CMT-UNIT-7-12

Construction Materials and Testing
Unit 7: Familiarization with the Parts and Functions/Uses of the

Universal Testing Machine
Outline:
1. Familiarization and Importance of the Universal testing Machine
(UTM)
2. Understand the Functions/Uses of the Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) in Testing Materials
Objectives:
1. You will be able to familiarize yourself with the Universal Testing
Machine (UTM).
2. You will be able to explain the important functions/uses of Universal
Testing machine (UTM) in testing materials.
A. Familiarization and Importance of the Universal Testing Machine
(UTM)
A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to determine the

mechanical properties of a material by a given specimen and can be
used for wide range of tests and can perform over various materials.
Such as: for concrete compressive strength, reinforced concrete for
compressive strength and flexural or bending strength; and for steel
tensile strength.
The quality of materials is important in the selection for structural
purposes that conforms to the standard specifications. Testing of
materials helps us to determine the quality, properties and suitability of
materials. The following are the different types of testing machine:
compressive strength test, flexural strength test and tensile strength
test.
B. Understand the Functions/Uses of the Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) in Testing Materials
1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for Compression
2. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for Flexure
3. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for Tensile
References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Instructional Materials in Construction Materials and Testing by Miriam B. Villanueva
and Carl Jason A. Coronel, 2024
3. Materials of Construction by DN Ghose, 1989
4. Civil Engineering Materials by Technical Teachers Training Institute, 1992
5. Engineering Materials by Emmanuel F. Nino and Teresita G. Nino, 1983
6. Materials of Construction 4th Edition by Chandigarah, 1990
7. Testing of Engineering Materials by Gildey, Murphy & Bragman, 1982
8. Structural Engineering and Construction 4th Edition Volume 1 by Venancio I. Besavilla
Jr., 1999
9. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
10.American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Unit 8: Testing of Wood Samples for Bending, Compression,

Shear, Tension and Water Content
Outline:
1. Classifications and Properties of Species of Wood
2. Testing of Wood in terms of Bending, Compression, Shear, Tension and
Water content
Objectives:
1. You will be able to describe the classifications and properties of wood.
2. You will be able to explain the importance of testing wood in terms of
bending, compression, shear, tension and water content.
A. Classifications and Properties of Species of Wood
1. Description of Wood or Timber
Timber is the woody materials of trees that are suitable for house
construction, bridge and ship building, furniture and cabinet making, carving
and engraving for most structures used in agriculture, commerce and
industries. We refer to trees in the forest as standing timber, or to round or
square logs as round and square timber.
Unlike many building materials, wood is not a processed material but

organic material generally used in its natural state. Wood is that fibrous
substance which composes the pith and the bark. More specifically, wood is
defined as the lignified water conducting, strengthening and storage tissues of
branches, stem and roots of trees. Technically, wood is known as “xylem”.
Wood is the most common building materials because of the following
properties: a strong material, has durability, light in weight, ease of fastening;
and with artistic and natural beauty.
2. Classification of Wood
The wood that are classified as good lumber used in building

construction are those that grows larger by the addition of new layer on the
outer surface each year identified by botanists as “oxygen’s”
Some trees grow rapidly depending upon the climate, soil, moisture and
food elements. Some grow up to 1/8” to ½” in diameter per year or more.
Whereas, some grow at the rate of only ¼” to ½” in 10 to 15 years or more.
a. Mode of Growth: exogenous are those growing trees which are the most
preferred for lumbering and endogenous are the insides growing trees.
This kind of tree is less preferred for lumbering because of the center core
of its log which is soft and brittle in character.
b. Density. Refers to the quality of the mass and volume of the wood such
as: softwood known also as conifers or evergreen and hardwood which
are generally deciduous and has broad leaves.
c. Leaves. The characteristics of the tree when it comes to its leaves are:
needle shaped and broad shaped.
d. Shades or Color of wood. The shades or color of the wood varies from
either of the following: white, yellow, orange, red, brown and black,
etc.
f. Grain. The grain of wood is classified into: straight grain, cross grain,
fine grain and coarse grain.
g. Nature of the surface when sewed: plain, grained and figured or
marked.
3. Properties of Wood
a. Physical Properties of Wood

