EEE 460: Optoelectronics Laboratory

Experiment No. 2
Name of the Experiment: Reflection, Transmission, Radiative and Non-Radiative
Recombination of Light in Semiconductors

Objectives:
The objectives of this experiments are the following:
• To be able to numerically calculate reflection and transmission of light incident onto a
semiconductor
• To be able to calculate and analyze radiative and non-radiative recombination rates in a
semiconductor
• To determine the internal quantum efficiency of a material from the recombination rates

Prelab:
i. From available online resources, collect nr vs. λ and κ vs. λ data files (in excel or text
file format) for GaAs. These data files must be brought for laboratory tasks.
ii. By going through the reference text, bring values of the following parameters:
a. Capture cross section of electron/hole traps
b. NC, NV, ni , effective mass values of GaAs
c. Br values for direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors
iii. Reading assignment: relevant section for referred textbook.

Part A: Calculation of reflection and transmission of Light incident onto a semiconductor

Theory:

When light is incident onto a semiconductor, usually a fraction of the light is reflected, whereas
the rest of the light transmits through the semiconductor on the other side and/or get absorbed in
the semiconductor material. The light intensity I(x), in this case being a function of position (x),
diminishes with distance as per the following relation:

I ( x) = I 0 (1 − R) exp(− x)

Here I(x) is the external incident light intensity, α is the material absorption coefficient and R is
the reflectivity of light at ambient-semiconductor interface. When a plane wave is incident
normal from air onto a semiconductor having complex refractive index n+iκ , the reflectivity R is
given by:

(n − 1)2 +  2
R=
(n + 1)2 +  2
In a semiconductor sample of thickness W where the product αW is not large, multiple
reflections will occur between the two interfaces. In this case summing up all the light
components in the backward direction, the total reflectivity is calculated to be:

 (1 − R)2 exp(−2W ) 
R = R 1 +
 1 − R 2 exp(−2W ) 

and the total transmittance is given by:

(1 − R) 2 exp(−W )
T =
1 − R 2 exp(−2W )

T∑ and R∑ are two important quantities generally measured experimentally. By analyzing the T∑
vs λ and R∑ vs λ data at normal incidence, or by making observations on R or T for different
angles of incidence, both n and κ can be obtained and related to the transition energy between
bands.

Laboratory Tasks:

1. Using absorption coefficient of GaAs obtained from its extinction coefficient, calculate
and compare the reflectivity and transmittance for light of wavelength ranging from 200
nm to 800 nm, incident normally onto GaAs films having thicknesses of 1 cm and 100
nm. Also estimate what fraction of light is absorbed in each of these films.
2. Using absorption coefficient of GaAs obtained from its extinction coefficient, calculate
and compare the reflectivity and transmittance for light of wavelength 600 nm incident
normally onto GaAs films having thicknesses varying from 1 nm to 0.7 μm Also estimate
what fraction of light is absorbed in each of these films.

Tasks for Report Writing:

1. Based on experimentally reported absorption coefficient values of Silicon, GaN and

GaAs, numerically calculate and plot the transmittance and reflectivity of 2 µm thick
films for each of these materials for normal incidence of light. Assume a wavelength
range of 200 nm to 800 nm.
2. You will have to design a photonic device such that for all wavelengths over the visible
range, at least 30% of the incident light will transmit through the device. Suppose the
center wavelength of the visible spectrum is 550 nm. Assuming the materials of choice
are Silicon, GaN and GaAs, calculate the maximum thickness for each of these materials.
Show necessary numerical calculations/plots to support your answers.
Part B: Calculation of non-radiative recombination rate in a semiconductor

Theory: In a semiconductor, minority carriers are generated by intrinsic photoexcitation or by

injection across a forward-biased p-n junction. Since the density of majority carriers is usually
not affected, these are termed minority-carrier generation processes. The excess minority carrier,
after living a mean lifetime, generally recombines with a majority carrier. This recombination
can be radiative or non-radiative in nature, which correspond to emission of photon and phonon
respectively.

