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CHAPTER 3 A Self-Determination Theory Perspective on Motivation
in Sport and Physical Education: Current Trends and
Possible Future Research Directions
Nikos Ntoumanis, PhD
Sociocontextual Environment
Satisfaction and Thwarting of Psychological Needs
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 4 Perfectionism: A Foundation for Sporting Excellence or

an Uneasy Pathway Toward Purgatory?
Howard K. Hall, PhD; Andrew P. Hill, PhD; and Paul R. Appleton, PhD
Perfectionism in Elite Sport Performers
Definition
Empirical Evidence of Perfectionism in Sport
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 5 The Dualistic Model of Passion in Sport and Exercise

Robert J. Vallerand, PhD
Psychology of Passion
Initial Research on the Concept of Passion
Development of Passion
Passion and Intrapersonal Outcomes
Passion and Interpersonal and Intergroup Outcomes
Passionate Functioning Under Various Situations
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 6 Goal Setting to Enhance Motivation in Sport

Glyn C. Roberts, PhD, and Elsa Kristiansen, PhD
Goal Setting
A Search for Theory
Achievement Goal Theory
Goal Involvement
Achievement Goal Orientations
Motivational Climate
Achievement Goal Theory and Goal Setting
Why Goal Setting Works
Managing the Motivation of Others
Goal Setting as a Motivational Strategy for Injuries and Rehabilitation
 Managing Individual Motivation
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

PART II Understanding the Psychological Determinants and

Mediators of Physical Activity Behavior

CHAPTER 7 Self-Determination Theory and Exercise Motivation:

Facilitating Self-Regulatory Processes to Support and
Maintain Health and Well-Being
Martyn Standage, PhD, and Richard M. Ryan, PhD
Basic Components of SDT and Mapping of Minitheories
Self-Determination Theory in Exercise Science Research
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 8 Self-Efficacy and Motivation in Physical Activity and

Sport: Mediating Processes and Outcomes
Todd A. Gilson, PhD, and Deborah L. Feltz, PhD
Theoretical Overview of Self-Efficacy
Individual-Level Self-Efficacy Research
Collective Efficacy Research
Coaching Efficacy Research
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 9 Social-Cognitive Approaches to Understanding Exercise

Motivation and Behavior in Cancer Survivors
Jeff K. Vallance, PhD, and Kerry S. Courneya, PhD
Cancer Treatments
Exercise and Cancer Survivorship
Exercise Prevalence in Cancer Survivors
Exercise Motivation in Cancer Survivors
Exercise Behavior in Cancer Survivors
Theory of Planned Behavior
Social-Cognitive Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Exercise Beliefs Among Cancer Survivors
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
 Summary

CHAPTER 10 Understanding Exercise Behavior: A Self-Presentational

Perspective
Kathleen A. Martin Ginis, PhD, and Diane Mack, PhD
Background
Evidence
Theoretical Perspectives on Self-Presentation and Exercise Motivation
Role of Self-Presentation in Exercise Motivation
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

CHAPTER 11 Interventions for Physical Activity and Sedentary

Behavior
Stuart J.H. Biddle, PhD; Nanette Mutrie, PhD; Trish Gorely, PhD; and Avril Blamey,
PhD
Role of Motivation: Understanding the Ecological and Behavioral Epidemiology
Frameworks
Theories Typically Used in Physical Activity Interventions
Types and Settings for Interventions
Behavior Change: Issues of Theory and Interventions
A Framework for Evaluating Interventions
Intervention Planning and Evaluation
Examples of Physical Activity Behavior Change
Sedentary Behavior Change
Practical Applications
Directions for Future Research
Summary

Epilogue References Index

About the Editors About the Contributors
 PREFACE

Motivation research in sport and physical activity has come of age!