Strength is the general term used in reference to the ability of wood to
resist stresses and strain. Different wood varies materially in the following
manner:
 Wood is resistant to compression along the fibers.
 Stiffness or the ability to resist bending as in floor joists and beams
supporting heavy load.
 Strength in tension or the ability to resist in lengthwise stresses.
 Shearing strength or the ability of the fibers to resist rupture along or
across the grain.
Moisture is an important factor in the strength of wood. Thus, to a certain
extent, strength increases with the degree of seasoning of wood.
Note: Knots or other defects in wood also influence strength. The size,
character and location of the knots are of importance. Example; in cross
bending strength, knots on the upper surface of the beam do not detract
from the strength as much as on the lower part of the beam.
Weight of wood is also important consideration. Heavy woods are
generally strong, light wood are usually weak.
Hardness is expressed as resistance to indentation or to the saw or axe
across the grain. Hardness is dependent largely on weight, structural
elements of the wood and degree of seasoning. This feature is important in
several methods of utilization such as flooring, furniture, cross ties,
handles and many small wood articles.
Cleavability is the resistance of wood to cleavage along the grains. The line
of least resistance in cleavage is along the radius because the wood rays
are in this direction.
Note: Wood splits much more easily when wet because moisture softens
the fibers and reduces adhesion across the grain. Straightens in the grain
however, determine the ease with which wood splits.
Flexibility and toughness, moisture content of wood influences flexibility
to a considerable degree.
Toughness refers to combined strength, shock resistance and pliability of
wood.
Durability as applied to wood means the ability to resist decay or simply
the length of its life under a given condition. Durability may also include
the resistance of wood to the influence of mechanical wear.
Note: Strength Properties of Species of Wood at 80% Stress Grade (Refer to
the Module)
B. Testing of Wood in terms of Bending, Compression, Shear, Tension and Water
content
a. Bending or Flexural Testing of Wood
Bending test is performed to determine the elastic

modulus of bending or flexural stress of timber or
wood. A length of timber or wood is placed across
a span and applying load perpendicular to the
grain of the specimen to bend until failure.
Bending or Flexural Testing

Machine
2. Compression Testing of Wood
The determination of the measurement

of the compressive strength of wood is
by loading a block of wood parallel to
the grain until it fails
3. Shear Testing of Wood
The shearing strength of the wood is

dependent of the load applied on the grains
or fibers direction and the breaking is on the
radial plane or tangential. Shearing strength
is measured 10 to 15 % of its tensile strength
along the grain and directly proportional to
its density.
Shearing Testing Machine

4. Tensile Testing of Wood
Tensile strength tests of wood are conducted

parallel and perpendicular to the grain or
fiber and it is defined as the ratio of the
ultimate strength from a stress test to the
cross-sectional area of the specimen. The test
is performed parallel to the direction of the
gage section and the also the tensile strength
is directly proportional to the density of the
wood.
Tensile Testing Machine

