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FIGHTING FOR PEACE IN SOMALIA

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

Fighting for Peace

in Somalia
A History and Analysis of the African
Union Mission (AMISOM), 2007–2017

PAUL D. WILLIAMS

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Paul D. Williams 2018
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

Acknowledgements

This book has been nearly eleven years in the making and I have incurred many
debts of gratitude along the way. I am pleased to acknowledge them here.
First and foremost, this book would not have been possible without the
numerous individuals who took time out of their busy schedules to help me
understand different aspects of AMISOM’s activities and answer my many
questions. Some of them did this many times over and also subsequently spent
considerable additional time commenting on more of my draft publications
than I could reasonably expect. Many of them worked (or are still working) in
incredibly difficult jobs under testing and sometimes deadly circumstances
trying to build a more secure, democratic, and prosperous Somalia, whether as
citizens or journalists, in NGOs or in governments, or for international
organizations including the African Union (AU), United Nations (UN), and
European Union. Since most of them were serving officials, and as agreed at
the time, they will remain anonymous. But this book is far better than it would
have been without your constructive engagement and I am truly grateful.
I owe a particular debt of thanks to the African Union. This book could not
have been completed without the AU granting my request to meet its person-
nel and access documentation and other material. In places, my work is critical
of aspects of the AU’s policies, but I gratefully acknowledge the constructive
support that I received for more than a decade from numerous AU officials.
They have my respect and admiration.
While in Somalia, thanks are especially due to the AU–UN Information
Support Team for providing accommodation, flights, security, and facilitating
access for interviews. They too were always supportive of my research, even
when I criticized elements of their work. I also want to thank various Bancroft
Global Development personnel for their hospitality and taking the time to
discuss their operations in Somalia with me.
A special note of thanks is also due to Dr Timothy Rainey and the team at
the US Department of State’s Africa Contingency Operations Training
and Assistance (ACOTA) programme for granting me full access to their
unclassified documentation related to AMISOM. This was immensely helpful
in completing this book and shedding important light on the complex
challenges that ACOTA confronted and the important training and capacity-
building work that their personnel provided to AMISOM and its contributing
countries.
For financial assistance that facilitated my research and travel, I would once
again like to thank Michael Brown, the former Dean of the Elliott School of
International Affairs, for awarding me several SOAR grants. I am also grateful
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

vi Acknowledgements
to the Elliott School for granting me sabbatical leave during academic year
2014–15. During that period I was awarded a fellowship to work on this book
at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. I am very grateful
to the Wilson Center staff and especially the Africa Program team for pro-
viding such a welcoming and conducive setting for scholarship. Thanks are
also due to Katharina Krause and Dan Morgan-Russell, research assistants
that the Wilson Center arranged to help me during my fellowship. I also
received helpful research assistance from Elliott School student Jianyi Nie
during 2014.
Acknowledgement is also due to several journals and institutions that
published earlier versions of some of my arguments about AMISOM, includ-
ing ‘Into the Mogadishu Maelstrom: The African Union Mission in Somalia’,
International Peacekeeping, 16:4 (2009), pp. 514–30; ‘Fighting for Peace in
Somalia: AMISOM’s Seven Strategic Challenges’, Journal of International
Peacekeeping, 17:3–4 (2013), pp. 222–47; ‘The African Union Mission in
Somalia and Civilian Protection Challenges’, Stability: International Journal
of Security & Development, 2:2 (2013), p. 39. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/
sta.bz; ‘Stabilising Somalia: The African Union Mission and the Next Stage
in the War against Al-Shabaab’, RUSI Journal, 159:2 (2014), pp. 52–60;
B.E. Bruton and P.D. Williams, Counter-Insurgency in Somalia: Lessons
Learned from the African Union Mission in Somalia, 2007–2013 (Tampa, FL:
United States Joint Special Operations University, 2014); ‘After Westgate:
Challenges and opportunities in the war against al-Shabaab’, International
Affairs, 90:4 (2014), pp. 907–23; P.D. Williams with A. Hashi, Exit Strategy
Challenges for the AU Mission in Somalia (Mogadishu: Heritage Institute for
Policy Studies, February 2016); ‘AMISOM Under Review’, RUSI Journal, 161:1
(2016), pp. 40–9; W. Lotze and P.D. Williams, The Surge to Stabilize: Lessons
for the UN from the AU’s Experience in Somalia (New York: International
Peace Institute report, May 2016); The Battle at El Adde: The Kenya Defence
Forces, al-Shabaab, and Unanswered Questions (New York: International
Peace Institute, July 2016); UN Support to Regional Peace Operations: Lessons
from UNSOA (New York: International Peace Institute, February 2017);
‘Joining AMISOM: Why six African states contributed troops to the African
Union Mission in Somalia’, Journal of Eastern African Studies, 12:1 (2018),
pp. 172–92; ‘Strategic Communications for Peace Operations: The African
Union’s Information War against al-Shabaab’, Stability: Internatioanl Journal
of Security & Development, 7(1) (2018), p. 3. DOI http://doi.org/10.5334/
sta.606. and my chapter on AMISOM in J.M. Okeke and P.D. Williams
(eds.), Protecting Civilians in African Union Peace Support Operations: Key
Cases and Lessons Learned (South Africa: ACCORD, 2017). I owe an especially
large debt to my co-authors on some of these publications, namely, Arthur
Boutellis, Bronwyn Bruton, Katharina Coleman, Solomon Dersso, Abdirashid
Hashi, Walter Lotze, and Jide Okeke. I learned a great deal in the process and
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