When Glyn Roberts began in this field in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
only 30 to 40 people attended meetings of the North American Society for the
Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA), and only 10 people
or so attended motivation research presentations. Following the watershed
Allerton Conference in 1973, where we had 100 attendees, NASPSPA grew
rapidly, and, at the same time during the 1970s, a revolution occurred in
motivation research and practice. Motivation theories may be viewed as
being on a continuum ranging from deterministic to mechanistic to
organismic to cognitive (for a more extensive treatment of motivation
theories, see Ford, 1992). Deterministic and mechanistic theories view
humans as being passive and driven by psychological needs or drives.
Organismic theories include innate needs but also recognize that a dialectic
occurs between the organism and the social context. Until about 1971 the
mechanistic and organismic theories had replaced the more deterministic
theories. In Glyn’s case, at the time, he was doing research with the
achievement need motivation concepts of Atkinson and McClelland in which
he used approach success and avoid failure tendencies as his independent
variables. But Weiner (1972) signaled the beginning of the new era by
arguing that individuals who were high or low in motivation were likely to
think differently about why success and failure occurred. The notion that
thoughts, rather than needs, were the critical variables transformed the study
of motivation and has led to a lively interest in how these thoughts determine
motivation.
As individual differences and the influence of personality and needs waned
in importance in motivation research, the situation and its meaning to the
participants became a more important focus. Motivation is now understood in
terms of mediating cognitions, but not only in terms of control, autonomy,
and competence, but also in terms of purpose and meaning. Cognitive
theories view humans as being active and initiating action through subjective
interpretation of the achievement context. The most popular contemporary
theories of motivation in sport and exercise psychology tend to be based on
organismic (e.g., self-determination theory, Deci & Ryan, 1985; hierarchical
goal model, Elliot, 1999) or social-cognitive theories (e.g., achievement goal
theory, Nicholls, 1989; self-efficacy, Bandura, 1986) and are based on more
dynamic and sophisticated conceptions that assume that the human is an
active participant in decision making and in planning achievement. Some of
us in motivation research continue to argue for needs, or the surrogates of
needs, as the energizers of motivation but recognize the dialectic that does
occur. For those of us who subscribe to the social-cognitive approach to
understanding motivation, we eschew needs and accept that beliefs, thoughts,
and perceptions are the basis of understanding the process of motivation
(Roberts, Treasure & Conroy, 2007). Although organismic approaches are
experiencing a resurgence in the literature and are used to good effect in sport
and exercise psychology (see Ntoumanis et al., this volume; Standage &
Ryan, this volume), most motivation research in sport and physical activity
contexts over the past 40 years has adopted a social-cognitive approach, and
the specific approach that emerged as the most popular is achievement goal
theory (see Roberts, this volume).