5. Water Content Testing of Wood
The moisture content of wood varies from 8%

to 25% by weight and it is defined as the ratio
weight of moisture or water in a piece of
wood to the oven dried weight of wood.
Wood is hygroscopic material and its moisture
content is dependent on the relative humidity
of the air and causes the wood to expand and
shrink.
Two Pins Digital Wood
Moisture Meter
References:
Jr., 1999
Unit 9: Determine the Compressive Strength of Concrete Hollow Blocks
Outline:
1. Description and Classifications of Concrete Hollow Blocks
2. Testing of Concrete Hollow Blocks for Compressive Strength
Objectives:
1. You will be able to describe and classifications of concrete hollow
blocks.
2. You will be able to explain the importance of testing concrete hollow
blocks for compressive strength.
A. Description and Classifications of Concrete Hollow Blocks
1. Description of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)
Concrete hollow blocks (CHB) are the most common materials for
walling in building construction because of their availability, low cost and
their ease in installation. CHB are classified as bearing and non-bearing
blocks and are compressive materials, fill with mortar in their hollow
part, spread by mortar per layer and reinforced horizontally and
vertically to increase their resistance lateral forces. Load bearing blocks
ranges from 15 cm to 20 cm and are used to carry load aside from its
own weight while non-bearing blocks are intended for walls, partition,
fences or dividers carrying its own weight with thickness ranges from 7.5
cm to 10 cm.
Concrete hollow blocks play important role in the construction
industry, blocks are measured 40 cm (length) x 20 cm (width) x 4 inches
(thickness) or 40 cm (length) x 20 cm (width) x 5 inches (thickness) have
three cells and areas greater than 20% of the gross area and one half cells
open at both ends. Concrete hollow blocks are usually made of a mixture
ratio of 1:3:6 concrete with cement and sand mixture ratio of 1:7, 1:8 or
1:9 and a maximum size of 10 mm coarse aggregates.
2. Classifications of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB) based on Compressive
Strength (ASTM C90)
Compressive Strength
Minimum
ASTM
Types of CHB (psi)
Designation
Average of Individual
Three Units Unit
Load Bearing C90 1000 - 700 800 – 600
Non-Load
C129 600 500
Bearing
The minimum compressive strength standard for concrete hollow
blocks construction in the Philippines is shown below.
Minimum Compressive Strength

For Individual CHB
5.41 MPa (800 psi)
Based on the Average Gross Area of
89 MPa (1000 psi)
Five (5) Units
B. Testing of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB) for Compressive Strength
(ASTM C140/140M -14)
1. Specimens Preparations:
a. Sample selections from unit samples to ensure the results of the

testing.
b. Samples for testing must the same configuration and dimensions.
c. Weigh the samples for testing.
2. Testing Procedure:
a. Sample specimens age must be twenty eight (28) days.

b. Plates must be arranged on steel blocks in such a way that the center of
the specimen coincide with the centroid of the thrust block.
c. Proper capping of sulphur and granular materials coating or gypsum
plaster on the bearing area of the masonry units to maintain uniformity
of the surface.
d. Maximum load is applied at a constant rate and the remaining load is
applied in not less than two (2) minutes on the masonry units in the
machine.
e. Record compressive strength of the individual units and calculate the
minimum average compressive strength of the masonry units.
Compression Testing Machine
References:
Jr., 1999
Unit 10: Determining the Time Setting of Portland Cement
Outline:
1. Description and Classification of Portland cement
2. Properties of Portland cement
3. Testing of Setting Time of Portland cement
Objectives:
1. You will be able to describe the importance of classifying Portland
cement.
2. You will be able to describe the properties of Portland cement.
3. You will be able to explain the importance of testing the setting time of
Portland cement.
A. Description and Classification of Portland cement
1. Description of Portland Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use

around the world, used as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco,
and most non-specialty grout. It was developed from other types of
hydraulic lime in England in the mid-19th century and usually originates
from limestone.
2. Major Compounds of Portland Cement
Name Chemical formula Abbreviation

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetracalcium
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
aluminoferrite
When Portland cement is mixed with water its chemical compound
constituents undergo a series of chemical reactions that cause it to
harden. This chemical reaction with water is called "hydration". Each one
of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the
results of these reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and
gains strength.
Hydration starts as soon as the cement and water are mixed.
The rate of hydration and the heat liberated by the reaction of each
compound is different.
Each compound produces different products when it hydrates.

