Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

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Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Experimental studies of dust accumulation and its effects on the

performance of solar PV systems in Mediterranean climate
Abderrazzak Elamim a, b, *, Salima Sarikh a, Bouchaib Hartiti b, Aboubakr Benazzouz a,
Said Elhamaoui a, c, Abdellatif Ghennioui a
a
PV & Soiling Group, Electric and Photovoltaic Department, Green Energy Park (IRESEN/UM6P), Km2 R206, Benguerir, Morocco
b
LVO BEEN Laboratory, GMEEM & DD Group, Hassan II University of Casablanca, FSTM BP 146, Mohammedia 20650, Morocco
c
IESI Laboratory, ENSET Mohammedia, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study is an experimental investigation of the effect of natural dust deposition on the performance of three
Grid-connected (PV) systems installed on the rooftop of the faculty of science and technology in the city of Mohammedia of
Photovoltaic Morocco in a Mediterranean climate. To determine the local soiling losses in solar PV systems electrical per­
Soiling losses
formance analysis using the IEC60891 procedure and the optical, morphological, and thermal properties of the
Transmittance
dust deposited on PV systems is assessed. The results show that power production and maximum current of PV
Absorbance
Dust morphology modules decrease by 7.4% to 12.35% and 11.6% to 18%, respectively, after allowing dust to accumulate
naturally without any scheduled cleaning. In addition, the optical transmittance of the glass samples is reduced
by 75% to 5%, from transmittance/absorbance data obtained with a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The
elemental and chemical analysis results by XRF, XRD, and FT-IR indicate that silica and calcite are the pre­
dominant components of the dust sample. Differential scanning calorimetry is used to assess the thermal prop­
erties (DSC) in a temperature range of 6–85 ◦ C and the Laser-Flash method (LFA) for measuring thermal
conductivity and diffusivity in the temperature range of 25 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C. It has been established that, for a given
mass, dust particles can accumulate energy in thermal form when the temperature rises.

1. Introduction
The massive exploitation of fossil energy resources, the problems of
global warming, and the increase of greenhouse gas emissions in the
atmosphere pushed states to seek solutions to ensure an energy transi­
tion to renewable resources such as wind, solar, biomass, etc. These
alternatives are ecological by reducing greenhouse gas (GHGs), con­
trolling the environmental and economic footprint, reducing energy
dependence, and ensuring self-sufficiency (Khan et and Arsalan, 2016).
In this context, solar PV energy is one of the most promising solar
technologies for power generation applied in many sectors such as
telecommunications, rural electrification, agricultural applications,
street sighting, and signaling (Yilmaz et al., 2015). However, the per­
formances of PV systems depend on several parameters related to
metrological conditions such as ambient temperature, solar radiation,
humidity, wind speed, and geographical parameters (latitude, longi­
tude, and shading (Elamim et al., 2018). These parameters are
responsible for the daily production rate, which requires repetitive
maintenance operation. In another hand, the materials used as the
technology of the solar cells, the nature of the encapsulant, the back
sheet, etc. impact the technology selection before the use of the PV
module (Flowers et al., 2016).
Both parameters greatly influence the PV systems performance, and
their lifetimes and consequently increase the discounted LCOE (Lev­
elized Cost of Energy) by generating several failure modes. Many studies
treated the degradation rate of PV modules (Bouaichi et al., 2020). It is
concluded that one of the major factors responsible for the degradation
after temperature and solar radiation is dust (Laarabi et al., 2020).
The dust accumulation on the surface of solar modules leads to
power losses of about 1% per day and sometimes more depending on the
location and climatic conditions relative to each site, the high wind
speeds, and its direction stimulate the deposition and distribution of dust
(Ilse et al., 2019).
It is reported that low precipitation rates favor the deposition of dust

DOI of original article: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.10.065.

* Corresponding author at: PV & Soiling Group, Electric and Photovoltaic Department, Green Energy Park (IRESEN/UM6P), Km2 R206, Benguerir, Morocco.
E-mail address: elamimabderrazzak7@gmail.com (A. Elamim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.01.078

