KE37603 Communication

Systems
Lecture 2 The Communication Process II: Wireless Communication
Outline
• Discuss the characteristics of wireless channels
• Discuss how waves propagate
• Discuss the most popular ISO-OSI 7-layer communication reference
model
• Describe the different IEEE standards that apply to different types of
networks
• Discuss the future of wireless networks

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Wireless Comes of Age
• Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896
• Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in analogue signal
• Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean
• Communications satellites launched in 1960s
• could only handle 240 voice circuits.
• Advances in wireless technology
• Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication satellites
• More recently
• Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular technology.

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Mobile Communication
• Aspects of mobility:
• user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with
anyone”, i.e. the user can be mobile, and the services will follow him.
Example: call-forwarding solutions.
• device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the
network, example: hand over.
• The demand for mobile communication creates the need for
integration of wireless networks into existing fixed networks:
• local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11
• Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
• wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN
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Wireless Channel Characteristics

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Wireless Channel
Characteristics
A function of radio propagation
effects of environment
• Randomness in users’
transmission channels
• Randomness in users’
geographical location
• Time variation results in
random strength of signal
over time
• Interference due to shared
wireless environment
Attenuation decomposed to 3
main factors
Path loss, shadowing loss, fading
loss

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Path Loss
• Attenuation due to distance between communicating nodes
• The fraction of transmitted power intercepted by a receiver decreases
with distance.
• Affected by mobility of communicating nodes

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Shadowing Loss
• Due to absorption of radio waves by scattering structures
• Time variation also occurs due to changes in scattering environment

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Fading Loss
• Due to constructive and destructive interference of multiple reflected
radio paths.
• LOS available – Ricean fading
• LOS unavailable – Rayleigh fading

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Electromagnetic Wave Propagations

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Ground Wave /Surface
Wave Propagation
• To radiate signals with high
efficiency, the antennas should
have a size comparable to the
wavelength λ of the signal (at
least ~ λ/4).
• At longer wavelengths (i.e., at
lower frequencies), the antennas
have large physical size and they
are located on or very near to
the ground. • In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical
towers are generally used as transmitting antennas.
For such antennas, ground has a strong influence on
the propagation of the signal.

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Properties of Ground Wave Propagation
• Diffraction of the wave causes it to propagate along the surface of the
Earth.
• Used for a low-frequency range transmission, mostly less than 2MHz.
• Employs the use of large antennas order of which is equivalent to the
wavelength of the EM waves and uses the ground for its propagation.
• Signals over large distances are not sent using this method.
• It causes severe attenuation which increases with increased
frequency of the waves. The maximum range of coverage depends on
the transmitted power and frequency.

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Sky Wave Propagation
• In the Frequency range 300KHz–
30MHz, long distance
communication can be achieved
by ionospheric reflection of radio
waves back towards the earth.
• The sky wave, often called the
ionospheric wave, is radiated in
an upward direction and • This form of propagation is relatively unaffected
returned to Earth at some distant by the Earth's surface and can propagate signals
location because of refraction over great distances. Usually the high frequency
from the ionosphere.
(HF) band is used for sky wave propagation.

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Properties of Sky Wave Propagation
• Used for the propagation of EM waves with a frequency range of
300KHz – 30MHz.
• Make use of the ionosphere so called due to the presence of charged
ions in the region of about 60 to 300 km from the Earth surface.
• These ions provide a reflecting medium to the radio or
communication waves within a particular frequency range.
• Use of the property of the ionosphere for long-distance transmission
of the waves without much attenuation and loss of signal strength.
• Examples
• Amateur radio , Citizens Band (CB) radio , International broadcasts

