four phases since the 1940s.
The first phase is between the 1940s and the 1950s, when many coun-
tries in the South gained independence and SSC began to emerge as
the western powers declined in the Global South. The second phase is
between the 1960s and the 1970s, when SSC experienced a boom via the
establishment of the Non-alignment Movement (NAM) and Group 77
(G77). The third phase is between the 1980s and 1990s, when SSC went
through difficult times due to a series of geopolitical events and crises
worldwide. Luckily, SSC was revived after the new millennium.

10 Sheng, L. (2014a). Capital controls and international development: A theoretical

reconsideration. Global Policy, 5(1), 114–120.
 1 THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) … 7

(1) The Emergence: 1945–1950s

After WWII, the decline in the western empires triggered the broad
liberalization movement in the Third Word, including Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. As a result, a number of new countries emerged in the
former colonial regions and began to act as independent actors in the
arena of international politics. However, these countries of the South
were still highly constrained in their journey to national development and
prosperity. On the one hand, they had been deeply exploited by colo-
nialism, which trapped them in a situation of poverty, premodernization
and preindustrialization. On the other hand, the post-war arrangements
failed to break the old economic order completely. The former colonies
were still deeply dependent on the north and stuck in an unfavorable posi-
tion. With the common predicament of underdevelopment and the goal
of national development, the countries in the South realized that only by
joining with other countries in the Global South could they truly become
independent actors in the global arena and achieve meaningful change
in international political and economic inequalities. In such a context,
countries in the South began to collaborate and establish mechanisms and
organizations for development cooperation.
The Bandung Conference is a vital milestone of SSC. However, the
date that marks the true beginning of SSC may be earlier. The starting
point of SSC could be 1945, the year WWII ended, because of two
historical events. One event is the establishment of the Arab League that
same year, which accelerated the independence of Middle East countries.
The other event is the Colombo Plan of 1950, a regional organization
established by the UK under the British Commonwealth to maintain its
relevance in the Asia–Pacific. However, it also promoted development
cooperation among the countries in Southeast Asia and South Asia.11
In 1955, the first Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung,
Indonesia, which was also named the Bandung Conference. It was the first
conference in history completely held and delegated by countries in the
South, assembling leaders from 29 countries whose combined population
made up approximately two-thirds of the world. The People’s Republic of
China was one of the participants. With the common hope of accelerating

11 Cabana, S. L. (2014). Chronology and history of South-South Cooperation. coopera-

cionsursur.
8 L. SHENG AND D. F. DO NASCIMENTO

cooperation among the nations of the Third World and reducing their
dependence on western countries, the delegates signed a communique
that set a series of concrete goals, including the promotion of economic
and cultural cooperation, protection of human rights and the principle
of self-determination, a call for an end to racial discrimination wherever it
occurred, and a reiteration of the importance of peaceful coexistence. The
Bandung Conference is a milestone of SSC, laying the political, economic,
cultural, and legal foundations for the so-called Spirit of Bandung and
what became the Third World project.

(2) The Boom: 1970s–1980s

The Bandung Conference and the Bandung Spirit laid the foundation for
further collaboration and cooperation in politics and economics among
the countries of the South. Against the background of the Cold War,
to promote global peace and not be forced to take sides in the contest
between the two superpowers, the NAM was organized in 1961 dedi-
cated to the independence and security of the Third World. The NAM
continued the Spirit of Bandung, as captured by Yugoslav President Tito:
“Every country, regardless of their socioeconomic system, must daily
increase and broaden its economic cooperation.” Additionally, principles
such as “abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defense to
serve the particular interests of any of the big powers” were highly stressed
during the summit. In 1964, the G77, an intergovernmental organization
under the United Nations System, was established, which included most
developing counties in the world at that time. The G77 is named after
the number of countries present at the founding of the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). It called for the
establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO) and was
designed to serve the common economic interests of developing coun-
tries and improve the negotiating capacity of the countries in the South
and promote SSC as a means for development.12
The 1970s was a great optimistic period for SSC. On the one hand, as
the prices of raw materials continued to increase, the revenue of the coun-
tries of the South improved accordingly.13 With the economic resurgence,

12 The Group of 77, About the Group of 77. https://www.g77.org/doc/.

13 New World Economics. (2007). Commodities in the 1970s.
 1 THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) … 9

the trade volume among the countries of the South increased, making up
half of the world’s total trade volume.14 As a result of economic growth,
SSC was further developed in politics and cultures. On the other hand,
the increased activism of the G-77 and NAM during this period led to the
adoption of the UN General Assembly of Resolutions on the New Inter-
national Economic Order (NIEO) and new forms for technology transfer
between countries.
At the same time, a series of UN branches were established to promote
SSC, such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) and the UN Fund for Science and Technology in Devel-
opment (UNFSTD). The authors believe that in this period, the three
pillars of SSC were constructed, and they remain significant today. The
first is the non-aligned movement continuing the Spirit of Bandung with
the principles of non-interference, self-determination, etc. It reflects the
political demands of the Third Word. In contrast, the other two pillars are
more focused on the economic interests of the Global South: the G77 and
UNCTAD. Each contributed to the conceptions, principles, and norms
that we can find today in the BRI.

