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 JIHAD
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW©
 JIHAD
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW©

ASMA AFSARUDDIN
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the
University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing
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© Oxford University Press 2022

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2021920937

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DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190647315.001.0001
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Introduction

1 Jihad in the Quran and Commentary Literature

What is the basic meaning of jihad?
How often does the word “jihad” occur in the Quran?
Does the Quran refer to different forms of jihad?
Does the Quran refer to the spiritual jihad?
What does jihad mean in the Meccan period?
Did jihad have a military meaning in the Meccan period?
What does jihad mean in the Medinan period?
Is only defensive fighting allowed in the Quran?
Is jihad in the Quran holy war?
Can Muslims continue to fight when the enemy stops fighting
and seeks peace?
Are the peaceful verses in the Quran abrogated by the “sword
verse?”
Are Christians and Jews singled out for fighting in the Quran?
Does the Quran tell Muslims not to be friends with Jews and
Christians?
Does the Quran support offensive military activity to spread
Islam?
Is the military jihad a permanent religious obligation in the
Quran?
 What motivated the military conquests that took place after the
death of Muhammad?
What does the Quran say about martyrdom?
Is the religious status of a military martyr higher than that of
other Muslims?
Is suicide permitted in the Quran?
Is terrorism condoned in the Quran?

2 Jihad in the Hadith Literature

What does “jihad” mean in the hadith literature?
Do hadiths describe how a military jihad should be carried out?
How should we understand the hadith that commands Muslims
to fight non-Muslims until they accept Islam?
What does the hadith literature say about martyrdom?
How can one know for sure that someone has attained
martyrdom?
Are there certain hadiths that appear to contradict the Quran on
martyrdom?
Is there a hadith that promises the reward of seventy-two
virgins to battlefield martyrs?
Does the hadith literature encourage seeking martyrdom?
Are there distinctly Shii views on martyrdom?
What does the hadith literature say about suicide and terrorism?
What are the greater and lesser jihads?
Do standard collections list hadiths that describe nonmilitary
aspects of jihad?

3 Jihad in the Legal Literature

How did Muslim jurists understand jihad?
How is war declared and by whom according to jurists?
Can civilians ever be targeted during a military attack?
How did jurists view martyrdom?
 How are prisoners of war to be treated?
Can Muslims fight under corrupt rulers?
Did jurists allow offensive military jihad?
Did jurists consider the military jihad to be holy war?
Can women take part in the military jihad?
Can Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims take part in the
military jihad?
Why did the medieval jurists divide the world into the Abode of
Islam and Abode of War?
Does the division of the world into the Abode of Islam and
Abode of War still apply in the modern period?
Did jurists permit suicide attacks?
What are the views of jurists on terrorism?

4 Jihad in Morally Edifying, Ethical, and Mystical

Literature
What does jihad mean in the daily life of the average believer?
Is the military jihad deemed to be the highest form of human
struggle?
What is the greater struggle?
Why do some people resist the idea that the spiritual jihad is a
genuine part of jihad?
Is the spiritual struggle carried out mainly by mystics?
Are there references to nonmilitary forms of jihad in early
Islamic writings?
How do Muslim mystics practice the internal, greater jihad?
Did jurists refer to the spiritual jihad in their writings?

5 Jihad as Conceived by Modern Political Revolutionaries

and Militants
How do modern militants in the Islamic world understand jihad?
 Which early thinkers influenced modern political revolutionaries
and militants?
Who are other influential sources for modern militant groups?
What is the Jahiliyya?
How do militant Islamists justify their violent attacks on other
Muslims and non-Muslims?
Have Shii thinkers called for political revolution as a form of
jihad in the twentieth century?
What were Usama bin Laden’s views on jihad?
What are “martyrdom operations” and when did they start?
How do militant Islamists justify suicide attacks?
How does ISIS justify its violent actions as jihad?
Where are the “moderate” Muslims and why do they not
denounce extremism?

6 Jihad in the Thought of Modern and Contemporary

Mainstream Scholars
How do modern Muslim scholars understand the military jihad?
What do modern Muslim scholars say about abrogation in the
Quran?
Are there Muslim scholars who have challenged the views of
Islamist militants?
Are there Muslim scholars who have denounced the views of
Usama bin Laden and his followers after the September 11
attacks?
Are there Muslim scholars speaking out against suicide
bombings?
Why don’t Muslim scholars collectively denounce terrorism?
Have Muslim scholars denounced ISIS and its militant views?
What are the main differences between militants and
mainstream scholars of Islam today on the issue of violence?

