EEE 460: Optoelectronics Laboratory

Experiment No. 3
Name of the Experiment: Characterization of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Objectives:

The objectives of this experiments are the following:

• To be able to numerically calculate output spectrum of LED

• To be able to calculate output optical power (L) vs current (I) characteristics of LED
• To determine the I-V characteristics of LED

Prelab:

i. By going through the reference text and online resources, bring values of the following
parameters:
a. 𝐸𝑔 , 𝑚𝑟∗ , µ of GaAs and GaN
b. Br values for direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors
ii. From online resources or reference books, collect normalized spectral response of the
human eye, also known as the photopic visual curve
iii. Reading assignment: relevant section for referred textbook.

Part A: Calculation of output spectra of an LED

Theory:

The light-emitting diode (LED) converts input electrical energy into output optical radiation,
typically in the visible or infrared regime of the spectrum, depending on the semiconductor
materials. LED is essentially a junction diode that typically are asymmetric and made from direct
bandgap materials. Energy band diagrams of a typical n+-p junction LED without bias and with forward
bias are shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (b), respectively.

For an LED due to forward-bias injection, the spontaneous emission rate per unit volume, 𝑟𝑠𝑝 (𝐸)
taking the selection rule into account are defined by,

𝑟𝑠𝑝 (𝐸) = 𝑃𝑒𝑚 𝑁𝐽 (𝐸)𝑓𝑛 (𝐸2 )[1 − 𝑓𝑝 (𝐸1 )] (𝑠 −1 . (𝑒𝑉)−1 . 𝑐𝑚−3 ).

where, 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are energy of hole and electron, respectively and 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 is the photon
energy.

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The quantity 𝑃𝑒𝑚 is the emission probability given by,

𝑛𝑟 𝑞 2 𝐸 𝑃𝑐𝑣
2
(1 + 𝑢𝐸 ) 1 −1
𝑃𝑒𝑚 = = (𝑠 ).
3𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑜 ℏ2 𝑐 3
2 𝜏𝑟

The joint density of states, 𝑁𝐽 (𝐸) is given by

3
(2𝑚𝑟∗ ) ⁄2 1
𝑁𝐽 (𝐸) = 2 3
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 ) ⁄2 ((𝑒𝑉)−1 . 𝑐𝑚−3 ).
2𝜋 ℏ

Fig. 1: (a) Energy band diagram of a n+-p junction without bias. (b) Energy band diagram of a n+-p junction
with forward bias.

For the case of weak injection in an LED, quasi fermi levels are several 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 away from the band
edges and are within the band gap. The distribution functions are then given by the exponential
𝐸𝑓𝑛 −𝐸 𝐸−𝐸𝑓𝑝

approximations given by 𝑓𝑛 (𝐸2 ) ≅ 𝑒 and [1 − 𝑓𝑝 (𝐸1 )] =≅ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 . Under these conditions,

𝑘𝐵 𝑇

the spontaneous emission rate or injection electroluminescent rate per unit volume
3 𝐸𝑓𝑛 − 𝐸𝑓𝑝 − 𝐸𝑔 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔
(2𝑚𝑟∗ ) ⁄2 1⁄ ( ) −( )
𝑟𝑠𝑝 (𝐸) = 2 3
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑔 ) 𝑒2 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 (𝑠 −1 . (𝑒𝑉)−1 . 𝑐𝑚−3 ).
2𝜋 ℏ 𝜏𝑟

And the total spontaneous emission rate per unit volume, 𝑅𝑠𝑝 is given by
∞
𝑅𝑠𝑝 = ∫ 𝑟𝑠𝑝 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (𝑠 −1 . 𝑐𝑚−3 ).
0

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Total photon flux, Φo can be obtained by,

∞ 3⁄ 𝐸𝑓𝑛 − 𝐸𝑓𝑝 − 𝐸𝑔
𝑚𝑟∗
V𝑙 2 3⁄ ( )
Φ𝑜 = V𝑙 ∫ 𝑟𝑠𝑝 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ( ) (𝑘𝐵 𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 (𝑠 −1 ),
0 √2ℏ3 𝜏𝑟 𝜋

where V𝑙 is the active region volume.

