AFRICAN GRADUATE UNIVERSITY

SOMALIA

LECTURE NOTES

RESEARCH_METHODS_NOTES

AGU All rights reserved

RESEARCH METHODS NOTES

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 TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Introduction
Research is the cornerstone of any science, including both the hard sciences such as
chemistry and physics and the social (or soft) sciences such as psychology, management,
or education. It refers to the organized, structured, and purposeful investigation aimed at
discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the
world by someone first hand. The setting may vary from natural, real world too highly
constrained and carefully controlled laboratory environment.

Definition of Research
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to
contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that
understanding to others.

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through
objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of
hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might
be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals,
nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge.

It is only through research that it is possible to make progress in a field. Research is done
with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning.
Research is in fact ubiquitous.

Objectives of Research
The prime objectives of research are
(1) to discover new facts
(2) to verify and test important facts
(3) to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship

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(4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and non-scientific problems
(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.

Why People do Research

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless
there are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:

 to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like
better employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.
 to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or
university or become a scientist in a research institution
 to solve the unsolved and challenging problems to get joy of doing some creative
work
 to acquire respectability
 to get recognition
 curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
 curiosity to find new things
 To serve the society by solving social problems.

Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to
think of anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by
motivating themselves toward a respectable goal.

Importance of Research
Research is important both in scientific and non-scientific fields. In our life new
problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically implementable
solutions and suggestions are required for tacking new problems that arise. Scientists
have to under- take research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and
applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.

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Research helps us in many ways –
 Removes the cobwebs of ignorance and doubt in our minds
 We get to learn first hand from our works, instead of learning something by rote
and without understanding
 Helps build the profession and make it even more autonomous
 Ensures better client service and client satisfaction - through tested and refined
client care approaches
 Ultimately, it helps make the world a better place to live in

Research process
The task of research is a sequential process involving a number of clearly delineated
steps. There are some variations in the number of steps, their names and their sequence
suggested by different writers, but there is much similarity among their suggestions.
Some steps may be taken in a different order; some steps may have to be retraced; some
may be carried on simultaneously; some may be omitted; in some projects some steps can
be covered quickly, while in other cases, they may require longer time. In spite of these
variations it is desirable to determine the steps involved in the task of planning and
executing a project, and also the order in which they have to be taken.

According to Emory, the research sequence consists of four major stages:

1. Exploration of the situation

If the problem is in an area in which the investigator has previously conducted

research, he may start preparing a research proposal including time and budget
estimates. However, if the problem posed is an unfamiliar one, he may adopt two-
stage approach; first to propose a separate exploratory study, second, to develop the
main study after the exploratory study is over. The feasibility, the availability of data,
etc. will be explored at this stage.

2. Development of the research design: At this stage, the formal research plan is
developed.

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3. Data Collection. : Data are collected by adopting appropriate methods of data
collection

4. Analysis and interpretation of the results: After the fieldwork is over, the data are
processed and tabulated and analyzed. Then the findings are interpreted. Finally, a report
is written for communicating the findings.

A General Model
In general, a research process consists of the following steps:

1) Identification and selection of a research problem.

2) Review of literature: Preliminary review prior to problem selection; Systematic
review after selection; notes taking.
3) Formulation of the selected problem: definition of the problem, conceptual mode,
delimitation of the study, formulation of the objectives of the study, and the
hypotheses/ investigating questions.
4) Operationalisation of concepts: definition of concepts, construction of indexes/scales
for measuring variables.
5) Preparation of the research plan: statement of the problem, objectives of the study,
hypotheses, operational definition of the concepts, Geographical area of the study,
methodology (type of research and methods of collection of data), sampling design,
tools for collection of data, plan of analysis, over-view of the research report, time-
schedule. .
6) Construction of tools of data-collection: Identification of data needs, delineation of
data sources, drafting observation schedule, interview schedule/guide, mailed
questionnaire and/or check lists or experimental design, pre-testing and possible
revision.
7) Collection of data: Experimental/field work: Preparing sample frame, drawing
sample of respondents; Interviewing them/mailing questionnaires to them and follow-
up.
8) Processing of data: editing, coding, transcription, tabulation, construction of tables
and charts.

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9) Analysis of data: Statistical treatment, testing hypotheses, interpretation of findings.
10) Report-writing: Planning report-writing work, drafting the report and its finalisation.

The above steps or activities may be regrouped into the following three stages:

1. Planning

 Selection of the problem

 Formulaton of the selected problem
 Operationalisation of concepts
 Preparation of the research design
 Planning report-writing work.

2. Operation

 Construction of tools of data collection

 Pre-testing tools and their revision
 Collection of data
 Processing of data
 Analysis of data and interpretation of results.

3. Reporting

 Drafting the report: Description of the research process; Summary of findings;

Suggestion for action and for further research Finalisation of the report.
 Forwarding the report copies to the target audience / clients / users.

All the above steps involved in a research process do not constitute a time order linear
sequence. There can be overlapping and recycling depending on the nature of the study.
Nevertheless one should not fail to complete the sequence of steps required in scientific
procedure.

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PLANNING OF RESEARCH

Research is an organized endeavour. Like any other organized work, research requires
proper planning. Planning means deciding in advance. Planning of research means
deciding the question or issue to be studied, setting the objectives of the study and
determining the means of achieving those objectives. It is an intellectual process. It
requires intellectual curiosity, intelligence, imagination and vision, and knowledge of
methodology of research. Planning systematizes the research work. It eliminates aimless
intellectual wandering. It gives direction to the work.

Planning Process

The planning stage of a research project involves the following steps:

1. Selection of a problem for research: This involves identification of a few problems

and selecting one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain
selection criteria.
2. Formulation of the selected problem: The selected problem is defined and
transformed into researchable questions.
3. Formulation of hypotheses: The propositions to be tested are set up.
4. Conceptualization: The concepts associated with the problem under study are
operationally defined and measurement devices are designed.
5. Research plan or design: This plan covers all the aspects of the selected research work
and serves as a blueprint for the endeavor.

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a) Selection of a Problem for Research

The selection of a problem is the first step in research. The term 'problem' means a
question or issue to be examined. The selection of a problem for research is not an easy
task; itself is a problem. It is least amenable to formal methodological treatment. Vision,
an imaginative insight, plays an important role in this process. This problem of selection
arises when a student has to undertake research as a part of his course requirement and he
student has to select a problem for his research.

The Mode of Selection

The students who undertake research as a course requirement do their research work
under the guidance of a professor. What should be the mode of selection in their cases?
Should a problem be suggested by the guide or be selected by the researcher himself?
One with a critical, curious and imaginative mind and is sensitive to practical problems
could easily identify problems for study.

Sources of Problems

Reading: When we critically study books and articles relating to subject of our interest,
pertinent questions may arise in our mind. Similarly, areas of research may strike to our
mind when we read research reports.

 Academic Experience: Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar discussions and

out-of-class exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors will suggest many
stimulating problems to be studied.
 Daily Experience: Life is dynamic. We learn new things and undergo new
experiences every day. If we are alert, inquisitive and sensitive to life situations, we
may hit upon questions worth of investigation. “It is a mark of scientific genius to be
sensitive to difficulties where less gifted people pass untroubled by doubt”.
 Exposure to field situations: Field visits; internship training and extension work
provide exposure to practical problems that call for study.

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 Consultations: Discussions with experts, researchers, ad-ministrators and business
executives will help a researcher to identify meaningful problems for research.
 Brain storming: Intensified discussion within a group of interested persons may often
be a means of identifying pertinent questions, and of developing new ideas about a
problem.
 Research: Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.
 Intuition: Sometimes new ideas may strike to one's mind like a flash. Reflective mind
is a spring of knowledge.

b) Formulation of the Selected Problem

The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The question to be
studied or the problem to be solved may not be known. Why the answer/solution is
wanted also may not be known. Hence the selected problem should be defined and
formulated. This is a difficult process. It requires intensive reading of a few selected
articles or chapters in books in order to understand the nature of the selected problem.
The researcher should read selected literatures, digest, think and reflect upon what is read
and digested. He should also discuss with learned persons. Then only can he gain insight
into the selected problem and be able to define and formulate it.

What is Formulation?
Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic into
a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the
research problem is and why is it studied. The formulation should include both the and
the why aspects.

Formulation Process
The process of formulation involves the following steps:

1. Developing title
2. Building a conceptual model
3. Defining the Objective of the Study
4. Setting Investigative Questions

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5. Formulation of Hypotheses
6. Operational Definition of Concepts
7. Delimiting the Scope of the Study

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 TOPIC TWO: SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Sciences are broadly divided into natural (or physical) sciences and social sciences.
Social Sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life, human behaviour,
social groups and social institutions. They consist of Anthropology, Behaviour Science,
Commerce, Demography, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Law, Linguistics,
Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, and
Social Work. Though these sciences are treated as separate branches of knowledge for the
purpose of study, they are interdependent studies of the different aspects of the same
object, viz., man.

Social Sciences are not exact science like physical sciences, as they, unlike the latter, deal
with human beings. Human nature and man's environment are so complex that it is more
difficult to comprehend and predict human behaviour than the physical phenomena. No
two persons are alike in feelings, drives or emotions. No one person is consistent from
one moment to another. The behaviour of human beings is influenced by biological,
psychological, socio-cultural, temporal and environmental fac-tors. It is difficult to see
the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex human behaviour. A controlled
experiment, which is sine qua non of an empirical science, is generally well nigh
impossible in social sciences.

Social Science Research

Social Science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and
conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human
behaviour and social life. In other words, Social science research “seeks to find
explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful, and correct the
misconceived facts of social life.”

Objectives of Social Science Research

The aim of social science research, like research in physical sciences, is to discover new
facts or verify and test old facts. It tries to understand the human behaviour and its
interaction with the environment and the social institutions. It tries to find out the causal

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connection between human activities and natural laws governing them. Another purpose
of social science research is to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories, which
would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour and social life.

Functions or Uses of Social Science Research

The functions of Social Science Research are varied. They are:

o Discovery of facts and their interpretation.

o Diagnosis of Problems and their analysis.
o Systematization of knowledge.
o Control over Social Phenomena.
o Prediction.
o Development Planning.
o Social Welfare.

