Braking of Road Vehicles, 2nd Edition

Andrew J. Day
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/braking-of-road-vehicles-2nd-edition-andrew-j-day/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Dynamics and Optimal Control of Road Vehicles D. J. N.

Limebeer

https://ebookmass.com/product/dynamics-and-optimal-control-of-
road-vehicles-d-j-n-limebeer/

Public & Private Families. 1st Edition Andrew J.

Cherlin.

https://ebookmass.com/product/public-private-families-1st-
edition-andrew-j-cherlin/

When I Hit the Road Nancy J. Cavanaugh

https://ebookmass.com/product/when-i-hit-the-road-nancy-j-
cavanaugh/

When I Hit the Road Nancy J. Cavanaugh

https://ebookmass.com/product/when-i-hit-the-road-nancy-j-
cavanaugh-2/
Nutrition for Sport and Exercise, 4th Edition J. Andrew
Doyle

https://ebookmass.com/product/nutrition-for-sport-and-
exercise-4th-edition-j-andrew-doyle/

Nutrition for sport and exercise 3e edition Edition

Andrew J. Doyle

https://ebookmass.com/product/nutrition-for-sport-and-
exercise-3e-edition-edition-andrew-j-doyle/

The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions 2nd

Edition Andrew S. Fox (Editor)

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-nature-of-emotion-fundamental-
questions-2nd-edition-andrew-s-fox-editor/

Theories and Practices of Self-Driving Vehicles Qingguo

Zhou

https://ebookmass.com/product/theories-and-practices-of-self-
driving-vehicles-qingguo-zhou/

Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills,

10e 10th Edition Andrew J. Dubrin

https://ebookmass.com/product/leadership-research-findings-
practice-and-skills-10e-10th-edition-andrew-j-dubrin/
BRAKING OF
ROAD VEHICLES
BRAKING OF
ROAD VEHICLES
Second Edition

ANDREW DAY
M.A. (Cantab), PhD. (Loughborough), C.Eng., F.I.MechE.,
Professor Emeritus, University of Bradford, UK

DAVID BRYANT
MEng (Leeds), PhD. (Huddersfield), PGCert (Huddersfield), AMIMechE,
Associate Professor, University of Bradford, UK
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom
they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-822005-4

For Information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at

https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Brian Guerin
Editorial Project Manager: Emily Thomson
Production Project Manager: Anitha Sivaraj
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers

Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India

CONTENTS

Preface ix

1. Introduction 1
References 8

2. Friction pairs 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 The friction pair 12
2.3 Resin-bonded composite friction materials 16
2.4 Thermophysical properties 21
2.5 Brake performance 25
2.6 Wear 32
2.7 New friction pairs: composition, manufacture, and properties 34
2.8 Chapter summary 38
References 39

3. Braking system design for passenger cars and light vans 41

3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Weight transfer during braking 42
3.3 Tyre/road adhesion 49
3.4 Braking force and wheel slip 53
3.5 Braking force distribution 59
3.6 Wheel lock and vehicle stability during braking 63
3.7 Braking efficiency 64
3.8 Adhesion utilisation 68
3.9 Chapter summary 71
References 73

4. Braking system design for vehicle and trailer combinations 75

4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Car and light trailer 76
4.3 Car towing a trailer or caravan with overrun brakes 80
4.4 Rigid truck towing a centre-axle trailer 85
4.5 Rigid truck towing a full-trailer 89

v
vi Contents

4.6 Articulated commercial vehicles—tractors and semi-trailers 95

4.7 Load sensing and compatibility 106
4.8 Chapter summary 108
References 108

5. Brake design analysis 109

5.1 Introduction 109
5.2 Disc brakes 111
5.3 Drum brakes 126
5.4 Brake factor and ηC∗ for air-actuated commercial vehicle brakes 155
5.5 Chapter summary 160
References 161

6. Brake system layout design 163

6.1 Introduction 163
6.2 Overview of the vehicle braking system layout design process 165
6.3 Steps 3 and 4 for Passenger car and light commercial vehicle braking systems
with hydraulic actuation 175
6.4 Heavy goods vehicle braking systems with pneumatic actuation 209
6.5 Regenerative braking 224
6.6 Developments in road vehicle brake actuation systems 225
6.7 Chapter summary 226
References 228

7. Electronic braking systems 229

7.1 Introduction 229
7.2 Antilock braking system (ABS) 230
7.3 Electronic stability control (ESC) 247
7.4 Electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD) 254
7.5 Traction control system (TCS) 255
7.6 Roll Stability Control (RSC) 257
7.7 Additional electronic braking systems 261
7.8 Regenerative braking 267
7.9 System warnings and driver interfaces with electronic braking 273
7.10 Chapter summary 274
References 276

8. Thermal effects in friction brakes 277

8.1 Introduction 277
8.2 Heat energy and power in friction brakes 279
 Contents vii

8.3 Braking energy management and materials 287

8.4 Brake thermal analysis 290
8.5 Heat dissipation in brakes 306
8.6 Chapter summary 321
References 322

9. Brake noise, vibration, and harshness 323

9.1 Introduction 323
9.2 Brake noise, vibration, and harshness classification 326
9.3 Squeal 329
9.4 Other classes of brake NVH 358
9.5 Brake judder 361
9.6 Computer analysis methods 368
9.7 Experimental methods 378
9.8 Design rules for quiet brakes 382
9.9 Chapter summary 384
References 386

10. Brake testing 389

10.1 Introduction 389
10.2 Instrumentation and data acquisition in experimental brake testing 391
10.3 Experimental design, test procedures, and protocols for brake testing 402
10.4 Test vehicles, dynamometers, and rigs 406
10.5 Experimental brake test procedures 411
10.6 Brake test data interpretation and analysis 428
10.7 Chapter summary 431
References 432

11. Braking legislation 433

11.1 Introduction 433
11.2 European road vehicle braking regulations 435
11.3 US road vehicle braking legislation 463
11.4 Complex electronic vehicle control systems 467
11.5 Regenerative braking systems 474
11.6 Automated and autonomous vehicles 478
11.7 Chapter summary 479
References 480

12. Case studies in the braking of road vehicles 483

12.1 Introduction 483
viii Contents

12.2 Brake system design verification 484

12.3 Braking performance variation 488
12.4 Interaction between the brakes and the vehicle 497
12.5 Brake NVH 501
12.6 Mixed-mode braking: regenerative braking system design 511
12.7 Chapter summary 519
References 521

Nomenclature and glossary of terms 523

Index 531
Preface

Aimed as an introductory textbook about the science and technology of road vehicle
braking, this Second Edition of the ‘Braking of Road Vehicles’ book has been revised,
updated, and expanded to reflect recent technological developments and evolution in the
original subject matter so that it continues to be a source of reference for both new and
experienced engineers working within the industry.
David Bryant has joined the First Edition author Andrew Day as co-author of this
Second Edition, and in its preparation, we have each drawn upon our many years’
experience of teaching and research relating to braking and automotive systems. One of
our most influential sources has been our interactions with the many expert practitioners
and hundreds of delegates through the annual ‘Braking of Road Vehicles’ short course
for the industry at the University of Bradford since 1996 (the course itself started at
Loughborough University in 1966). These people, with their thirst for knowledge, have
contributed their own expertise and asked many questions, giving freely of their time. We
extend our thanks to all colleagues, companies, and organisations who have supported
and helped us to advance our knowledge over so many years; we have named some of
them below but there are many more un-named to whom we also owe some debt of
gratitude.
The field of vehicle braking continues to be a fascinating discipline which is
constantly evolving and adapting to meet new challenges and requirements, so we have
broadened and deepened each of the chapters to reflect the associated technologies and
developments. What has become apparent to us whilst writing this Second Edition is
the considerable influence that regenerative braking is now having upon all areas of road
vehicle braking, whether it be advanced control systems and technologies, alternative
materials, particulate emissions, or legislative requirements.
The structure of the book remains much the same as the First Edition, although
there has been some re-ordering of chapters and content to improve the flow. The first
six chapters introduce the fundamental engineering theory; Chapters 7–11 cover specialist
topics; and Chapter 12 rounds off with a selection of case studies relevant to the individual
disciplines covered within the book.
Chapter 1 (Introduction) has been updated to reflect how recent developments in
vehicle design, in particular powertrains, have influenced all areas of braking science and
technology.
Chapter 2 (Friction Pairs) covers recent developments including new and alternative
materials and the significance of particulate emissions.
Chapters 3 and 4 (Braking System Design for Passenger Cars and Light Vans/Vehicle
and Trailer Combinations) have been updated to provide additional clarity to the text.
ix
x Preface