Tasks for Assignment:

1. Calculate and plot the spectra of injection electroluminescent rate per unit volume of a
GaAs n+-p junction LED assuming radiative recombination lifetime calculated from the
experiment 2(iii). Consider, n-type GaAs having doping concentration of 5×1017 cm-3 and
p-type GaAs having doping concentration of 1015 cm-3 in this LED. Plot the spontaneous
emission rate of GaAs as a function of wavelength. Calculate the total photon flus for a
GaAs n+-p junction LED with an active volume of 0.5 mm3.
2. Numerically calculate and plot the emission spectra of a GaN n+-p LED. Determine the
peak wavelength of the output spectrum. Calculate the linewidth of the output spectrum.
Make necessary assumptions for parameters.

Part B: Calculation of output optical power (L) – current (I) characteristics of an LED

Theory:

The processes occurring in a junction LED can be divided into three stages. The first is the
excitation or injection process, in which the energy of the carriers is raised by forward bias
injection. Next is the recombination process, during which most of these carriers give up their
excess energy as photons. Finally, the generated photons must leave the semiconductor and
provide the desired stimulus to the eye or produce a photocurrent in a detector. This is the over-all
extraction process. Each of these processes have a characteristic efficiency, and the overall device
efficiency or external conversion efficiency, 𝜂𝑜 , can be expressed as

𝑃𝑜
𝜂𝑜 = = 𝜂𝑖𝑛 𝜂𝑟 𝜂𝑒 𝜂𝐿 ,
𝑃𝑒

where 𝜂𝑖𝑛 , 𝜂𝑟 , 𝜂𝑒 , and 𝜂𝐿 are the injection, radiative recombination, extraction, and luminous
efficiency, respectively. 𝑃𝑜 is the optical power output and 𝑃𝑒 is the electrical power input. Thus,
optical output power, 𝑃𝑜 , sometimes denoted by 𝐿, can be given by

ℎ𝜐
𝑃𝑜 = 𝐿 = 𝜂𝑜 𝐼 (𝑊)
𝑞

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In an asymmetric n+-p junction diode, Electron injection is much more dominant than hole
injection. The injection efficiency of an n+-p junction can be defined as the fraction of total current
that is carried by diffusion of electrons being injected into the p-side of the junction. Therefore,
the injection efficiency, 𝜂𝑖𝑛 can be given by

𝐷𝑒 𝑛𝑃𝑜
𝐿𝑒
𝜂𝑖𝑛 = .
𝐷𝑒 𝑛𝑃𝑜 𝐷ℎ 𝑝𝑁𝑜
𝐿𝑒 + 𝐿ℎ

Using the Einstein relation and the equality 𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖2 ,

𝜇ℎ 𝑝𝑃𝑜 𝐿𝑒 −1
𝜂𝑖𝑛 = (1 + ) .
𝜇𝑒 𝑛𝑁𝑜 𝐿ℎ

The recombination efficiency, 𝜂𝑟 is defined as the ratio of the number of photons generated to the
number of injected electrons. The radiative efficiency will increase if the possible nonradiative
processes can be eliminated. Radiative efficiency can sometimes be referred to as internal quantum
efficiency (IQE).

There are several factors that determine the extraction efficiency, 𝜂𝑒 such as the absorption
coefficient of the semiconductor at the emission wavelength and radiation geometry of the LED.
At the semiconductor-air interface, the transmission, 𝐹𝑇 , defined as the ratio of light radiated to
light generated, can be given by,

1 𝑛𝑟2 2 𝑛𝑟1 − 𝑛𝑟2 2

𝐹𝑇 = ( ) [1 − ( ) ],
4 𝑛𝑟1 𝑛𝑟1 + 𝑛𝑟2

where, 𝑛𝑟1 and 𝑛𝑟2 are the refractive indices of air and semiconductor, respectively.