Scope of Social Science Research

The fields of social science research are virtually unlimited, and the materials of research
endless. Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life, and every stage of
past and present development are materials for the social scientists.

Inter-disciplinary Approach

Social Science research calls for inter-disciplinary approach, human life cannot be
compartmentalised into psychological, social, economic or political aspects. “Man lives
in a socio-economic and political world and thrives on its varied relationships. It is
inconceivable that at study of bare and isolated events on anyone aspect of man's life
would yield any meaningful results”. A discipline-specific study of a social problem from
an angle of, say, economics or sociology or political science only cannot give a correct
and total view of the problem. For example, the problem of poverty cannot be just studied
as a mere economic problem or a social problem or a political issue. The approaches and
theories of all these disciplines must be blended to provide a meaningful and valid

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approach to the problem. This interdisciplinary approach facilitates better understanding
of the complex level of social-psychological-economic-political forces, intricately
interwoven in modern life.

Objectivity

Objectivity is sine qua non of the scientific - method. It means the willingness and ability
to examine evidence dispassionately. It is the first condition of research. Objectivity
means basing conclusion on facts without any bias and value judgement. The conclusion
should be independent of one's personal beliefs, likes, dislikes and hopes. Both the data
and the interference drawn from their analysis must be free from bias and prejudices.

The following approaches and measures may contribute to some degree of objectivity.

1. Patience and self-control.

2. Open mind.
3. Use of standardized concepts.
4. Use of quantitative method.
5. Co-operative research.
6. Use of random sampling.

Limitations of Social Science Research

Research in social sciences has certain limitations and problems when compared with
research in physical sciences. They are discussed below:

Scientist - a part of what is studied : The fact that a social scientist is part of the human
society which he studies given rise to certain limitations. .

Complexity of the subject matter : The subject matter of research in social sciences, viz.,
human society and human behaviour is too complex, varied and changing to yield to the
scientific categorization, measurement, analysis and prediction.

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Human Problems : A social scientist faces certain human problems, which the natural
scientist is spared. These problems are varied and include refusal of respondents,
improper understanding of questions by them, their loss of memory, their reluctance to
furnish certain information, etc. All these problems cause biases and invalidate the
research findings and conclusions.

Personal Values : Subjects and clients, as well as investigators, have personal values that
are apt to become involved in the research process. One should not assume that these are
freely exploitable. The investigator must have respect for the client's values.

Anthropomorphization

Another hazard of social science research is the danger of “the temptation to

anthropomorphize about humans”. It results in using observations obtained by sheer
intuition or empathy in conceptualizing in anthropomorphic manner.

Wrong decisions

The quality of research findings depends upon the soundness of decisions made by the
social scientist on such crucial stages of his research process as definition of the unit of
study, operationalization of concepts, selection of sampling techniques and statistical
techniques. Any mistake in any of these decisions will vitiate the validity of his findings.

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 TOPIC THREE: TYPES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

Classification of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified

crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research
may be classified as:

 Pure Research
 Applied Research
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Study
 Diagnostic Study
 Evaluation Studies
 Action Research.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

 Experimental Research
 Analytical Study
 Historical Research
 Survey

The Nature of Classification

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just an approach to

differentiate the distinctive approaches to research for the purpose of understanding. The
different types of research are, of course, not sharply distinguishable from one another.
There may be overlapping between one type/method and another. For example, pure
research may involve experimentation or case study or analytical study; Evaluation
studies may apply experimental or survey methods; Experimental Re-search is
necessarily an analytical study; Survey Research may involve quasi-experimental
approach or analytical approach; and so on.

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 2. PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

a) Pure Research

Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in
practice, e.g., Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Ga1i1eo's
contributions, etc.

Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of

intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of
an existing theory. The development of various sciences owes much to pure research. The
findings of pure research enrich the storehouse of knowledge that can be drawn upon in
the future to formulate significant practical researches. Thus, pure research lays the
foundation for applied research. The findings of pure research formed the basis for
innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, machines,
automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing, telecommunication, etc.,
which have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

b) Applied Research

Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or

policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate
and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new market or
for studying the post-purchase experience of customers.

There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management,
commerce, economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are faced in these
areas. They need empirical study for finding solutions.

3. EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the

researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor's initial investigation of a

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patient suffering from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. “It
is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives”. It usually takes the
form of a pilot study.

Though it is a separate type of research, it is appropriate to consider it as the first stage of

a three-stage process of exploration, description and experimentation.

Purposes

The purpose of an exploratory study may be:

 to generate new ideas or

 to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or
 to make a precise formulation of the problem or
 to gather information for clarifying concepts or
 to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.

Sometimes, a scientist may find, after spending a tremendous amount of energy and time
on a research project, that it is not possible to secure the required data. A preliminary
exploration could help avoiding such dismay.

The Need for Exploratory Studies

Social sciences are relatively young. Researches in them are scarce. Many of them
inevitably have to be exploratory ones. Few well-trodden paths exist to follow for the
investigators of social life. Most existing theories in social sciences are either too general
or too specific to provide clear guidance for empirical research. Hence exploratory
research is necessary to get initial insight into the problems for the purpose of
formulating them for more precise investigation. Hence it is also known as formulative
research.

The Steps in Exploration:

a. A review of pertinent literature

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 b. An Experience survey
c. An Analysis of 'insight stimulating' cases.

4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the

simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on
particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed to gather
descriptive information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated
studies. Data are collected by using one or more appropriate methods like observation,
interviewing and mail questionnaire.

Criteria

All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. This method is applicable to
problems that satisfy certain criteria. First, the problem must be describable and not
arguable. For instance, philosophical and controversial issues are not suitable for
descriptive study. Second, the data should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and, if
possible, quantitative assemblage for reliability and significance. Third, it should be
possible to develop valid standards of comparison. Last, it should lend itself to verifiable
procedure of collection and analysis of data.

Objective

A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or

institution or problem under study, but it does not deal with the testing of propositions or
hypotheses. However, it “can reveal potential relationships between variables, thus
setting the stage for more elaborate investigation later”.

A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the
subject matter of study. The classification must satisfy two criteria, viz.,

(1) Exhaustiveness and

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(2) Mutual exclusiveness.

Exhaustiveness is achieved when all the important elements are identified; Mutual
exclusiveness occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one category
in the system. Descriptive information should also be useful for explanation, prediction
and awareness.

5. Diagnostic Study

This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why is it happening/ and what can be done about. It aims
at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it

Purpose

A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain
variables are associated, e.g., are persons hailing from rural areas more suitable for
manning the rural branches of banks? Do more villagers than city-voters vote for a
particular party?

Requirements

Both descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, viz., prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given
population, adequate methods for collecting ac-curate information, precise measurement
of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance. As the aim is to obtain complete
and accurate information about a given situation/phenomenon, the research design must
make much more provision for protection against bias than is required in an exploratory
study. Moreover, the amount of work involved is considerable and so concern with
economy of research effort is extremely important.

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 6. Evaluation Studies

Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness
of social or economic programmes implemented (e.g., family planning scheme) or for
assessing the impact of developmental projects (e.g., irrigation project) on the
development of the project area.

Purpose

Evaluative research is, thus, directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an
activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its
success. It is also concerned with change over time. As Suchman puts it, “evaluative
research asks about the kind of change the program views as desirable, the means by
which the change is to be brought about, and the signs according to which such change
can be recognized.”

7. Action Research

Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

action programme launched for solving a problem/ for improving an existing situation.

In the quest for development; advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of

people, government, institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for
achieving specific goals or objectives. Land reform programmes, agricultural extension
programmes, social welfare programmes, human resource development programmes,
managerial improvement programmes, rural development programmes, programmes for
improving the quality of life in factories and offices, etc., are some examples of action
programmes. This plethora of development programmes has given impetus to action
research. With the pressing need to assess the relative effectiveness of different
approaches to the same goal or the worth-whileness of one goal as against another,
research has been called upon to play a closer and relevant role for action. The criterion
of relevance for action is of critical importance in action research.

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 8. Experimental Research

There are various phenomena such as motivation, productivity, development, and

operational efficiency, which are influenced by various variables. It may become
necessary to assess the effect of one particular variable or one set of variables on a
phenomenon. This need has given rise to experimental research.

Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a

phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining
whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. The factor that is
influenced by other factors is called a dependent variable, and the other factors, which
influence it, are known as independent variables. For example, agricultural productivity,
i.e., crop yield per hectare is a dependent variable and the factors such as soil fertility,
irrigation, quality of seed, manuring, and cultural practices which influences the yield are
independent variable.

9. Analytical Study or Statistical Method

Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to

quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical
techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.

Aim

This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It
concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles
by bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.

Uses

This method is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative
numerical data are generated. It is used for measuring variables, comparing groups and

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examining association between factors. Data may be collected from either primary
sources or secondary sources.

10. Historical Research

Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system
and discovering the trends in the past.

It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and
logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct
observation. Hence it is aptly described as “the induction of principles through research
into the past and social forces which have shaped the present.”

Objective

Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends in order to
understand the present and to anticipate the future. It enables us to grasp our relationship
with the past and to plan more intelligently for the future. The past contains the key to the
present and the past and the present influences the future. Historical study helps us in
visualizing the society as a dynamic organism and its structures and functions as
evolving, steadily growing and undergoing change and transformation.

Sources of Data

The sources of data for historical research consists of (1) eyewitness accounts narrated by
an actual observer or participant in an event, (2) oral testimony by elders, (3) records and
other documentary materials and (4) relics. The data available from the above sources
may be scattered and discontinuous and fragmented. Personal accounts are mostly
subjective and so should be studied with great caution and corroborated with
documentary evidences. The origin and genuineness of the sources and the validity of
facts contained in them should be critically tested and examined. Their authenticity

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should be tested. Only authentic sources should be depended upon for collection of data.
It is essential to check and crosscheck the data from as many sources as possible.

11. Surveys

Survey is a ‘fact-finding’ study. It is a method of research involving collection of data

directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. It must not be confused
with the mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires expert and
imaginative planning, careful analysis and rational interpretation of the findings.

Data may be collected by observation or interviewing or mailing questionnaires and

analysis may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon
the objectives of the study.