As Harwood and colleagues (2008) state, “The past 20 years have been a
watershed for our understanding of sport achievement behavior” (p. 158).
Harwood and colleagues continue to state that achievement goal theory has
“triggered a penetrating wave of research into the interpersonal and
environmental influences on athlete behavior in achievement settings” (p.
158). We agree, and we argue that the social-cognitive approach to
motivation has given motivation research an impetus and, over the past 40
years, some valuable insights into the motivational equation. In 1987
Csikszentmihali and Nakamura made the comment that the cognitive
revolution in psychology in the 1970s and 1980s had given a new life to the
study of motivation. The notion that thoughts were the critical variables
transformed the study of motivation and has led to a lively interest in how
these thoughts determine motivation and achievement behavior. The research
effort in education, the workplace, sport, and the exercise setting has
increased remarkably as research teams investigate the dynamics of the
motivation equation. From a modest beginning, the research effort into
motivation processes in sport and physical activity has grown to become a
huge literature focusing on the cognitive schema and organismic dynamics
that determine achievement striving.
For those of us who were there at the beginning of this cognitive
revolution, it is rewarding to see that now our research meetings are packed
in conferences worldwide and the number of researchers has increased
exponentially. But more important, the quality and conceptual underpinning
of the research endeavor has also increased remarkably. And, as this book
illustrates, the practical implications of this work are now made more explicit
for the people in the trenches—the teachers, coaches, exercise leaders,
parents, and so on! In our minds, one of the most important benefits is that
we now have evidence on which to base our practice. In 2001 Roberts
lamented that there was always a time lag between research and practice. He
argued that several years have to pass before research findings enter
textbooks and become general knowledge and eventually part of the lore of
coaching, teaching, and parenting. Roberts further complained that many
practical suggestions remained the exclusive knowledge of the professionals
in universities. But that is changing rapidly. Our research knowledge is being
integrated more quickly into coaching, teaching, and parenting practice,
although the pace may still be too slow for many of us.
Indeed, motivation research in sport and exercise psychology has come of
age!
This book reviews and integrates important contemporary contributions to
the study of motivation. The authors are distinguished contributors to the
conceptual understanding of motivation and to the application of these
thought processes to enhance motivation in applied contexts. Each chapter
represents an important avenue of research endeavor in the sport or physical
activity area. In this volume we have invited distinguished scholars within the
motivation research community in exercise, physical activity, and sport
psychology. We are pleased that everyone, except one colleague for very
good reasons, was able to respond to our request to contribute. Thank you
each!
 The themes of this volume center on the understanding and enhancement
of achievement behavior in sport or physical activity. Each contributor sheds
light on the dynamics of the process of motivation and on the variables and
constructs that help our understanding of why we are or are not motivated.
Each contributor also examines how motivation may be enhanced within the
framework that she or he professes. Each contributor has a perspective that
differs a little, or a lot, from those of the other contributors. These differences
include the determinants of the motivated state (personal goals, personal
agency beliefs, basic needs, or values), the way in which the context
contributes to the motivated state, and the way in which we can change the
motivated state and contribute to the practical side of our work: the
enhancement of motivation. But all agree that thoughts and perceptions, or a
constellation of cognitions, are major determinants of the energization,
direction, and regulation of achievement striving.
If there is one way that we can illustrate the advancement that has occurred
in the 20 years between the 1992 book and the current treatise or in the 10
years between the 2001 book and today, it is in the insights that we now have
about applying our knowledge in exercise, sport, and physical activity
contexts. As befits a field that is applied in character, we have progressed a
great deal in our understanding of how to enhance motivation in physical
activities. The contributors all address this aspect in their chapters. And it is
true that our findings are now being implemented where they can make a
difference: in the gym, on the sport field, and in the exercise group.
We thank our fellow contributors and acknowledge their efforts. Thank
you for agreeing to our demands. We especially thank the contributors who
were timely in their submissions and were patient as we waited and harassed
those who took longer than we would have liked! But it was worth the wait.
Thank you all. And we thank Human Kinetics staff (in particular Melissa
Zavala and Myles Schrag) for their patience and understanding.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In any endeavor, we always stand on the shoulders of others: I have been no

different. I would like to acknowledge the significant contributions of former
colleagues and friends, especially those who attended that seminar series in
1977 where the first kernels of what became achievement goal theory were
presented and debated: John Nicholls, Carole Ames, Carol Dweck, and Marty
Maehr. I also acknowledge the contributions of my other colleagues at the
Children’s Research Center, the Department of Kinesiology at the University
of Illinois, and my last port of call, my colleagues in the Department of
Coaching and Psychology at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in
Oslo, Norway.
One of the privileges of being a professor is that you meet so many bright
young people. I would like to acknowledge all of my former (and present)
PhD students. I learned from each of you, and working and discussing issues
with you helped me grow and think better, both personally and
professionally. Having such gifted and motivated students (yes, Kevin, there
were favorites, but you were always among them!) has been the professional
highlight of my career. John Nicholls used to say that having someone take
your ideas seriously enough to argue with you is a significant form of respect.
I have been fortunate enough to have had many doctoral students who have
argued hard and long with me. In the twilight of my career, I deeply
appreciate those debates; they forged my ideas and contributed to my modest
achievements in sport psychology. But more important to me, and something
of which I am proud, is that not only are you valued and respected
colleagues, but you are also my friends. I value those friendships more than
you know.
I would also like to acknowledge colleagues and friends who were
important to me at various stages of my life and career: Ema Geron, who
persuaded me to become a member of the Board of Directors of IAAP, which
fostered my continued international involvement; John Nicholls, mentor,
colleague, and very good friend; Dick Magill and Steven Silverman, good
friends, for being there when it was important; the ICHP group, good for my
sanity, if not my golf; Darren Treasure, for many things, but most of all for
making me part of his family; Nicolas Lemyre, a colleague and friend, for
making sure my last two years in Oslo were served with dignity,
demonstrating that loyalty is earned not demanded; Marit Sørensen, who
eased my professional and personal immersion into Norway, and who
reintroduced me to the joy of having dogs and horses in my life; and finally,
to Nicolas and Stephanie for the privilege of being a grandfather to Tobias,
Kaisa and Ebba.
Last, but not least, I want to thank Marit and my Welsh and Norwegian
families for their love and support. I sometimes tax each!