Available online 8 February 2024

2352-4847/© 2024 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Elamim et al.
while high precipitation rates tend to clean the surface of PV modules
(Elminir et al., 2006). The tilt angle is another factor to be taken into
consideration, Indeed soiling rates significantly decrease at steep tilt
angles (Sarver et al., 2013). The percentage of relative humidity con­
tributes to an increase in the adhesion between the dust particles and the
surface of the module., Depending on the values of relative humidity,
different adhesion forces of soiling particles to the glass surface occur
(Moutinho et al., 2017). The formation of dew and the surface structure
of the PV system depends on other parameters related to the nature of
the existing organic and inorganic aerosols such as the concentration
and the physical characteristics of the dust like the shape, size, and
chemical composition of particles (Micheli et and Muller, 2017).
The accumulated dust is a layer that absorbs light and reduces the
transmission of the glass, thus affecting the production of PV energy.
However, the evaluation of the impact of dust accumulation is an
important criterion that needs to be well studied to maintain the proper
functioning of photovoltaic systems before and after the installation as
well as to propose solutions and mitigation measures.
2. Literature survey
Various research studies are underway to investigate the impact of
dust accumulation in different climates in different countries. Brief re­
views of some studies are presented in this section. Kazem et al. con­
ducted experiments at six distinct locations in Oman to investigate the
physicochemical characteristics of the dust that had accumulated on
photovoltaic modules. The results show a 35% to 40% decrease in the
productivity of the tested modules after three months of exposure
(Kazem et and Chaichan, 2016). Dhoudi et al. studied the seasonal
variation of soiling accumulation in the city of SHARJAH characterized
by a desert climate. After four months of exposure, a 30% decrease in
transmission was recorded and a 0.7 mg/week dust accumulation rate
was recorded (Dhaouadi et al., 2021).
In a continental climate in northern of Poland, Klugmann-
Radziemska conducted a study to evaluate the degradation of elec­
trical parameters of PV modules as a result of dust deposition. The for­
mation of dust was found to be dependent on the angle of inclination and
the period of exposure, a decrease of 3%/year was recorded in the power
levels produced by PV modules (Klugmann-Radziemska, 2015). In a
study by L. Boyle at two sites in the front range of Colorado on the
analysis of glass transmission losses through dust deposition, an accu­
mulation rate of between 1 and 50 mg/m2/day and mass accumulations
of up to 2 g/m2 (Boyle et al., 2015). The results of a study carried out in
DAHRAN of arid climate focused on the effect of dirt on the trans­
mittance of glass indicated a reduction of 20% of the studied parameter
with an accumulation rate of 5 g/m2 during 45 days, it was noticed that
the glass with anti-reflective coating showed a minimal reduction
compared to the glass without coating (Said and Walwil, 2014). Chen
et al. conducted research focused on the study of the impact of the
accumulation of dirt and the impact of precipitation on the reduction of
PV power generated by solar panels. This study was conducted in China
and showed that the accumulated dust forms clusters under the effect of
precipitation. The analysis noted that the dust particles deposited are
mainly constituted by SiO2 and CaCo3 with an average density of 0.6
mg/m2/week which results in a reduction of power up to 7.4% (Chen
et al., 2020). Valerino et al. (2020) found that the power loss due to dust
accumulation depends on physical properties such as particle size dis­
tribution and mineral and chemical composition and not only on the
mass density of the dust. Tanaseb et al. evaluated the performance of
seven PV modules of different technologies to investigate the contribu­
tion of dust as a parameter responsible for the degradation of PV mod­
ules. The experimental study showed reduction in power ranging from
19% to 33% (Tanesab et al., 2015).
In the semi-arid climate of Jordan, the effects of fouling and its im­
pacts on energy and economic performance were modeled and quanti­
fied. The results show that the degradation of energy performance, as
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Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359
well as the PV power produced, can reach 10% in hot areas, which re­
quires a preliminary study taking into consideration the effect of fouling
deposition in planning works and maintenance programs (Al-Addous
et al., 2019).
Studies have been carried out in various locations around the world
to investigate the effect of soiling using glass substrates. One of these
studies shows 3% and 13% reduction in hemispherical and direct glass
transmission (Micheli et and Muller, 2017). Using the spin coating
technique Olivares et al. studied the effects of soiling of photovoltaic
components under conditions of accelerated exposure indoors. The
study showed that the impact of soiling is much more interesting in the
UV spectral range. They observed that the increase of deposited dirt
increases the losses of Jph (photo generated current density) as a result
the efficiency is affected by 66.5% for 1.37 mg/cm2 (Olivares et al.,
2022).
An experimental investigation in Surabaya, Indonesia over 4 weeks
on the effects of dust accumulation and weather conditions on PV
module productivity. It was observed that an average relative humidity
of 52.24% results in a 10.8% reduction in PV power output (Ramli et al.,
2016). At various tilt angles and over a period of 100 days, the depo­
sition of dust resulted in vertical and horizontal energy losses of 26.2%
and 13.5%t, respectively. Two different materials at outdoor conditions
in India were used to study the impact of dust deposition. Plastic was
reported to attract more dust than glass (Ullah et al., 2019). Another
study conducted by Nahar and Gupta, focused on observing the optical
properties of some PV cover layers. The authors found that the dust
accumulated on the glass was less than that affected by acrylic and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Nahar and Gupta, 1990).
In the semi-arid climate in Morocco the effect of dust deposited on
two types of solar PV systems and solar mirrors, it was observed that the
samples of solar mirrors are more affected by the deposit than those of
solar PV glass (Azouzoute et al., 2020).
In recognition of the increasing demand for sustainable energy
sources, academics and industry professionals have been actively
engaged in developing viable approaches to address the detrimental
consequences of the accumulation of dust on photovoltaic (PV) systems.
This section provides a thorough examination of scientifically supported
mitigation strategies that have been proposed to improve the efficiency
and durability of photovoltaic (PV) installations.
Extensive research has been conducted on hydrophobic coatings,
which are based on surface chemistry principles. These coatings are
designed to prevent the attachment of dust particles and enable self-
cleaning when exposed to rainwater (Alarifi, 2023). In their study, A.
ELAMIM undertook a thorough examination of self-cleaning hydro­
phobic coatings designed for photovoltaic panels. The authors empha­
sized the considerable potential of these coatings in mitigating problems
associated with dust accumulation (Elamim et al., 2023).
Al Shehri et al. (2016) conducted a comprehensive examination of
different dry-cleaning methods utilizing robotic systems for photovol­
taic (PV) modules in their research. The results of their study revealed
that the utilization of Nylon brushes in dry cleaning techniques did not
have any noticeable effect on the optical characteristics of the photo­
voltaic (PV) glass surface. This observation remained consistent even
when the modules were exposed to simulated conditions comparable to
20 years of operation. This finding indicates that the utilization of Nylon
brush-based cleaning methods can successfully eliminate dust and
debris from photovoltaic (PV) modules without damaging their optical
properties. This underscores the promise of Nylon brush-based cleaning
as a feasible alternative for long-term maintenance of PV systems.
A study was undertaken by Altıntaş and Arslan (2021) to investigate
the efficacy of electrostatic cleaning in removing dust from photovoltaic
solar panels. The study evaluated the efficacy of currently available dust
removal systems, examined the effects of dust accumulation on panels in
the region of ŞANLIURFA, Turkey, and performed elemental analysis. A
unique electrostatic cleaning equipment, which incorporates optimized
electrode designs, was designed and afterwards subjected to testing. The
A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

