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t he e n d of e m pir es a n d a wor l d r e m a de
The End of Empires
and a World Remade
a gl ob a l history of
decol on i z at ion

Martin Thomas

pr i nc e­t on u n i v e r si t y pr e ss
pr i nc e­t on & ox for d
Copyright © 2024 by Prince­ton University Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Names: Thomas, Martin, 1964– author.

Title: The end of empires and a world remade : a global history of decolonization /
Martin Thomas.
Description: Prince­ton, New Jersey ; Oxford, United Kingdom : Prince­ton University Press,
[2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023030324 (print) | LCCN 2023030325 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780691190921 (hardback : acid-­free paper) | ISBN 9780691254449 (e-­book)
Subjects: LCSH: Decolonization—­History. | Globalization—­History. | Wealth—­Moral
and ethical aspects. | BISAC: HISTORY / World | HISTORY / Modern /
20th ­Century / General
Classification: LCC JV151 .T563 2024 (print) | LCC JV151 (ebook) |
DDC 325/.309—­dc23/eng/20230801
LC rec­ord available at https://­lccn​.­loc​.­gov​/­2023030324
LC ebook rec­ord available at https://­lccn​.­loc​.­gov​/­2023030325

British Library Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data is available

Editorial: Priya Nelson and Emma Wagh

Production Editorial: Natalie Baan
Jacket Design: Chris Ferrante
Production: Danielle Amatucci
Publicity: Carmen Jimenez and Alyssa Sanford
Copyeditors: Gráinne O’Shea and Katherine Harper

Jacket image: The first Algerian refugees from Tunisia wait to cross the electrified border in
eastern Algeria on May 30, 1962, as they return to their country. Source: Getty Images.

This book has been composed in Miller

Printed in the United States of Amer­i­ca

10 ​9 ​8 ​7 ​6 ​5 ​4 ​3 ​2 ​1
 con t e n ts

Abbreviations and Terms ​· v​ ii

Acknowl­edgments ​· x​ v

Introduction Ending Empire and Remaking the World 1

PA RT I GLOBA LIZING DECOLON IZ ATION 9

chapter 1 Decolonization and the End of Empires 11

chapter 2 Decolonization and Globalization 27

chapter 3 Decolonization and Its Alternatives 46

PA RT II TR ACING PATHS OF EMPIR E

DESTRUCTION 63

chapter 4 Greater War and Decolonization’s First

Global Wave 67

chapter 5 The Economic Side of Empire Decline 88

chapter 6 Making Decolonization’s Global Cultures 107

chapter 7 Decolonization in the Greater Second World War 123

chapter 8 Revolutionary Decolonization in Southeast Asia? 142

chapter 9 Partitions Dissected 164

chapter 10 Hiding Wars 188

chapter 11 Decolonization and the Civilianization of

Vio­lence 221

[v]
 [ vi ] con ten ts

chapter 12 ­Political Economies of Decolonization and

Development 239

chapter 13 ­Political Economies of Decolonization II:

The 1950s and 1960s 262

chapter 14 Conference Cultures and Third-­World

Decolonization 281

chapter 15 Endgames? Decolonization’s Third-­World Wars 309

Conclusion A World Remade by Decolonization? 335

Notes ​· 3
​ 51
Bibliography ​· ​533
Index ​· 6
​ 39
 a bbr e v i at ions a n d t er ms

a apso Afro-­Asian ­People’s Solidarity ­Organization,

founded 1957.
ackba American Committee to Keep Biafra Alive.
aef Afrique Equatoriale Française: the federation of
French Equatorial Africa, comprising the French
Congo, Oubangui-­Chari, Gabon, and Chad. The
former mandate of French Cameroon, declared a UN
trust territory in 1945, was eco­nom­ically tied to AEF.
afd Agence française de développement.
afpfl Anti-­Fascist ­People’s Freedom League (Burma).
aln Armée de Libération Nationale, armed wing of the
Algerian FLN.
anzus Australia–­New Zealand–­United States defense
treaty, 1951.
aof Afrique Occidentale Française: the federation
of French West Africa, comprising Senegal,
Mauritania, French Soudan, Niger, Ivory Coast
(Côte d’Ivoire), Guinea, Dahomey, and, from 1948,
Upper Volta (Haute-­Volta). Federal authorities in
Dakar also retained links with Togo, another former
mandate, made a UN trust territory in 1945.
arc Asian Relations Conference (India, 1947).
assr a Assistances Sanitaires et Sociétés rurales auxiliaires
(in Algeria).
au African U
­ nion, launched in 2002 as successor
to the OAU.
bmeo British ­Middle East Office.
bna British Nationality Act (1948).
caf Central African Federation, established 1953;
dissolved 1963.