Acknowledgements vii
am grateful for their expertise and friendship. I also want to recognize other
friends and colleagues who have given up considerable amounts of their time
to help me complete this book, either through conversations or commenting
on draft papers. Thank you Alex Bellamy, Eric Berman, Cedric de Coning,
Jonathan Fisher, Linnéa Gelot, Marco Jowell, Robyn Kriel, Jair Van Der Lijn,
Ty McCormick, Frank Reidy, Colin Robinson, Timo Smit, Thierry Tardy, Tres
Thomas, and Nina Wilén. I am also grateful to Thong Nguyen of the Inter-
national Peace Institute for drawing several of the figures that appear in
this book.
My final debt of gratitude is to my family. Neither of my parents, Carole and
David Williams, lived to see this book’s completion, but I wouldn’t be where
I am today without the love and support they gave me. I miss you. Once again,
my incredible wife, Ariela Blätter, has enabled me to do what I do and I could
not do it without her. I love you. Finally, I want to thank my wonderful
daughter Zoë for bringing us such joy. This time around, aged four, she voiced
a clear opinion about my work. Flicking through a pile of books on my office
floor, she declared, ‘Daddy, your books are too serious and don’t have enough
pictures!’ You’re right Zoë, and soon I’ll explain why.
Of course, I alone am responsible for any remaining errors.
PDW
Washington DC
October 2017
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

Contents

List of Figures, Tables, and Box xi

List of Abbreviations xiii
Maps xvii

Introduction 1

PART I. HISTORY
1. Genesis: October 2004 to March 2007 21
2. Entry: March 2007 to January 2009 48
3. Stalemate: January 2009 to August 2010 77
4. Offensive: September 2010 to October 2011 101
5. Expansion: October 2011 to September 2012 126
6. Consolidation: September 2012 to December 2013 155
7. Surge: January 2014 to May 2017 178

PART II. CHALLENGES

8. Logistics 213
9. Security Sector Reform 238
10. Protecting Civilians 259
11. Strategic Communications 279
12. Stabilization 303
13. Exit 322
Conclusion 343

Appendix A: A Note on Major Somali Non-State Armed Groups 353

Appendix B: AMISOM’s Senior Leadership, March 2007–January 2018 355
Appendix C: A Note on AMISOM Fatality Estimates 356
Index 359
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