The Characteristics of Survey Method

The survey method has certain characteristics:

1. It is always conducted in a natural setting; it is a field study.

2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3. It can cover a very large population, thanks to sampling techniques.
4. A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study. An extensive
study covers a wider sample, an intensive covers a few samples and tends to dig
deeper.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area: a city, or a district, or a state.

The quality of a survey depends upon the thoroughness of the planning, the soundness of
sampling, the adequacy and reliability of data, the quality of analysis and the
interpretation of the findings.

The Subject matter of Surveys

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All aspects of human behaviour, social institutions, economic system, and business
undertakings lend themselves to surveys. The subject matter of surveys may be broadly
categorized into:

A: Social surveys

1. Demographic characteristics of a group of people

2. Social environment of people
3. People’s opinions and attitudes
4. People’s behaviour and activities.

B: Economic surveys

1. Economic conditions of people

2. Working of economic units
3. Operations of an economic system.

12. Case Study

A Case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode,

a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit.

It is one of the most popular types of research methods. Its purpose may be to understand
the life cycle of the unit under study or the interaction between factors that explain the
present status or the development over a period of time. Some examples of a case study
are: a social-anthropological study of a rural or tribal community; a causative study of a
successful cooperative society; a study of the financial health of a business undertaking; a
study of labour participation in management in a particular enterprise; a study of life-
style of working women.

Functions

 The case study method describes a case in terms of its peculiarities.

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  It gives us an insight into the typical or extreme cases whose unique features are
not reflected by the usual statistical method.
 A case study helps to secure a wealth of information about the unit of study,
which may provide clues and ideas for further research.
 It examines complex factors involved in a given situation so as to identify causal
factors operating in it.
 A case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something
about everything as in the case of a statistical method. While in a statistical
approach the 'individual' disappears from the analysis, in a case study the
'individual' representing the 'wholeness' is preserved, as it is an approach which
views any social unit as a whole.
 A case study gives us a total view of a unit or a clear insight into a situation or
process in its total setting. Thus the perspective of a case study is both qualitative
and organic. It gives an overall generic picture of a problem.
 It may also be useful for developing new concepts or testing existing concepts.

The case study, as a research method, often employs more techniques than one. Thus, for
tracing a developmental process, it uses historical method, it employs descriptive method
where a factual picture is needed, it employs interviewing, mail questionnaire, check lists,
rating scales, etc., to gather data, and it looks to statistics for testing hypotheses.

The aim of a case study is to ascertain the generic development of a social unit under
study, revealing the factors that moulded its life within its cultural setting. Burgess
termed the case study method as “the social microscope.”It is most valuable for
diagnostic, administrative and therapeutic purposes. It develops ideas, sometimes leading
to conclusion and sometimes to hypotheses to be tested.

13. Field Studies

Field studies are scientific enquiries aimed at discovering the relations and interactions
among sociological, psychological and educational variables in real social structures and
life situations like communities, schools, factories, organizations and institutions. A

25
social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among the attitudes, values,
percep-tions and behaviours of individuals and groups in the selected situation are
studied.

Field Study vs. Surveys

Although it is not easy to draw a fine logical distinction between survey and field study,
there are practical differences between them.

First, a survey attempts to be representative of the universe under study and thus calls for
an adequate and representative sample. This emphasis on sampling may or may not be
found in a field study, because it is more concerned with a thorough account of the
processes under study than with their typicality in a large universe.

Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of
social structure of a single community or a single group, a survey aims at covering a
larger universe, and it may indirectly deal with social and psychological processes,
through inference from the statistical analysis rather than through direct observation.
Thus, field study will pro-vide a more detailed natural picture of social interrelations of
the group.

14. Participatory action research

Participatory action research [PAR] is a methodology which evolved to support

deliberate, committed action for change in urban community projects. It proposes that the
definition, and subsequent study of the causes of a problem by those affected by it is a
way of bringing about group involvement in the design of coherent action strategies for
the solution of problems. In many of the cities of Latin America, the methodology has
been used to find solutions to sanitation, transportation, health and political
representation problems through the mobilization of group resources and / or group
pressure on local governments. The objective is to build an awareness of the causes of
problems faced by a community and to reinforce people’ capacity to gain control over
their collective destiny through joint planning and evaluation of change efforts.

26
In traditional research efforts, research and action rely on external expertise, capital,
know-how and equipment, resulting in dependence. Research methods use western
models which orient development towards the use of imported technology and the
increase of the Gross National Product. It is the researcher who decides on the focus,
methods and outcomes of the study in question.

Alternatively, PAR presupposes that the directions of change are locally rooted

And that the peasant farmer takes an active part in the definitions of problems and the
design of their solution. There is tacit recognition that participation must take place from
the definition and study stages of a problem through the action and evaluation phases.
Action directed research is not mechanistic or task oriented. It implies the creative and
analytical observation and understanding of socio-political, ecological and technical
phenomena and of how these interact with other components of a system in a historical
context.

The outside agent here becomes a facilitator / catalyst as well as an information source
who is conscious that change through PAR will ultimately will empower him within the
society. PAR is a methodology which attempts to overcome the historical constraints
which have limited the peasant’s ability to maintain the initiative over a process of
autonomous self-directed change.

PAR has not often been used to generate and test hypotheses, but to provide information
that can be used to improve a programme of joint social action. Once the research needs
have been defined by the farmers in a joint effort with researchers, the research design
appropriate for the evaluation of a given technological alternative is decided upon.
Researchers must be willing to take part in a mutual learning process with the community
as well as to contribute strongly with specialized information in down to earth language
which will stimulate the process itself. The research plans must be simple and specific.
Research results must be analyzed rapidly and written up in ways which are easy for the
farmer to understand.

Ethical issues in Research

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Most research benefits both the sponsoring company and its consumers. Through
research, companies learn more about consumers’ needs, resulting in more- satisfying
products and services. However, the misuse of marketing research can also harm or
annoy consumers. Two major public policy and ethic issues in marketing research are
intrusions on consumer privacy and the misuse of research findings.

Intrusions on consumer privacy

Many consumers feel positively about marketing research and believes that it serves a
useful purpose. Some actually enjoy being interviewed and giving their opinions.
However, others strongly resent or even mistrust marketing research. A few consumers
fear that researchers might use sophisticated techniques to probe their deepest feelings
and then use this knowledge to manipulate their buying. Or they worry that marketers are
building huge data bases full of personal information about customers.

Other consumers may have been taken in by previous research surveys that actually
turned out to be attempts to sell them something. Still other consumers confuse legitimate
marketing research studies with telemarketing efforts and say ‘no’ before the interviewer
can even begin. Most, however simply resent the intrusion. They dislike mail or
telephone surveys that are too long or too personal or that interrupt them at inconvenient
times. Increasing customer resentment has become a major problem for the research
industry.

Any business that deals with consumers’ information has to take privacy issues seriously.
Some companies view privacy as way to gain competitive advantage as something that
leads consumers to choose one company over another. The best approach is for
researchers to ask only for the information they need, to use it responsibly to provide
value, and to avoid sharing information without customers’ permission.

Misuse of Research Findings

Research studies can be powerful persuasion tools; companies often use study results as
claims in their advertising and promotion. Today, however, many research studies appear

28
to be little more than vehicles for pitching the sponsor’s products. In fact, in some cases,
the research surveys appear to have been designed just to produce the intended effect.
Few advertisers openly rig their research designs or blatantly misrepresent the findings;
most abuses tend to be subtle stretches. Subtle manipulations of the study’s sample or the
choice or wording of questions can greatly affect the conclusions reached.

In other cases, so-called independent research studies are actually paid for by companies
with an interest in the outcome. Small changes in the study assumptions or in how results
are interpreted can subtly affect the direction of the results.

Recognizing that surveys can be abused, several associations in United States have
developed codes of research ethics and standards of conduct. However, unethical or
inappropriate actions cannot simply be regulated away. Each company must accept
responsibility for policing the conduct and reporting of its own marketing research to
protect consumers’ best interests and its own.

Online privacy and security

From a broader social view point, internet marketing practices have raised a number of
ethical and legal questions. There are certain negatives associated with internet such as
unwanted e-mail and the annoyance of pop-up ads.

Online privacy is perhaps the number-one e- commerce concern. Most e-marketers have
become skilled at collecting and analyzing detailed consumer information. Marketers can
easily track Web site visitors, and many consumers who participate in Web site activities
provide extensive personal information. This may leave consumers open to information
abuse if companies make unauthorized use of the information in marketing their products
or exchanging data bases with other companies. Many consumers and policy makers
worry that marketers have stepped over the line and are violating consumer’s right to
privacy.

Many consumers also worry about online security. They fear that unscrupulous snoopers
will eavesdrop on their online transactions or intercept their credit card numbers and

29
make unauthorized purchases. In turn, companies doing business or marketing research
on line fear that others will use the internet to invade their computer systems for the
purpose of commercial espionage or even sabotage. There appears to be an ongoing
competition between the technology of internet security systems and the sophistication of
those seeking to break them.

Beyond issues of online privacy and security, consumers are also concerned about
Internet fraud, including identity theft, investment fraud, and financial scams.

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various
codes address*:

1. Honesty

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods
and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do
not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

2. Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where
objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose
personal or financial interests that may affect research.

3. Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought
and action.

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4. Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work
and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data
collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

5. Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

6. Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due.
Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never
plagiarize.

7. Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,

personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

8. Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

9. Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to
make their own decisions.

10. Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

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11. Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.

12. Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or
other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

13. Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

14. Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

15. Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

16. Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize
benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

32
 TOPIC FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 Research design

According to Kerlinger (1986) “research design is the plan and structure of investigation
so conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall
program of the research and includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing of the hypothesis and their operational implications for the final analysis of data.
Cooper and Schindler (2003) summarizes the essentials of research design as an activity
and time based plan; always based on the research question; guides the selection of
sources and types of information; a framework for specifying the relationship among the
study variables and outlines the procedures for every research activity.

The researcher used descriptive research design in collecting the data from respondents.
The design is preferred because it is concerned with answering questions such as who,
how, what which, when and how much (Cooper and schindler, 2003). A descriptive study
is carefully designed to ensure complete description of the situation, making sure that
there is minimum bias in the collection of data and to reduce errors in interpreting the
data collected.