Tricalcium Silicate (C3S). Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely
responsible for initial set and early strength. Portland cements with
higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates

a large amount of heat almost immediately and contributes somewhat
to early strength. Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard C3A
hydration. Without gypsum, C3A hydration would cause Portland cement
to set almost immediately after adding water.
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely

responsible for strength increases beyond one week.
3. Classification of Cement
a. Ordinary Portland Cement (Type I)

Nearly 60% of the cement used is Ordinary Portland cement,
admirably suited to all construction work which is free from sulphate
attack, has a medium rate of strength development and heat generation
and has an adequate resistance to dry shrinkage and cracking, but has less
resistance to chemical attack.
b. Moderate Sulfate Resistance(Type II)

Used as a precaution against moderate sulfate attack and usually
generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I cement.
c. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (Type III)
Strength developed in standard mortar cube after 3 days is of the same

order as the 7 days strength ordinary Portland cement, used where high
early strength is necessary and should not be used in mass concrete works
owing to high rate of heat development since the difference in temperature
between interior and exterior of the concrete may lead to cracks.
d. Low Heat Cement (Type IV)
Percentage of C3S and C3A are lower in this cement than ordinary
Portland cement and rapid hardening cement while that of C2S is higher,
results in a slower rate of reaction, lower evolution of heat and lower
early strength but the ultimate strength remains more or less unaffected
and used in mass concrete and places where moderate sulphate attack is
likely to occur.
e. Sulphate Resisting Cement (Type V)

This type of cement is specially made to resist sulphate attack and it is
suitable for structures to be built in places where sulphate attack is likely
to occur.
f. Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Slag is a waste product in the manufacture of steel. It is a mixture of

lime, silica and alumina, the same oxides as required for manufacture of
Portland cement, however, the proportions are different (lime being too
small) and used in the blast furnace slag cement, the slag has to be
quenched, rapidly cooled by water so that the slag is fragmented into a
granular form. This process causes several chemical reactions to take
place within the material, and gives the slag its cementitious properties.
The dry granulated slag is fed with Portland cement clinker (blended
cement) into grinding mill. Gypsum in suitable proportions is added to
control setting. This type of cement provides protection against both
sulphate attack and chloride attack in concrete.
g. White and Coloured Cement
White Portland Cement is similar to ordinary gray. Portland cement in
all respects except for its high degree of whiteness. It is made from raw
materials containing very high little iron oxide (gray color of ordinary
Portland cement is due to the iron oxide present). These raw materials
used for white cement are high purity limestone, pure white chalk and
china clay.
h. Super Sulphated Cement

Super sulphated cement is manufactured by grinding together a
mixture of 80-85 percent granulated slag, 10-15 percent gypsum, and
about 5 percent Portland cement clinker. The product is ground finer than
that of Portland cement.
i. Natural cement
Natural Cement is produced in a simple process that begins with the
calcination, at a very low temperature, of crushed carbonate sedimentary
rocks, like limestone, in kilns. The resulting clinker is ground into a fine
powder and is at once ready for use.
j. High Alumina Cement , also known as HAC

It is a special cement compound that develops strength that develops
very quickly. It is produced much in the same way as other forms of
cement, but its unique makeup result in characteristics that are unique to
HAC. Specifically, high alumina cement is chemical resistant and can
withstand frigid temperatures.
ASTM has designated five types of Portland cement, designated
Types I-V. Physically and chemically, these cement types differ
primarily in their content of C3A and in their fineness. In terms of
performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration and
in their ability to resist sulfate attack. The general characteristics of
these types are listed below.
General Features of the Main Types of Portland Cement as available in the Market
Type Classification Characteristics Applications

General construction (most
Fairly high C3S content
buildings, bridges,
Type I General Purpose for good early strength
pavements, precast units,
development
etc)
Moderate Sulfate Structures exposed to soil or
Type II Low C3A content (<8%)
Resistance water containing sulfate ions
Ground more finely,
Rapid construction, cold
Type III High Early Strength may have slightly more
weather concreting
C3S
Low Heat of
Low content of C3S Massive structures such as
Type IV Hydration (slow
(<50%) and C3A dams
reacting)
High Sulfate Very low C3A content Structures exposed to high
Type V
resistance (<5%) levels of sulfate ions
Decorative (otherwise has
White White Color No C4AF, low MgO
properties similar to Type I)
The differences between these cement types are rather subtle. All five
types contain about 75 % calcium silicate minerals, and the properties of
mature concretes made with all five are quite similar. Thus, these five
types are often described by the term “Ordinary Portland Cement”, or OPC.
Types II and V OPC are designed to be resistant to sulfate