[ vii ]
 [ viii ] A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms

cao Committee of African O

­ rganizations (African student
group in Britain).
cdc Commonwealth Development Corporation (British,
established 1947).
cgt Confédération Générale du Travail, French trade ­
union confederation.
cicrc Commission Internationale Contre le Régime
Concentrationnaire (Commission against the
Concentration Camp Regime).
comecon Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(Soviet-­directed).
coremo Comité Revolucionário de Moçambique.
cpc Colonial Policy Committee (of the British government).
cpgb Communist Party of ­Great Britain.
cpp Convention ­People’s Party, founded
in the Gold Coast, 1949.
crit Conference (of Asian Countries) on the Relaxation
of International Tension, 1955.
cro Commonwealth Relations Office.
dgs Direção-Geral de Segurança (Portuguese security
­service).
doms Départements d’outre-­mer, French overseas
departments, post-1946.
drv Demo­cratic Republic of Vietnam, established in
Hanoi in 1945.
dst Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire, French
internal security ­service.
ecowas Economic Community of West African States.
eec ­European Economic Community.
efo Economic and Financial ­Organization (of the League
of Nations).
emb Empire Marketing Board, (British) in existence from
1926 to 1933.
 A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms [ ix ]

emsi Équipes Médico-­Sociales Itinérantes (in Algeria).

ena Étoile Nord-­Africaine: North African Star; Algerian
nationalist party, established 1926.
eok a Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston: National ­
Organization of Cypriot Fighters.
fao Food and Agriculture O
­ rganization
(of the United Nations).
fco Foreign and Commonwealth Office (British).
fides Fonds d’Investissement pour le Développement
Économique et Social: Economic and Social
Development Fund, set up in 1946.
fln Front de Libération Nationale, Algerian National
Liberation Front, founded in 1954.
frelimo Frente de Libertação de Moçambique.
gatt General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
gco General Counter-­Offensive (in Vietnam).
giedc Groupement internationale d’études
pour le développement du Congo.
gpr a Gouvernment Provisoire de la République Algérienne
(Algerian provisional government, established 1958).
g77 Group of 77 (co­ali­tion of developing countries).
Haganah Zionist paramilitary ­organization.
Histadrut Federation of Jewish ­Labor.
ibrd International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development.
icftu International Confederation of ­Free Trade ­Unions.
icp Indochinese Communist Party, formed in 1930.
icrc International Committee of the Red Cross.
ilo International ­Labour ­Organization.
ilrm International League of the Rights of Man.
imf International Monetary Fund.
ina Indian National Army.
 [x] A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms

Irgun National Military O

­ rganization in the Land of Israel.
Tzva’i Le’umi
ito International Trade ­Organization.
k au ­Kenya African ­Union.
lai League against Imperialism.
Lehi b’Herut Fighters for the Freedom of Israel.
b’Yisrael
lnho League of Nations’ Health ­Organization.
l zvn Liga zur Verteidigung der Negerrasse: ‘League
for the Defense of the Negro Race’.
Mau Mau ­Kenyan anticolonial movement, sometimes
translated as ‘the ravenous ones’.
mca Malayan Chinese Association.
mcf Movement for Colonial Freedom (British pressure
group).
mcp Malayan Communist Party.
mdp Masai Development Plan (in ­Kenya).
mdrm Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache,
Madagascar nationalist party, founded in 1946.
meo Military Evacuation O
­ rganization (Indian
subcontinent), founded September 1947.
mna Mouvement National Algérien, rival to the FLN,
led by Messali Hadj.
mpaja Malayan ­Peoples Anti-­Japanese Army, largely
ethnically Chinese guerrilla force in Ma­la­ya in
the Second World War.
mps Minorities’ Protection Section (of the League of
Nations).
mrla Malayan Races’ Liberation Army, armed wing of the
Malayan Communist Party.
mrp Mouvement Républicain Populaire, French Christian ­
Democrat Party, founded in 1944.
mss Malayan Security ­Service.
 A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms [ xi ]