4.2 Population

The study population is the collective of study units for which the values of the variates
of interest could possibly be determined. This notion corresponds directly to the frame in
sample survey literature. The difference between the attributes of interest in the study
population and the corresponding attributes in the target population is called the study
error. This is a simple quantitative assessment for numerical attributes but can be
challenging to define for graphical ones.

The study units may or may not be part of the target population, as is the case in
Michelson's study. Because the distances required to measure the speed of light were so
large, it was not practical to have the light travel through even a partial vacuum. All of the
units in Michelson's study involved the transmission of light through air at a particular
location over a specified time period. The source and destination were a fixed distance

33
apart and both remained stationary over the course of the study. Michelson decided to
look at transmission of light at one hour before sunset or one hour after sunrise during a
few days in June 1879. Within these constraints, he was free to choose the units on which
he would determine the speed of light.

The study population and the study units were very different from the target in this
instance. Michelson recognized that measuring the speed of light in air would result in a
study error. He planned to correct the error by using a factor based on the refractive index
of air. Note that this correction is outside the purview of statistical method. It requires
contextual knowledge.

The statistical method ensures consideration of the relevance of the study population to
the target population by forcing investigators to deal directly with the study error. Criteria
beyond the study error such as cost, convenience, and ethics will also be important in
determining the study population.

4.3 Sampling Design and Sample size

According to Trochim (2005), Sampling is the process of selecting units (people,

organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly
generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.

A survey may be conducted by Census Method and Sample Method. When the whole
area or population of persons is contacted the method is known as census method. When
a small group is selected as representative of the whole mass it is known as Sampling
Method.

Merits of Census Method

1. Data are obtained from each and every unit.

2. Accurate and Reliable
3. Can be exploited as a basis for various surveys.

34
Demerits

a. The effort, money and time-extremely large.

b. Population is infinite.
c. Exhaustive and intensive study-impossible.

Sampling

Is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample drawn
from it.

Process of Sampling

a. Selecting the sample

b. Collecting the information and,
c. Making an inference about the populations

Importance of sampling in Social Research

a. A large number of units can be studied.

b. It saves a lot of time, energy and money.
c. Homogeneous universe sampling is very useful.
d. Intensive study is possible.
e. When the data are unlimited – highly useful.
f. When cent per cent accuracy is not required.
g. It makes easier for tabulation and analysis.

Size of the sample

How big a sample do I need? The size depends upon:

a. The Nature of the universe – homogenous/ heterogeneous.

b. Nature of the study i.e., intensive/extensive.
c. Availability of finance, time and personnel.

35
d. Standard of accuracy.
e. Size of the schedule/questionnaire.
f. Nature of the cases to be contacted – geographically scattered.
g. Type of sampling used.

A sample will be a non-representative one due to

a. Imperfect stratification.
b. Too small sample
c. Purposive selection
d. Selection of / by field wonders.
e. Convenient sampling.
f. Inadequate random
g. Nature of the universe.

Theory of sampling based on Two ‘LAWS’

a. Law of ‘Statistical Regularity’, and

b. Law of ‘Inertia of Large Numbers’
c. If a sample is taken at random from a population it is likely to possess almost the
same characteristics as that of the population. Points out-choosing the sample at
Random.
d. Other things being equal, larger the size of the sample, more accurate the results are
likely to be.

A. Random Sampling Method

a. Simple Random Sampling: In which each and every item of the population is given
an equal chance of being included in the sample.
b. Stratified Sampling: The population be divided into homogenous groups called
strata’s, then a sample may be drawn from each group by simple random method, and
the resulting sample is called Stratified Random Sampling.

36
c. Systematic Sampling: Used in those cases where a complete list of the population
from which sampling is to be drawn is available. The method is to select every k th
item from the list where ‘k’ refers to the sampling interval.

N
k= —
n
 The starting point between the first and the kth items is selected at random.
 Multi-stage Sampling/Cluster: Refers to a sampling procedure, which is carried out
in several sages. The material is regarded as made up of number of first stage
sampling units, each of which is made of number of second stage units, etc.

B. Non-Random Sampling

a. Judgement Sampling: The choice of the sample items depends exclusively on the
discretion of the investigator. The investigator exercises his judgement in the choice
of the sample items.
b. Quota Sampling: Quotas are set up according to given criteria but within the quotas
the selection of sample items depends on personal judgement.
c. Convenience Sampling: Also called the chunk, a chunk is a fraction of the
population taken for investigations because of its convenient availability.

Advantages of Sampling

a. Saving of time
b. Saving of Money
c. Detailed study
d. More reliable
e. The destructive nature of certain tests

Disadvantages

37
a. Sometimes inaccurate and misleading/ biased
b. Selection of completely representative sample
c. If too small or too heterogeneous – impossible to draw representative sample.

The adequacy of samples

Adequacy of good sampling is one of the requirements of good sampling.

A sample not only needs to be representative, it needs also to be adequate. A sample is

adequate when it is of sufficient size to allow confidence in the stability of its
characteristics. This in turn requires a measure of sampling error. So, the arithmetic
mean, standard deviation and standard error are to be calculated. Normally, the
probability proportionate to size of population is worked out to determine the sample
size.

4.4 Data Instruments and Data Collection

Types of Data

The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data
pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organisations, and (c) Data pertaining to
territorial areas.

Personal data or data related to human beings consist of Demographic and socio-
economic characteristics of individuals like age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital
status, education, occupation, income, family size, location of the household, life style,
etc. and Behavioural variables like attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice,
intentions, etc.

Organizational data consist of data relating to an organization’s origin, ownership,

objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.

Territorial data are related to geophysical characteristics, resources endowment,

population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, economic structure, degree of

38
development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, Tabias, Woredas, state/ regions
and the nation.

Importance of data

The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual
data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based
on imagination or guesswork cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The
relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a
study.

Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. Data also provide
the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are
analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical, analysis and
tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus the scientific process
of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant
data and their accuracy. Hence the importance of data for any research studies.

Sources of Data

The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that
have not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on
brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer
behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first-hand
information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing
etc.

Secondary Sources

39
These are sources containing data that have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily available compendia and already
compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researches for
their studies, e.g., census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies,
Statistical statements, Reports of Government Departments, Annual Reports on currency
and finance published by the Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Statements relating
to Cooperatives, Commercial Banks and Micro Finance Credit Institutions, Reports of the
National Sample Survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of
international organisations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and
Financial Journals, newspapers, etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by firms
and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of
members, minutes of meetings, inventory records, etc.

Features of Secondary Sources:

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have
certain common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.

Second, they consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Others shape both the form and the content of secondary
sources. Clearly, this is a feature, which can limit the research value of secondary
sources.

Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using
them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Use of Secondary Data

40
 a. The secondary data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some
specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purposes.
b. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of
a research may be tested.
c. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a
research project. Such studies as Securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis
of Companies, and Trends in credit allocation in commercial banks, Sociological

Studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like depend primarily on secondary data.
Year books, Statistical reports of government departments, reports of public
organizations like Bureau of Public Enterprises, Census Reports etc. serve as major data
sources for such research studies.

Advantages

a. Secondary data, if available, can be secured quickly and cheaply.

b. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much
cost. Thus the use of secondary data extends the researcher's space and time reach.
c. The use of secondary data broadens the database from which scientific
generalizations can be made.
d. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings based on
primary data.

Disadvantages/limitations

a. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet, our specific
research needs.
b. The available data may not be as accurate as desired.
c. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print,
because of time lag in producing them.

41
d. Finally information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all
social scientists.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: General

The researcher directly collects primary data from their original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs, he can
collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of
Primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science
research such as socio-economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural
communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social
institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys,
readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice
(KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies, etc., required
data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from
the primary sources.

In all cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary
data have to be gathered. .

Methods of Primary Data Collection

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’.
While a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used
for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods
are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e)
simulation, and (f) projective technique.

Observation involves gathering of data relating to the selected research by viewing and/or
listening. Interviewing involves face-to-face conversation between the investigator and
the respondent. Mailing is used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed
by respondents. Experimentation involves a study of independent variables under
controlled conditions. Experiment may be conducted in a laboratory or in field in a

42
natural setting. Simulation involves creation of an artificial situation similar to the actual
life situation. Projective methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of
respondents by presenting to them stimuli. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages.

Choice of Methods of Data Collection

Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed research
project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research plan.
One or More methods has/have to be chosen. No method is universal. Each method's
unique features should be compared with the needs and conditions of the study and thus
the choice of the methods should be decided.

Observation

Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing something or other while we

are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. But
observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.

Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its

proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation
as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.

Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social
sciences. Behavioural scientists observe interactions in small groups; anthropologists
observe simple societies, and small com-munities; political scientists observe the
behaviour of political leaders and political institutions.

Types of Observation

Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to the investigator’s role,
it may be classified into (a) participant observation, and (b) non-participant observation.
In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d)

43
indirect observation. With reference to the rigour of the system adopted, observation is
classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation

Experimentation

Experimentation is a research ‘processes used to study the causal relationships between

variables. It aims at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent
variable, by keeping the other independent variables constant through some type of
control. For example, a -social scientist may use experimentation for studying the effect
of a method of family planning publicity on people's awareness of family planning
techniques.

Why Experiment?

Experimentation requires special efforts. It is often extremely difficult to design, and it is

also a time consuming process. Why should then one take such trouble? Why not simply
observe/survey the phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-experimental
study is its inability to specify causes and effect. It can show only correlations between
variables, but correlations alone never prow causation. The experiment is the only
method, which can show the effect of an independent variable on dependent variable. In
experimentation, the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure its
effect on the dependent variable. For example, the effect of various types of promotional
strategies on the sale of a given product can be studies by using different advertising
media such as T.V., radio and Newspapers. Moreover, experiment provides “the
opportunity to vary the treatment (experimental variable) in a systematic manner, thus
allowing for the isolation and precise specification of important differences.”

Applications

The applications of experimental method are ‘Laboratory Experiment’, and ‘Field

Experiment’.