Chapter 5 (Brake Design Analysis) includes several revised analyses and an alternative
method of drum brake torque calculation with comparisons to more classical methods.
Chapter 6 (Brake System Layout Design) now includes content on brake actuation
requirements, electro-mechanical and electro-hydraulic actuators, regenerative braking,
and mixed-mode brake blending.
Chapter 7 (Electronic and Autonomous Braking Systems) has been updated to
include new content on brake-by-wire technologies, autonomous braking, regenerative
braking, and expanded text on the various electronic control strategies.
Chapter 8 (Thermal Effects in Friction Brakes) includes additional content on
numerical modelling, and thermal localisations, such as hot banding and hot spotting.
Chapter 9 (Brake Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) has been substantially updated
covering experimental analysis of brake squeal, judder, and creep groan, with additional
theoretical, experimental, and numerical examples.
Chapter 10 (Brake Testing) has been updated to provide additional detail, examples,
and clarity to the text including requirements and procedures for the measurement of
brake particulate emissions.
Chapter 11 (Braking Legislation) has been significantly rewritten to incorporate recent
changes to EU and UN legislation with comparisons drawn with other legislation in use
worldwide.
Chapter 12 (Case Studies in Braking) has been extended with three new case studies
on NVH and mixed-mode braking.
The book is dedicated to two Peters, Peter Newcomb and Peter Harding, who
mentored and guided Andrew Day many years ago through his introduction to road
vehicle braking. The original ‘Braking of Road Vehicles’ book, co-authored by Peter
Newcomb and Bob Spurr and published by Chapman & Hall in 1967, was the classic
definitive introductory textbook on the subject and provided generations of Brake
Engineers with the foundations of their braking knowledge. Peter Newcomb advised
Andrew throughout his PhD research, and we subsequently worked together for many
years on all aspects of braking, including the ‘Braking of Road Vehicles’ short course.
Peter Harding was a gifted Engineer and manager (and rock-climber) at Mintex Ltd.,
manufacturers of friction materials, who had the most remarkable knowledge of braking
and friction materials gained from a lifetime in the industry. Much of the knowledge
presented in this book started from them and has been assimilated by both of us over
the intervening years. Although we cannot always remember the original sources, where
possible we have attempted to reference them.
Our acknowledgments and thanks go to the following people and organisations:
John Baggs and Peter Marshall (both formerly of Ford), Eddie Curry (formerly of
MIRA), and Dave Barton (Leeds University) for sharing their knowledge of passenger
car braking system design and brake design analysis on which Chapters 3 and 5 are based.
 Preface xi

Brian Shilton and Colin Ross (formerly of Wabco and Knorr-Bremse respectively),
and Neil Williams and Paul Thomas (Meritor) for sharing their knowledge of commercial
vehicle braking system design and brake design analysis on which Chapters 4 and 5 are
based.
Jos Klaps and Ludwig Fein (formerly of Ford), Thomas Svensson (Ford), Mike
MacDonald (formerly of Jaguar Land Rover), Neil Williams, Colin Ross, and Brian
Shilton for sharing their knowledge of brake system layout on which Chapter 6 is based.
Ian Moore, Thomas Svensson (Ford), Pierre Garnier (Jaguar Land Rover), Deaglán
Ó Meachair (BrakeBetter), and Colin Ross for sharing their knowledge of electronic
braking systems on which Chapter 7 is based.
Marko Tirovic (Cranfield University) for sharing his vast knowledge of the thermal
analysis of brakes on which Chapter 8 is based.
John Fieldhouse (formerly of Huddersfield University) who mentored David Bryant
through his PhD research, for sharing his extensive knowledge on brake NVH over many
years on which Chapter 9 is based. Also to colleagues at Bentley Motors and Jaguar Land
Rover for their research collaboration on which many of the results and analyses are
based.
Narcis Molina (Applus Idiada), and Rod McLellan for sharing their knowledge of
brake and vehicle testing on which Chapter 10 is based.
Winfried Gaupp (formerly of TÜV Nord) for sharing his vast knowledge of braking
legislation and especially for his substantial help and advice in writing Chapter 11.
Jos Klaps for sharing his wealth of knowledge about braking systems generally, and
specifically steering drift as presented in Chapter 12, and the many diagrams and figures
carried over from the 1st Edition.
John Readle for his patient and meticulous work reviewing and proofreading every
aspect of the manuscript.
Jaguar Land Rover and Valx for the cover pictures.
Meritor,Link Engineering,and Arfesan for diagrams,images,and information relating
to their products.
And finally, the many other people and organisations for the knowledge and infor-
mation that we have gained from them over the years and used in the First Edition as
well as this Second Edition.
Andrew Day, David Bryant
February 2022
CHAPTER 1

Introduction
‘Never start anything you can’t stop’ applies to many aspects of modern life but nowhere
does this maxim apply more appropriately than to transport. For road vehicles, whether
intended for personal or commercial use, it is surprising how performance data still
appears to concentrate on the capability of the powertrain to accelerate the vehicle and
provide an attractive power-to-weight ratio to maintain speed, with scarcely a mention
of the ability of the braking system to decelerate it quickly and safely.
Almost since the dawn of wheeled road transport, friction between a rotor (attached
to the wheel) and a stator (attached to the vehicle body, chassis, or axle) has been
utilised in some form to provide controlled vehicle retardation. Other methods have
historically been employed, e.g. dragging a heavy object on the road behind the vehicle,
or simply steering the vehicle into a conveniently positioned obstacle, but these do not
offer much in the way of sustainability, consistency, or reliability. Using transmission-
mounted retarders and/or the vehicle’s internal combustion engine to provide retarding
torque (engine braking) is standard practice in commercial vehicles to generate braking
torque, whilst aerodynamically designed ‘air brakes’ are found to be effective in taking on
some of the duty of the friction brakes at high speeds in high-performance cars. But still,
the conventional view of vehicle braking systems, even in the technologically advanced
21st-century world of road transport, is that brakes are ‘straightforward’; what could be
simpler than pushing one material against another to create a friction force to absorb the
energy of motion and slow the vehicle down?
When the first edition of this book was published less than 10 years ago, it stated that
‘the braking system of a modern road vehicle is a triumph of technological advances
in three distinct scientific and engineering disciplines’. These were materials science and
engineering,advanced mechanical engineering,and electronics and software engineering.
Since then, there has been rapid development of a fourth discipline, viz., regenerative
braking, where deceleration and kinetic energy conversion is achieved by non-frictional
means, which has affected many aspects of the science and technology of vehicle braking
as described in the relevant chapters.
Materials science and engineering have continued to deliver technologically advanced
friction pairs that form an essential part of any road vehicle braking system. These
advanced friction pairs provide reliable, durable, and consistent friction forces under the
most arduous conditions of mechanical and thermal loading in operating environments
where temperatures may exceed 800°C. The materials used are in many ways quite
environmentally sustainable, e.g. the cast iron for brake discs or drums is a relatively
Braking of Road Vehicles, Second Edition Copyright 
c 2022 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822005-4.00013-5 All rights reserved. 1
2 Braking of road vehicles

