Construction Materials and Testing (CMT 223)

Unit 11 Module: Testing the Tensile Strength of Steel Bars

Objectives:

1. Understand the importance of classifying steel.

2. Describe the properties of steel.
3. Explain the importance of testing steel for tensile strength.

Content:

A. Description and Classification of Steel

1. Description of Steel

Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due to a wide range
and combination of physical and mechanical properties that steels have. By suitably controlling the carbon
content, alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of hardness, ductility and strength
can be obtained in steel.

Steel is an excellent partner of concrete in providing tensile strength since concrete is compressive
material. Steel one hundred times stronger in tensile and ten times stronger in resisting compression than
concrete.

2. Classification of Steel on the Basis of Carbon Content

Classification of Steel Carbon Content (%)

Dead mild steel < 0.15
Mild steel 0.15 - 0.3
Medium carbon steel 0.3 - 0.8
High carbon steel or hard steel 0.8 – 1.5 (> 1 is also called cast steel or tool steel)

B. Properties of Steel

a. Mild Steel also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile, malleable; tougher and more elastic
than wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to temper and harden. It rusts quickly
and can be permanently magnetized. It is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof
coverings and sheet piles and in railway tracks. Its specific gravity is 7.30. Mild steel is used in the form
of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and in railway tracks.

b. High Carbon Steel also known as hard steel. It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel. It can be
forged and welded with difficulty. It is used for reinforcing cement concrete and pre-stressed concrete
members. It can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts. Its specific
gravity is 7.90. High carbon steel is used for reinforcing cement concrete and pre-stressed concrete
members. It can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts.

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c. High Tensile Steel also known as high strength steel and is essentially a medium carbon steel. It is
used in pre-stressed concrete construction. High tensile steel is used in pre-stressed concrete
construction.

Classification of Steel Maximum Compressive Strength Maximum Tensile Strength

Mild Steel 800–1200 N/mm2 600–800 N/mm2
High Carbon Steel 1350 N/mm2 1400–2000 N/mm2
High Tensile Steel ------------- 2000 N/mm2 (min. elongation of 10 %)

C. Testing of Steel for Tensile Strength (ASTM A 615/A 615M 04a)

This standard specification covers deforms and plain carbon steel bars for concrete reinforcement
in cut lengths and coils. Steel bars containing alloy additions, such as AISI and SAE series of alloy steels are
permitted if the resulting product meets all other requirements of the specifications. Bars are categorized
on their yield levels as shown below in the table.

Classification Yield Strength (MPa)

Grade 40 280
Grade 60 420
Grade 75 520

1. Test Specimens

a. All mechanical tests for the specimens shall be conducted in accordance with test methods and
definitions.
b. Specimens for tension tests shall be the full section of the bar rolled and the unit stress
determination shall be based on the nominal bar area.

2. Number of Tests

a. One test for bar sizes number 10 – 35, if from one batch differs by three or more designation
numbers; one test shall be made from both lowest and highest designation number.
b. One test for bar sizes number 45 and 55 of each size from each batch.

3. Tensile Requirements

a. The test specimen shall conform to the requirements for tensile as prescribed.
b. The yield point or yield strength shall be determined by one of the following methods:
 The yield point shall be determined by drop of the beam or halt in the gage of the testing
machine.
 If the specimen tested does not have a well-defined yield point, the yield point shall be
determined by reading the stress corresponding to the prescribed strain using an autograph
diagram method or an extensometer. The strain shall be 0.5% of gage length for Grade 40 and
Grade 60; and shall be 0.35% of gage length for Grade 75%.
c. The percentage of elongation shall conform to the tensile requirements.

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Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for Tensile

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References:

1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com

2. Materials of Construction by DN Ghose, 1989
3. Civil Engineering Materials by Technical Teachers Training Institute, 1992
4. Engineering Materials by Emmanuel F. Nino and Teresita G. Nino, 1983
5. Materials of Construction 4th Edition by Chandigarah, 1990
6. Testing of Engineering Materials by Gildey, Murphy & Bragman, 1982
7. Structural Engineering and Construction 4th Edition Volume 1 by Venancio I. Besavilla Jr., 1999
8. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
9. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

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 Construction Materials and Testing (CMT 223)

Unit 12 Module: Field Tests of Construction Materials

Objectives:

1. Understand the importance of field tests of construction materials.

2. Explain the different methods of field tests of construction materials such as cement and concrete.

Content:

A. Importance of Field Tests of Construction Materials

Field testing is a process that involves inspection and testing of materials used in construction.
This is an important process that will help builders and site inspector to identify the quality, specifications
and conformities of the materials to be used in building structures and essential in keeping the materials
in line with the standard specifications by proper inventories and storage or stocking.