Glyn Roberts
I would like to acknowledge the role of Glyn Roberts in my professional and
personal life. His decision to take me on as a doctoral student at the
University of Illinois in 1990 was a life-altering event. I have always
appreciated his intellect and passion, not simply in regard to the motivation
question but also politics, wine, golf, Welsh rugby, premier league, and just
about any other topic that grabs his attention. Since the day he accepted me as
a student, our relationship has evolved into one of the more significant in my
life, and I am proud to call Glyn one of my dearest friends.
A special thanks to my friends, PhD students and colleagues, many of
whom contributed to this volume, who have influenced my thinking and
played a significant role, perhaps unknowingly, in my professional
development: John Kane, John Loy, David Andrews, Jim Denison, Martyn
Standage, Kendy Vierling, Nicolas Lemyre, Edward McAuley, and Stuart
Biddle.
I also want to thank the many coaches, sport scientists, medical
professionals, and administrators I have had the opportunity to collaborate
with in my applied work. All share an insatiable desire to learn, get better,
and enhance the development, well-being, and performance of the athletes in
their respective programs. I would particularly like to acknowledge the
athletes I have had the opportunity to work with. It has been an honor to be a
part of your personal journey. I learned something from each of you and
cannot express how much I appreciate the trust you placed in me.
Lastly, but certainly most important, I want to take this opportunity to
thank Chrissy, Emma, Jack, my parents Colin and Rita, and brother Spencer
for their ongoing unconditional love and support.