List of Figures, Tables, and Box

Figures
I.1. AMISOM Authorized and Deployed Strength, 2007–17 3
I.2. AMISOM’s Organizational Structure, 2012 6
I.3. AMISOM’s Sector Boundaries: 2012 (left) and 2014 (right) 9
4.1. Mogadishu Incident Review (April 2010 to April 2011) 112
4.2. AMISOM and Urban Warfare 115
7.1. Major Al-Shabaab Attacks on AMISOM’s Forward Operating
Bases, 2015–17 196
7.2. Comparing AMISOM and SNA Sectors and Somalia’s Interim
Political Entities (2016) 205
8.1. UNSOA/S total budget requirements, UN fiscal years 2009/10–2017/18 216
8.2. Contributions to Trust Fund for AMISOM and the Somali National
Army (up to 2015) 223
13.1. Monthly Allowances for Uniformed Personnel in AMISOM
and UN Peacekeeping Operations, 2007–2017 (US$) 323

Tables
I.1. AMISOM TCCs army size, defence spending (US$), and contribution 3
4.1. AMISOM’s proposed force composition (2010) 103
4.2. IED incidents in Somalia, 2007–14 109
5.1. Al-Shabaab’s Dispersal of Forces, November 2011 151
6.1. AU and UN mandates for AMISOM compared (2013) 161
7.1. Operational challenges facing AMISOM, April 2015 187
8.1. Companies operating in AMISOM base camp, September 2012 217
8.2. Comparing UNSOA resources to select UN peacekeeping operations 222
8.3. Distances between Somali cities (kilometres) 228
9.1. Estimated size of the Somali Armed Forces, 1963–2017 242
9.2. Distribution of 10,900 SNA conducting joint operations with
AMISOM (2015) 245
12.1. AMISOM budget summary, 2011 and 2013–16 (US$) 314
13.1. Summary of potential modes of exit for peace operations 327
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

xii List of Figures, Tables, and Box

13.2. Modes of exit in major foreign military operations in Somalia,
1992–2015 328
A.1. Estimates of cumulative AMISOM fatalities 358

Box
10.1. Examples of AU and AMISOM measures to mitigate
civilian harm 275
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

List of Abbreviations

ACOTA Africa Contingency Operations Training and Assistance (US)

AFRICOM US Africa Command
AMIS AU Mission in Sudan
AMISEC AU Mission for Support to the Elections in the Comoros
AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
APC Armoured Personnel Carrier
APF African Peace Facility (EU)
ARPCT Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counterterrorism
ARS Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia
ASWJ Ahlu Sunna Wal Jamaa
AU African Union
BNDF Burundi National Defence Force
BOI Board of Inquiry
C-IED Counter-Improvised Explosive Device
CAR Central African Republic
CCTARC Civilian casualty tracking analysis and response cell
CIA US Central Intelligence Agency
CIMIC Civil–Military Coordination
CONOPS Concept of Operations
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration
DFS UN Department of Field Support
DPKO UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
EARF East African Response Force (US)
EASF Eastern Africa Standby Force
EDD Explosive Detecting Dog
ENDF Ethiopia National Defence Force
EOD Explosive ordnance disposal
EPRDF Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front
EU European Union
FAD Forces Armées de Djiboutiennes
FGS Federal Government of Somalia
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

xiv List of Abbreviations

FOB Forward Operating Base
FPU Formed Police Unit
HRDDP Human Rights Due Diligence Policy (UN)
IDP Internally Displaced Person
IED Improvised Explosive Device
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
IGASOM IGAD Peace Support Mission to Somalia
IHL International humanitarian law
IMATT International Military Advisory and Training Team
IPO Individual Police Officer
IRA Interim Regional Administration
ISF International Stabilization Force
ISR Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
IST Information Support Team
ISTAR Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, reconnaissance
JCM Joint Coordination Mechanism
KDF Kenyan Defence Force
MIA Mogadishu International Airport
MOCC Military Operations Coordination Committee
MONUSCO UN Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MRAP Mine Resistant Ambush Protected
MSR Main Supply Route
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NSC National Security Council
NSSP National Security and Stabilization Plan (Somalia)
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN)
PIU Public Information Unit
POC Protection of Civilians
PSC Peace and Security Council of the African Union
PSOD Peace Support Operations Division (AU)
QIP Quick Impact Project
QRF Quick Reaction Force
RPG Rocket-propelled grenade
ROE Rules of Engagement
RSLAF Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces
SCIC Supreme Council of Islamic Courts
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