Non-radiative recombination process involves electron (hole) capture involving electron (hole)
traps arising from defects in the semiconductor. These traps create trap levels (ET) within the
bandgap of the semiconductor. According to Shockley-Read-Hall theory of recombination, the
non-radiative recombination rate is given by:

se sh vth NT [np − ni2 ]

Rnr =
 ( E − ET )   ( ET − EV ) 
se [n + N C exp  − c ] + sh [ p + NV exp  − ]
 k B T   k B T 
Here n = no + Δn and p = po + Δp where Δn = Δp are excess electron and hole concentrations. no
(po) are equilibrium electron (hole) concentrations calculated from doping concentration.
Considering se = se = sr and taking into account intrinsic Fermi level (EFi), the above equation
can be rewritten as:

np − ni2
Rnr = sr vth NT
 E − EFi 
n + p + 2ni cosh  T 
 k BT 
1 * 2 3
m vTh = k BT
It is to be noted that the thermal velocity (vT) can be estimated from the relation:
2 2
For low level injection in a n-type semiconductor, Rnr reduces to the following approximate
form:

p
Rnr = sr vth NT p =
 nr
where τnr is the non-radiative recombination lifetime. Similar relation applies to a p-type
semiconductor having excess carrier concentration of Δn as well.
Laboratory Tasks:

1. Consider a GaAs-based p-type semiconductor having doping concentration of 1018 cm-3.

Assume the defect density to be 102 cm-2 and trap energy to be located 0.2 eV above the
Fermi level. Considering Δn = Δp, plot the non-radiative recombination rate as a function
of excess carrier concentration. Also estimate the value of excess carrier concentration up
to which the expression of Rnr for low-level injection applies.

Tasks for Report Writing:

1. For the above problem, calculate the non-radiative recombination rate as a function of
temperature for three different levels of injection. Note that you will have to consider the
temperature dependence of all parameters (such as intrinsic carrier concentration,
bandgap etc.) for this problem.

Part C: Calculation of radiative recombination rate and internal quantum efficiency in a

semiconductor

Theory: The spontaneous radiative recombination rate in a semiconductor is given by:

Rsp = Br  no po + n(no + po ) + (n) 2 

Here Br is the coefficient for band-to-band recombination rate. From this relation, the radiative
lifetime is defined as:

1
r =
Br (no + po + n)

Different cases of radiative recombination lifetime calculation are mentioned below.

1
Case 1: For doped semiconductor at low-level injection,  r 
Br (no + po )

1
Case 2: For un-doped semiconductor at low-level injection,  r 
2 Br ni

1
Case 3: At high-level injection,  r 
Br n

Case 4: For significantly high level injection,  r   0 = 0.5ns , constant for most semiconductors
Upon calculation of τr and τnr , the internal quantum efficiency (IQE), also known as radiative
recombination efficiency, is calculated as:

Rr 1
r = =
Rr + Rnr 1 +  r /  nr

Laboratory Tasks:

1. Consider n-type GaAs having doping concentration of 1017 cm-3. Calculate and plot the
radiative recombination lifetime for excess carrier concentrations ranging from 1010cm-3
to 1019cm-3. Also identify in your plot regions of low-level and high-level injections.

Tasks for Report Writing:

1. Consider p-type Silicon and GaN having doping concentrations of 1017 cm-3. For low
level injection, plot and compare the IQE of these materials as a function of excess carrier
concentration. Assume the defect density to be 102 cm-2 for both these materials.
2. Numerically show how the IQE of p-GaN is expected to change if the defect density
varies from 10 cm-2 to 108 cm-2 under doping concentrations of 1015 cm-3, 1016 cm-3 and
1019 cm-3. Assume low level injection.

References:
1. Chapter 2 and 3 of Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices (2nd Edition) by Pallab
Bhattacharya
2. Chapter 1 of Physics of Semiconductor Devices by S. M. Sze and Kwok K. Ng

Appendix: Material parameters

(Here different symbols have their relevant meanings)

Intrinsic Carrier Concentrations for different materials:

ni(GaAs) = 1.79 ×106 cm-3, ni(GaN) = 2.4 ×1013 cm-3 , ni(Si) = 1.45 ×1010 cm-3
Electron and hole capture cross section at trap level, Se = Sh = 10-15 cm2
Br = 10-11 – 10-9 cm3s-1 (Direct Bandgap materials)
Br = 10-15 – 10-13 cm3s-1 (Indirect Bandgap materials)

Materials ϵ me mh Eg0 (eV) A (eV/K) B(K)

Si 11.9ϵ0 0.98m0 0.16m0 1.17 7.021×10-4 1108
GaAs 12.9ϵ0 0.063m0 0.5m0 1.52 5.405×10-4 204
GaN 10.4ϵ0 0.27m0 0.8m0 3.507 9.09×10-4 830