mtld Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés

démocratiques, Algerian nationalist party, forerunner
to the FLN.
na acp National Association for the Advancement of Colored ­
People, founded 1909.
nam Non-­Aligned Movement.
nato North Atlantic Treaty O
­ rganization, set up in
April 1949.
nieo New International Economic Order.
oas Organisation de l’Armée Secrète,
reactionary counterterror group.
oas ­Organization of American States, established in 1948.
oau ­Organization of African Unity, founded 1963.
os Organisation Spéciale, pre-­FLN paramilitary group
linked to the MTLD.
otc Overseas Trade Corporation (British, founded 1957).
paigc Partido Africano para a Independência da Guiné e
Cabo Verde.
pavn ­People’s Army of Vietnam.
pcf Parti Communiste Français, French Communist Party,
established in 1920.
pide Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado
(Portuguese).
pla ­People’s Liberation Army, national army of the ­People’s
Republic of China.
pmc Permanent Mandates Commission (of the League of
Nations).
pmi Protection Maternelle et Infantile (in French
Morocco).
ppa Parti Populaire Algérien, Algerian ­Popular Party,
founded in 1937.
psd Parti social démocrate: [Malagasy] Social Demo­cratic
Party.
 [ xii ] A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms

r af Royal Air Force.

rda Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, established
in 1946.
renamo Resistência Nacional Moçambicana.
rf Rhodesian Front.
rpf Rassemblement du Peuple Français, Gaullist
movement, launched in 1947.
sa a Syndicat Agricole Africain: West African planters’
association.
sas Sections Administratives Spécialisées, army civil affairs
specialists in Algeria.
sau Sections Administratives Urbaines (urban counterpart
to the SAS).
sdece ­Service de Documentation Extérieure et de
Contre-­Espionnage, French overseas intelligence
­service, broadly equivalent to Britain’s MI6.
seato South East Asia Treaty O
­ rganization, established
1955.
sfio Section Française de l’Internationale Ouvrière,
unified French Socialist Party, founded in 1905.
sig Special Investigations Group (of the British Ministry
of Defence).
sip Sociétés indigènes de prévoyance (French Empire
rural credit agencies).
tom s Territoires d’outre-­mer: French overseas territories,
post-1946.
uctan ­Union Générale des Travailleurs d’Afrique Noire.
udc ­Union of Demo­cratic Control, British pressure group
founded in 1914.
udhr Universal Declaration of ­Human Rights (December
1948).
udi Unilateral Declaration of ­Independence (by Southern
Rhodesia).
 A bbr ev i ations a nd Ter ms [ xiii ]

udma ­Union démocratique de Manifeste algérien, Algerian

proto-­nationalist group.
ugcc United Gold Coast Convention, founded in 1947.
umhk ­Union Minière du Haut Katanga.
umno United Malays National O
­ rganization.
unctad United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development.
unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural ­
Organization.
unia Universal Negro Improvement Association,
established 1914.
unicef United Nations International ­Children’s Emergency
Fund.
unita União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola.
unrwa United Nations Relief and Works Agency.
unscop United Nations Special Committee on Palestine.
upa ­Union of Angolan ­Peoples.
upc ­Union des Populations du Cameroun.
vnqdd Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dong: Vietnam National Party,
founded in 1927.
v wp Dang Lao Dong Viet Nam: ­Vietnamese Workers’ Party,
designation for the V
­ ietnamese Communists from 1951.
wfdy World Federation of Demo­cratic Youth.
wftu World Federation of Trade U
­ nions.
who World Health ­Organization.
zanu Zimbabwe African National U
­ nion.
zapu Zimbabwe African P
­ eople’s ­Union.
 ack now l ­e dgm e n ts

­ here’s a lot of book ahead of us, so I’ll keep my acknowl­edgments

t
short. Although brief, e­ very thank you that follows is heartfelt. Each of
the groups and individuals mentioned has been fundamental in getting
me over the finishing line of a proj­ect that, in many ways, goes back over
thirty years. I owe huge debts of gratitude, first to the Leverhulme Trust,
which funded Major Research Fellowships and an International Research
Network that made the research and writing feasible. Another UK-­based
scholarly funder, the ­Independent Social Research Foundation, supported
a proj­ect on imperialist humanitarianism that brought me into lasting
contact with the inspiring community of ISRF fellows in social sciences
and the humanities. I’ve had constant support from colleagues and stu-
dents at the University of Exeter, whose Centers for Imperial and Global
History and for Histories of Vio­lence and Conflict have become terrific
forums for the exchange of ideas.
A wonderful 2019 semester at the Netherlands Institute of Advanced
Studies in Amsterdam, as part of the ‘Comparing the Wars of Decoloni-
zation’ proj­ect team led by Thijs Brocades Zaalberg and Bart Luttikhuis,
transformed my thinking about colonial vio­lence. For that, plus their g­ reat
com­pany, I thank all the team members, including Pierre Asselin, Huw
Bennett, Roel Frakking, Brian Linn, Peter Romijn, Stef Scagliola, and
Natalya Vince. (And thanks again for the All Bran, Natalya’s mom.) Visitors
to the proj­ect, including David Anderson, Saphia Arezki, Miguel Bandeira
Jerónimo, Raphaëlle Branche, Elizabeth Buettner, Rémy Limpach, and
Kim Wagner, helped me better understand how to approach decoloni-
zation conflicts. An international research network on ‘Understanding
Insurgencies’, co-­organized with my Exeter colleague Gareth Curless,
provided the platform for seven workshops over three years that, again,
proved how much we learn as historians of empire from collaborative
research across countries and disciplines: a special thank you to every­one
who took part. Closer to home, it’s been a p­ leasure and a privilege getting
to know Alex Zhukov and Tanya Zhukova.
Turning ideas into books needs the help of a g­ reat press. The team at
Prince­ton has been exemplary: generous with their time, thoughtful with
their comments, and patient with their author. To my editor, Priya Nelson,
production assistant, Emma Wagh, production editor, Natalie Baan, and
[ xv ]
 [ xvi ] Ack now ledgmen ts