List of Abbreviations xv
SEA Sexual exploitation and abuse
SNA Somali National Army
SNP Somali National Police
SNSF Somali National Security Forces
SPF Somali Police Force
SRCC Special Representative of the Chairperson of the AU Commission
SRSG Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General
SSR Security sector reform
TCC Troop-Contributing Country
TFG Transitional Federal Government
TFI Transitional Federal Institutions
TNG Transitional National Government
UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle
UPDF Uganda People’s Defence Force
UN United Nations
UNAMID African Union–United Nations Mission in Darfur
UNMAS UN Mine Action Service
UNMEE UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIS UN Mission in Sudan
UNMISS UN Mission in South Sudan
UNOCI UN Operation in Côte d’Ivoire
UNPOS UN Political Office for Somalia
UNSOA UN Support Office for AMISOM
UNSOM UN Assistance Mission in Somalia
UNSOS UN Support Office in Somalia
USC United Somali Congress
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

Maps

40° Al Qunfudhah 45° 50°

HORN OF AFRICA S A U D I A R A B I A
Atbara Abhaˉ
Re d S e a Najraˉn
HORN
Alghiena OF
Sala Sa'dah
Atb

e AFRICA
Nil Jiˉzaˉn
Nakfa
a

Shendi Mersa Gulbub

ra

Af'abet
Dahlak
Jaza'ir'-
Farasa
Faras ˉ n
Y E M E N
Khartoum E R I T R E A Archipelago
Hajjah
Sebderat Mitsiwa'e Shabwah
Kassala
Asmara
Asmara Inghel San'a
¸ ˉ Ma'rib
15° Teseney Barentu (Sanaa)' 15°
S U D A N Adi Quala
Mersa Fatuma
Al Hudaydah 'Ataˉq Ash Shihr
Wad Madani Omhajer Tio Al Mukallaˉ
Dhamaˉr
Gedaref Aksum Adigrat
Himora Adwa Idi Ibb Al Baydaˉ' Balhaˉf
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Sinnar e ze Mek'ele Ta'izz
Ahwar
Whhi

Singar Bab
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i te N

nd Metema Debark' Shaykh 'Uthmaˉn

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eN

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an

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Gulf of Aden Caluula
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h

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Debre Mark'os Gewané

Boorama Baki Berbera
10° E T H I O P I A 10°
y

Mendi
Fiche Debre Birhan Dire Dawa Hargeysa Burco
SOUTH SUDAN

Qardho
Gimbi Bandarbeyla
Gidami
Nek'emte Addis Ababa Harer Jijiga

Hagere Hiywet Mojo Boor

Kigille Dembi Dolo
Nazret Laascaanood Garoowe
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nz

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Yirga 'Alem
Om
e

Imi
Wa
Ge

Towot Abaya be War Galoh

Pi

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stro
bo

Sogata Arba Minch' Hayk Menguist bele Shilabo

r

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Ch'amo Galadi Dhuusamarreeb
Hayk
Hayk
Ge

Negele
Administrative Murle Garadase Filtu Ferfer Hobyo
na

5° Boundary
Da 5°
wa
le

Kapoeta Ch'ew Bahir Beledweyne

Todenyang
Banya Mega
Kusa Dolo Bay Xuddur S O M A L I A
Lokwa Lake Turkana Ramu Luug Buulobarde
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Kangole (Lake Rudolf)
Rudolf)
Garbahaarrey
Lodwar North Horr Takaba Baydhabo
Buna El Wak Jawhar
Moroto Loiyangalani
Lokichar Baardheere

UGANDA Wajir Marka Muqdisho

We

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(Mogadishu)
bi J

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ubb

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a

Jinja Tororo Eldoret

Archer's Post Jilib
Kakamega Bilis Qooqaani
Nyahururu
0°
Meru Jamaame National capital
Kisumu Nanyuki
Lake Kericho Nyeri Town, village
Nakuru Garissa Kismaayo
Victoria Embu
Tilka
Airport
Tan