B. Methods of Field Tests of Construction Materials such as Cement and Concrete

1. Inspection of the Information Available on a Standard Cement Bag

The following information normally printed on a standard cement bag may be noted at the time
of receiving cement bags.

a. Type of cement
b. Standard certification Mark
c. Approximate net weight of cement
d. Week, month and year of manufacture
e. Manufacturer’s name and registered Trade Mark, if any
f. Proper Method For Removal of Cement Bags

2. Proper Method of the Removal of Cement Bags

a. Stepping of Tiers while Removing Cement Bags

When removing bags for use, apply the “First in, First out” (FIFO) principle i.e. take out the oldest
cement first. Each consignment of cement should be stacked separately in the go-down so as to permit
easy access for inspection and to facilitate removal in a proper sequence. It would be desirable to pin a
play card on each pile of cement indicating the date of its arrival in the Go-down.

b. Storage Capacity of a Cement Go-down

While working out the inside dimensions of a cement go-down for storage of specified quantity
of cement filled bags, the following dimensions may be considered.

Length of Cement bags: 70 cm (average)

Width: 35 cm (average)
Thickness: 14 cm (average)

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 Clearance and passages: 60 cm (average)

c. Effect of Storage on Strength of Cement

The cement when stored for longer period of time loses its strength characteristics. The strength
of cement when used after one year of its production loses its strength by about 40-50% on application
as compared to that of freshly produced cement. The loss of strength characteristic of cement at different
interval of times is as given below in the table.

Age of Cement % Reduction in its Strength

3Months 20-30
6Months 30-40
12 Months 40-50

3. Tips for Storage of Cement

a. Do not store in a building where walls, roof and floor are not completely weather proof.
b. Do not store in a new warehouse until the interior is thoroughly dried out.
c. Do not make contact with a badly fitted windows and doors and see that they are kept closed.
d. Do not stack against the wall. Always pile on the floor on wooden planks.
e. Do not forget to pile bags together.
f. Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in header and stretcher fashion.
g. Do not take cement from one tier. Step back to three or four tiers.
h. Do not keep dead storage.
i. Do not keep bags on the grounds for temporary storage at work site. Pile on raised dry platform and
cover with tarpaulin or Polythene sheets.

4. Field Examination of Cement

a. If one’s hand is plunged into a bag of cement he should feel cool and not warm.
b. When a handful of cement is thrown into a bucket of water it would not float but sink.
c. A thin paste of Portland cement with water should be felt sticky between the fingers.
d. Reddish or blackish color of cement will indicate adulteration of foreign materials.
e. The cement should be in form of impalpable powder.
f. The cement paste will give an earthy smell.
g. A thick paste of cement with water on a glass plate, kept under water for 24 hours, should not rack
but set.
h. A bar 2.5cm x 2.5cm – 20cm long made of cement and after seven days immersion in water should
not show any sign of failure, if it is placed on supports 15 cm apart and loaded with 34 kg.
i. Initial setting time may be observed in the field by preparing a thin cement paste in a ware and
inserting a very thin stick or wire into it after 30 minutes. If the paste resist penetration of the stick
or the wire, the quality of cement may be ensured.

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5. Field Test of Cement

Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at site within a very short period
of time for evaluating the condition of the supplied cement. In most of the case it is not possible to have
any laboratory test in short period of time. Therefore, quality check is performed with the help of some
basic field tests. Although these tests are not very accurate, they provide some basic idea to the civil
engineer regarding the quality of the cement.

a. Date of Manufacturing. As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date of manufacturing of
cement bags should be checked.

b. Cement Color. The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement color i.e. grey color
with a light greenish shade.

c. Presence of Lumps. Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the
absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.

d. Temperature inside Cement Bag. If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should be cool inside
the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will become warm.

e. Smoothness Test. When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should give smooth
feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.

f. Water Sinking Test. If a small quantity of cement is thrown to the water, it should float some time
before finally sinking.

g. Smell of Cement Paste. A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between the fingers. If
the cement contains too much pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy
smell.

h. Block Test. A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is made. The block is
then immersed under water for three days. After removing, it is supported 150mm apart and a weight
of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure the cement is good.