7 Jihad as Nonviolent Struggle and Peacemaking

 Is there pacifism in Islam?
Can jihad be understood as nonviolent struggle and
peacemaking?
Which Muslim thinkers understand jihad as nonviolent struggle?
What caused the modern turn toward thinking of jihad as
nonviolent struggle?
Is there a theological basis in Islam for promoting peace?
Do Muslim peace activists reject the military jihad?

8 Jihad and Its Perceptions in the West

Is there a Western equivalent of the military jihad?
Is there an Islamic influence on the development of modern
international law?
Is classical Islamic international law compatible with modern
international law?
Are there modern Muslim critics of the concepts of the Abodes
of War and Peace?
How does the Western media portray jihad?
Does the American media cover violent acts carried out by
Muslims differently than those carried out by non-Muslims?
How does Hollywood portray jihad and Muslims?
How does the internet affect public perceptions of jihad in the
West?
Are there Western militants who are influenced by Islamophobic
rhetoric on jihad?
How can one challenge anti-Islamic discourses that distort the
meanings of jihad?
Can educational institutions play a role in providing balanced
information about jihad?

GLOSSARY: IMPORTANT NAMES, PLACES, EVENTS, AND

TERMS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book is intended for a broad readership. Its style is meant to be

accessible, without being weighed down by the usual scholarly
apparatus of dense and copious footnotes. I have also dispensed
with the painstaking transliteration of Arabic names and terms and
have adopted simplified spellings that will be more appealing to the
nonspecialist English reader. It should be noted that when I
introduce a new Arabic term, it is italicized at its first occurrence in
each chapter and then subsequently written without italics. Many of
these Arabic terms and names are repeated in the glossary at the
end of the book. All dates are Common Era (Gregorian) and
indicated by CE. For those who may lament the lack of footnotes in
this book, I am happy to direct their attention to my longer (and
densely footnoted!) book titled Striving in the Path of God: Jihad and
Martyrdom in Islamic Thought (Oxford University Press, 2013),
which provides full documentation for many of the points made in
this work. Readers are encouraged to consult this earlier book as
well as other publications listed in the bibliography.
An endeavor of this kind can only benefit from the input of
colleagues and friends. I would like to take this opportunity to
express my gratitude to John Voll of Georgetown University who
took the time out of his very busy schedule to read the full draft of
the book. His astute observations and comments were very
insightful. Thanks are furthermore due to Mohammad Fadel of the
University of Toronto and Tom Heneghan, former religion editor for
Reuters and currently a freelance journalist, both of whom read
parts of the manuscript and weighed in with their helpful feedback. I
also acknowledge the helpful clarifications provided by Timothy
Waters of Indiana University on points of modern international law.
And, of course, I am grateful to Cynthia Read, indefatigable
Executive Editor at Oxford University Press, who invited me to write
this volume for the well-known What Everybody Needs To Know
series and provided valuable guidance and feedback every step of
the way. Her editorial assistant Brent Matheny was a model of
efficiency and kept things moving at a brisk pace.
I also need to recognize various family members who kept me
honest by constantly inquiring about the progress of this book and
encouraging me to race towards the finish line. They include my
mother, Maleka Khatun, sister Najma Hasib, and brother-in-law,
Mansur Hasib. And, finally, I have to acknowledge the special debt I
owe my husband, Steve Vinson, for the moral support he always
provides. He also read the whole manuscript and was generous with
incisive comments and suggestions for improvement from which I
benefitted greatly. Needless to say, remaining shortcomings are mine
alone.
Asma Afsaruddin
Bloomington, Indiana
September 13, 2021
 INTRODUCTION