(3) Stagnation: 1980s–1990s

The 1980s was a dark period for developing countries. As the prices of
primary commodities dropped, the revenue of the Global South widely
suffered heavy losses. At the same time, as the result of nation-building,
many developing countries, Africa and Latin America in particular, were
trapped in heavy debt and negative growth. To seek financial assistance,
many countries in the South had no choice but to turn to the West and
commit to shifting their development paradigm to that of the Bretton
Woods system, which wrecked their national stability.15 Moreover, under
the transition from the bipolar contest to US hegemony, a series of mili-
tary conflicts and wars broke out in the Middle East. Later, Southeast
Asia was severely affected by the 1997 financial crisis following the period
of economic prosperity. Worse still, developed countries’ gain from free

14 Sheng, L., & do Nascimento, D. F. (2021). A brief history of trade wars. In Love
and trade war (pp. 1–46). Palgrave Macmillan.
15 Sheng, L. (2012). Dealing with financial risks of international capital flows: A
theoretical framework. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(3), 463–474.
Another random document with
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the Divine Teacher and the listener who was drinking in
such soul-absorbing truths!

Percival. Surely it was not in blind ignorance of the meaning

of what she did, that Mary brought her precious ointment to
pour on the feet of the Master! He who could read her
inmost thoughts said, "She did it for My burial." Were not
Mary's thoughts, then, something like this—

"He hath said it—alas! alas!—and all that my Lord says

must be true. The holy Jesus will be delivered into the
hands of the Gentiles. He will be mocked, scourged, and
slain. Yes, He who called my brother from the grave must
Himself die! And they who murder Him will not, perhaps,
suffer due honour to be paid to the holy corpse; I may not
be able to approach the sacred form! I will be beforehand
with Christ's cruel foes; what I may not be allowed to do
after His death, I will do ere the awful moment come when
the Lamb of God must be sacrificed for our sins. I will
anoint Him for His burial!"

Seyton. And when the sacrifice had been offered, you

believe that Mary of Bethany, unlike any of the apostles,
had faith to look beyond death to Christ's Resurrection?

Percival. There is nothing in Scripture that I know of to lead

us to doubt it. The piety of Mary of Bethany seems to have
been of a higher, a more spiritual type, than that of her
sister. It was not Mary who exclaimed against the removal
of the stone from the sepulchre's mouth. Mary perhaps saw
in the resurrection of Lazarus a type and pledge of that of
her Lord. If so, her joy must have been yet more intense
than that of Martha, even as her gratitude took a more
palpable form.
Seyton. It is interesting and refreshing to the spirit thus to
meditate over Scripture characters. What to some are
merely like ancient statues, when we gaze on them thus,
become human beings instinct with life.

Percival. And such meditation makes us realize the tie which

binds Christians of to-day to saints of the olden time; at
least, it has that effect with me. I feel almost as if those
whose forms I have attempted to depict on my canvas had
become my familiar friends. I look forward to meeting those
three Maries hereafter: perhaps that time may not be far
off.

Seyton. There are two male figures in the background of

your picture, represented as just about to enter the room.
One, the elder, appears to be struggling to retire: he is
unwilling to intrude on the sacredness of grief.

Percival. Can you not read sorrow and shame on his half-
averted face?

Seyton. His younger companion is using loving persuasion

to draw him forward: his arm is thrown around the elder,
and his face expresses compassion and love. The two
figures must represent John and Peter.

Percival. Such was the idea in my mind. Where would poor

broken-hearted Peter hide himself when, pierced by that
look of his Lord, he went forth and bitterly wept? Would he
not seek the solemn shade of the olives in the Garden of
Gethsemane, and prostrate himself on the spot where the
Master had knelt in agonized prayer? Would not Peter lay
his throbbing brow on the sod where he could trace red
signs of the bloody sweat, and try to efface them with his
hot tears?
Percival went on: How terrible to Peter must have been the
darkness which for three hours covered the earth, a sign
that the fearful deed was being done, on which the sun
could not look! He who had thrice denied his Lord dared not
go near His cross; but the disciple's anguished soul would
vividly picture its horrors. Peter must have trembled at the
shock of the earthquake which told that all was over. How
could he rise from the earth? How endure ever to look again
on the face of a fellow-apostle?