straightforward formulation that utilises a high proportion of scrap iron,and many friction
materials include in their formulation naturally occurring materials such as mineral fibres
and friction modifiers, together with recycled components such as rubber in the form of
tyre crumb.
Secondly, advanced mechanical engineering design has continued to enable high-
strength braking system components to be optimised to generate consistent and con-
trollable braking torques and forces over a huge range of operational and environmental
conditions. The use of Computer-Aided Design and Engineering methods has enabled
stress concentrations to be identified and avoided, with the result that structural failures
of brake components are extremely rare in any aspect of modern braking systems. The
modern ‘foundation brake’ i.e. the conventional friction brake unit, has been designed
to dissipate the heat converted from the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle through
the process of friction to the environment as quickly and effectively as possible. Design
advances such as ventilated brake discs and sliding calipers have only been possible
through the use of modern modelling and simulation techniques so that the underlying
scientific principles can be applied effectively.
Thirdly, close and accurate control of braking systems and components through
electronics and software engineering has positioned braking firmly in the area of active
vehicle safety. In the late 1960s, the first antilock braking systems (ABS) demonstrated the
safety benefits of maintaining directional control while braking under high deceleration
and/or low adhesion conditions. It quickly became clear that ‘intelligent’ control of
the braking system had much more to offer, ranging from traction control where
the brake on a spinning wheel could be applied to match the tyre/road slip to the
available adhesion, through electronic braking distribution to maximise the brake torque
depending on the adhesion conditions at each tyre/road interface, and most recently to
electronic stability control (ESC) where judicious application of individual wheel brakes
according to carefully developed and extremely sophisticated control algorithms could
help mitigate the effect of potentially hazardous manoeuvres. It is worth noting that this
required a change in legislation, in the sense that non-driver-initiated brake application,
or ‘intervention’ as it is known, had to be permitted before such active safety could be
legally incorporated in production vehicles. Control systems incorporating automatically
commanded braking are now commonplace on modern motor vehicles and provide a
wide range of safety improvements for vehicles operating on the margins of stability or
in abnormal conditions, and include for example, rollover stability control, trailer sway
control, and torque vectoring by braking.
The fourth discipline, regenerative braking, requires the conversion of kinetic energy
to and from a more easily storable form of energy, plus a device to which that energy
can be transferred, stored, and re-used. The most widely adopted technology now (2022)
is based on electric motor/generator and battery technology which has benefited from
massive scientific and commercial development. Largely driven by changing consumer
attitudes towards the environment and global CO2 emissions, together with government
 Introduction 3

policies and financial incentives,powertrains-based solely on internal combustion engines

powered by hydrocarbon fuels are rapidly being replaced in part or wholly by those
incorporating compact, high-performance, electric motor/generator units, and battery
storage systems with increasingly high energy and power capabilities. Approximately 20%
of new cars registered in the United Kingdom in 2020 had some form of kinetic energy
recovery within their powertrain which demonstrates clearly how regenerative braking
can be combined with friction braking to create effective mixed-mode braking systems.
The increased complexity and sophistication of advanced braking systems will require
extensive testing and verification but by using ‘model in the loop’, ‘hardware in the
loop’, and ‘software in the loop’ methods to replace the ‘traditional’ rig and vehicle tests
(which can be expensive, time-consuming and prone to variation due to environmental
effects), this does not necessarily mean that design verification will take more time.
Legislation must also keep pace with these rapid technological developments such that
any safety improvement facilitated by the new systems can be embraced, but at the
same time adequate control measures are put in place to prevent unintended conse-
quences. The critical importance of braking system reliability and maintainability remains
paramount.
Under normal operating conditions, regenerative braking can be the main mode
of vehicle retardation for Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Full Electric Vehicles
(FEV); friction braking is used purely to supplement the braking force requirements
in situations where the motor/generator, energy transfer, and energy storage systems
cannot meet the performance requirements associated with downhill drag and emergency
braking. This shift in both the performance requirements and operating conditions of
the friction brakes has led to new challenges and opportunities for their design and
implementation, which have influenced all areas of brake engineering. Brake blending
together with the complexities of using brake forces at individual wheels to influence
the vehicle dynamics (e.g. ESC) places increased demands on the control strategies,
necessitating new methods of control intervention. Actuation systems have developed
to a high level of sophistication, with electro-mechanical and electro-hydraulic brake
actuators which facilitate mixed-mode blended braking whilst maintaining a consistent
pedal feel. For example, the ABS/ESC modulator is fully integrated within many designs
of actuator unit. The consequent reduced operational duty of the friction brake presents
opportunities for lightweight rotor and stator materials with associated improved thermal
management, while at the same time maintaining the capability of consistent and stable
friction braking under all operating conditions. As a result, new formulations of friction
material are likely to emerge; this, in turn, may mean that the nature of issues relating to
brake Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) broadens and adds complexity to an area
that is still not fully understood. Particulate emissions from friction brakes are recognised
as an increasing concern, but even with new friction pairs for mixed-mode braking, the
generation, chemical composition, and particle size of brake particulate emissions will
continue to be researched to ensure that threats to public health are avoided.
4 Braking of road vehicles

Alongside the remarkable technological advances that have emanated from these four
areas of endeavour, it should be noted that the friction brake of a road vehicle is still a
remarkably low-cost part of the overall vehicle, and the reliability and maintainability of
the braking system on any modern road vehicle is extremely high.Despite the complexity
and sophistication of the actuation systems, and the often environmentally challenging
conditions under which the friction brakes have to operate, routine maintenance is
mostly all that is required, and when replacement of, e.g. the brake pads or discs is
required, the correct parts can be obtained and fitted quickly almost anywhere in the
world.
The braking system of any road vehicle is subject to extensive legislative standards
and requirements in many regions of the world. In this book, the legislative framework
focuses on the European Union/United Nations Legislation and Regulations 13 and
13-H (UN Regulation 13-H, 2015; UN Regulation 13, 2016), although comparison with
other countries’ legislation is made where appropriate. EU law states that all road vehicles
are required to have a working braking system that meets the legislative requirements.
Included in the braking system requirements are ‘service’ and ‘secondary’ braking systems
so that the vehicle can be safely brought to rest even in the event of the failure of one part
of the system, and a ‘parking brake’ that can hold the vehicle safely on a specified incline.
In Europe, vehicle manufacturers have to demonstrate that their vehicle meets the design
and performance standards specified in the UN Regulations through a process of Type
Approval. Once a vehicle is sold, the responsibility passes to the owner or user of the
vehicle to ensure that the vehicle’s braking system continues to meet legal requirements;
usually this takes the form of a regular compulsory examination of the vehicle. The design
and performance standards associated with Type Approval are regarded as minimum
standards,and most vehicle manufacturers have their own ‘in-house’standards that exceed
the ‘legal requirements’, often by a considerable margin. For example, UN Regulation
13-H (2015) states that the minimum service braking performance defined by the ‘Type-
0 test with engine disconnected’ for a passenger car (category M1 ) is a mean deceleration
of 6.43 m/s2 for a driver pedal effort (brake pedal force) of between 6.5 and 50 daN. Car
manufacturers would typically design for substantially more vehicle deceleration for this
level of pedal effort but have to bear in mind the requirement for the secondary braking
system to provide a deceleration of not less than 2.44 m/s2 within the same range of
pedal effort. Pedal effort is important because of the large range of physical capability of
different drivers. Likewise, the parking brake is covered by a set of legislative requirements
and standards, including operating force requirement.
Fundamental to the design of a braking system for a road vehicle (under UN
regulations) is that a brake is required at every road wheel. The only exception is light
trailers (Category O1 : trailers with a maximum mass not exceeding 0.75 tonnes), which
do not need to be fitted with wheel brakes, relying instead upon the brakes of the
towing vehicle. In commercial vehicle parlance, the brake unit at the wheel is known
 Introduction 5