Table 1 Table 2
Climatic data of the city of Mohammedia (Meteonorm database). Specifications of the PV panels and inverter.
GHI DIFF DNI Duration of Wind speed Modules Inverter
(KWh/ (KWh/ (KWh/ sunshine (h) (m/s)
Technologies p-Si m-Si a-Si Type of SB
m2) m2) m2)
inverter 2000HF
January 95 34 136 6 3 Nominal power 255 255 155 Max PV 2100 W
February 106 41 126 6,8 3,2 of the module power
March 158 54 174 7,5 3,6 (W) (DC)
April 189 63 188 8,4 3,8 Power -0.410% -0.450% -0.280% Max DC 700 V
May 218 80 200 9,4 3,9 temperature voltage
June 222 80 198 9,5 3,7 coefficient (K)
July 227 80 207 10 3,8 Power tolerance 0 to + 2 0 to + 2 0 to + 3 Rated 530 V
August 209 70 204 9,6 3,6 voltage dc
September 170 59 173 8,6 3,4 Nominal open 38 37.8 85.5 MPP 175 V-
October 133 50 148 7,8 3,4 circuit voltage voltage 560 V
November 100 35 140 6,2 3 of the module range
December 86 30 135 5,9 3,3 (V)
Year 1910 677 2029 7,9 3,5 Temperature -0.310% -0.300% -0.320% Rated 220 V/
coefficient of voltage AC 230 V/
open circuit 240 V
electric field values were obtained by both analytical and numerical voltage (K)
Nominal voltage 30.9 31.4 65.2 AC voltage 180 V-
methods, and the distribution of the electric field was simulated using
of the module 280 V
Ansys Maxwell software. A comparative analysis was conducted by at maximum
fabricating printed circuit boards for both the suggested and traditional power (V)
models. Despite the presence of comparable loss variations, the model Rated short 8.88 8.66 2.56 Rated 220 V/
under consideration demonstrated a notable degree of cleaning effi­ circuit current voltage AC 230 V/
of the module 240 V
ciency, hence highlighting its potential as a viable and efficacious
(A)
alternative for the cleaning of solar panels. Temperature 0.051% 0.004% 0.070% AC voltage 180 V-
This research provides an assessment of the dust accumulation on the coefficient of 280 V
surface of three PV technologies, based on experiments in real exposure short circuit
conditions for one year. the tests were performed in the climatic con­ current
Rated current of 8.32 8.15 2.38 Efficiency 96.6%
ditions of the city of Mohammedia located in Morocco characterized by the module at
a Mediterranean climate. Many papers have been devoted to the study of maximum
the effect of dust as a source of performance degradation in PV systems. power (A)
However, few reports considered the natural effect of deposition taking
into consideration the effect of optical, electrical, and thermal proper­
consisted of the study of the natural effect of dust accumulation on the
ties. The significance of the findings in this study will contribute to the
PV modules, specifically the relationship between soiling and the elec­
improvement of PV system performance as well as the optimization of
trical response of the modules.
cleaning strategies and mitigation techniques.
In the second step, using glass substrates to study the optical,
The objective of this work is to study the effect of different soiling
morphological, chemical and thermal losses due to light absorption
situations and their impact on the solar PV systems performance in a
depending on the area shaded by the dust particles and the composition
Mediterranean climate. The experimental procedure of this research
and size distribution of the particles.
took is performed through two main steps. The first is a characterization
of the electrical parameters of the three installed PV systems, this step

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the grid connected PV systems.