Darren Treasure
PART I
 Contemporary Theories of
Motivation: New Directions and
Interpretations
It is quite astonishing to realize that the new and revolutionary approaches to
understanding motivation that some of us were engaged in in the 1970s and
1980s have now become the traditional and established theories of
motivation. In this first section of the book, we look at the most popular of
the motivation theories that have stood the test of time and have been
thoroughly examined by multiple researchers in many countries. These new
approaches were based on the cognitive revolution that swept through
psychology in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Now, these are mainstream
theories. But they all have a deep cognitive base to their conceptualization.
Some are based purely on social cognitive criteria and believe that thoughts,
perceptions, and beliefs govern action, and some believe we need needs to
explain the initiation of motivated behavior, even though there is a deep
cognitive overlay on these theories.
One of the hallmarks of the contemporary study of motivation in sport and
exercise is that we now have so many deeply thoughtful scientists in the field.
This book reflects that! This opening segment looks at some of the old
theories, with some new insights and interpretations, and some new
perspectives on motivation that are becoming popular. But the contributors
are all thoughtful and innovative scientists, and they all have something to
say.
The first chapter deals with achievement goal theory, and Roberts
documents the basic infrastructure of the theory and the wealth of empirical
evidence that supports the basic tenets. Roberts makes the point that while the
dispositional and contextual determinants have been investigated
independently, they should be considered as interactive constructs. In
addition, Roberts discusses the counterarguments to the theory, with
counterpoints to the counterarguments. But the important message of the first
chapter is a call for sport scientists to remember the famous saying of
William of Occam (1285-1347): “Entities are not to be multiplied beyond
necessity.” Known as Occam’s Razor, it is a call for parsimony. Roberts
argues for recognition of parsimony, elegance, and conceptual coherence in
sport psychological research, motivation in particular, and concludes with a
look at the practical import of achievement goal theory and the new research
directions achievement goal theory can follow.
 The second chapter is by Papaioannou and colleagues, and they present
and discuss the extensions to achievement goal theory of the Hierarchical
model of Elliot and colleagues. Papaioannou and colleagues critically look at
the original theory and the arguments for the extension by Elliot. They
criticize the theory and offer alternative directions that researchers may
follow should they wish to investigate valence-based criteria of motivated
behavior in sport and physical activity. Of particular interest is the argument
that a focus on approach performance goals that may be adaptive for the
person, at least in the short term, may be maladaptive for society.
Papaioannou and colleagues conclude that parents, coaches, and teachers
should not emphasize interindividual competition and performance approach
goals because this might have negative consequences for the group and the
larger society.
The third chapter is by Ntoumanis, and he focuses on self-determination
theory, a theory that is growing in popularity. The fact that we have two
chapters on self-determination theory lends credence to its growing
popularity in sport and physical activity. Ntoumanis’s focus is on sport and
physical education with a thorough discussion of the role of self-regulation in
the motivational equation. But Ntoumanis also attempts a very difficult, but
necessary, task: He attempts to discuss how we may integrate the components
of the various theories of human striving. There is no question that the
theories overlap to a greater or lesser extent: Just how do mastery, autonomy,
and empowerment differ in the various theories? But it is not easy because
there are some fundamental conceptual differences in the energization of
achievement striving (e.g., needs versus cognitive schema). But we do need
to be more thoughtful about the common attributes and attempt to develop a
more unifying theory of motivation. The research evidence reviewed in this
chapter offers support for the usefulness of the SDT approach for
understanding and promoting adaptive motivation in sport and PE.
The fourth chapter is by Hall and colleagues on the relatively new area of
perfectionism. In order to evaluate the degree to which the features of
perfectionism may be responsible for performance excellence, the chapter
examines how perfectionism has been defined. Hall and colleagues argue that
in some instances, perfectionism has been defined by its measures rather than
by its core features, and as a consequence, empirical evidence has been
accrued to support the notion that certain forms of perfectionism may be
universally positive or healthy. The chapter reviews empirical literature that
has examined perfectionism in sport to illustrate that when perfectionism is
measured in a manner that captures its core features simultaneously, it has
few positive psychological and performance consequences. This literature
challenges notions that perfectionism can be positive and demonstrates that
the outcomes are more detrimental when the construct is viewed in its
broadest sense. Finally, the authors argue that the empirical evidence points
clearly to the fact that although adaptive achievement striving provides a
sustainable route to fulfilling a person’s sporting potential, perfectionism is
not a foundation for excellence.
The fifth chapter is by Vallerand on the concept of passion in sport. This is
a new area of research into achievement striving, and Vallerand provides
strong support for the model he proposes. He has developed interesting
concepts of harmonious and obsessive passion with scales to measure each. A
number of social and personal determinants are hypothesized to determine
the initial and ongoing development of passion for a given activity. Research
has shown that harmonious passion promotes adaptive outcomes to a greater
extent than obsessive passion. It was found, however, that under certain
specific situations, obsessive passion can lead to some positive outcomes and
harmonious passion can lead to less adaptive ones. In its relative infancy, the
research to date using prospective and longitudinal designs on passion
showed that passion leads to changes in outcomes over time. Finally,
directions for future research and applications are proposed.
The last chapter in this segment is by Roberts and Kristiansen on that
“oldie but goodie,” goal setting. Goal setting is the most utilized motivational
enhancement technique in sport psychology. Recent reviews have clearly
shown that goal setting consistently works in enhancing performance in sport
and that it is effective across a wide array of athletic events and athletic
experience. There is still confusion in the literature about what goals people
should set, what psychological processes are involved in goal setting, and
how people go about setting goals for either themselves or others. Using
achievement goal theory, Roberts and Kristiansen argue that achievement
goal theory may give a conceptual backdrop to goal setting to explain why
the athlete becomes motivated. They conclude that while goal setting is
empirically viable, why goal setting works is less clear, and researchers
should be more thoughtful about the processes underlying goal setting.
 CHAPTER 1

Motivation in Sport and Exercise

From an Achievement Goal Theory
Perspective: After 30 Years, Where
Are We?