A B

Figure 1.1 (A) Drum brake; (B) disc brake.

as the foundation brake. This term, which is applied exclusively to friction brakes, is used
throughout this book to define the wheel brake unit for all vehicles including commercial
vehicles, passenger cars, and trailers. The function of the foundation brake is to generate
a retarding torque i.e. one that opposes the direction of rotation of the wheel to which
it is attached, which is proportional to the actuation force applied. There are two distinct
types of automotive foundation brake in common use today, viz., the ‘drum’ brake see
Fig. 1.1A, where the stators are brake shoes fitted with friction material linings that are
expanded outwards to press against the inner surface of a rotor in the form of a brake
drum, and the ‘disc’ brake see Fig. 1.1B, where the stators are brake pads that are clamped
against the outer surfaces of a rotor in the form of a brake disc. Included in the definition
of foundation brake are the mounting fixtures such as the ‘anchor plate’, (also termed
‘torque plate’, ‘spider’, or ‘reaction frame’), which is firmly bolted to the axle or steering
knuckle. The mechanism by which the force provided by the actuation system is applied
to the stator elements (pads or shoes) is also considered as being part of the foundation
brake.
The brake actuation system comprises the mechanical, electrical, and electronic
components, which recognise and interpret the ‘driver demand’, typically from the
movement of the brake pedal and/or the force applied by the driver to it, and convert it
into forces applied to the individual foundation brakes to generate the required brake
torque. A traditional basic brake actuation system transmits the force applied to the
brake pedal by the driver through various mechanical connections to the wheel brake
unit. These mechanical connections have taken the form of cables, rods and linkages,
hydrostatic, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems, and fall into two distinct categories, viz.,
those that rely upon the ‘muscular’ energy of the driver, and those that rely upon a
6 Braking of road vehicles

separate energy source under the control of the driver to provide the actuation force.
The former usually has a ‘servo’ or ‘booster’ in the system to provide power assistance
in order to reduce pedal efforts (termed ‘power brakes’ in the United States). It still
forms the basic system on lighter vehicles such as passenger cars and light vans, largely
because it can provide vehicle retardation even if all other control and actuation assist
systems fail. The latter type of system is used on heavy commercial vehicles in the form
of pneumatically actuated (also known as air brake) systems. Power hydraulic braking
systems are also fitted to some types of commercial vehicle, sometimes in the form of
combined ‘air over hydraulic’ systems but these are not considered further here.
The fundamental scientific principles of the design and analysis of road vehicle friction
brakes and their associated brake actuation systems were established many years ago.
The basic performance of the braking system for any road vehicle is always specified in
terms of the required brake force at each wheel. This depends upon the vehicle’s design
specification so this is always the starting point for braking system design. The design
of the brake, actuation system, and associated components, although addressed in this
book, are usually completed in detail by specialists, and from the vehicle manufacturer’s
point of view, braking system design has tended to become a process of specification and
selection. Some vehicle manufacturers have in the past contracted the braking system
design out to ‘full service suppliers’ with the specialist skills and knowledge to design
and deliver a vehicle braking system that meets their requirements. But increasingly, the
importance of the braking system to the overall safety of the vehicle, the need for close
integration of the braking system with other vehicle control and management systems,
and the sensitivity of the customers to braking system performance have encouraged
most vehicle manufacturers to retain a substantial interest in the braking system design.
This has meant that a detailed knowledge of brakes and braking systems is valuable to
the vehicle manufacturer and it is the purpose of this book to address this.
The end-user of the braking system on any vehicle is the driver, whose expectations
are quite straightforward; they should be able to apply the brakes in a smooth and
controllable manner to generate an equally smooth and controllable vehicle deceleration
that is consistent throughout all conditions of vehicle operation and environments. In
the friction brake, this requires remarkable stability in the frictional performance of
the brake friction pair, viz., the friction material and the rotor, over a wide range of
operational and environmental conditions. Most drivers are very sensitive to changes in
the braking response of the vehicle, so brake ‘pedal feel’ is a major attribute in a successful
road vehicle to the extent that poor brake response can adversely affect vehicle sales.
Added complexity now comes where regenerative and friction braking are combined
in mixed-mode braking. This requires either partial or full decoupling of the brake
pedal and actuator to facilitate blending of the brake torque, and this blending has to
be transparent to the driver because of the sensitivity previously noted. ‘Smooth and
controllable’ also includes the NVH characteristics of vehicle braking systems; drivers
 Introduction 7