The word jihad seems to be everywhere. It is frequently used,

especially in the Western media, to refer to violent acts carried out
by militants from Muslim backgrounds as part of a civilizational battle
against the West. This is what even an educated non-Muslim in the
West tends to reflexively associate with jihad; this perspective
overwhelmingly colors public rhetoric about Islam and Muslims
today. This is, however, a highly distorted understanding of a
concept whose basic meaning is “struggle,” “striving,” “utmost
effort.” For most Muslims, jihad represents the highest human
struggle to promote and carry out what is morally good, just, and
noble in all walks of life and to prevent what is morally wrong,
unjust, and degrading to humans and all creatures. Such a struggle
can and should be carried out by a variety of means, depending on
the context: moral, ethical, spiritual, mental, intellectual, verbal,
financial, physical, and military.
Jihad is, therefore, a polyvalent term; that is to say, it is a word
that contains within it layers of meaning that become apparent in
specific circumstances. This is why the concept of jihad needs to be
considered from multiple perspectives: scriptural, theological, moral,
ethical, legal, and sociopolitical. This book is intended to cover these
multiple aspects of jihad. When I use the word “jihad” in general, I
am broadly referring to the struggle of human beings to live their
lives on earth in decent and morally praiseworthy ways and realize
their full potential as human beings. Muslims understand this
ongoing human struggle to be in accordance with the will of God.
When I refer to the martial aspects of jihad, I use the term “military
jihad” or “combative jihad” to indicate that it is being used in this
limited sense. Observations about the military or combative jihad
and rules governing it do not apply to other aspects of human
striving on earth in specific sociocultural, spiritual, and intellectual
realms.
 The book emphasizes what I describe as a “holistic” approach to
the complex concept of jihad. It adopts an approach that considers
the term’s various dimensions without unduly privileging the legal
and military aspects of this term, as is usually the case. This work
aims to provide a guide to the diverse understandings of jihad
through time, from the early centuries of Islam until the
contemporary period. By collecting this information in a single
source, it is hoped the book will be a helpful resource for all those
interested in an accessible treatment of this topic, grounded in
scholarly sources: undergraduate and graduate students; specialists
and nonspecialists, academics, public intellectuals, policymakers,
journalists, and a general educated readership.
The book addresses key questions and (mis)perceptions about
jihad that are common today in the West (and beyond). These
popular (mis)perceptions are often based on three main
assumptions:

1. Jihad is relentless, bloody warfare to be waged by all Muslims against all non-
Muslims until Islam occupies the whole world or till the end of time—
whichever occurs first.
2. Muslims can issue the call for such a jihad anytime and anywhere, with the
sole excuse that stubborn unbelievers will not politically submit, willingly or
unwillingly, at their hands. Militant groups today who declare “jihad” on their
own against non-Muslims and against Muslims with whom they disagree are
thus following a basic duty within Islam.
3. Muslims who argue that a true military jihad is primarily defensive and
conditional while the internal, nonviolent jihad is continuous and unconditional
are deliberately lying about the real nature of jihad and should be regarded as
apologists for their faith.