6. Proper Storage of Materials Used in Concrete Operation

The storage of cement should be ensuring completely the dry condition and protection from
moisture. Aggregates should be stacked in such a manner that its size and grading is not disturbed.

a. Storing of aggregates should be done in such a way as to:

 Maintain the uniformity of grading

 Prevent segregation
 Maintain uniform surface water condition
 Avoid mixing of harmful material in the aggregates

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b. Precaution for maintaining uniformity of grading:

 Hard and dry patch of ground should be selected for storing of the aggregate. If a hard surface is
not available, provide a platform of planks, G.I. sheets, floor of bricks or a weak concrete layer.
 The aggregates of various sizes should be kept separately. Piles of sand and coarse aggregate
should be kept separate.

c. Precaution for prevention of segregation:

 During stock piling successive consignments should not be dropped on the same place to form a
pyramid. It will lead to segregation i.e. the coarse material rolls down the sides of piles and fine
material will concentrate in the center.
 The aggregates should be placed in layer not thicker than one truck dumped at same place.
 The aggregates should not fall from a height while being transported and dumped.
 The pile should be as near as possible to the mixer to avoid greater distance of transportation.

d. Precaution for preserving uniformity of moisture content:

 The area occupied by each pile should be as large as possible. The height of pile should be from
1.25m to 1.75 m.
 The pile should be allowed to stand for 24 hours at least before being used so that the moisture
has time to settle.
 In the case of sand, the bottom layer (last 300mm) should not be used as the bottom layer
becomes saturated with water.

e. Precaution for cleanliness of aggregates:

The piles of aggregates should be kept clean of leaves, vegetable debris, animal refuse etc.

f. Storage of cement:

Cement is a finely ground material. It is highly hygroscopic. It absorbs moisture which may be in
the form of free water. An absorption of 1% to 2% of water has no effect, but further amount of absorption
reduces the strength of cement. If the absorption exceeds 5% the cement is, for all ordinary purposes
ruined. During the storing and transporting of cement, care is always taken to keep it away from moisture.

g. Storing of water

Water is stored at site in a masonry tank built for the purpose or in the other clean containers.
The walls of the tank should be somewhat higher than the surrounding ground. Sufficient quantity of
water should be stored in advance to ensure the continuity of concreting operations. If water obtained
from a source contains dust etc. it should be collected a day in advance to allow such suspended impurities
to settle down before use.

7. Principles of Concrete Placement

a. Segregation. Avoid segregation during all operations.

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b. Consolidation. Thoroughly consolidate the concrete.
c. Bonding. Make sure that the bond develops.
d. Temperature Control. Protect the concrete from temperature extremes after placement.
e. Maximum Drop. If the free fall into the form is less than 4 feet, use vertical pipes.
f. Layer Thickness. Place concrete in even horizontal layers. Place each layer in one operation and
consolidate it before placing the next layer to prevent honeycombs. Layer thickness depends on the
type of construction.
g. Compacting. Place concrete into its final position as nearly as possible. Then work the concrete
thoroughly around reinforcement and imbedded fixtures, into the corners, and against the sides of
the forms.
h. Placing Rate. The filling rate should not exceed 4 vertical feet per hour, except for columns.
Coordinate the placing and compacting so that the concrete is not deposited faster than it can be
compacted properly.
i. Wall Construction. Place the first batches of each layer at the end of the section, then proceed toward
the center to prevent water from collecting at the form ends and corner.
j. Slab Construction. When constructing slabs place the concrete at the far end of the slab first, and
then place subsequent batches against previously placed concrete. Do not deposit concrete in piles
and then move them horizontally to their final position. These may cause segregation.
k. Placing Concrete on Slope. Place the concrete at the bottom of the slope then proceed up the slope.

8. Methods in Determining the Consistency and Workability of Concrete

a. Slump Test of Concrete Mixture

The most well-known and widely use test method to characterize the workability of fresh
concrete. The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It can also
be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus
used and simple procedure. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete
under field conditions. Instruments for slump test: Slump Cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom
diameter x 300 mm high) it is actually a frustum of a cone. Small scoop, Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x
16mm diameter), Ruler and Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm).

Testing Procedure:

 Clean the cone and place the cone on the slump plate; make sure that the slump plate is clean, level
and non-absorbent.
 Collect the sample and stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill the cone up to one-third of its volume
with the mix sample. Compact the concrete by rodding 25 times.
 Now fill it up to two-thirds and rod again 25 times, just into the top layer of the first layer.
 Fill it up until it overflows.
 Level the surface using the steel rod with a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around the base
and top of the cone.
 Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
 Turn the cone upside down near the sample and pace the rod across the up-turned cone.
 Measure how far the concrete sinks or slumps.

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Types of Slump

 Collapse Slump. The concrete collapses completely. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix
is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate.

 Shear Slump. In this type, the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways or if one-half
of the cone slides down an inclined plane, the slump is said to be a shear slump. If a shear or collapse
slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test is repeated and if the shear slump
persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an indication of lack of cohesion of the mix.