To consider the physiological impact, the output spectrum of LED is normalized with the eye
response. Thus, the luminous efficiency or luminosity, 𝜂𝐿 , is expressed as

∫𝜆 𝑉(𝜆)𝑃(𝜆)𝑑𝜆
𝜂𝐿 =
∫𝜆 𝑃(𝜆)𝑑𝜆

where, 𝑃(𝜆) is the LED emission spectrum and 𝑉(𝜆) is the eye response.

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Tasks for Assignment:

1. Calculate (i) injection efficiency, (ii) radiative recombination efficiency, (iii) extraction
efficiency, and (iv) luminous efficiency for a GaAs n+-p junction LED. Consider, n-type
GaAs having doping concentration of 5×1017 cm-3 and p-type GaAs having doping
concentration of 1015 cm-3 in this LED. Numerically calculate and plot the output optical
power (L) as a function of forward current (I) at peak wavelength. If necessary, find the
radiative and non-radiative recombination lifetimes using the equations provided in the
experiment 2. Given, the cross-sectional area of the LED is 1 mm2. For extraction
efficiency calculation, consider absorption coefficient at the peak wavelength of output
spectra and use the absorption coefficient in Experiment 1.
2. Numerically calculate and plot the output optical power (L) as a function of forward current
(I) at peak wavelength for a GaN LED. What percent of light generated through
recombination will be radiated from the GaN-Air interface? Make necessary assumptions
for parameters.

Part C: Calculation of I-V characteristics of LED

Theory:

For a junction LED, forward current (I)- forward voltage (V) relationship is given by,

𝐷𝑒 𝑛𝑃𝑜 𝐷ℎ 𝑝𝑁𝑜 𝑞𝑉
⁄
𝑞𝑉
⁄
𝑞𝑉
⁄
𝐼 = 𝑞𝐴 ( + ) (𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1) = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 1) ≈ 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ),
𝐿𝑒 𝐿ℎ

where, A is the area of the diode and 𝐼𝑆 is referred to as reverse saturation current. An ideality
factor 𝑛𝑓 is usually incorporated in the exponent as

𝑞𝑉
⁄𝑛 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐼 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑓 )

Due to recombination and generation processes in the depletion region of this diode 𝑛𝑓 > 1.
Sometimes the diffusion and recombination components of current can be about the same order
of magnitude.

Tasks for Assignment:

1. Numerically calculate and plot the I-V characteristics for a GaAs n+-p junction LED.
Consider, n-type GaAs having doping concentration of 5×1017 cm-3 and p-type GaAs
having doping concentration of 1015 cm-3 in this LED. Given, the cross-sectional area of
the LED is 1 mm2. Consider, 𝑛𝑓 = 1.5

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 2. Numerically calculate and plot the I-V characteristics for a GaN n+-p junction LED.
Consider, ND = 1×1018 cm-3 and NA = 1015 cm-3 in this LED. Given, the cross-sectional
area of the LED is 0.5 mm2. Consider, 𝑛𝑓 = 1.0

References:

1. Chapter 4 of Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices (2nd Edition) by Pallab Bhattacharya

2. Chapter 3 of Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices by S. O. Kasap
3. Chapter 12 of Physics of Semiconductor Devices (3rd Edition) by S. M. Sze and K. Ng
4. Chapter 4 of Optoelectronics: An Introduction (2nd Edition) by J. Wilson and J. Hawkes

Appendix: Material parameters

(Here different symbols have their relevant meanings)

Intrinsic Carrier Concentrations for different materials:
ni(GaAs) = 1.79 ×106 cm-3, ni(GaN) = 1.9 ×10-10 cm-3
Electron and hole capture cross section at trap level, Se = Sh = 10-15 cm2
Br = 10-11 – 10-9 cm3s-1 (Direct Bandgap materials)
Br = 10-15 – 10-13 cm3s-1 (Indirect Bandgap materials)
Consider excess minority carrier concentration = 1017 cm-3
Typical trap density, NT = 1013 cm-3

Materials ϵ me mh Eg0 (eV) μn (cm2V-1s-1) μp(cm2V-1s-1) Refractive index

GaAs 12.9ϵ0 0.063m0 0.5m0 1.52 8500 400 3.68
GaN 10.4ϵ0 0.27m0 0.8m0 3.507 1800 30 2.55

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