(together with passengers and other road users) generally do not like their brakes to
make a noise, or create uncomfortable vibration while applied, so attention to the noise
and vibration aspects of a brake installation is very important for the vehicle manufacturer
to avoid customer dissatisfaction.
This book covers the design, implementation, and operation of brakes and braking
systems for cars and commercial vehicles with associated trailers, which represent the
majority of road vehicles.The principles described do apply to other types of road vehicle,
though for some other types (e.g. motorcycles) specific aspects are significantly different
to those presented here. Examples of analyses and calculations are included, together
with some examples of ‘things that can go wrong’ and their likely causes. It starts with a
consideration of the science and technology of friction as applied to friction materials and
vehicle foundation brakes; this is because an understanding of friction is still considered
to be fundamentally important in effective road vehicle braking system design including
those incorporating regenerative braking. The decelerating road vehicle, including the
specific configurations of two-axled rigid vehicles and multi-axle vehicle and trailer
combinations, is then analysed to establish an understanding of the requirements of the
braking system to achieve the levels of vehicle deceleration, stability, driver effort, and
performance that are needed to achieve safe braking under all operational conditions.
The dynamic distribution of brake force at each axle (and wheel) is then analysed taking
account of longitudinal and lateral weight transfer, and parameters such as adhesion
utilisation and vehicle braking efficiency are defined and developed so that safe and
legally compliant braking system designs for different types of road vehicles and towing
combinations can be generated. Friction in tyre/road contact is also considered and the
importance of the tyre/road ‘grip’ (adhesion) is explained and analysed.
Friction brake design focuses on automotive disc brakes and drum brakes. After
developing the basic mechanical theory of these two types of brake, the performance
characteristics of each are explained and discussed. Brake torque calculation, whether
for friction brakes or regenerative braking systems, enables the actuation system to be
designed to provide the required distribution of braking forces at each axle, and an eight-
step procedure to design the brake system layout is outlined. Electronic braking methods
and practice are described, which include the application of advanced technologies in
modern road vehicle braking systems, in particular individual brake control and well-
established features such as ABS and ESC. The implementation of regenerative braking
and autonomous braking technologies is considered in terms of the basic principles in
the eight-step system design procedure.
One of the most important operational challenges in friction brake design relates to
frictional energy transformation, heat transfer, and the temperatures generated during
braking. The thermal analysis of brakes is explained, including the calculation of tem-
peratures reached in the brake components during braking, the effect of vehicle speed,
load, and deceleration, and the importance of sizing the foundation brakes to withstand
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the mantel shelf ticked with a sort of rasping groan, as though every
stroke put its rheumatic old wheels and springs in agony.
Before the stove, in a sadly abused, wooden bottomed armchair, and
with his back humped up a good deal like the chicken under the lilac
bush outside, sat an old man with weazened, wrinkled face, eyes like
a hawk’s, a beak-like nose, and a sparse settlement of gray hairs on
his crown and chin.
He leaned forward in his seat, and both claw-like hands clutching the
arms of the chair, seemed to be all that kept him from falling upon
the stove.
At the window, just where the light fell best upon the book in his
hand, sat a youth of sixteen years—a well made, robust boy, whose
brown hair curled about his broad forehead, and whose face was not
without marks of real beauty.
Just now his brows were knit in a slight frown, and there was a flash
of anger in his clear eyes.
“I dunno what’s comin’ of ev’rything,” the old man was saying, in a
querulous tone. “Here ’tis the first o’ April, an’ ’tain’t been weather fit
ter plow a furrer, or plant a seed, yit.”
“Well, I don’t see as it’s my fault, Uncle Arad,” responded the boy by
the window. “I don’t make the weather.”
“I dunno whether ye do or not,” the old man declared, after staring
across at him for an instant. “I begin ter believe yer a regular Jonah
—jest as yer Uncle Anson was, an’ yer pa, too.”
The boy turned away and looked out of the window at this mention of
his parent, and a close observer might have seen his broad young
shoulders tremble with sudden emotion as he strove to check the
sobs which all but choked him.
Whether the old man was a close enough observer to see this or not,
he nevertheless kept on in the same strain.
“One thing there is erbout it,” he remarked; “Anson knew he was
born ter ill luck, an’ he cleared out an’ never dragged nobody else
down ter poverty with him. But your pa had ter marry—an’ see what
come of it!”
“I don’t know as it affected you any,” rejoined the boy, bitterly.
“Yes, ’t’as, too! Ain’t I got you on my hands, a-eatin’ of your head off,
when there ain’t a sign of a chance o’ gittin’ any work aout o’ ye?”
“I reckon I’ve paid for my keep for more’n one year,” the other
declared vehemently; “and up to the last time father went away he
always paid you for my board—he told me so himself.”
“He did, did he?” exclaimed Uncle Arad, in anger. “Well, he——”
“Don’t you say my father lied!” cried the boy, his eyes flashing and
his fists clenched threateningly. “If you do, you’ll wish you hadn’t.”
“Well—I ain’t said so, hev I?” whined Uncle Arad, fairly routed by this
vehemence. “Ain’t you a pretty boy to threaten an old man like me,
Brandon Tarr?”
Brandon relapsed into sullen silence, and the old man went on:
“Mebbe Horace thought he paid your board, but the little money he
ever give me never more’n ha’f covered the expense ye’ve been ter
me, Don.”
His hearer sniffed contemptuously at this. He knew well enough that
he had done a man’s work about the Tarr place in summer, and all
the chores during winter before and after school hours, for the better
part of three years, and had amply repaid any outlay the old man
had made.
Old Arad Tarr was reckoned as a miser by his townsmen, and they
were very nearly correct. By inheritance the farm never belonged to
him, for he was the youngest son of old Abram Tarr, and had been
started in business by his father when he was a young man, while
his brother Ezra had the old homestead, as the eldest son should.
But reverses came to Ezra, of which the younger brother, being
successful in money matters, took advantage, and when Ezra died at
last (worked to death, the neighbors said) the property came into
Arad’s hands. There was little enough left for the widow, who soon
followed her husband to the grave, and for the two boys, Anson and
Horace.
Anson was of a roving, restless disposition, and he soon became
disgusted with the grinding methods of old Arad, who sought to get
double work out of his two nephews. So he left the farm, and, allured
by visions of sudden wealth which led him all over the world, he
followed from one scheme to another, never returning to the old
place again, though his brother, Horace, heard from him
occasionally.
The younger lad was not long in following his brother’s footsteps (in
leaving home, at least), and went to sea, where he rose rapidly from
the ranks of the common sailor to the post of commander.
He married a girl whom he had known in his boyhood, and Brandon,
the boy who was now left to the tender mercies of the great uncle,
was their only child.
By patient frugality Captain Tarr had amassed sufficient money to
purchase a brig called the Silver Swan, and made several
exceptionally fortunate voyages to South and West African ports,
and to Oceanica.
But after his wife’s death (she was always a delicate woman) his
only wish seemed to be to gain a fortune that he might retire from the
sea and live with his son, in whom his whole heart was now bound.
There was a trace of the same visionary spirit in Horace Tarr’s nature
that had been the motif of his brother Anson’s life, and hoping to gain
great wealth by a sudden turning of the wheel of fortune, he
speculated with his savings.
Like many other men, he trusted too much in appearances and was
wofully deceived, and every penny of his earnings for a number of
voyages in the brig was swept away.
His last voyage had been to Cape Town, and on the return passage
the good Silver Swan had struck on a rock somewhere off Cuba, and
was a total loss, for neither the vessel itself, nor the valuable cargo,
was insured for a penny’s worth.
This had occurred nearly two months before, and the first news
Brandon and Uncle Arad had received of the disaster was through
the newspaper reports. Two surviving members of the crew were
picked up by a New York bound steamship, from a raft which had
been afloat nearly two weeks, and but one of the men was in a
condition to give an intelligible account of the wreck.
From his story there could be but little doubt of the total destruction
of the Silver Swan and the loss of every creature on board,
excepting himself and the mate, Caleb Wetherbee, who was so
exhausted that he had been taken at once to the marine hospital.