Simulation

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Simulation is one of the forms of observational methods. It is a process of conducting
experiments on a symbolic model representing a phenomenon. Abelson defines
simulation as “the exercise of a flexible imitation of processes and outcomes for the
purpose of clarifying or explaining the underlying mechanisms involved.” It is a
symbolic abstraction, simplification and substitution for some referent system. In other
words, simulation is a theoretical model of the elements, relations and processes which
symbolize some referent system, e.g., the flow of money in the economic system may be
simulated in a operating model consisting of a set of pipes through which liquid moves.
Simulation is thus a technique of performing sampling experiments on the model of the
systems. The experiments are done on the model instead of on the real system, because
the latter would be too inconvenient and expensive.

Simulation is a recent research technique; but it has deep roots in history. Chess has often
been considered a simulation of medieval warfare.

Interviewing

Interviewing is one of the major methods of data collection. It may be defined as two-
way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for
obtaining information relevant to as a specific study.

It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents’ gestures, facial
expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face-to-face contact
or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured
schedule or an unstructured guide.

Importance

Interviewing may be us either as a main method or as a supplemen-tary one in studies of

persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate
or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual
demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person's
opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, past experience and future intentions. When

45
qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, then
interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a
sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more
willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information
may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.

Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the inves-tigator to grasp the
behavioural context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to
seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, that, for one reason or
another, respondents do not want to answer.

Types of Interviews

The interviews may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b)
unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused inter-view, and (d) clinical interview
and (e) depth interview.

a. Telephone Interviewing: Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data

collection.
b. Group Interviews: Group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary
data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each
other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multidimensional.

Interviewing Process

The interviewing process consists of the following stages:

a. Preparation.
b. Introduction
c. Developing rapport
d. Carrying the interview forward
e. Recording the interview, and

46
f. Closing the interview

Panel Method

The panel method is a method of data collection, by which data is collected from the
same sample respondents at intervals either by mail or by personal interview. This is used
for longitudinal studies on economic conditions, expenditure pattern; consumer
behaviour, recreational pattern, effectiveness of advertising, voting behaviour, and so on.
The period, over which the panel members are contacted for information may spread over
several months or years. The time interval at which they are contacted repeatedly may be
10 or 15 days, or one or two months depending on the nature of the study and the
memory span of the respondents.

Characteristics

The basic characteristic of the panel method is successive collection of data on the same
items from the same persons over a period of time. The type of information to be
collected should be such facts that can be accurately and completely furnished by the
respondent without any reservation. The number of item should be as few as possible so
that they could be furnished within a few minutes, especially when mail survey is
adopted. The average amount of time that a panel member has to spend each time for
reporting can be determined in a pilot study. The panel method requires carefully selected
and well-trained field workers and effective supervision over their work.-

Types of Panels

The panel may be static or dynamic. A static or continuous panel is one in which the
membership remains the same throughout the life of the panel, except for the members
who drop out. The dropouts are not replaced.

Mail Survey

The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves
sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return

47
them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail
questionnaire should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the
questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-end and multiple-
choice questions so that it could be completed within a few Minutes.

The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by
the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them, and not by the
investigator as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face
conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out
only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than does verbal
communication.

Alternative modes of sending questionnaires

There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents.

They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a, product, (3) advertising
questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine, and (4) newsstand inserts.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques involve presentation of ambitious stimuli to the respondents for

interpretation. In doing so, the respondents reveal their inner characteristics. The stimuli
may be a picture, a photograph, an inkblot or an incomplete sentence. The basic
assumption of projective techniques is that a person projects his own thoughts, ideas and
attributes when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or unstructured stimulus
materials. Thus a person's unconscious operations of the mind are brought to a conscious
level in a disguised and projected form, and the person projects his inner characteristics.

Types of Projective Techniques

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Projective Techniques may be divided into three broad categories: (a) visual projective
techniques (b) verbal projective techniques, and (c) Expressive techniques.

Sociometry

Sociometry is “a method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status,

structure, and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection
between individuals in groups.” Franz defines sociometry as “a method used for the
discovery and manipulation of social configurations by measuring the attractions and
repulsions between individuals in a group.” It is a means for studying the choice,
communication and interaction patterns of individuals in a group. It is concerned with
attractions and repulsions between individuals in a group. In this method, a person is
asked to choose one or more persons according to specified criteria, in order to find out
the person or persons with whom he will like to associate.

Sociometry Test

The basic technique in sociometry is the “sociometric test.” This is a test under which
each member of a group is asked to choose from all other members those with whom he
prefers to associate in a specific situation. The situation must be a real one to the group
under study, e.g., 'group study', 'play', 'class room seating' for students of a public school.

A specific number of choices, say two or three to be allowed is determined with reference
to the size of the group, and different levels of preferences are designated for each choice.

Suppose we desire to find out the likings and disliking of persons in a work group
consisting of 8 persons. Each person is asked to select 3 persons in order or preference
with whom he will like to work on a group assignment. The levels of choices are
designated as: the first choice by the' number 1, the second by 2, and the third by 3.

Rating Scale

49
This is a recording form used for measuring individual's attitudes, aspirations and other
psychological and behavioural aspects, and group behaviour.

Checklist

This is the simplest of all the devices. It consists of a prepared list of items pertinent to an
object or a particular task. The presence or absence of each item may be indicated by
checking 'yes' or 'no' or multipoint scale. The use of a checklist ensures a more complete
consideration of all aspects of the object, act or task. Checklists contain terms, which the
respondent understands, and which more briefly and succinctly express his views than
answers to open-ended question. It is a crude device, but careful pre-test can make it less
so. It is at best when used to test specific hypothesis. It may be used as an independent
tool or as a part of a schedule/questionnaire.

Document Schedule/Data Sheet

This is a list of items of information to be obtained from documents, records and other
materials. In order to secure measurable data, the items included in the schedule are
limited to those that can be uniformly secured from a large number of case histories or
other records.

Schedule for Institutions

This is used for survey of organizations like business enterprises, educational institutions,
social or cultural organizations and the like. It will include various categories of data
relating to their profile, functions and performance. These data are gathered from their
records, annual reports and financial statements.

4.5 CONSTRUCTION OF SCHEDULES AND QUESTIONNAIRES

50
Schedule v. Questionnaire

Schedules and questionnaires are the most common instruments of data collection. These
two types of tools have much in common. Both of them contain a set of questions
logically related to a problem under study; both aim at eliciting responses from the
respondents; in both cases the content, response structure, the wordings of questions,
question sequence, etc. are the same for all respondents. Then why should they be
denoted by the different terms: 'schedule' and 'questionnaires'? This is because the
methods for which they are used are different. While a schedule is used as a tool for
interviewing, a questionnaire is used for mailing.

This difference in usage gives rise to a subtle difference between these two recording
forms. That is, the interviewer in a face-to-face interviewing fills a schedule, whereas the
respondent himself fills in a questionnaire. Hence the need for using two different terms.

The tool is referred to as a schedule when it is used for interviewing; and it is called a
questionnaire when it is sent to a respondent for completion and return.

The process of construction

The process of construction of a schedule and a questionnaire is almost same, except

some minor differences in mechanics. This process is not a matter of simply listing
questions that comes to researchers mind. It is a rational process involving much time,
effort and thought. It consists of the following major steps:

1. Data need determination: As an interview schedule or a mailed questionnaire is an

instrument for gathering data for a specific study, its construction should flow
logically from the data required for the given study.
2. Preparation of “Dummy” tables: The best way to ensure the requirements of
information is to develop “dummy” tables in which to display the data to be
gathered.
3. Determination of the respondents’ level: Who are our respondents? Are they
persons with specialized knowledge relating to the problem under study? Or are

51
 they lay people? What is their level of knowledge and understanding? The choice
of words and concepts depends upon the level of the respondents' knowledge.
4. Data gathering method decision: Which communication mode is most appropriate
- face-to-face interview or mailing? The choice of question structure depends
largely on the communication mode chosen.
5. Instrument drafting: After determining the data required for the study, first, a
broad outline of the instrument may be drafted, listing the various broad
categories of data. Second, the sequence of these groupings must be decided.
Third, the questions to be asked under each group heading must be listed. All
conceivable items relevant to the 'data need' should be compiled.
6. Evaluation of the draft instrument: In consultation with other qualified persons,
the researcher must rigorously examine each question in the draft instrument.
7. Pre-testing: The revised draft must be pre-tested in order to identify the
weaknesses of the instrument and to make the required further revisions to rectify
them.
8. Specification of procedures/instructions: After the instruction is finalised after
pre-tests, the procedures or instructions, relating to its use must be specified.
9. Designing the format: The format should be suited to the needs of the research.
The instrument should be divided into different sections relating to the different
aspects of the problem.

Question Construction

A survey instrument - interview schedules or questionnaire - is useful for collecting

various types of information, viz., (a) factual information - facts about the respondents:
sex, age, marital status, education, religion, caste or social class, income and occupation;
and facts about events and circumstances, (b) psychological information such as attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, and expectations, and (c) behavioural information, like social
participation, and so on.

Once the information need is determined as explained in the previous topic, we can begin
question construction. This involves four major decision areas. They are: (a) question

52
relevance and content, (b) question wording, (c) response form, and (d) question order or
sequence.

Question relevance and content

My question to be included in the. instrument should pass certain tests. Is it relevant to

the research objectives? Can it yield significant information for answering an
investigative question? If not, it should not be included in the instrument.

53
Question wording

This is a difficult task. The function of a question in a schedule/questionnaire is to elicit

particular information without distortion. “Questioning people”, says Oppenheim, “is
more like trying to catch a particular elusive fish, by hopefully casting different kinds of
bait at different depths, without knowing what goes on beneath the surface.” As the
meaning of words differs from person to person, the question designer should choose
words which have the following characteristics:

a. Shared vocabulary.
b. Uniformity of meaning.
c. Exactness.
d. Simplicity.
e. Neutrality. The words to be used must be neutral ones, i.e., free from the
distorting influence of fear, prestige, bias or emotion.

Certain other problem areas of question wording are

a. Unwarranted assumptions,
b. Personalization,
c. Presumptions,
d. Hypothetical question,
e. Questions in embarrassing matters.