It is not only anti-Islamic (Islamophobic) websites that present

such perceptions of jihad. Popular media outlets and many
mainstream publications produced in the West frequently convey
approximate versions of this and contribute to the formation of such
views. Militant Islamist websites and print literature often reinforce
such ideas. In support of militant views, these latter sources provide
selective quotations from the Quran, hadith, and legal literature
without any reference to their historical contexts or their contested
interpretations. To the average consumer of such sources, these
views may seem quite compelling indeed.
When relevant, I provide a brief overview of the current debates
concerning jihad in the global public sphere, as well as in the more
cloistered space of academia. Toward the end of the book there is
discussion of how politicized and ideological these public
conversations have become, first in the aftermath of September 11
and, more recently, after the 2016 US presidential elections that
brought Donald Trump to power. In the wake of these developments,
this book provides a historically grounded treatment of this topic in
an accessible question-and-answer format.
In Chapter 1, titled “Jihad in the Quran and Commentary
Literature,” I discuss the basic meanings of the term “jihad” and its
main components in the Quran, Islam’s central scripture. Key
Quranic verses are highlighted and a brief survey of the relevant
views of both premodern and modern Quran commentators
(exegetes) on these verses is provided.
There is also a focus on the contextualization of such views in
their appropriate sociohistorical circumstances so that the reader can
appreciate how different exegetes from different time periods tended
to understand key Quranic verses in specific ways. This chapter also
addresses the knotty question of the concept of “abrogation” (in
Arabic naskh). According to this concept adopted by a number of
Muslim scholars, certain early passages of the Quran may be
considered to have been superseded, if not actually abrogated or
cancelled, by later revelations. This position is much debated within
the Islamic commentary tradition as well as in legal circles.
Therefore, one of the questions I take up in that chapter is whether
peaceful verses in the Quran can be considered to be abrogated, as
some maintain, by later belligerent verses revealed in different
historical circumstances.
Another much-debated question I address is the concept of the
internal or spiritual jihad, and whether it is endorsed in the Quran or
if it represents a later construction by “marginal” mystical groups. A
final critical question is whether suicide (the deliberate taking of
one’s life) and terrorism are permissible according to the Quran,
since the adoption of suicide bombing by militants in a number of
Muslim-majority societies is often assumed to be based on Islamic
doctrine.
Chapter 2 discusses jihad as represented in the hadith literature.
Hadith refers to sayings attributed to the Prophet Muhammad (d.
632). Those sayings determined to be sound and reliable are
considered normative or binding for Muslims. Most hadith works
typically contain a section on jihad. A comparison of the content of
these jihad sections in early and later hadith works can provide
valuable evidence for gradual changes in the conceptualizations of
jihad. A key question is the identification of those hadiths on jihad
that are generally considered reliable and those that are not.
Jihad as represented in the legal literature is the focus of Chapter
3. Jurists, in contrast to Quran commentators, hadith scholars, and
moral theologians, mainly dealt with jihad as a military obligation of
the state to ensure the security of its inhabitants against external
threats. It is in these legal works composed after the second century
of Islam (corresponding to the eighth century ce) where we start to
see a fuller articulation of the laws of war and peace. These works
often drew upon Quranic verses and the sunna (the normative
practices) of the Prophet in crafting specific rules that governed
carrying out armed combat. But some controversial legal positions
had no relation to these two sources but were rather based on
Realpolitik—they took shape as hard-headed, practical responses to
the political and historical circumstances of the time.
Some of these controversial legal positions feed widespread
assumptions about the nature and purpose of the military jihad.
Privileging the legal literature above other kinds of literature in
discussions of jihad almost inevitably leads to the conclusion that it
is primarily a military obligation imposed upon able-bodied Muslim
men in the service of state and religion.
Accordingly, one of the main questions I deal with in Chapter 3
has to do with the particular concerns and priorities of jurists that
led them to view the military jihad through a certain lens in differing
sociopolitical circumstances. An important historical question is
whether the premodern division of the world by certain jurists into
the Abode/House of Islam (Dar al-Islam) and Abode/House of War
(Dar al-Harb) still holds in the modern period. I also consider
whether specific premodern legal pronouncements on carrying out
military jihad that reflected a different world order are still valid in
the contemporary period.
My holistic approach to the topic of jihad allows me to more
comprehensively reconstruct the meanings contained within the term
“jihad” and the longer phrase al-jihad fi sabil allah (striving in the
path of God). This is what I do in Chapter 4, titled “Jihad in Morally
Edifying and Theological Literature.” In that chapter, I survey a
broader range of literary sources. Writings focused on moral, ethical,
and spiritual issues composed by scholars of various stripes
emphasize sabr (patient forbearance) as the main component of
jihad in the realms of religious ethics and public conduct.
The concerns of moral theologians and ethicists were markedly
different from those of jurists, which affected how they prioritized
the meanings of jihad. In this context, I explore the moral and
ethical implications of jihad in the daily life of the average believer
and not just in legal and administrative circles.
The chapter affords me the opportunity to connect the dots
between the Quranic concept of sabr and what in the later literature
becomes labeled as the “spiritual struggle” par excellence (jihad al-
nafs). This is a connection that has generally been overlooked or
ignored in works produced by Western academics studying Islam
and the Middle East. I show instead that the internal spiritual and
moral dimensions of jihad are essential ingredients of mainstream
Muslim devotional practices and rooted in the foundational texts of
Islam.
In Chapter 5, I discuss how jihad is portrayed in modern and
contemporary militant literature. Militant literature portrays jihad as
a cosmic (universal) battle until the end of time. The ultimately
victorious group will consist of “right-thinking” Muslims who
constitute the camp favored by God: That is to say, mainly
themselves to the exclusion of other Muslims who do not think like
them. An examination of sociohistorical and political factors helps
explain the rise of militancy and the co-optation of religious symbols
and concepts, particularly jihad, to this end.
I also examine the ways these militants’ views differ from those of
classical scholars and trace these differences to specific historical
and political factors. A very important question to be addressed is
the grisly phenomenon of suicide bombing: On what basis do
militants justify suicide bombing as a part of legitimate jihad? I
discover—surprisingly—a range of views among them.
Chapter 6 is titled “Jihad in the Thought of Modern and
Contemporary Mainstream Scholars” and draws attention to the
voices of mainstream Muslim scholars and public intellectuals who
provide compelling refutations of militant positions. These scholars
and thinkers deal with the concept of jihad in a contextualized and
holistic manner and emphasize its historically conditioned multiple
meanings through time. Typically they acknowledge that armed
combat has been and must continue to be a necessary feature of
jihad under specific circumstances—but that it is by no means the
only significant aspect of this complex term. These thinkers engage
the Islamic tradition in all its diversity, as it developed from the
seventh century up to the present time. They emphasize the multiple
discourses that have grown up around jihad in response to the
demands of specific sociopolitical circumstances.
Chapter 7 focuses on jihad as a peacemaking enterprise. A
number of modern and contemporary scholars and activists have
focused in their written works on the peaceful activism they
understand to be the predominant meaning of jihad. Such
individuals typically emphasize the virtue of patient forbearance
(sabr) as the most important aspect of jihad, and, therefore, of
nonviolent resistance to wrongdoing. This emphasis on nonviolent
activism as the best expression of jihad is very much a modern
phenomenon that nevertheless appeals to the Quran, hadith, and
historical practices of early Muslims for legitimation.
Chapter 8 discusses how jihad tends to be viewed and imagined in
the West (primarily in the United States and Western Europe).
Almost without exception, jihad is described in Western media
outlets, the internet, and even in academic circles as “holy war.”
From this perspective, the roots of militant Islamism are understood
to be grounded in Islam’s foundational texts. Furthermore, through
this lens, violent military activity is portrayed as a fundamental
religious obligation for Muslims. The chapter explores how and why
these perceptions are so deeply rooted in the West and how they
tend to promote Islamophobia (fear of Islam).
The chapter also points to similarities between the military jihad
and the Christian concept of “just war.” It probes the probable
influence of the Islamic law of nations on the development of
modern international law, particularly in connection with the
principle of “just conduct” during legitimate warfare, a concept that
developed very late in the Western just war tradition.
And now on to a discussion of the polyvalent term “jihad” in the
Quran—for without an understanding of the Quranic jihad, we
cannot understand the concept’s richness and complexities, the
human interpretations of which have had and continue to have a
lasting effect on our contemporary world.
 1
JIHAD IN THE QURAN AND COMMENTARY
LITERATURE