Captain Tarr had died on the raft, from hunger and a wound in the
head received during the wrecking of his vessel.
It was little wonder, then, with these painful facts so fresh in his mind,
that young Brandon Tarr found it so hard to stifle his emotion while
his great uncle had been speaking. In fact, when presently the
crabbed old man opened his lips to speak again, he arose hastily,
threw down his book, and seized his hat and coat.
“I’m going out to see if I can pick off that flock of crows I saw around
this morning,” he said hastily. “If you do get a chance to plant
anything this spring, they’ll pull it up as fast as you cover the seed.”
“We kin put up scarecrows,” said Arad, with a scowl, his dissertation
on the “shiftlessness” of Don’s father thus rudely broken off. “I can’t
afford you powder an’ shot ter throw away at them birds.”
“Nobody asked you to pay for it,” returned the boy gruffly, and
buttoning the old coat about him, and seizing his rifle from the hooks
above the door, he went out into the damp outside world, which,
despite its unpleasantness, was more bearable than the atmosphere
of the farm house kitchen.
The farm which had come into Arad Tarr’s possession in what he
termed a “business way,” contained quite one hundred acres of
cultivated fields, rocky pastures, and forest land.
It was a productive farm and turned its owner a pretty penny every
year, but judging from the appearance of the interior of the house
and the dilapidated condition of the barn and other outbuildings, one
would not have believed it.
There was sufficient work on the farm every year to keep six hired
hands beside Brandon and the old man, himself, “on the jump” every
minute during the spring, summer, and fall.
In the winter they two alone managed to do the chores, and old Arad
even discharged the woman who cooked for the men during the
working season.
As soon as the season opened, however, and the old man was
obliged to hire help, the woman (who was a widow and lived during
the winter with a married sister in the neighborhood) was established
again in the Tarr house, and until the next winter they lived in a
manner that Brandon termed “like Christians,” for she was a good
cook and a neat housekeeper; but left to their own devices during
the cold weather, he and his great uncle made sorry work of it.
“The frost is pretty much out of the ground now,” Brandon muttered
as he crossed the littered barnyard, “and this drizzle will mellow up
the earth in great shape. As soon as it stops, Uncle Arad will dig right
in and work to make up for lost time, I s’pose.”
He climbed the rail fence and jumped down into the sodden field
beyond, the tattered old army coat (left by some hired hand and
used by him in wet weather) flapping dismally about his boots.
“I wonder what’ll become of me now,” he continued, still addressing
himself, as he plodded across the field, sinking ankle deep in the wet
soil. “Now that father’s gone there’s nothing left for me to do but to
shift for myself and earn my own living. Poor father wanted me to get
an education first before I went into anything, but there’ll be no more
chance for that here. I can see plainly that Uncle Arad means to shut
down on school altogether now.
“I’ll never get ahead any as long as I stay here and slave for him,” he
pursued. “He’ll be more exacting than ever, now that father is gone—
he didn’t dare treat me too meanly before. He’ll make it up now, I
reckon, if I stay, and I just won’t!”
He had been steadily approaching the woods and at this juncture
there was a rush of wings and a sudden “caw! caw!”
Crows are generally considered to be endowed with a faculty for
knowing when a gun is brought within range, but this particular band
must have been asleep, for Brandon was quite within shooting
distance as the great birds labored heavily across the lots.
The rifle, the lock of which he had kept dry beneath his armpit, was
at his shoulder in a twinkling, there was a sharp report, and one of
the birds fell heavily to the ground, while its frightened companions
wheeled with loud outcry and were quickly out of view behind the
woods.
Brandon walked on and picked up the fallen bird.
“Shot his head pretty nearly off,” he muttered. “I believe I’ll go West.
Knowing how to shoot might come in handy there,” and he laughed
grimly.
Then, with the bird in his hand, he continued his previous course,
and penetrated beneath the dripping branches of the trees.
Pushing his way through the brush for a rod or two he reached a
plainly defined path which, cutting obliquely across the wood lot,
connected the road on which the Tarr house stood with the “pike”
which led to the city, fourteen miles away.
Entering this path, he strolled leisurely on, his mind intent upon the
situation in which his father’s death had placed him.
“I haven’t a dollar, or not much more than that sum,” he thought, “nor
a friend, either. I can’t expect anything but the toughest sort of a pull,
wherever I go or whatever I take up; but it can’t be worse than
’twould be here, working for Uncle Arad.”
After traversing the path for some distance, Don reached a spot
where a rock cropped up beside the way, and he rested himself on
this, still studying on the problem which had been so fully occupying
his mind for several weeks past.
As he sat there, idly pulling handfuls of glossy black feathers from
the dead crow, the noise of a footstep on the path in his rear caused
him to spring up and look in that direction.
A man was coming down the path—a sinister faced, heavily bearded
man, who slouched along so awkwardly that Brandon at first thought
him lame. But the boy had seen a few sailors, besides his father, in
his life, and quickly perceived that the stranger’s gait was caused
simply by a long experience of treading the deck of a vessel at sea.
He was a solidly built man, not below the medium height, yet his
head was set so low between his shoulders, and thrust forward in
such a way that it gave him a dwarfed appearance. His hands were
rammed deeply into his pockets, an old felt hat was drawn down
over his eyes, and his aspect was generally seedy and not
altogether trustworthy.
He started suddenly upon seeing the boy, and gazed at him intently
as he approached.
“Well, shipmate, out gunning?” he demanded, in a tone which was
intended to be pleasant.
“A little,” responded Brandon, kicking the body of the dead crow into
the bushes. “We’re always gunning for those fellows up this way.”
“Crows, eh?” said the man, stopping beside the boy, who had rested
himself on the rock again. “They’re great chaps for pullin’ corn—
faster’n you farmers can plant it, eh?”
Brandon nodded curtly, and wondered why the tramp (as he
supposed him) did not go along.
“Look here, mate,” went on the man, after a moment, “I’m lookin’ for
somebody as lives about here, by the name of Tarr——”
“Why, you’re on the Tarr place now,” replied Brandon, with sudden
interest. “That’s my name, too.”
“No, it isn’t now!” exclaimed the stranger, in surprise.
A quick flash of eagerness came over his face as he spoke.
“You’re not Brandon Tarr?” he added.
“Yes, sir,” replied Don, in surprise.
“Not Captain Horace Tarr’s son! God bless ye, my boy. Give us your
hand!”
The man seized the hand held out to him half doubtfully, and shook it
warmly, at the same time seating himself beside the boy.
“You knew my father?” asked Brandon, not very favorably impressed
by the man’s appearance, yet knowing no real reason why he should
not be friendly.
“Knew him! Why, my boy, I was his best friend!” declared the sailor.
“Didn’t you ever hear him speak of Cale Wetherbee?”
“Caleb Wetherbee!” cried Don, with some pleasure.
He had never seen his father’s mate, but he had heard the captain
speak of him many times. This man did not quite come up to his
expectation of what the mate of the Silver Swan should have been,
but he knew that his father had trusted Caleb Wetherbee, and that
appearances are sometimes deceitful.
“Indeed I have heard him speak of you many times,” and the boy’s
voice trembled slightly as he offered his hand a second time far more
warmly.
“Yes, sir,” repeated the sailor, blowing his nose with ostentation, “I’m
an old friend o’ your father’s. He—he died in my arms.”
Brandon wiped his own eyes hastily. He had loved his father with all
the strength of his nature, and his heart was too sore yet to be rudely
touched.
“Why, jest before he—he died, he give me them papers to send to
ye, ye know.”
As he said this the man flashed a quick, keen look at Brandon, but it
was lost upon him.
“What papers?” he asked with some interest.
“What papers?” repeated the sailor, springing up. “D’ye mean ter say
ye never got a package o’ papers from me a—a month ergo, I
reckon ’twas?”
“I haven’t received anything through the mail since the news came of
the loss of the brig,” declared Don, rising also.
“Then that mis’rable swab of an ’orspital fellow never sent ’em!”
declared the man, with apparent anger. “Ye see, lad, I was laid up
quite a spell in the ’orspital—our sufferings on that raft was jest orful
—an’ I couldn’t help myself. But w’en your father died he left some
papers with me ter be sent ter you, an’ I got the ’orspital nurse to
send ’em. An’ you must hev got ’em—eh?”
“Not a thing,” replied Brandon convincingly. “Were they of any
value?”
“Valible? I should say they was!” cried the sailor. “Werry valible,
indeed. Why, boy, they’d er made our—I sh’d say your—fortune, an’
no mistake!”
Without doubt his father’s old friend was strangely moved by the
intelligence he had received, and Don could not but be interested in
the matter.
 CHAPTER III
AN ACCOUNT OF THE WRECK OF THE SILVER
SWAN