Buur Gaabo
International boundary
Nairobi
a

Musoma
Machakos Road
Railroad
Mwanza
L.
Natron
Namanga
Garsen
Lamu INDIAN
UNITED REPUBLIC OF Galana OCEAN The boundaries and names shown and the designations
TANZANIA Arusha
Moshi
Voi Malindi used on this map do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the United Nations.
Shinyanga L. L. Kilifi
Eyasi Manyara Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the
0 100 200 300 km
Mombasa Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.
Pa n

ga 0 100 200 mi
ni
–5° Tanga
35° 40° 45°

Map No. 4188 Rev. 5 UNITED NATIONS Department of Field Support

March 2012 Cartographic Section
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

42° 44° 46° 48° 50°

Caluula
12°
DJIBOUTI GULF OF ADEN
Bandar Murcaayo
Breeda12°
Gees
Asayita Gwardafuy
Djibouti Boosaaso
Saylac Raas (Bender Cassim) Butyaalo
Dikhil Surud Qandala Bargaal
Raas Maskan ceel
Raas Ja Raas
il Maydh Laasqoray Binna
S il Khansiir Xiis
Karin Da
Dahot rro Hurdiyo Raas
AWDAL Bullaxaar Berbera Ceerigaabo (Erigavo) BARI Xaafuun

Baki Xaafuun
SANAAG Iskushuban
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ar M o u n ta i n s 10°
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NUGAAL Gabbac
8° Gori Rit 8°
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ETHIOPIA Werder Beyra Seemade

Megalo K'ebri Dahar Gaalkacyo (Galcaio) Garacad

Imi MUDUG
War Galoh
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6° Mirsaale Hilalaya 6°
Mereer-Gur
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Hargele (Dusa Marreb)
Hobyo
GALGUDUUD
Ferfer Ceel Huur
Ceel Buur
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bi

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KENYA (Baidoa)
Mahadday DHEXE
SHABELLE
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2°
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bi

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Jub

JUBA SHABELLE
ba

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DHEXE HOOSE
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Baraawe Town, village
Bu'aale
Afmadow Airport
Jilib International boundary
Bilis Qooqaani Regional boundary
0° Jamaame Undetermined boundary 0°
JUBA
SOMALIA Main road
HOOSE Kismaayo (Chisimayu)
Track
Isole Railroad
Giuba
0 50 100 150 200 km
Buur Gaabo
Raas 0 50 100 mi
Kaambooni The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
–2° do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. –2°

Garsen Lamu 42° 44° 46° 48° 50°

Map No. 3690 Rev. 10 UNITED NATIONS Department of Field Support

December 2011 Cartographic Section
 30 own
)
Km
T
ou ad
(ar Balc
nd
To
To
A
fg
( o
o
an 4 k ye
(2 d m) To
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ELIWAA

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 28/5/2018, SPi

DAYNILE

YAA
AAQSHIID
YAAQSHIID

Legend ARAAN
KARAA
KARAAN
WARDHIIGLEEY
Country capital
Regional boundary Bakara
Market
District boundary HAWL WADAAG SHIBIS
HODAN BOONDHEERE
Road
Villa
Kax-Shiiqaal Somalia CABDLCASIIS
SHANGAANI
K-4 junction XAMAR WEYNE

XAMAR JAABJAB
New
Creation Date: 15/02/2010 WAABERI seaport
Projection/Datum: Geographic/WGS 84 WADAJIR
http://ochaonline.un.org/somalia
Mogadishu
Web Resources:
E-mail: peterson1@un.org International
Nominal Scale at A4 paper size: 1:113,826 DHARKENLEY Airport

0 2 4 kms

Map data source(s):

IDP Settlements: OCHA, Metria and UNHCR
All Admin. layers: UNDP Somalia (1998)

Disclaimers:
The designations employed and the presentation of Mogad
Mogadishu
ogadishu
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