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A. Elamim et al.
Fig. 2. Data acquisition system for meteorological and electrical data.
3. Methodology and experimental setup
3.1. Characterization of the electrical parameters of the PV systems
3.1.1. PV plant
The experimental work was carried out in the Faculty of Science and
Technology in the city of Mohammedia, located on the coast of the
Atlantic Ocean (33◦ 70’ 58 N 07◦ 35’ 31 E), Morocco.
The city of Mohammedia enjoys a Mediterranean climate charac­
terized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The city enjoys
plenty of sunshine throughout the year. In summer (May to October), the
average maximum temperatures are 23 - 29 ◦ C, but can sometimes reach
35 ◦ C and the minimums are 14 - 19 ◦ C. The duration of sunshine reaches
9 to 10 h per day. In winter (November to April), the average maximum
temperatures are 20 - 23 ◦ C and the minimums are 9 - 12 ◦ C and can
often drop to 2 ◦ C in the morning. The daily sunshine duration during
winter is 5 - 6 h.
Data on these parameters are given in Table 1 (https://meteonorm.
com/).
In this study, three grid-connected photovoltaic systems of three
different photovoltaic cell technologies, polycrystalline silicon (p-Si),
monocrystalline silicon (m-Si), and amorphous silicon thin-film tech­
nology (μc-Si/a-Si) were considered as shown in Fig. 1.
The PV array is composed of one string of 8 modules of 255 Wp in
series for the p-Si and m-Si technologies and two parallel strings of 6
modules of 155 Wp connected in series for the a-Si technology.
The three PV systems are installed on an open roof on a galvanized
steel support with a 30◦ slope and facing south.
They are connected to the grid through three similar inverters of type
Sunny Boy 2000.
The characteristics and specifications of the modules and the inverter
have been presented in Table 2.
3.1.2. Monitoring system
Electrical data measurements, including DC output currents, volt­
ages and powers of the PV modules, AC output currents, voltages and
powers were retrieved from the inverters.
Module temperatures and meteorological parameters including til­
ted and horizontal solar radiation, ambient temperature, and wind speed
are collected with a data acquisition system with a 5-minute recording
interval as shown in Fig. 2.
3.1.3. Performance Indices
The performance of the three solar PV systems including electrical
characteristics such as I-V, P-V, maximum voltage (Vmax), maximum
current (Imax) and maximum power (Pmax) were studied according to the
natural effect of dust accumulation after one year (March 2015 to
February 2016) under different conditions before and after cleaning,
without any human intervention except natural activities (rain and
wind).
First, these modules were characterized under the initial conditions
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Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359
to ensure their proper functioning and to determine the value of the
parameters relating to the clean modules. Then, the modules were
exposed to the real operating conditions for a time corresponding to the
duration of the experiment.
Measurements obtained under actual conditions shall be brought to
standard conditions (STC) by applying IEC60891 procedure 1 using the
following equations (IEC Standard-1, 6089, 2009):
( )
1000
I = I1 + ISC − 1 + α(25 − T1 ) (1)
G1
V = V1 − RS .(I − I1) − k I(25 − T1 ) + β.(25 − T1 ) (2)
With:
I: the measured and standardized current.
I1: the measured current.
Isc: Measured short-circuit current.
V:the standardized measured voltage.
V1: the measured voltage.
Vsc: Measured open-circuit voltage.
T1: Module temperature.
Rs: Module series resistance.
α: Temperature coefficient in voltage.
β: Temperature coefficient in current.
k: Curvature coefficient.
3.2. Experimental characterization techniques of dust samples
3.2.1. Substrates preparation procedure
To study the optical, thermal, and structural properties of the dust
deposit we used ordinary glass substrates (2.5 cm × 2.5 cm). Before
using these glass slides, treatment of these substrates is performed. The
ordinary glass substrates are cleaned with diluted nitric acid HNO3
present 1/10 for ten minutes to remove the impurities that may exist on
the surface of the substrates, distilled water, and ethanol. Finally, these
substrates are dried in an oven for fifteen minutes at 80 ◦ C, and they
were weighed.
Then the glass substrates were placed next to the solar modules
installed under the same climatic and geographical conditions (ambient
temperature, irradiation, wind speed, tilt, orientation, and azimuth).
The samples were then collected and weighed at different fre­
quencies: two days, one week, two weeks, one month, two months, six
months and one year.
After the collection of the dust samples, a series of characterizations
is carried out to study their physical, compositional, optical, and thermal
properties. We present in this the section these various techniques. The
results obtained are presented in Section 5.
3.2.2. Optical properties
The optical properties (transmittance and absorbance) of the samples
are evaluated with an UV-Vis spectrophotometer (SPECTROVIO C5210-
C5220) in the wavelength range of 300–1130 nm.
A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

Fig. 3. Dusty PV modules:(a) m-Si system, (b)a-Si system, (c)p-Si system,.

The measurement of the transmittance and absorbance of the sam­

ples allows determining the absorption coefficients, the refractive index, • Calculation of the refractive index
the extinction coefficients, and the optical conductivities of the collected The refractive index is related to the electronic polarizability of the
glass substrates. ions and the local field inside the material. The estimation of the
refractive index of photovoltaic components is important for inte­
• Calculation of the absorption coefficient grated optical devices. The refractive index is related to the reflec­
The study of the optical absorption coefficient can be evaluated tance and extinction coefficient by the following equation (Moumen
using the transmittance spectra (T) and thickness (d) by the et al., 2017):
following relationship (Bedia et al., 2015): √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) 1+R 4R
1 100 n= + − k2 (5)
α = ln (3) 1− R (1 − R)2
d T

The thickness of the layers was recorded by a Smart-SE ellips­ The reflectance is related to the absorbance and transmittance by
ometer over a wavelength range of 450-1000 nm. the following relationship:
• Calculation of the extinction coefficient [ ( ) ]12
T
The extinction coefficient is a measure of the fraction of light loss R= 1−
due to scattering and absorption per unit distance of the average exp( − A)
penetration of material. The extinction coefficient is related to the
absorption coefficient and wavelength by the following relationship
• Calculation of the optical conductivity
(Nemade and Waghuley, 2014):
αλ The optical response of a material is ideally studied in terms of op­
k= (4)
4π tical conductivity. The latter (σopt) is related to the refractive index and

Pmax (a-Si)

Vmax (m-Si) Imax (a-Si)

947 W
828W CLEAN
DUSTY

Imax (m-Si) Vmax (a-Si)

830W 944 W
947W 874W
Pmax (m-Si) Pmax (P-Si)

Vmax (P-Si) Imax (P-Si)

Fig. 4. Degradation of the electrical output parameters of solar PV modules before and after exposure.