Seyton. And you have imagined John, with tender

sympathy, seeking out his erring brother in the place where
he would be most likely to find him.

Percival. And entreating Peter not to remain apart from all

his brethren; not to give way to despair: but to join those
who, like himself, were mourning their crucified Lord.

Seyton. No marvel that Peter should shrink from entering

the presence of the bereaved mother of Christ!

Percival. Mary would not turn from him; she would utter no
word of reproach: she would raise her tearful eyes, and give
the penitent Peter a look which would remind him of that
which he had last seen on the sacred face of her Son.

CHAPTER X.
The Legend of the Roman Soldier.
I HAD fastened up several of Percival's pictures on the wall
of the room which he now occupied; and in which he
received frequent visits from my aunt. On one occasion the
following conversation was held between them.

Lady Mar. Percival, I cannot take my eyes from that picture

of yours hung in the corner: it is so dramatic in
composition, so vigorous in execution. Yet I find it so
difficult to trace any connexion between it and any narrative
contained in the Bible. I understood from my nephew that
you only illustrate passages from Scripture.
Percival. Not exactly so, dear Lady Mar. The connection of
my poor fancies with the Scriptures is like that of the
mistletoe with the oak. The mistletoe is a weak little plant;
of a nature different to, and far less noble than, the tree on
which it rests: yet from that tree, it derives both
nourishment and support.

Lady Mar. And the mistletoe bears delicate white berries,

which serve to make winter brighter. But this picture before
me has red berries rather than white ones. Despondency
and attempted suicide appear to form its subject. A
powerfully-made soldier, evidently a Roman, is about to fall
on his own sword, his face expressing the despair which is
driving him on to self-destruction. Another man, a Jew, has
caught hold of his arm, evidently to prevent the warrior
from accomplishing his desperate purpose.

Lady Mar continued: "Please tell us on what branch of the

oak your parasite grows. You cannot refuse us anything this
evening, as my nephew leaves us for college to-morrow; so
to one of us, as you see, this will be the last night of
meeting for some months to come."

I thought sadly, "Possibly indeed the last meeting. Shall I

find Percival here on my return?"

"I happen to have written out my little Legend," was

Percival's reply. "If Seyton cares to read it, and you to
listen, it is quite at your service."

"Whilst my nephew reads, I will keep my eye on the

picture," said Lady Mar. "I feel a sympathy with that
stalwart Roman, who seems in such a desperate plight."
 The Legend of the Roman Soldier.

A soldier sought the silence and solitude of a forest; for the

presence of his fellow-creatures had become hateful to his
soul. The moonbeams, piercing like silver lances between
the branches, glimmered on the steel breastplate and arms
which had been borne in many a fight.

Marcus was a tried warrior, who had distinguished himself

from his comrades by feats of strength and deeds of daring.
But now all his spirit was gone: he would not have cared to
raise his powerful arm to ward off a blow; nay, he would
have welcomed the sharp steel which should cut him off
from the earth, which had become to him worse than a
prison.

"Now let me end my misery!" exclaimed Marcus. "I am a

guilty wretch not fit to live! There is only one good deed
which I can perform—use this accursed hand to avenge the
innocent blood which it shed."

Clenching his teeth with fierce resolution, Marcus fixed the

hilt of his sword firmly between the gnarled roots of a tree;
hastily unfastened his breastplate, and flung it clanging on
the earth; then nerved himself for the desperate act of
throwing himself on the point of his sharp weapon.

But at that moment, the muscular arm of the strong soldier

was seized by a Jew, who, unseen in the shade, had
watched his movements.

"Madman! In Christ's name forbear!" exclaimed the Jew.

Marcus was startled at the word. "What! Are you one of the
followers of Him who died on Calvary?" cried the soldier,
drawing back, and surveying almost with fear one whom by
a slight exertion of his giant strength, he could have dashed
to the ground. "If you be a disciple of Christ, far from
staying the execution of justice, you will slay me yourself,
and trample my blood under your feet! Take yon sword, and
strike home!"

"What hast thou done," asked the Christian, "that thou

shouldst bid me slay thee?"

"Hear, if thou wilt; for I can no longer endure to bear my

burden in silence. Hear and then strike; for I have well-
merited death from the hand of a disciple."

So saying, Marcus flung himself down on the gnarled roots,

which afforded a rude kind of seat, and signed to the Jew to
take his place on a large stone near.

Asahel, such was his name, obeyed the sign, and prepared
himself to listen.