Some of the approaches to deal with this problem are:

i. to express the question in the third person; instead of asking the respondent for his
views, he is asked about the views of others:
ii. to use a drawing of two persons in a certain setting with 'balloons' containing
speech coming from their mouths, as in a cartoon - leaving one person's balloon
empty and asking the respondent to put himself in the position of that person and
to fill in the missing words; and
iii. to use sentence completion tests.

54
Response form or types of Questions

The third major area in question construction is the types of questions to be included in
the instrument. They may be classified into open questions and closed questions. Closed
questions may be dichotomous, multiple choice or declarative ones.

Types of questions to be avoided

The question designer should avoid the following types of questions: (a) Leading
questions, (b) 'Loaded' questions, (c) Ambiguous questions, (d) Double-barrelled, (e)
Long questions, (t) Avoid double negative.

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Question order or Sequence

The order in which questions are arranged in a schedule/questionnaire is as important as

question wording. It has two major implications. First, an appropriate sequence can ease
the respondent's task in answering. Second, the sequence can either create or avoid biases
due to context effects, i.e., the effects of preceding questions on the response to later
questions.

Mechanics of the Schedule and Questionnaire

In addition to question wording and question construction, the mechanics of the form
should also be considered in the design of a schedule/questionnaire. The mechanics of the
form has several aspects: items of the form, instruction, pre-coding, sectionalisation,
spacing, paper, printing, margins, etc.

Items of the form: The following items are mandatory for schedules and questionnaires.

1. The name of the organization collecting the data should appear at the top of front
-page. The name of the sponsor, of the study, if any should also be shown.
2. The title of the study should appear in large print next to the name of the
organization on the first page. Below this title, the title of the tool - e.g., 'Schedule
for-consumers; - may be noted. .
3. The confidentialness of the data should be made cleat.
4. A place for writing the date of filling in the form should be provided.
5. A serial number to each copy of the tool may be assigned.
6. The pages of the instrument should be numbered.

Instructions: In the face sheet below the title of the questionnaire, a brief statement of the
objective of the study, the confidentialness of the data, and instructions relating to
answering the questions may be provided. .

Pre-coding: Items in the tool should be pre-coded so as to facilitate transcription of data.

Sectionalization: There should be a separate section for each topical area.

56
Spacing: For each open-ended question, an adequate space should be provided for
answer. There should, indeed more space than seems necessary, for some interviewers/
respondents may write in a large script for legibility. Moreover, liberal spacing is a
stimulus for the questionnaire respondent to write more fully. Even short-answer
questions should be spaced, so that the interviewer/respondent will not easily confuse the
line, from which he is reading.

Paper: The paper used for mimeographing/printing should be of good quality.

Printing: Mailed questionnaire should necessarily be printed in order to make it attractive

and to minimize the postal expenditure.

Margins: One inch margin on the left side of the sheet and one-half inch margin on other
sides may be provided. If the instrument is to be bound, left-side margin should conform
to the type of binding used.

Indentation: This is required for 'yes' or 'no' questions. If the respondent's answer is 'yes',
then a series of questions is offered. If the answer is 'no' a different series of questions is
offered.

Note of thanks: A final note or comment of thanks for the cooperation of the respondent
should be included at the end of the instrument.

Concluding remarks

Question designing remains primarily a matter of common sense and experience and of
avoiding known pitfalls, as there are no hard and fast rules relating to it. Hence
alternative versions of questions must be rigorously tested in pre-tests. Test-revision-
retests play a crucial role in questionnaire construction.

MEASUREMENT SCALES AND INDICES

Scales are devised for measuring variables in social science research. During the past few
decades thousands of scales have been designed by researchers in sociology, psychology,

57
education, psychiatry, ethics, behavioral science, economics, administration and other
fields.

Indices and scales are often used interchangeably to refer to all sorts of measures,
absolute or relative, single or composite, simple or elaborate. “Scaling” refers to the
procedure by which numbers or scores assigned to the various degrees of opinions,
attitude and other concepts.

PILOT STUDIES AND PRE-TESTS

Pilot Study

The need for Pilot Study

It is difficult to plan a major study or project without adequate knowledge of its subject
matter, the population it is to cover, their level of knowledge and understanding and the
like. What are the issues involved? What are the concepts associated with the subject
matter? How can they be operationalised? What method of study is appropriate? How
long the study will take? How much money it will cost? These and other related
questions call for a good deal of knowledge of the subject matter of the study and its
dimensions. In order to gain such pre-knowledge of the subject matter of an extensive
study, a preliminary investigation is con-ducted. This is called a pilot study.

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Pre-test

Meaning

While a pilot study is a full-fledged miniature study of a problem, pre-test is a trial test of
a specific aspect of the study such as method of data collection or data collection
instrument - interview schedule, mailed questionnaire or measurement scale.

Need for Pre-testing

An instrument of data collection is designed with reference to the data requirements of

the study. But it cannot be perfected purely on the basis of a critical scrutiny by the
designer and other researchers. It should he empirically tested. As emphatically pointed
by Goode and Hatt, “no amount of thinking, no matter how logical the mind or brilliant
the insight, is likely to take the place of careful empirical checking”. Hence pre-testing of
a draft instrument is indispensable. Pre-testing-means trial administration of the
instrument to a sample of respondents before finalizing it.

Purposes of Pre-testing

Pre-testing has several purposes:

a. to test whether the instrument would elicit responses required to achieve the
research objectives,
b. to test whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate,
c. to test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the understanding of the
respondents,
d. to test the other qualitative aspects of the instrument like question structure and
question sequence, and
e. to develop appropriate procedure for administering the instrument with reference
to field conditions.

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 TOPIC FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

5.1 Introduction

This involves qualitative and quantitative analysis. The data collected by use of the
various instruments will first be thoroughly edited and checked for completeness and
comprehensibility. The edited data is summarized and coded for easy classification in
order to facilitate tabulation. The tabulated data is then analyzed by calculating various
percentages where possible. Descriptive statistics especially, frequencies and cross
tabulation are applied to help establish patterns, trends and relationships and to make it
easier for the researcher to understand and interpret implications of the study.
Presentation of data was in form of Tables, Pie-charts and Bar graphs only where it
provide successful interpretation of the findings. Descriptive data was provided in form
of explanatory notes.

5.2 Processing of Data

Data processing is an intermediary stage of work between data collection and data
analysis. The completed instruments of data collection, viz., interview schedules/
questionnaires/ data sheets/field notes contain. a vast mass of data. They cannot
straightaway provide answers to research questions. They, like raw materials, need
processing. Data processing involves classification and summarisal1on of data in order to
make them amenable to analysis

Processing of data requires advance planning at the stage of planning the research design.
This advance planning may covey such aspects as categorization of variables and
preparation of dummy tables. This should be done with reference to the requirements of
testing hypotheses/inves-tigative questions. This type of preplanning ensures better
identification of data needs and their adequate coverage in the tools for collection of data.

Data processing consists of a number of closely related operations, viz.

(1) editing, (2) classification and coding, (3) transcription and (4) tabulation.

60
5.3 Editing

The first step in processing of data is editing of complete schedules/questionnaires.

Editing is a process of checking to detect and or correct errors and omissions. Editing is
done at two stages: first at the fieldwork stage and second at office.

Field editing

During the stress of interviewing the interviewer cannot always record responses
completely and legibly. Therefore after each interview is over, he should review the
schedule to complete abbreviated responses, rewrite illegible responses and correct
omissions.

Office editing

All completed schedules/questionnaires should be thoroughly checked in the office for

Completeness, accuracy and. Uniformity

5.4 Classification and Coding

Categorization and classification

The edited data are classified and coded. The responses are classified into meaningful
categories so as to bring out essential pattern. By this method, several hundred responses
are reduced to five or six appropriate categories containing critical information needed
for analysis.

When to classify: Classification can be done at any phase prior to the tabulation. Certain
items like sex, age, type of house, and the like are structured and pre classified in the data
collection form itself. The responses to open-ended questions are classified at the
processing stage.

Categorization Rules: A classification system should meet certain requirements or be

guided by certain rules.

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First, classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the particular study.

Second, the scheme should be exhaustive. That is, there must be a category for every
response.

Third, the categories must also be mutually exclusive, so that each case is classified only
once.

Number of categories: How many categories should a scheme include? It is preferable to

include many categories rather than a few, since reducing the number later is easier than
splitting an already classified group of responses. However, the number of categories is-
limited by the number of cases and the anticipated statistical analysis.

Coding

Coding means assigning numerals or other symbols to the categories or responses. For
each question a coding scheme is designed on the basis of the con med categories. The
coding schemes with their assigned symbols together with specific coding instructions
may be assembled in a book. The codebook will identify a specific item of
variable/observation and the code number assigned to each category of that item. If the
data are to be transferred to machine punch cards, the codebook will also identify the
column in which it is entered.

5.5. Transcription

When only a few schedules are processed and hand-tabulated, tabulation can directly be
made from the schedules. On the other hand, direct tabulation from the edited schedules/
questionnaires is difficult if the number of the schedules and the number of responses in
them are large/ suppose an interview schedule contains 180 responses requiring
tabulation and 210 simple and cross tables are to be constructed, each schedule has to be
handled at least 210 for tabulation. This will result in mutilation of the schedule, and.
omissions and commissions may easily occur in tabulation. In order to avoid these

62
drawbacks, data contained in schedules/questionnaires are transferred to another material
for the pur-pose of tabulation. This intermediary process is called 'transcription.’

Methods of Transaction

The material to be used for transaction depends on the method of tabulation - manual or
mechanical. Long work sheets, sorting cards or sorting strips are used for transcription
when tabulation is done manually, and punch cards or magnetic tape (or disks) are used
in a system of machine sorting and tabulation.

5.6 Tabulation

After the transcription of data is over, data are summarised and arranged in a compact
form for further analysis. This process is called tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process
of summarizing raw data and displaying them on compact statistical tables for further
analysis. It involves counting of the number of cases falling into each of several
categories.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice

depends upon the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the
availability of tabulating machines or computers. Hand tabulation is suitable for small
and simple studies. Electronic or mechanical tabulation is more appropriate for large and
complex studies.

Electronic Computers

The uses of electronic computers have revolutionized data analysis. They can perform all
the specialized functions at a much higher speed. The use of computers has facilitated
large-scale studies and above all the use of complex techniques of analysis such as
multivariate analysis, factor analysis and the like. The operating speed of computers is
fantastic. The time required for computers to perform such basic operations as adding and
subtracting is less than a billionth of a second. The large computers can perform many

63
million operations in a second. In addition to being very fast, computers are very
accurate.