“To what did these papers bear reference?” Brandon asked. “Father
met with heavy misfortunes in his investments last year, and every
penny, excepting the Swan itself, was lost. How could these papers
have benefited me?”
“Well, that I don’t rightly know,” replied the sailor slowly.
He looked at the boy for several seconds with knitted brows,
evidently deep in thought. Brandon could not help thinking what a
rough looking specimen he was, but remembering his father’s good
opinion of Caleb Wetherbee, he banished the impression as
ungenerous.
“I b’lieve I’ll tell ye it jest as it happened,” said the man at length. “Sit
down here again, boy, an’ I’ll spin my yarn.”
He drew forth a short, black pipe, and was soon puffing away upon
it, while comfortably seated beside Don upon the rock.
“’Twere the werry night we sailed from the Cape,” he began, “that I
was—er—in the cabin of the Silver Swan, lookin’ at a new chart the
cap’n had got, when down comes a decently dressed chap—a
landlubber, ev’ry inch o’ him—an’ asks if this were Cap’n Horace
Tarr.
“‘It is,’ says the cap’n.
“‘Cap’n Horace Tarr, of Rhode Island, U. S. A.?’ says he.
“‘That’s me,’ says the cap’n ag’in.
“‘Well, Cap’n Tarr,’ says the stranger chap, a-lookin’ kinder squint
eyed at me, ‘did you ever have a brother Anson?’
“Th’ cap’n noticed his lookin’ at me an’ says, afore he answered the
question:
“‘Ye kin speak freely,’ says he, ‘this is my mate, Cale Wetherbee, an’
there ain’t a squarer man, nor an honester, as walks the deck
terday,’ says he. ‘Yes, I had a brother Anson; but I persume he’s
dead.’
“‘Yes, he is dead,’ said the stranger. ‘He died up country, at a place
they calls Kimberley, ’bout two months ago.’
“That was surprisin’ ter the cap’n, I reckon, an’ he tol’ the feller that
he’d supposed Anson Tarr dead years before, as he hadn’t heard
from him.
“‘No, he died two months ago,’ says the man, ‘an’ I was with him. He
died o’ pneumony—was took werry sudden.’
“Nat’rally this news took the old man—I sh’d say yer father—all
aback, as it were, an’ he inquired inter his brother’s death fully. Fin’ly
the man drew out a big package—papers he said they was—wot
Anson Tarr had given him ter be sure ter give ter the cap’n when he
sh’d see him. Then the feller went.
“O’ course, the cap’n didn’t tell me wot the docyments was, but I
reckoned by his actions, an’ some o’ the hints he let drop, that they
was valible, an’ I—I got it inter my head that ’twas erbout money—er
suthin’ o’ the kind—that your Uncle Anson knowed of.
“Wal, the Silver Swan, she left the Cape, ’n’ all went well till arter we
touched at Rio an’ was homeward boun’. Then a gale struck us that
stripped the brig o’ ev’ry stick o’ timber an’ every rag o’ sail, an’ druv
her outer thet ’ere rock. There warn’t no hope for the ol’ brig an’ she
began to go ter pieces to once, so we tried ter take to the boats.
“But the boats was smashed an’ the only ones left o’ the hull ship’s
company was men Paulo Montez, and yer father, an’—an’ another
feller. We built the raft and left the ol’ brig, just as she—er—slid off er
th’ rock an’ sunk inter the sea. It—it mos’ broke yer father’s heart ter
see the ol’ brig go down an’ I felt m’self, jest as though I’d lost er—er
friend, er suthin!”
The sailor paused in his narrative and drew hard upon his pipe for a
moment.
“Wal, you know by the papers how we floated around on that ’ere raf’
an’ how yer poor father was took. He give me these papers just afore
he died, an’ made me promise ter git ’em ter you, ef I was saved. He
said you’d understand ’em ter oncet, an’,” looking at Brandon keenly
out of the corners of his eyes, “I didn’t know but ye knew something
about it already.”
Brandon slowly shook his head.
“No,” he said; “I can’t for the life of me think what they could refer to.”
“No—no buried treasure, nor nothing of the kind?” suggested the
man hesitatingly.
“I guess not!” exclaimed Don. “If I knew about such a thing, you can
bet I’d be after it right quickly, for I don’t know any one who needs
money just at the present moment more than I.”
“Well, I believe I’ll go,” cried the sailor, rising hastily. “That ’orspital
feller must hev forgotten ter mail them papers, an’ I’ll git back ter
New York ter oncet, an’ see ’bout it. I b’lieve they’ll be of vally to ye,
an’ if ye want my help in any way, jest let me know. I—I’ll give ye a
place ter ’dress letters to, an’ I’ll call there an’ git ’em.”
He produced an old stump of a pencil from his pocket and a ragged
leather note case. From this he drew forth a dog eared business
card of some ship chandler’s firm, on the blank side of which he
wrote in a remarkably bad hand:
CALEB WETHERBEE,
New England Hotel,
Water Street,
New York.
Then he shook Don warmly by the hand, and promising to get the
papers from the “’orspital feller” at once, struck away toward the city
again, leaving the boy in a statement of great bewilderment.
He didn’t know what the papers could refer to, yet like all boys who
possess a good digestion and average health, he had imagined
enough to fancy a hundred things that they might contain. Perhaps
there was some great fortune which his Uncle Anson had known
about, and had died before he could reap the benefit of his
knowledge.
Yet, he felt an instinctive distrustfulness of this Caleb Wetherbee. He
was not at all the kind of man he had expected him to be, for
although Captain Tarr had never said much about the personal
appearance of the mate of the Silver Swan, still Don had pictured
Caleb to his mind’s eye as a far different looking being.
As he stood there in the path, deep in thought, and with his eyes
fixed upon the spot where he had seen the sailor disappear, the
fluttering of a bit of paper attracted his attention. He stooped and
secured it, finding it to be a greasy bit of newspaper that had
doubtless reposed for some days in the note case of the sailor, and
had fallen unnoticed to the ground while he was penciling his
address on the card now in Don’s possession.
One side of the scrap of paper was a portion of an advertisement,
but on the other side was a short item of news which Don perused
with growing interest.
Savannah, March 3. The Brazilian steamship
Montevideo, which arrived here in the morning, reports
having sighted, about forty miles west of the island of
Cuba, a derelict brig, without masts or rigging of any kind,
but with hull in good condition. It was daylight, and by
running close the Montevideo’s captain made the wreck
out to be the Silver Swan, of Boston, which was reported
as having been driven on to Reef Number 8, east of Cuba,
more than a month ago. The two surviving members of the
crew of the Silver Swan were picked up from a raft, after
twelve days of terrible suffering, by the steamship
Alexandria, of the New York and Rio Line. The
Montevideo’s officers report the brig as being a most
dangerous derelict, as in its present condition it may keep
afloat for months, having evidently withstood the shock of
grounding on the reef, and later being driven off by the
westerly gale of February 13th.
Her position, when sighted by the Montevideo, has been
reported to the Hydrographic Office, and will appear on the
next monthly chart.
 CHAPTER IV
BRANDON COMES TO A DECISION