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Fig. 5. Comparison of I-V and P-V characteristics of PV modules.

the absorption coefficient by the following equation (Sharma et al.,
2012):
αnc
σ opt = (6)
4π
Where c is the speed of light.
3.2.3. Physical, mineralogical, and thermal properties
The physical characteristics were performed by a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) to study the surface morphology and particle size
distribution of the collected dust sample. The chemical composition
maps of the dust sample, as well as their microstructure, were deter­
mined using an X-ray diffractometer (XPERT-PRO) with radiation
(λ = 1.54056 Å) in the range2θ = 10–100◦ and the quantitative miner­
alogical analysis was performed using X-ray fluorescence. The different
bonds present in the considered dust sample were detected by Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), using a Nicolet™ Is™ FT-IR
spectrometer operating in the 4000–400 cm-1 range. The thermophys­
ical properties of the collected dust powder samples were measured by
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), using a DSC 204 f1 phoenix
instrument to determine the specific heat of the dust and the Laser Flash
Technique (LFA) using LFA 467 hyper flash instrument for the mea­
surement of thermal diffusivity to determine the thermal conductivity.
The bulk density ρ was measured using a standard glass pycnometer, and
an analytical laboratory balance. The pycnometer method used is
described in the standards NF EN 12350-6 (Anon n.da) and NF EN ISO

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A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

3 100 02.88 mg.cm-2

24.32 mg.cm-2
06.24 mg.cm-2
18.24 mg.cm-2
10.04 mg.cm-2
16.42 mg.cm-2 15.36 mg.cm-2
15.36 mg.cm-2 16.42 mg.cm-2
80
10.04 mg.cm-2 18.24 mg.cm-2
24.32 mg.cm-2
Absorbance (u.a)

06.24 mg.cm-2

Transmittance(%)
2 02.88 mg.cm-2

60

40
1

20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 400 600 800 1000
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength(nm)
Fig. 7. Optical transmittance of dust deposited on glass substrates.
Fig. 6. Optical absorbance of dust deposited on glass substrates.

4.2. Dust samples characterization

1675 (Anon, n.db.) (Fig. 3).

4.2.1. Optical properties results

4. Results and discussion
The transmittance and absorbance data curves of glass substrates
containing dust particles at different dust densities were measured using
4.1. Electrical performance of solar photovoltaic modules
a UV–VIS spectrophotometer as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The absorbance
of the samples presented in Fig. 6 decreases with the increase of the
The analysis of I-V and P-V performance degradation in both clean
concentration of the deposited dust particles and the increase of the
and dusty conditions is determined from equations (1.4) and (2.4) and is
wavelengths, we can deduce that the increased density of the dust
presented in Fig. 5.
particles blocks the passage of the photons of light towards the solar
A shift is observed in the curves I-V and P-V in the clean condition
glass samples and consequently reduces the efficiency of the PV cells.
(blue curves) compared to the curves I-V and P-V in the dusty condition
Fig. 7 shows the transmittance spectra in the measurement range of
(red curves). This shift reflects a degradation due to dust accumulation
300 to 1030 nm. The collected glass substrate samples show a trans­
on the surface of all the modules studied which blocks the solar intensity
mittance of about 75% between 300 and 1110 nm for the sample with
received. The divergence between these curves should increase with the
the lowest mass density; while the lowest transmittance is about 5%
increase of the dust accumulated on the surface of the module.
between 300 and 450 nm is recorded for the sample with a density of
The degradation of the electrical parameters of the PV modules, Pmax,
24 mg cm− 2 collected after 6 months.
Imax, and Vmax is presented in Fig. 4.
We notice that for the ultraviolet (UV) end all curves approach a zero
Fig. 5 shows that the electrical parameters of the three systems
transmittance this is due to the absorption of UV by the glass.
studied underwent a remarkable drop between the two test conditions
We thus find that the decrease in transmittance is proportional to the
clean and dusty, this drop varies between 11.64% to 18% for the
increase in dust particle density and the continuous accumulation over
maximum current, varies between 7.4% to 12.35% for the maximum
time throughout the experiment.
power and the variation of the maximum voltage does not exceed 2% for
To further analyze this issue, the corresponding soiling losses were
the three technologies.
calculated according to Eq. (1) for each glass sample
It can be noted that dust deposition strongly affects the maximum
⎛ ⎞
power and the maximum current, however, this decrease is negligible
for the maximum voltage. 1030⎜
∫ ⎜
⎟
⎟
The factors contributing to a reduction in the maximum current and ⎜ ⎟
⎜τ clean − τ dusty ⎟dλ
maximum power production of photovoltaic (PV) panels encompass the ⎜ ⎟
300 ⎝ ⎠
presence of particles and dust on the panel surface. These particles block
the transmission of sunlight and subsequently elevate the temperature of TLOSS = ⎛ ⎞ (7)
the panels. Furthermore, weather factors such as lower solar irradiation 1030⎜
∫ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
and elevated temperatures can additionally lead to a decrease in the ⎜
τ ⎟
⎜ clean ⎟dλ
efficiency of solar panels. The consideration of dust particle size is of ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
300
utmost importance due to its influence on the reflection, dispersion, and
absorption of incident light on photovoltaic (PV) modules (Chaichan
et al., 2020). These results confirm other studies reported in the litera­ Where τclean [%] and τdusty [%] are the measured transmittances of the
ture that have found a similar variation in the parameters studied glass samples before and after outdoor exposure, respectively.
(Ndiaye et al., 2013). The results are shown in Fig. 8, the rate of soiling decreases pro­
gressively with the increase in the density of dust particles, each increase
in dust density from 0 mgcm− 2 to 2.88 mgcm− 2 generates a decrease in
transmittance of 18.6%. the Fig. shows that it also decreases with
increasing exposure time until reaching a level where photons of

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A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

1,0

Normalized average transmittance of deposited dust

0,8

0,6

0,4

0 5 10 15 20 25
-2
Dust density (mgcm )

Fig. 8. Normalized average transmittance of dust deposited on the samples substrates.