Construction of Tables

After the data have been tabulated, they are arranged in statistical tables in vertical
columns and horizontal rows according to some classification. Tables provide a
“shorthand” summary of data. The importance of presenting statistical data in tabular
form needs no emphasis. Tables facilitate comprehending masses of data at a glance; they
conserve space and reduce explanations and descriptions to a minimum; they give a
visual picture of relationships between variables and categories; they facilitate summation
of items and the detection of errors and omissions; and they provide a basis for
computations.

It is important to make a distinction between the general-purpose tables and the special
tables. The general-purpose tables are primary or reference tables designed to include
large amounts of source data in convenient and accessible form. The special purpose
tables are analytical or derivative ones, which demonstrate significant relationships in the
data or the results of statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population,
vital statistics, agriculture, industries etc. are of general-purpose type. They represent
extensive repositories of statistical information. Special purpose tables are found in
monographs, research reports and articles, and are used as instruments of analysis. In
research we are primarily concerned with special purpose tables.

Components of a Table

The major components of a table are:

A. Heading

1. Table Number
2. Title of the table
3. Designation of units

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B. Body

1. Stub-head - heading of all rows or blocks of stub items.

2. Boxhead - headings of all columns or main captions and their sub captions
3. Field or body - the cells in rows and columns

C. Notations

1. Footnotes, if necessary
2. Source

Principles of Table construction:

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.
They are:

1. Every table should have a title.

2. Every table should be identified by a number to facilitate easy reference
3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.
5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath
the table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes
such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) dagger (+) and the like may be used.
6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is
ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table.
7. Usually columns are separated from one another by lines. Lines are always drawn
at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.
8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and 'plus' or
'minus' signs should be in perfect alignment.
10. Columns and rows which are to be compared with one another should be brought
close together.

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 11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of columns
at the bottom.
12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different
kinds of type, spacing and indentations can be used.
13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical,
alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical categories are usually arranged
in descending order of magnitude.
14. Miscellaneous and exceptional items are generally placed in the last row of the
table.
15. Usually the larger number of items are listed vertically. This means that a table's
length is more than its width.
16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be
used in a table.
17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Data analysis involves critical thinking. This is done only after collecting all the data and
always focused on the research problems and the hypothesis and questions rose in the
statement of the problem. Here the research compiles or summarizes the results in a
logical order usually in relation to the hypotheses and objectives of the study. After a
brief introduction on the main results or features of the findings of the study, the data are
described and interpreted in sufficient detail leading to the ultimate conclusion. Tables,
graphs and illustrations are used to present the data more clearly and economically.

In brief, analysis involves examination and evaluation of some phenomenon by dividing

it into some constituent parts and identifying the relationships among the parts in the
context of the whole. You then interpret the relationships to explain or make some
intended generalization governing the behaviour of the phenomenon.

Drawing Conclusions and Recommendations

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The researcher summarizes the main findings of his study and the implications.
Conclusions summarize the main results of the research and describe what they mean for
the general field. Briefly describe what you did, consider suggesting future research to
follow up where your research ended.

5.7 Graphic Representations

Graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices. These
forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly
understood at a glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the
mind to grasp or retain. “Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of
burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply.” They, by
emphasizing new and significant relationships, are also useful in discovering new facts
and in developing hypotheses.

The device of graphic representation is particularly useful when the prospective readers
are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for
dramatizing certain points about the data, for important points can be more effective
captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables,
but are additional devices.

Types and General Rules

The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories:

1. Line graphs or charts

2. Bar Charts
3. Segmental representations
4. Pictographs.

Line Graphs

The line graph is useful for showing changes in data relationships over a period of time.
In this graph, figures are plotted in relation to two interesting lines or axes. The

67
horizontal line is called the abscissa or X-axis and the vertical, the ordinal or Y-axis. The
point at which the two axes, interest is zero for both X and Y. The '0' is the origin of
coordinates. The two lines divide the region of the plane into four sections known as
quadrants, which are numbered anti-clockwise. Measurements to the right and above '0'
are positive (plus), and measurements to the left and below '0' are negative (minus). Any
point in the plane of the two axes is plotted in terms of the two axes reading from the
origin '0'. Scale intervals in both the axes should he equal. If a part of the scale is omitted,
a set of parallel jagged lines should be used to indicate the break in the scale. The time
dimension or independent variable is represented by the X-axis and the other variable by
Y-axis.

Histogram.

This is another form of line chart used for presenting a frequency distribution. It is
constructed by erecting vertical lines on the limits of the class intervals marked on the
base line. The vertical lines so drawn from a series of contiguous rectangles or columns.
The Width of each rectangle represents its class interval, and the height represents the
class frequency.

Frequency Polygons

It is often more convenient to draw a frequency polygon instead of drawing a histogram

of a distribution. In laying out a frequency polygon, the frequency of each class is located
at the midpoint of the interval and the plotted points are then connected by straight lines.
If two or more series are shown on the same graph, the curves can be made with different
kinds of ruling. If the total number of cases in the two series is of different size, the
frequencies are often reduced to percentages. The frequency polygon is particularly
appropriate for portraying continuous series. It is sometimes desirable to portray the data
by a smoothed curve. The chart is then called a frequency curve.

Ogive

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The ogive is a line chart plotted on arithmetic graph paper from a cumulative frequency
distribution, which may be cumulated downward or upward. It is useful in representing
population, per capita income, per capita earnings etc. Two or more distributions may be
compared by converting the data of the distributions to percentages of the total, then
cumulating the percentages and plotting the ogives on the same grid. The differences in
steepness and shape of the ogives facilitate comparative observations.

Lorenz Curve

The Lorenz Curve is a line chart used to compare the proportionality in two quantitative
variables. It is commonly used to show the degree by which the distribution of income
per family departs from the distribution' of the number of families; it shows that it
disparate proportion of the income goes to a few families.

Bar Charts

These charts consist of either vertical or horizontal bars to represent variables. The length
of the bars varies corresponding to the values of the variable. Bar charts are the most
effective pictorial device for comparing data. The bars may be depicted in solid blocks or
in patterns of dots, dishes etc. They may be of different forms: (1) linear or one-
dimensional, (2) areal or two-dimensional, and (3) cubic or three-dimensional. The actual
numerical values may be shown on the X-axis or Y-axis, as the case may be, or at the
immediate ends of the bars.

Pie or Circle Charts

The circle or pie chart is a component parts chart. The component parts form the
segments of the circle. The circle chart is usually a percentage chart. The data are
converted to percentage of the total; and the proportional segments, therefore, give a clear
picture of the relationship among the component parts.

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Pictograms

A pictogram is a variation of the bar chart. In it the values are represented by identical
symbol or pictures. Each one representing a fixed size of the variable. The symbols used
may be appropriate to the type of data.

Preparing research report and scientific papers

Preparing a Research Report

Research has little value if it is not put together into some form of report. We have said
that research represents a scientific method of establishing knowledge that is cumulative.
And therefore, scientific findings must be properly documented and reported through
appropriate media. Effective communication of research findings, both to scientist and to
the general audiences, is a very important component of the research process. Decisions
on writing style and method of presentation must depend on the intended purposes and
prospective readers. Any researcher who hopes to do an effective report should have
some idea of his probable readers or audience, some understanding of the needs, interests
and capability will help him decide which points to stress in his presentation.

The significance of a research report

As noted above, research findings must be communicated in one way or another.

 First and foremost, reports are necessary to account to the funding body the
expenditure of the funds allocated, manpower and other resources.
 Even more importantly, research reports make scientific information more
accessible to people and social groups or organizations interested in particular
research data. In doing so, the researcher must have some understanding of the
needs, interests and capability of the target audience.
 This will help him decide the format and points he needs to elaborate and stress in
his report.

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 If the audience constitutes the scientific community, his emphasis would be the
results, methods, and scientific tools he employed to analyze, interpret, and
conclude from the findings of his study. His work may be published as an article
in a journal, or bulletin.
 If the target audience is made up of extension agents, development workers,
policy makers, etc. his emphasis will be the conclusion and recommendations
drawn from the study.

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 TOPIC SIX : FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Guidelines for preparing the research report

A. Preliminary section

1. Title page: Some basic considerations

The title page usually includes:

o The name of the topic

o The name of the author
o The relationship of the report to a course or degree requirement
o The name of the institution where the report is submitted
o The date and place of the presentation

Any research work starts with a title that will almost certainly change before the research
is completed and reported. It is very wise, therefore, to think of an effective title that will
be finally adopted. So it is a good idea to keep notes of alternative titles or ideas as you
proceed in preparing and writing the research report. The title should catch the readers’
attention while informing them about the main thesis of the study. First impressions are
strong and can attract attention. The title should be concise and should give a precise
indication of what is to come. It should not claim more than what the study actually
delivers. The title should be typed in capital letters, single spaced and centered between
the right and left margins of the page.

2. Acknowledgement (if any)

An acknowledgement page is included if the writer has received unusual assistance in the
conduct of the study. The author gives credit for external support received during the
conduct of the study. Acknowledgement also expresses gratitude for the use of
copyrighted or otherwise restricted materials. A doctoral candidate may choose to
dedicate the dissertation to a person(s) who has had significant impact on his work.

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3. Table of contents:

A good table of contents serves as an important purpose in providing an outline of the

content of the report. The relationship between principal and minor divisions is indicated
by capitalization of chapter numbers and titles, with subheadings in small letters and with
capitalized principal letters.

B. Main body of the report

1. Introduction

 As in the proposal, the introduction presents the problem addressed by the

research.
 Gives sufficient background information to allow readers to understand the results
of the study.
 It is written in such a way that readers will know the current status of research
conclusions on the topic, the theoretical implications associated with the results of
previous research on the subject, and the statement of a hypothetical resolution of
the issues to be tested by the research described.
 As in the proposal, the introduction should describe the nature and purpose of the
study, present the guiding research questions, and explain the significance of and
justification for conducting the study. Terms likely to be used throughout the
paper should be defined in this section.
 A statement of objectives is included and a research hypothesis

2. Review of Related literature

A literature review must be organized in relation to research topic you are developing. In
the process you should synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known;
identify areas of controversy in the literature; formulate questions that need further
research.