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Line-of-Sight
Propagation (LOS)
• The primary path is directly from
the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna. So, the
receiving antenna must be
located within the radio horizon
of the transmitting antenna. • At frequencies above 40 MHz, communication is essentially
• Because space waves are limited to LOS paths. At these frequencies, the antennas
refracted slightly, even when are relatively smaller and can be placed at heights of many
propagated through the wavelengths above the ground. Because of LOS nature of
troposphere, the radio horizon is propagation, direct waves get blocked at some point by the
actually about one-third farther curvature of the earth.
than the LOS or natural horizon. • If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon then the
receiving antenna must be high enough to intercept the
LOS waves.
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LOS Calculation
• If the antenna is at a height ℎ, then the distance to the horizon 𝑑 is
given as 𝑑 = 2𝑟ℎ, where 𝑟 is the radius of the earth (approximately
6400 km or 3960 miles)
• The maximum LOS distance 𝑑 between the two antennas having
heights ℎ 𝑇 and ℎ𝑅 above the earth is given by 𝑑 = 2𝑟ℎ 𝑇 + 2𝑟ℎ𝑅
• E.g. For a Receiving Antenna Height of 5.00 m and a Transmitting
Antenna Height of 612.50 m, the LOS distance is 111.48 km

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Plot describing the LOS distance for transmitting
antennas with receiving antenna being 5 m above
ground

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Space Wave Propagation
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use
this propagation method.
• For very large distances, the height of the tower used for transmission
is high enough to prevent waves from touching the earth curvature
thus preventing attenuation and loss of signal strength.

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Frequency Allocations

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Spectrum
• Spectrum Regulation
• Spectrum a scarce public resource, hence allocated
• Spectral allocation in US controlled by FCC (commercial) or OSM (defense); in Malaysia
controlled by MCMC
• Some spectrum set aside for universal use
• Worldwide spectrum controlled by ITU-R
• Regulation is a necessary evil.
• Innovations in regulation being considered worldwide, including underlays, overlays, and cognitive
radios
• Spectral Reuse
• Due to its scarcity, spectrum is reused
• In licensed bands: Cellular, Wimax
• In unlicensed bands: Wifi, BT, UWB,…
• Reuse introduces interference

[20]
https://www.skmm.gov.my/skmmgovmy/media/General/pdf/Malaysian_Spectrum_Allocations_Chart.pdf
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Frequency Bands (Digital and Analog
Communications, Leon W. Couch II)

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The Layered Approach to
Communication

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Layered Architecture
• Key technique to implement complex
systems & communication protocols
• Abstraction
• Explicit structure allows identification, relationship of
different pieces
• Layered reference model for discussion
• Modularity -> eases maintenance, updating of
system
• Change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
• e.g., change in gateway procedure doesn’t affect rest
of system
• Reuse
• Software/code, system component, protocol

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Models and Standards in Communication
• Implementation
• A framework is helpful in the design of hardware and software for
communication
• Allow vendors to enter the market by using their own implementation and protocols
• ISO-OSI Model serves this purpose
• Introduced in 1978 and revised in 1984
• ARPANET started in 1969; TCP/IP protocols ready by 1974
• Best suited to communication of digital information
• ISO and OSI Defined
• ISO: International Standards Organization
• OSI: Open Systems Interconnect
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OSI Model Background
• OSI: conceptually define service, interface, &
protocol
• Service – says what a layer does
• Layer N relies on services from layer N-1 to provide a
service to layer N+1
• Service required from a lower layer is independent of
its implementation
• Interface – says how to access the service
• Protocol – says how is the service implemented
• A set of rules and formats that govern the
communication between two peers
• Layer N change doesn’t affect other layers

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The Layered Approach to Communication
7. Application

6. Presentation

5. Session

4. Transport

3. Network

2. Data Link

1. Physical
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The Function of a Layer
• Each layer deals with one aspect of networking
• Layer 1 deals with the communication media
• Each layer communicates with the adjacent layers
• In both directions
• Ex: Network layer communicates with:
• Transport layer
• Data Link layer
• Each layer formats the data packet
• Ex: Adds or deletes addresses

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7. Application Layer
• Service: Process-to-process communication
• any service provided to the end user
• all layers exist to support this layer
• Interface: depends on the application
• Protocol: depends on the application
• Examples
• File request from server
• E-mail services
• FTP, Telnet, HTTP