The first thought which flashed across Brandon Tarr’s mind as he

read the newspaper item quoted in the previous chapter was that the
story of the wreck of the Silver Swan, as told by the old sailor, had
been totally misleading.
“Why, he lied—point blank—to me!” he exclaimed, “and with this very
clipping in his pocket, too.”
He half started along the path as though to pursue the sailor, and
then thought better of it.
“He declared that he saw the Swan go down with his own eyes; and
here she was afloat on the 13th of March—a month after the wreck.
He must have wanted to keep the knowledge of that fact from me.
But what for? Ah! those papers!”
With this Brandon dropped back on the rock again and read the
newspaper clipping through once more. Then he went over the
whole matter in his mind.
What possible object could Caleb Wetherbee have in coming to him
and telling him the yarn he had, if there was no foundation for it?
There must be some reason for the story, Brandon was sure.
Evidently there had been papers either given into the hands of the
mate of the Silver Swan, or obtained by him by dishonest means.
These papers must relate to some property of value which had
belonged to Anson Tarr, Don’s uncle, and, his cupidity being
aroused, the sailor was trying to convert the knowledge contained in
them to his own benefit.
There was probably some “hitch” in the documents—something the
rascally mate could not understand, but which he thought Brandon
could explain. Therefore, his trip to Chopmist from New York to
“pump” the captain’s son.
“Without doubt,” said the boy, communing with himself, “the papers
were brought aboard the brig just as this rascally Wetherbee said,
and they were from Uncle Anson. Let’s see, he said he died at
Kimberley—why, that’s right at the diamond mines!” For like most
boys with adventurous spirits and well developed imagination,
Brandon had devoured much that had been written about the
wonderful diamond diggings of South Africa.
“Perhaps—who knows?” his thoughts ran on, “Uncle Anson ‘struck it
rich’ at the diamond mines before he died. There’s nothing
impossible in that—excepting the long run of ill luck which had
cursed this family.”
He shook his head thoughtfully.
“If Uncle Anson had owned a share in a paying diamond mine, this
rascally sailor would have known at once that the papers relating to it
could not benefit him, for the ownership would be on record there in
Kimberley. It must, therefore, be that the property—whatever it may
be—is in such shape that it can be removed from place to place—
perhaps was brought aboard the brig by the friend of Uncle Anson
who told father of his death.”
For the moment the idea did not assist in the explanation of the
course of Caleb Wetherbee in retaining the papers. But Brandon had
set himself to the task of reasoning out the mystery, and when one
thread failed him he took up another.
“One would think,” he muttered, “that if there had been any money
brought aboard the brig, father would have taken it on the raft with
him when they left; but still, would he?
“According to the report the brig grounded on Reef Number 8, and
perhaps was not hurt below the water line. The next gale from the
west’ard blew her off again. She is now a derelict, and if the money
was hidden on board it would be there now!”
At this sudden thought Brandon sprang up in excitement and paced
up and down the path.
He had often heard of the wrecks of vessels abandoned in mid
ocean floating thousands of miles without a hand to guide their
helms, a menace and danger to all other craft. The Silver Swan
might float for months—aye, for years; such a thing was possible.
“And if the money—if it is money—is hidden aboard the brig, the one
who finds the derelict first will have it,” was the thought which came
to him.
“But why should the mate come to me about it?” Brandon asked
himself. “Why need he let me know anything about the papers, or the
treasure, if he wished to recover it himself? Didn’t he know where on
the brig the money was hidden? Or didn’t the papers tell that?”
He cudgled his brains for several minutes to think where his father
would have been likely to hide anything of value on the brig. Was
there any place which only he and his father had known about?
This idea suggested a train of reminiscences. He had been aboard
the Silver Swan several times while she lay in Boston, and had been
all over her.
Once, possibly four years before (it seemed a long time to him now),
he had been alone with his father in the cabin, and Captain Tarr had
shown him an ingeniously hidden sliding panel in the bulkhead,
behind which was a little steel lined cavity, in which the captain kept
his private papers.
Perhaps Caleb Wetherbee did not know about this cupboard, and it
was this information that he wished to get from him. The idea
seemed probable enough, for if he did not know where the treasure
was hidden on the brig, what good would the papers relating to it be
to him?
“There may be a fortune there, just within my grasp, and yet I not be
able to get at it,” muttered Don, pacing the rough path nervously.
“Despite his former confidence in this Wetherbee, father must have
doubted him at the last and not dared to take the treasure (if treasure
it really is) when he left the brig.
“Instead, he gave him these papers, hoping the fellow would be
honest enough to place them in my hands; but, still fearing to fully
trust the mate, he wrote his directions to me so blindly, that
Wetherbee is all at sea about what to do.
“Wetherbee knows that the brig is afloat—this clipping proves that—
and he hoped to get the information he wanted from me and then go
in search of the Silver Swan. Why can I not go in search of it
myself?”
The thought almost staggered him for an instant, yet to his boyish
mind the plan seemed feasible enough. He knew that derelicts are
often carried by the ocean currents for thousands of miles before
they sink, yet their movements are gradual, and by a close study of
the hydrographic charts he believed it would be possible to locate
the wrecked brig.
“I’ve got no money, I know,” he thought, “at least, not much; but I’ve
health and strength and an ordinary amount of pluck, and it will be
strange if I can’t accomplish my purpose if the old brig only holds
together long enough.”
He looked at the soiled card the sailor had given him.
“‘New England Hotel, Water Street,’” he repeated. “Some sailors’
boarding house, likely. I believe—yes, I will—go to New York myself
and see this scoundrelly Wetherbee again. He can’t do much without
me, I fancy, and perhaps, after all, I can use him to my own benefit. I
ought to be as smart as an ignorant old sailor like him.”
He stood still a moment, gazing steadily at the ground.
“I’ll do it, I vow I will!” he exclaimed at last, raising his head defiantly.
“Uncle Arad’s got no hold upon me and I’ll go. I’ll start tomorrow
morning,” with which determination he picked up his rifle and left the
woods.
 CHAPTER V
UNCLE ARAD HAS RECOURSE TO LEGAL
FORCE

In the several oceans of our great globe there are many floating
wrecks, abandoned for various causes by their crews, which may
float on and on, without rudder or sail, for months, and even years.
Especially is this true of the North Atlantic Ocean, where, during the
past five years, nearly a thousand “derelicts,” as these floating
wrecks are called, were reported.
The Hydrographic Office at Washington prints a monthly chart on
which all the derelicts reported by incoming vessels are plainly
marked, even their position in the water being designated by a little
picture of the wreck.
By this method of “keeping run” of the wrecks, it has been found that
some float thousands of miles before they finally reach their ultimate
port—Davy Jones’ locker.
The average life of these water logged hulks is, however, but thirty
days; otherwise the danger from collision with them would be
enormous and the loss of life great. Many of those vessels which
have left port within the past few years and never again been heard
from, were doubtless victims of collisions with some of these
derelicts.
Several more or less severe accidents have been caused by them,
and so numerous have they become that, within the past few
months, several vessels belonging to our navy have gone “derelict
cruising”—blowing up and sinking the most dangerous wrecks afloat
in the North Atlantic.
At the time of the Silver Swan’s reported loss, however, it was
everybody’s business to destroy the vessels, and therefore
nobody’s. At any time, however, the hull of the brig, reported by the
steamship Montevideo as floating off Cuba, might be run into and
sunk by some other vessel, such collisions being not at all
uncommon.
Brandon Tarr realized that there was but a small chance of the Silver
Swan being recovered, owing to these circumstances; yet he would
not have been a Tarr had he not been willing to take the chance and
do all he could to secure what he was quite convinced was a
valuable treasure.
Derelicts had been recovered and towed into port for their salvage
alone, and the Silver Swan was, he knew, richly laden. It might also
be possible to repair the hull of the brig, for she was a well built craft,
and if she had withstood the shock of being ground on the reef so
well, she might even yet be made to serve for several years.
These thoughts flitted through the mind of the boy as he slowly
crossed the wet fields toward the farm house.
“I’ll go tomorrow morning—Uncle Arad or no Uncle Arad,” he
decided. “It won’t do to leave the old fellow alone, so I’ll step down
after dinner and speak to Mrs. Hemingway about coming up here.
He will have to have her any way within a few days, so it won’t much
matter.”
He didn’t really know how to broach the subject to the old man, for
he felt assured that his great uncle would raise manifold objections
to his departure. He had lived at the farm four years now and Uncle
Arad had come to depend on him in many ways.
They had eaten dinner—a most miserable meal—and Don was
washing the dishes before he spoke.
“Uncle Arad,” he said, trying to talk in a most matter of fact way, “now
that father is—is gone and I have nothing to look forward to, I believe
I’ll strike out for myself. I’m past sixteen and big enough and old
enough to look out for myself. I think I shall get along faster by being
out in the world and brushing against folks, and I reckon I’ll go to
New York.”