 True Slump. In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape. This is the
only slump which is used in various tests. Mixes of stiff consistence have a Zero slump, so that in the
rather dry range no variation can be detected between mixes of different workability.

 Zero Slump. Zero slumps is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry mixes.
This type of concrete is generally used for road construction.

Relation between Consistency and Slump Values

Slump (mm) 0-20 20-40 40-120 120-200 200-220

Consistency Dry Stiff Plastic Wet Sloppy

b. Slump Flow Concrete Test

Flow table test also known as the slump-flow test, is a method to determine consistency of
fresh concrete mixture. It is also used to identify transportable moisture limit of solid bulk cargoes. It is
used primarily for assessing concrete that is too fluid (workable) to be measured using the slump test
method, because the concrete will not retain its shape when the cone is removed.

Diamter of Flow (cm)−25

Formula: Flow (%) = x 100
25

Percent of Flow 0-20 20-60 60-100 100-120 120-150

Consistency Dry Stiff Plastic Wet Sloppy

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c. Ball Penetration Test (ASTM C360)

It is another method used in the field and laboratory to measure the consistency of concrete. It is
also known as the Kelly ball test. The advantage of this test is that it can be conducted directly on the
concrete in site (in a form, a hopper, and wheelbarrow), there is no need for filling and rodding a
container. This means that the test can be completed faster than with a slump test and will yield more
precise results.
d. Compacting Factor Test
It was developed by Glanville and it measures the degree of compaction for the standard amount
of work and thus offers a direct and reasonably reliable assessment of the workability of concrete.
Weight of Partially Compacted Concrete
Formula: Compacting Factor (FC) =
Weight of Fully Compacted Concrete

Note: For the normal range of concrete the compacting factor lies between 0.8 – 0.92.

Workability Slump (mm) C.F. Uses

Very Low 0-25 0.78 Roads-Pavements
Low 25-50 0.85 Foundations Concrete
Medium 25-100 0.92 Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
High 100-175 0.95
(High Reinforcement)

e. VE-BE TEST

This method is suitable for dry concrete having very low workability. It is based on measuring the
time (Called VEBE time) needed to transfer the shape of a concrete mix from a frustum cone to a cylinder
(these shapes are standardized by the apparatus of this test), by vibrating and compacting the mix. The
more VEBE time needed the less workable the mix is.
Note: The test fails if VEBE Time is less than 5 seconds. And the test must be created when no collapse or
shears slump in concrete.
g. Removal of Formworks

The hardening of concrete depends upon the temperature of atmosphere and hence, removal of
formwork will have to be decided according to the temperature. When temperature above 20°C and
ordinary cement has been used for concreting, formwork may be removed after period as given in the
table.

If place of ordinary cement, rapid hardening cement has been used, the forms can be removed
after 3/7 time given in table. However, it should be retained for at least 24 hours for vertical sides of
beam, slabs and columns.

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 Formworks Removal Time

Columns, walls, vertical sides of beams and slabs 1-2 days

Slabs when props are left in position 3 days
Beam soffits, when props are left in position 7 days
For slabs spanning up to 4.5m, removal of props may be after 7 days
For slabs spanning more than 4.5m, removal of props may be after 14 days
For beams up to 6m, span props can be removed after 14 days
For beams more than 6m span props can be removed after 21 days

h. Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test is the test most commonly performed on hardened concrete. The
compressive strength of normal-weight concrete is between 20 MPa to 40 MPa. The test is performed on
cylindrical specimens and is standardized by ASTM C39. The specimen is prepared, either in the lab or
field, according to ASTM C192 or C31, respectively. The standard specimen size is 0.15 m in diameter and
0.3 meter high, although other sizes with a height-diameter ratio of two can also be used. The diameter
of the specimen must be at least three times the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate in the
concrete.

Procedure:
 Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water from the
surface.
 Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m.
 Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
 Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the opposite
sides.
 Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
 Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the specimen.
 Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm /minute till the
specimen fails
 Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

Compressive strength of concrete at various ages: Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age Strength Percent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

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References:

1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com

2. Materials of Construction by DN Ghose, 1989
3. Civil Engineering Materials by Technical Teachers Training Institute, 1992
4. Engineering Materials by Emmanuel F. Nino and Teresita G. Nino, 1983
5. Materials of Construction 4th Edition by Chandigarah, 1990
6. Testing of Engineering Materials by Gildey, Murphy & Bragman, 1982
7. Structural Engineering and Construction 4th Edition Volume 1 by Venancio I. Besavilla Jr., 1999
8. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
9. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)