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3. Materials and Methods (Methodology)

The methodology section is used to describe what the researcher did and how the study
was conducted. One important purpose is to enable others repeat the experiment and
verify the results if they wish to. In doing so, you should summarize the procedures in the
execution of each of the stage of your work. This section should build on the description
of methods outlined in the proposal. You should label subsections similar to those in the
proposal. It may include subsections describe participants or subjects, another describing
testing or measurement procedures undertaken with the participants, and a section
describing limitations of the methodology. These are all done in the past tense or past
perfect tense.

This section should present the following:

1. Procedures used and kind of design

2. Sources of data
3. Methods of gathering data
4. Description of data gathering instruments used

4. Analysis of data/Results

 This section summarizes the data collected and details the statistical treatment of
that data.
 Present your results in a logical sequence using only observations pertinent to
your stated objectives.
 After a brief statement of the main results or findings of the study, the data are
reported in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions.
 Tables and illustrations may be used to report data when these methods are seen
to present the data more clearly and economically.
 Do not replicate observations in your tables. Give only means and measures of
variability.
 Use tables to present exact values and figures to show trends and relationships.

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  All tables and illustrations should be mentioned in the text, with appropriate titles
or captions and enough explanations to make them readily identifiable.
 Avoid repetition of numerical data from the tables and figures in the text.

5. Discussion

This section should reflect the implications of the study. Here the researcher evaluates the
data and interprets the findings in the context of the research questions or hypothesis. He
is guided by questions like the following.

 What do my results mean and what are their implications?

 Should interpret your results clearly, concisely and logically. For each objective,
describe how your results relate to meeting the objectives.
 Here, the major results are picked or summarized, evaluate, and interpreted with
respect to the original research questions and hypotheses and related with
previous works.
 Theoretical and practical consequences of the results and the validity of
conclusions may appropriately be discussed in this section.
 The limitations of the study and suggestions for future work may also be included.
 Emphasize on new results and suggest new lines of work or further research.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

In this section you should describe briefly what you did, the main results and
recommendations for further research or applicability. Implications what the findings of
the research imply (consider suggestions).

7. References

At the end of your report you need to list all the sources cited in the text. Details
regarding citations and references are given part four.

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Characteristics of a Good Report

A good report results from slow, pain taking and ac- curate inductive work. To attract a
reader, the reading matter of a report should be clear and interesting. It should not be
obscure and dull. The write-up should be logical, clear and concise. The basic quality or
characteristics of a good scientific report/paper and thesis are the following:

(1) good presentation

(2) good organization of various chapters/sections
(3) accuracy
(4) clarity
(5) free from contradictions and confusion.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS

Introduction

The principle of fairness and the role of personal recognition within the reward system of
science account for the emphasis given to the proper allocation of credit. In the standard
scientific paper, credit is explicitly acknowledged in three places: in the list of authors, in
the acknowledgments of contributions from others, and in the list of references or
citations. Conflicts over proper attribution can arise in any of these places. Citations serve
many purposes in a scientific paper. They acknowledge the work of other scientists,
direct the reader toward additional sources of information, acknowledge conflicts with
other results, and provide support for the views expressed in the paper. More broadly,
citations place a paper within its scientific context, relating it to the present state of
scientific knowledge. Failure to cite the work of others can give rise to more than just
hard feelings. Citations are part of the reward system of science. They are connected to
funding decisions and to the future careers of researchers. More generally, the
misallocation of credit undermines the incentive system for publication. In addition,
scientists who routinely fail to cite the work of others may find themselves excluded from

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the fellowship of their peers. This consideration is particularly important in one of the
more intangible aspects of a scientific career-that of building a reputation. Published
papers document a person's approach to science, which is why it is important that they be
clear, verifiable, and honest. In addition, a researcher who is open, helpful, and full of
ideas becomes known to colleagues and will benefit much more than someone who is
secretive or uncooperative.

Features of citations

(a) Footnoting

 Footnotes are very useful devices because they serve a number of purposes
 They enable you to substantiate your presentation by citing other authorities
 They also enable you to present explanatory statements that would interfere with
the logic of your text
 Traditionally, footnote citations are placed at the bottom of the page
 They are separated from the text by a horizontal line from the text margin.

(b) Abbreviations

o You may use abbreviations in bibliographic and footnote citations if you want to
conserve space. Examples: bk., bks. = book, books.

(c) Bibliography (Reference/Literature Cited)

Points to consider in preparing the references:

o The reference list at the end of the paper should list all works cited in the paper,
and all items listed as references must have been cited in the text.
o Special attention should be given to ensure appropriate citations of less common
sources, such as unpublished manuscripts.
o There are many ways of presenting the bibliography but be accurate and
consistent in the way you list

77
 o Follow guidelines required by the particular journal, proceeding, etc. They do
have their own style of citations.
o Citing a source without having read/seen the original can lead to embarrassment
and loss of credibility if the secondary source from which you gained the
information is in error.
o Again, the APA Manual can provide guidance for ensuring accuracy in these
details.
o General rule: Author (s). Year of Publication. Title of Work. Publication data.

(i) In-text references (citations)-References are citations of other works such as books,
journal articles, or private communications. References in text are treated somewhat
differently from references in the complete list at the end of a paper.

 Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith
(1990) points out,
 For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences.
 For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time,
then use et al., so the first time it is Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but
the second time it is Smith et al., with a period after “al” but no underlining.
 For six or more authors, use et al. the first time and give the full citation in
references.
 Include page reference after the year, outside quotes but inside the comma, for
example: The author stated, “The effect disappeared within minutes” (Lopez,
1993, p. 311) , but she did not say which effect. Another example would be:
Lopez found that “the effect disappeared within minutes” (p. 311). Notice also
that the sentence is capitalized only if presented after a comma, as a complete
sentence.
 If two or more multiple-author references which shorten to the same “et al.” form,
making it ambiguous, give as many author names as necessary to make them
distinct, before et al. For example: (Smith, Jones, et al., 1991) to distinguish it
from (Smith, Burke, et al., 1991).

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  Join names in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in
reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason
(1990) point out, the same argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith &
Sarason, 1990).
 If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For
example, “As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health
[NIMH], 1991), blah blah...” and thereafter, “The previously cited study (NIMH,
1991) found that...
 If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference
list entry (usually the title), for example: (“Study Finds,” 1992).
 If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in
order. In general, use letters after years to distinguish multiple publications by the
same author in the same year. For example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988,
1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a, 1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.
 For old works cite the translation or the original and modern copyright dates if
both are known, for example: (Aristotle, trans. 1931) or (James, 1890/1983).
 Always give page numbers for quotations, for example: (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p.
332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3, p. 5).
 For e-mail and other “unrecoverable data” use personal communication, for
example: (V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1993). These
do not appear in the reference list.

Abbreviating within a reference

Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:

 chap. for chapter

 ed. for edition
 rev. ed. for revised edition
 2nd ed. for second edition
 Ed. for Edited by
 (Eds.) for multiple editors

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  Trans. for Translated by
 p. for page number, with a space after the period
 pp. for page numbers in encyclopaedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles,
chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article
citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples of reference
formats).
 Vol. for Volume
 vols. for volumes
 No. for Number
 Pt. for Part
 Suppl. for Supplement,
 Tech. Rep. for Technical Report

Quotations: When a direct quotation is used, always include the author, year, and page
number as part of the citation.

A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks

and should be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence. Consider the
following example:

Patients receiving prayer had “less congestive heart failure, required less diuretic
and antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had fewer cardiac
arrests, and were less frequently incubated and ventilated” (Byrd, 1988, p. 829).

B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should appear (without quotation

marks) apart from the surrounding text, in block format, with each line indented
five spaces from the left margin.

(ii) Lists of References

General Rule:

 Pagination: The References section begins on a new page.

80
 Format: The references lists are organized alphabetically by surnames of first
authors.
 Most reference entries have three components:
 Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using
surnames and initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are seven or more
authors, list the first six and then use “et al.” for remaining authors. If no author is
identified, the title of the document begins the reference. The first author always
starts with its surname followed by initials. The rest of authors are listed
following the first author either starts by initials followed by surnames or vice
versa.
 Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors, with a period following the
closing parenthesis. Or without parenthesis following authors, with a period
following authors and after it. If no publication date is identified, use “n.d.” in
parentheses or without parenthesis following the authors.
 Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or
title, edition, city of publication, publisher (for book). [Note: Italicize titles of
books, titles of periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.]

81
Examples of sources

i. Journal article

Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of women and judgments
of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-
1626.

ii. Book

Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion (2nd ed.).

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistical manual of

mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

(note: “Author” is used as above when author and publisher are identical.)

iii. Article or chapter in an edited book

Shea, J. D. (1992). Religion and sexual adjustment. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.),

Religion and Mental Health (pp. 70-84). New York: Oxford University Press.

iv. Web document on university program or department Web site

Degelman, D., & Harris, M. L. (2000). APA style essentials. Retrieved May 18,
2000, from Vanguard University, Department of Psychology Web site:
http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc_id=796

v. Stand-alone Web document (no date)

Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of religion. Retrieved August

3, 2001, from http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm

vi. Stand-alone Web document (no author, no date)

82
 Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from
http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html

vii. Journal article from database

Hien, D., & Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug abuse-maternal
aggression link. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved May
20, 2000, from ProQuest database.

viii. Abstract from secondary database

Garrity, K., & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server introduction on restaurant

tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172. Abstract retrieved
July 23, 2001, from PsycINFO database.

ix. Letter to the editor

O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA

Monitor, 4-5.

x. Magazine article

Gardner, H. (1991, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology

Today,70-76. (xi) Newsletter article

Brown, L.S. (1993, Spring). My research with oranges. The Psychology

Department Newsletter, 3, 2.

xi. The date is given as it appears on the publication. For anonymous newspaper
articles.
xii. Pamphlet

Just Say No Foundation. (1992). Saving our youth. (9th ed.) [Brochure].
Washington, DC: Author.

83
xiii. Anonymous or unknown author (common in newspapers):

Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times, pp. B13,
B15.

84