The term “jihad” and words related to it occur several times in the
Quran. The Quran (which means “Recitation” and “Reading” in
Arabic) is a text divinely revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, as
Muslims believe. The revelations started roughly in the year 610 ce in
Mecca and continued for approximately twenty-two years until the
Prophet’s death in Medina in 632 ce. Both Mecca and Medina are
cities in what is now Saudi Arabia.
Each chapter of the Quran is typically assigned to either the
Meccan or Medinan periods of the Prophet’s life. Chapters belonging
to the Meccan period refer to the revelations that came to
Muhammad while he lived in Mecca (between roughly 610 and 622).
Medinan chapters date from the time when the Prophet emigrated to
Medina from Mecca in 622; this event, known in Arabic as the hijra
(emigration, migration), also marks the beginning of the Islamic
calendar. The Medinan period ends with Muhammad’s death ten
years later and refers to the years between 622 and 632.
Muslim scholars sometimes disagreed among themselves about
the precise dating of individual Quranic verses. There is, however,
broad agreement concerning the general attribution of the chapters
to the Meccan or Medinan periods based on their connection to
specific events in Muhammad’s life and on shared thematic and
stylistic features. The Quranic text itself is not arranged according to
chronological order but according to the length of the chapters,
proceeding from the longest to the shortest. (The first short chapter,
consisting of seven verses, is the exception).
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