2,5
1.36 nm
1.45 nm
1.60 nm
1.64 nm
1.67 nm
Refractive index (n)

1.72 nm
2,0

1,5

1,0
400 600 800 1000
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 9. Absorption coefficient (α), of dust deposited on substrates for different
Fig. 10. Refractive index (n), of dust, deposited on the substrates for different
thicknesses.
thicknesses.

sunlight cannot pass through the dust particles and act as a barrier
As shown in Fig. 10, the values of "n" are in the range of 1.11 to 2. The
blocking the solar radiation.
"n" values of the dust layers deposited at different densities can be
The absorption coefficient is an important quantity for photovoltaic
clarified by the densification of the layers. As the concentration in­
slides. From the values of transmittance and thickness deduced from
creases, the surface morphology becomes more and more dense and this
ellipsometry measurements varying between 1.36 nm and 1.72 nm, we
causes a decrease in the speed of the incident light through the material
calculated the optical absorption coefficient as shown in Fig. 9.
and this leads to an increase in the refractive index (Sangwal et and
The absorption coefficients as a function of photon energy (hν)
Kucharczyk, 1987).
present a value between 0.33.104 cm− 1 and 1.14 104 cm− 1 between 1
Fig. 11 shows the variation of the extinction coefficient as a function
and 3 eV. These values are low compared to 104 cm− 1 which is the
of the wavelength. The values of the extinction coefficient are between
optimum value for solar applications. The difference is more pro­
0.003 and 0.02. These values are low, probably due to the absorbance
nounced between the samples and that the absorption coefficient de­
values of the dust layers deposited on the glass substrates.
creases, but it can be attributed to the differences between the thickness
The optical response of the layers was studied in terms of optical
and density of each sample.
conductivity. Fig. 12 shows the variation of optical conductivity (σopt) as
The refractive index "n" is one of the essential properties of the ma­
a function of photon energy for different bulk densities. It can be seen
terial, as it is related to the electronic polarizability of the ions and the
from Fig. 12 that the optical conductivity decreases with increasing
local field inside the material.

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A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

0,04 photon energy and density. The values of optical conductivity are in the
1.36 nm range of 0.001 to 0.02 × 1014 (s− 1). These obtained values are due to the
1.45 nm high values of the absorption coefficient and the optical refractive index
1.60 nm and probably to the low transmittance of the films. The optical con­
1.64 nm ductivity behavior is attributed to the photo-excited electrons (Padma
Extinction coefcient (k)

0,03
1.67 nm Kumar et al., 2015). The increase of the photon energy improves the
1.72 nm number of photo-excited electrons and their movement, this phenome­
non contributes to improving the values of optical conductivity.
0,02
4.2.2. Chemical composition analysis
For further investigation of the dust composition, identification of
the chemical and mineral components of a dust sample from the results
of XRD, XRF, and FTIR analysis was performed.
0,01
The mineral analysis by X-ray fluorescence is shown in Fig. 13, and
the corresponding atomic weight percentage distribution of the dust
sample is shown in Table 3.
The analysis of the elements represented in Table 3 revealed that the
0,00
collected dust sample contains metallic elements like Ca, Al, Fe, and Mg
400 600 800 1000
with percentages of 8.2,6.36,3.08 and 1.49 respectively, and non-
Wavelength (nm) metallic elements like O, C, S, and P with percentages of 51,6.4, and
0.5 respectively, as well as the metalloid elements like silicon with the
Fig. 11. Extinction coefficient of dust deposited on substrates for different
percentage of 18.8, distributed in various weight ratios (Fig. 14).
thicknesses.
The elements identified in the dust sample may be in the form of
various minerals as presented in Fig. 13, It was observed that quartzite
0,030
(SiO2) and calcite (CaCo3) occupied a concentration of 40.2%
1.36 nm and23.4% of the dust particles content followed by Aluminum oxide
optical conductivity σopt x 1014 (s-1)