Glyn C. Roberts, PhD

Department of Psychology and Coaching
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
Motivation and motivation issues remain one of the central concerns of
modern life. In everyday life we continue to hear of the importance of
motivation and ways in which to foster it for desired outcomes. Whether it is
banks that provide outrageous bonuses to “motivate” their investors and
brokers, politicians who wish to change society, business leaders who are
concerned with motivation in the workplace, the health industry that worries
about the rise in childhood obesity and sedentary lifestyles, parents and
teachers who bemoan the study habits of children and adolescents, or coaches
and administrators within the sport and exercise communities who wonder
how to get better results—all are concerned with motivation issues. But what
is motivation? If we take our cues from everyday life, then it may be arousal,
such as the “motivational” tirades of coaches in the locker room. Former
players of Manchester United Football Club have often remarked about the
halftime locker room “hairdryer treatment” talks of the legendary coach Sir
Alex Ferguson. Some believe that motivation is a measure of confidence, a
winning attitude that motivates people to better performance. Some believe
that motivation is a simple matter of positive thinking: Believe and you will
achieve! Some believe that it is a personal entity or is genetically endowed,
that either you have it or you don’t! All these beliefs and practices have some
merit, but these simplistic assumptions do not begin to capture the
complexity and richness of motivational matters (Roberts, 2001).
I and others have argued (e.g., Ford, 1992; Roberts, 2001; Roberts,
Treasure, & Conroy, 2007) that the term motivation is overused and vague,
especially in the “trenches”—the classroom, the gymnasium, the exercise
room, the playing fields, the sport arenas, the workplace, and so on. We have
former successful sport stars, politicians, and business people who earn big
money on the lecture circuit giving what are called motivational talks! We
have sport commentators and business correspondents who argue that the
successful are more motivated to achieve than the unsuccessful. But their
definitions and understanding of motivation differ. Even among motivation
researchers, motivation is defined so broadly by some that it incorporates the
whole field of psychology and so narrowly by others that it is almost useless
as an organizing construct. Ford (1992) has argued that there are at least 32
theories of motivation that have their own definitions of the construct. Pinder
(1984) claimed that there are almost as many definitions as there are
theorists. This contention is especially true in sport and exercise psychology.
Read the chapters on motivation in any two textbooks and you find very
different perspectives and understandings of what motivation is, or should be.
As an example, the recent textbook by Horn (2008) includes three chapters
on motivation. Each is fine as it stands. The amazing aspect is that although
each deals with motivational issues in sport and exercise psychology, cross-
referencing is almost absent! Each chapter has its own perspective and draws
on its own body of evidence. This circumstance is not unusual. Even within
perspectives we find researchers who are fonder of citing themselves and
their former students than they are of embracing the literature. The
“toothbrush syndrome” (Frese, 2006) seems to be alive and well in sport and
exercise psychology: That is, some motivation theorists would rather use
another theorist’s toothbrush than his or her theory and research!
In contemporary motivation research, because the term is so vague, the
solution has been to abandon the term and use descriptions of cognitive
processes such as self-regulation or other self-systems that affect motivation,
motivational processes such as striving for personal goals or goal setting, and
emotional processes. But the important assumption agreed to by most
contemporary theorists is that motivation is not an entity but a process (e.g.,
Maehr & Braskamp, 1986). Motivation is typically defined as the process that
influences the initiation, direction, magnitude, perseverance, continuation,
and quality of goal-directed behavior (Maehr & Zusho, 2009). To understand
motivation, we must attempt to understand the process of motivation, the
constructs that drive the process, and the way in which the constructs apply in
sport and exercise.

Motivation and Achievement Behavior

Motivation theories may be viewed as being on a continuum ranging from

deterministic to mechanistic to organismic to cognitive (for a more extensive
treatment of motivation theories, see Ford, 1992). Deterministic and
mechanistic theories view humans as being passive and driven by
psychological needs or drives. Organismic theories include innate needs but
also recognize that a dialectic occurs between the organism and the social
context. Cognitive theories view humans as being active and initiating action
Another random document with
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 12. How long is it going to last?
Now truth may be stranger than fiction, but it’s also a whole lot
duller. Most of my answers have very evidently bored my audiences to
the point of extinction. Yet I hesitate to start weaving the well-known
tangled web. I’d be bound to trip in it sooner or later. Last night, in
desperation, I drafted a card along the line of Mr. Brown’s. But it lacked
wallop, as you can see for yourself.
1. Oh, pretty well.
2. No.
3. A little.
4. Oh, yes.
5. A mile and a half, on the observation hill.
6. Oh, yes.
7. That’s supposed to be a secret.
8. Pretty gay.
9. Yes.
10. All right, so far as I could see.
11. No.
12. I don’t know.
The End
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was
obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MY FOUR
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