But for some minutes only deep groans were heard from
the unhappy Roman, who seemed to shrink from beginning
his terrible confession. At last, averting his eyes, he thus
began:

"Is it not enough to say that I was one of the Prætorian

band on that day—not many moons have waxed and waned
since then—when there was darkness and an earthquake;
and the Temple curtain was rent in twain."

"What! Thou wast one of those Roman soldiers! Thou didst

mock the Blessed One, and crown Him with thorns!"

"I did not!" cried Marcus fiercely. "I was not base enough for
that. When I looked at that calm majestic Sufferer, I
thought Him more kingly in His robe of mockery, than
Pontius Pilate in all his state!"
"When I heard the yelling of the savage mob, thirsty for
blood, I said to myself, 'Were I in the place of our Governor,
those slaves might shout as they pleased, I would never
give Him up, innocent as He is, to fanatic priest or frantic
people! I would not so play the coward!'"

Asahel winced, as if some acute pain had suddenly struck

him.

"But it was my duty, my detestable office, to execute the

sentence which I thought unjust as well as cruel. I was
accustomed as a soldier to obey orders without question,
and without remorse. Hardened as I am by familiarity with
executions, without mercy or scruple I crucified one of the
wretched thieves. His yell of agony as I did my work did not
even awake a feeling of pity in my heart."

"But it was very different with me when I laid my hand—

would that lightning had blasted it!—on the hammer, and
did what I would now give my life to undo! He uttered no
groan—no curse; He submitted like a lamb in the
slaughterer's grasp. He but said—I cannot repeat what He
said."

The soldier's head sank on his broad breast, and the strong
man wept.

"Christ said, 'Father, forgive them; for they know not what
they do!'" said Asahel, softly.

"I was present through all," continued the soldier, when he

had recovered his self-command, "I saw the sudden
darkness: it fell over me like a shroud! Every hour of that
fearful time convinced me the more that I was helping to
torture—to murder—One who was more than man. At last,
when I heard the faint words, 'I thirst!' I ran; and putting a
sponge filled with vinegar on a reed, I moistened the white,
parched lips of the Dying."

"Oh that I had done that!" cried the Christian Jew, bursting
into tears. "Blessed man! Thou wert the only one, then, to
relieve the Saviour's dying anguish!"

The Roman gazed in astonishment at his companion. "I

thought, O follower of Christ!" said he. "That thou wouldst
abhor me, even as I abhor mine own self."

"I am a thousandfold more guilty than thou art!" cried

Asahel. "I was one of the savage mob. It was as if under
the direct influence of Satan that I shouted even as they
did. I saw Him suffer—and I did not pity! Thou didst act
under compulsion. I—I struck Him; and yet I live!"

Marcus started to his feet with something like an

imprecation. "Wretch! Thou art beyond pardon!" he
exclaimed.

"I have found pardon!" cried the believer. "And where I

found it, so may'st thou."

Then, in a voice trembling with emotion, Asahel recounted

the wonders of the Day of Pentecost; and repeated, almost
word for word, that address of Peter, on hearing which,
three thousand sinners were pricked to the heart and
repented.

"I was one of that three thousand," said the converted Jew.
"I believed, and I was forgiven. The blood which flowed on
the cross was a full, sufficient, atonement even for guilt
such as mine."

"And will it avail even for me?" exclaimed Marcus, the first
ray of hope glimmering on the midnight of his despair.
"Did Christ not pray for thee, O brother? And art thou not
already forgiven?"

CHAPTER XI.
Asleep.
I SHALL ever remember that evening: what followed
impressed it so deeply on my mind.

Percival seemed unconscious of any one's presence; his lips

softly repeated the last word forgiven, and I thought that he
smiled.

A brief prayer closed our meeting that night: I now doubt

whether Percival heard it.
My aunt, seeing that the invalid was unusually drowsy,
hastened the preparation for his nightly rest.

In the morning. I went to Percival's room early, to bid him

good-bye ere I started for college. I knocked at his door:
there was no reply. I knocked again: still silence within. I
opened the door softly; and entering, approached his bed.

My first glance at the countenance, so white—so still—so

beautiful, told me that the spirit had fled.

"For death had come in the land of sleep;

And his lifeless body lay
Like a worn-out fetter, which the soul
Had broken and cast away!"

We had anticipated for Percival a long, slow, painful descent

to the river of death: but some chord had given way within;
he was free, and had cleared the river at a bound. I could
not have laid a detaining hand on the freed and rejoicing
spirit!

Nothing is now left, in this world, of Henry Percival—but a

modest tomb, a fragrant memory, and his little gallery of
pictures.
LONDON: MORGAN & SCOTT, 12, PATERNOSTER
BUILDINGS.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PERCIVAL'S
PICTURE GALLERY ***

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