1.45 nm (Al2 O3) with a concentration of 12%, Calcium oxide CaO (11.5%) and
1.60 nm
0,025 Iron (III) oxide Fe2 O3 with a concentration of 4.4% as well as other
1.64 nm
1.67 nm compounds with minor amounts such as MgO, SO3, Na2 O, P2O5, K2O,
1.72 nm TiO2, Cl. etc.
0,020
Analysis of the dust sample by XRD X-ray diffraction spectra of the
dust sample are shown in Fig. 13.
0,015 The observed XRD peaks of peaks located at 2θ, the corresponding
interplanar spacing (dhkl), and the mineral assignment are provided in
Table 4.
0,010 The spectral analysis presented in Table 4 indicates that the dust
sample studied is composed of Quartz(SiO2), Calcite Ca(CO3), and
0,005 Dolomite (Ca Mg (C O3)2). Table 4 mainly reveals the presence of two
intense peaks, the most intense peak at 26.64◦ corresponds to Quartz
and the other peak corresponds to Calcite. The clay fraction of the
0,000 collected dust sample consists of Quartz and Calcite as the major im­
1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 purity in our sample, this confirms the XRF results which show high
hυ (ev) proportions of SiO2 (Quartz) and Calcite.
The infrared spectroscopy was used to complete the analysis of the
Fig. 12. Optical conductivity of dust deposited on substrates for different collected dust sample. The spectra obtained are shown in Fig. 15.
thicknesses. The appearance of two well-defined peaks at 577 and 631 cm-1 is
due to the presence of iron-oxygen (FeO) which confirmed that the
synthesized nanoparticles are iron oxide. The appearance of a small peak
TiO2 at 991 is due to the presence of the nitrate group. Moreover, the peak
K2 O positioned at 1631 cis is due to the bending vibration of absorbed water
P2O5 and surface hydroxyl respectively. The observed FTIR results confirmed
Na2O that the as-synthesized nanoparticles are iron oxide without any sig­
Component

SO3 nificant impurity (Hwang et al., 2014).

MgO
• In addition, the strong and well-appeared peak at around 1003 cm− 1
Fe2O3
in the spectrum is due to the presence of the Si-O-Si bond of SiO2,
CaO
which is consistent with the previously published work (Ramalla
Al2O3 et al., 2015).
CaCO3 • The peaks in the region of 687 cm− 1 are assigned to AlVI, whereas
SiO2 the shoulder at 750 and the line at 890 cm-1 are assigned to AlIV.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Thus, the γ-Al2O3 phase contains both tetrahedral and octahedral
Concentration(%) coordination (Romero Toledo et al., 2018).
• Calcium carbonate has two absorption peaks at 862 and 721 cm− 1.
Fig. 13. XRF mineral quantitative analysis. The peck at 721 cm− 1 confirms the presence of calcite (Lu and
Hajimirza, 2017).

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Table 3
XRF chemical element analysis.
Element O If It C Al Fe Mg Na K S P Cl

Conc% 51,9 18,8 8,2 6,4 6,36 3,08 1,49 0,9 0,87 0,5 0,501 0,424
Element Ti Ba Mn Zn Pb Zr Sr I Nor Cu Rb Y
Conc% 0,3 0,047 0,043 0,042 0,03 0,027 0,024 0,023 0,010 0,0083 0,007 0,004

6000

Q
5000

4000
Intensity(a.u)

C
3000

2000
Q

Q
1000 CQ
C D C CQ Q,D Q;C;D
C
QD Q Q Q Q Q
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2θ°
Fig. 14. X-ray diffraction patterns of the dust sample with D = Dolomite, Q = Quartz.

These results are in agreement with those found in DRX and FRX.
Table 4 They confirm the presence of Quartz, Calcium, Iron Oxide, and
Assignment of the different minerals in the dust sample from the XRD analysis. Aluminum in the studied clay.
Pos [2θ ◦ ] dhkl [Å] Minerals
4.2.3. Morphological analysis
20.85, 26.64, 36.56, 39.46, 40.3, 4.25, 3.34, 2.45, 2.28, 2.23, QUARTZ
42.46, 45.85, 50.16, 2.12, 1.97, 1.81, SEM images of the dust collected on the sample surface are shown in
54.91,57.46,59.99, 64.7, 72.91 1.67,1.6,1.54, 1.44, 1.29 Fig. 16. The results of the analysis reveal that the dust particles have
23.07, 29.43, 36.01, 47.55,48.55, 3.85, 3.03, 2.49, 1.91,1.87, Calcite geometrically different and irregular shapes but generally tend to be
65.75 1.42 spherical or elliptical. To determine the particle size distribution of the
30.91, 41.15,60.69,68.21 2.89, 2.19,1.52,1.37 Dolomite
dust particles, an analysis of SEM image by ImageJ is used and the re­
sults are presented in Fig. 17.

100
Ca - O
(783 cm -1)
Transmittance (%)

98 Al - O
(687 cm -1)

96

94

Si - O -Si
92 (1003 cm -1 )

90
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumbers (cm-1)
Fig. 15. Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of the dust sample.

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A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

Fig. 16. SEM micrograph of dust particles.

120

100
Particles diameter

80
Frequency

60

40

20

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Diameter (nm)

Fig. 17. Grain size distribution of the dust sample.

It has been identified that the average size of the dust particles is in
the range of 0,5 µm-12,5 µm) as fine particles, which can affect the
reflection, dispersion, and absorption of incoming light on PV modules.
The cleaning of higher concentrations of micro-sized dust particles is
much easier than the lower concentration of nano-sized dust especially
silicon (Jemmal et al., 2016).
The deposition of larger particles with increased grain size onto
panels is mostly attributed to the gravitational impacts and mass inertia
exerted by the atmosphere. The task of removing higher concentrations
of micro-sized dust particles is typically more manageable compared to
lower concentrations of nano-sized dust, particularly in the presence of
silicon (Lu and Zhao, 2018). So, it is important to consider the grain size
of the dust particles while estimating the degradation of energy loss from
the solar PV systems.
4.2.4. Thermal properties results
The accumulation of dust on the surface of PV modules blocks solar
irradiation through the PV modules and can also alter their thermal
equilibrium and cause overheating, or the particles accumulate and
retain heat, leading to other forms of degradation such as the hotspot
phenomenon. This is related to the thermal conductivity coefficient,
specific heat, and emissivity of the dust constituents.
As shown in Fig. 18, heat dissipation in a photovoltaic module is
affected by the three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
To further analyze this question, we measured some thermophysical
parameters of the dust samples, namely thermal diffusivity, thermal
conductivity, and specific heat.
Density is one of the main important thermophysical properties of
materials. increasing the density of the material significantly increases
the heat storage capacity. The bulk density of the dust sample was
measured by the pycnometer method. The experimental measurement of
the apparent density of the sample obtained is about 2226.29 kg/m3.
The specific heat capacity (Cp) of dust samples collected in the