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6. Presentation Layer
• Service: convert data between various representations to common
format
• Interface: depends on service
• Protocol: define data formats, and rules to convert from one format
to another
• Examples
• Encryption
• Character set conversion

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5. Session Layer
• Service
• Oversee a communication session
• Establish session setup (authentication)
• Maintain (Recovery from failure)
• Terminate
• Interface: depends on service
• Protocols: token management; insert checkpoints

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4. Transport Layer
• Service: Repackage proper and efficient delivery of packages
• Error free, in sequence, without duplication
• For sending data
• Repackage the message to fit into packets
• Split long messages
• Assemble small messages
• On receiving data
• Perform the reverse
• Send an acknowledgment to the sender
• Solve packet problems during transmission and reception

• Interface: send a packet to specify destination

• Protocol: implement reliability and flow control
• Examples: TCP
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3. Network Layer
• Service
• Deliver a packet to specified destination
• Naming and addressing
• Routing of packets within a network based on priority and best path at the time of
transmission
• Avoidance of failed links
• Perform segmentation/reassemble
• Packet scheduling
• Buffer management
• Interface: send a packet to a specified destination
• Protocol: define global unique addresses; construct routing tables
• Example: IP

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2. Data Link Layer
• Service
• Manages the flow of data over the physical media
• Responsible for error-free transmission over the physical media
• Assures error-free data submission to the Network Layer
• Interface: send a packet to a machine connected to the same physical
media
• Protocol: layer addresses, implement Medium Access Control (MAC)
(e.g., CSMA/CD)…

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Data Link Layer Subdivision
• Improvement to ISO Model
• Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer
• Manages service access points (logical link)
• Error and flow control
• Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer
• Applies directly to network card communication
• Access control

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1. Physical Layer
• Purpose
• Deals with the transmission of 0s and 1s over the physical media
• Translation of bits into signals
• Interface: specifies how to send a bit
• Protocol: coding scheme used to represent a bit, voltage levels,
duration of a bit
• Examples: coaxial cable, optical fiber links; transmitters, receivers
• The focus of this course.

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IEEE 802 Focus
Application

• OSI Reference
Presentation
ISO
OSI Session IEEE 802
• Data Link layer 7-layer Transport standards
model Network
• Physical layer Logical Link Control
Data Link Medium Access (MAC)

Physical Physical (PHY)

• Areas
• Network cards and cables
• Network electronic/optical/ wireless communication standard as they apply
to the lower two layers mentioned above
• WAN connectivity
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IEEE 802 Standards
The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *. The ones
marked with  are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.

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IEEE 802 Committees And Responsibilities

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Towards the Future

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Generations of Mobile Wireless Networks

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 Communications beyond the Thinking
(spatial, terrestrial, speed, 5G/6G, streaming, high data processing, protocols, etc.)

6G networking and connectivity

Historical and estimated 1G ..6G evolution

Source: M. Giordani, et al., "Toward 6G Networks:Use Cases and Technologies", IEEE Communications Magazine , March 2020

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 Future Wireless Networks
Ubiquitous Communication Among People and Devices

Next-Gen Cellular/WiFi
Smart Homes/Spaces
Autonomous Cars
Smart Cities
Body-Area Networks
Internet of Things
All this and more … 44
 Panel
Communications beyond the Thinking
(spatial, terrestrial, speed, 5G/6G, streaming, high data processing, protocols, etc.)
.
6G networking and connectivity – some research challenges

❑ Increased hardware complexity

❑ Low power circuits with high-performance processing capabilities
❑ Intelligent wireless energy harvesting
❑ Seamless coexistence of multiple RATs, AI-based adaptive transceivers
❑ Dynamic radio resource allocation
❑ Pre-emptive scheduling in massive connectivity
❑ Security and Privacy- distributed models
❑ Flexible network slicing
❑ Intelligent cell-less architecture
❑ Integration of space, air, terrestrial and maritime communications
❑ AI-based management and control

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