copyeditors, Gráinne O’Shea and Katherine Harper, a massive thanks. I’m

also indebted to Tarak Barkawi and Nicholas White. Their forensic analy­
sis as press readers was matched by their generosity of spirit in suggesting
improvements. I could not have asked for more. I thank Getty Images for
awarding image rights. And thank you to my co-authors, Andrew Thomp-
son and Roel Frakking, and to Cambridge University Press, Cornell Uni-
versity Press, and Oxford University Press for allowing me to use ele­ments
from chapter contributions I’ve published with them, credited below.
A last word to Suzy: thanks for every­thing; ­you’re the one.

Martin Thomas, “The Challenge of an Absent Peace in the French and

British Empires after 1919,” in Peacemaking and International Order after
the First World War ed. Peter Jackson, William Mulligan, and Glenda
Sluga (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2023), 151–75.

Roel Frakking and Martin Thomas, “Windows onto the Microdynamics of

Insurgent and Counterinsurgent Violence: Evidence from Late Colonial
Southeast Asia and Africa Compared,” in Empire’s Violent End: Compar-
ing Dutch, British, and French Wars of Decolonization, 1945–1962 ed. Thijs
Brocades Zaalberg and Bart Luttikhuis (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2022), 78–126.

Martin Thomas and Andrew Thompson, “Rethinking Decolonization:

A New Research Agenda for the Twenty-First Century,” in The Oxford
Handbook of the Ends of Empire ed. Thomas and Thompson (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2018), 1–26.

Martin Thomas, “Decolonization and the Civilianization of Violence,”

in The Oxford Handbook of Late Colonial Insurgencies and Counter-
Insurgencies ed. Martin Thomas and Gareth Curless (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2023), 141–60.
e n di ng e m pir es
 i n t roduc t ion

Ending Empire and

Remaking the World

december 1963 fou nd Ba rba r a C ­ astle in K

­ enya. L
­ abour Party politi-
cian, writer, and parliamentary voice of Britain’s leading anticolonial pres-
sure group, the Movement for Colonial Freedom, C ­ astle arrived in Nairobi
on the 10th. She was t­ here to celebrate. Hours a­ fter her arrival, C ­ astle
attended a multiracial ‘civic ball’. Diary entries rec­ord her thrill at what
was to come: ‘Atmosphere so gay: races mixing equally and naturally—
so diff. from the old ­Kenya! I twisted and jived uninhibitedly and I felt
like a 20 yr old’.1 The next day brought wildlife-­watching before another
night of cele­bration. The e­ vening began with drinks on the terrace of the
Lord Delamere Bar, once an exclusive settler haunt, now, in C ­ astle’s oddly
colonialist m ­ etaphor, the ‘Piccadilly Circus of a world society’.2 Six hours
­later, ­Castle was an honored guest at the Uhuru (Freedom) Stadium for
­Kenya’s i­ ndependence ceremony. Other British dignitaries included Angli-
can priest and antiracism campaigner Michael Scott, Oxford anthropolo-
gist and Colonial Office adviser Margery Perham, the departing colonial
governor Malcolm MacDonald, and Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh.
The duke took the salute of a King’s African R ­ ifles parade marching to the
strains of “Auld Lang Syne.” Jarringly inappropriate, the traditional invo-
cation of a freezing Scottish new year was meant to convey the warmth
between hosts and visitors. Besides, the regimental band knew it well—­
they ­were required to play it often. The ­music done, MacDonald offered
Britain’s congratulations to K ­ enya’s first president, Jomo Kenyatta, as
the ­Union Jack was lowered for the last time on the stroke of midnight,
December 11, 1963.3

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