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A. Elamim et al. Energy Reports 11 (2024) 2346–2359

temperature range of 6–85 ◦ C was obtained using differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC). The test was performed separately on different
samples, and the average values of the two measurements are shown in
Fig. 19.
The Cp value of the dust particles increases slowly with temperature
from 851 J/kg ◦ K at 7 ◦ C to 1011 J/kg ◦ K at 48 ◦ C and then increases
rapidly to a relatively stable value around 1229 J/kg ◦ K in the temper­
ature range from 50 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. It can be concluded that dust particles
can accumulate energy in thermal form, for a given mass, when the
temperature increases, this behavior is present in storage materials that
accumulate more energy thermal (Abderrezek and Fathi, 2017).
The thermal diffusivity of the dust samples was measured in the
temperature range of 25 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C with a step size of 5 ◦ C. Fig. 20
shows the experimental diffusivity curve obtained. The thermal diffu­
sivity of the samples is between 0.248 and 0.264 over the temperature
range between 25 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C, decreasing with temperature and
showing an almost constant value.
The thermal conductivity of the studied dust samples was calculated
by using the following equation:
Fig. 18. PV panel cross-section view.
λ = ρ × Cp × d (8)

assuming that the density of dust samples remains constant while tem­
1,25
perature increases since this parameter undergo only a small change
Specific heat capacity under heating, Fig. 20 illustrates the general trend of the thermal con­
1,20
Specific heat capacity (J/g °C)

ductivity of as a function of temperature. The results show that as the

1,15 temperature rises up, a material’s thermal conductivity, which could be
1,10
dust, also goes up, albeit slowly. This affects how it interacts on glass
surfaces. Dust with a high thermal conductivity can easily transfer heat
1,05 to the glass, which could cause it to heated up overheated. Dust with a
low thermal conductivity, on the other hand, works as an insulator,
1,00
which helps heat evacuate from the glass and keeps it from getting too
0,95 hot. In this case, the thermal properties of dust are very important for
controlling how the glass heats up and cools down. This could be used in
0,90 many places, from solar panels to cooling electronics, where tempera­
0,85 ture control is very important (Abderrezek and Fathi, 2017).

5. Conclusion
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature(°C)
In this work, the effect of the natural dust accumulation and its
Fig. 19. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis curves of the dust characteristics including optical losses over a period, the size distribu­
sample from 05 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. tion of dust particles, morphological studies, and thermal characteristics
on three PV systems was investigated at the outdoor PV installation
location in Mohammedia, Morrocco. The results indicated both the I-V
and P-V curves of all PV modules show lower values under dusty con­
ditions compared to clean ones, the electrical parameters of the three
analyzed systems dropped by 11.6% to 18% for maximum current, 7.4%
to 12.35% for maximum power, and 2% for maximum voltage, which
indicates the severity of the dust accumulation problem.
The dust characterization results indicated that there is a correlation
between the dust density and the decrease in transmittance, absorbance,
and optical properties such as reflective index, absorption coefficient,
and optical conductivity. The mineralogical study revealed that the
accumulated dust contained the most abundant element to be quartz
(SiO2) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), followed by calcite (CaCo3) and
other minerals such as aluminum oxide (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO),
and iron (III) oxide. Quartz was found to be the most abundant element
in the dust (Fe2O3). The results of the SEM analysis show that fine silt
particles predominated among the dust particles that were examined. It
was determined that finer dust deposition on the surface of PV modules
(0,5–13 µm) has a more significant effect on reducing the amount of
Fig. 20. Thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the dust sample from 25 ◦ C
solar intensity. Thermophysical properties of dust samples were deter­
to 70 ◦ C. mined, and results showed that Cp grows slowly from 851 J/kg ◦ K at
7 ◦ C to 1011 J/kg ◦ K at 48 ◦ C, then climbs rapidly to 1229 J/kg ◦ K be­
tween 50 and 85 ◦ C. This characteristic is seen in storage materials that
accumulate more thermal energy for a given mass and temperature, it

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A. Elamim et al.
was determined that the thermal conductivity gradually rises as tem­
perature rises until it reaches a value of 0.6 w /m◦ C.
The findings of this study will be of interest to project developers and
operators since they will shed light on the nature of PV soiling in the
Mediterranean climate and allow for more accurate predictions of PV
performance loss based on environmental circumstances.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Abderrazzak.Elamim, Bouchaib Hartiti: Methodology, Software,
Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Visualization,
Writing – review & editing. Salima Sarikh, Aboubakr Benazzouz:
Validation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
Said Elhamaoui: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization.
Abdellatif Ghennioui: Resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the support provided by the -Institut de
Recherche en Energie Solaire et Energies Nouvelles (IRESEN)‖ under the
project PROPRE.MA. We appreciate and acknowledge their financial
support and for given the opportunity to work at their research platform
Green Energy Park (GEP) in Benguerir, Morocco.
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