attack. Sulfate attack is an important phenomenon that can cause severe
damage to concrete structures. It is a chemical reaction between the
hydration products of C3A and sulfate ions that enter the concrete from the
outside environment. The products generated by this reaction have a
larger volume than the reactants, and this creates stresses which force the
concrete to expand and crack. Although hydration products of C4AF are
similar to those of C3A, they are less vulnerable to expansion, so the
designations for Type II and Type V cement focus on keeping the C3A
content low.
There is actually little difference between a Type I and Type II
cement, and it is common to see cements meeting both designations
labeled as “Type I/II”. The phenomenon of sulfate attack will be
discussed in much more detail in Sections, but it should be noted here
that the most effective way to prevent sulfate attack is to keep the
sulfate ions from entering the concrete in the first place. This can be
done by using mix designs that give a low permeability (mainly by
keeping the w/c ratio low) and, if practical, by putting physical barriers
such as sheets of plastic between the concrete and the soil.
Type III cement is designed to develop early strength more quickly
than a Type I cement. This is useful for maintaining a rapid pace of
construction, since it allows cast-in-place concrete to bear loads sooner
and it reduces the time that precast concrete elements must remain in
their forms. These advantages are particularly important in cold
weather, which significantly reduces the rate of hydration (and thus
strength gain) of all Portland cements. The downsides of rapid-reacting
cements are a shorter period of workability, greater heat of hydration,
and a slightly lower ultimate strength.
Type IV cement is designed to release heat more slowly than a Type I
cement, meaning of course that it also gains strength more slowly. A
slower rate of heat release limits the increase in the core temperature of
a concrete element. The maximum temperature scales with the size of
the structure, and Type III concrete was developed because of the
problem of excessive temperature rise in the interior of very large
concrete structures such as dams. Type IV cement is rarely used today,
because similar properties can be obtained by using a blended cement.
White Portland cement (WPC) is made with raw ingredients that are
low in iron and magnesium, the elements that give cement its grey
color. These elements contribute essentially nothing to the properties of
cement paste, so white Portland cement actually has quite good
properties. It tends to be significantly more expensive than OPC,
however, so it is typically confined to architectural applications. WPC is
sometimes used for basic cements research because the lack of iron
improves the resolution of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
measurements.
4. Properties of Individual Cement Compounds
Cement during its reaction with water sets and then hardens. This
reaction evolves heat. The rate of setting and hardening of cement, the
rate of evolution of heat and the resistance to sulphate attack is affects by
proportions of different cement compounds.
C3S and C2S constitute about 70 to 80% of all Portland cements. When
cement reacts with water, C3A is the first to react with water and causes
the initial set. It generates great amount of heat and easily effected by
sulphates. It contributes little to the strength of concrete. It rendered
ineffective by addition of gypsum.
During the grinding of clinkers. Gypsum reacts with C3A and turns into
calcium sulpho aluminite which causes expansion during setting. C3A
therefore, is not available in substantial quantity for reaction when water
is added to cement.
C3S hydrates more rapidly than C2S and develops strength in concrete
for the first 28 days. It also generates more heat. C2S is the next to
hydrate but it hydrates slowly and is responsible for the ultimate
strength. It is more resistant to sulphate attack.
C4AF is comparatively inactive and contributes little to the strength of

concrete and the heat of hydration.
B. Test for Setting Time of Portland Cement (ASTM Designation C 191 – 08)
Scope: Test for setting of Portland cement is a method that determines the
time of setting of Portland cement by means of Vicat Needle Apparatus. The
use of gloves, protective clothing and eye protection is recommended since
fresh hydraulic cementitious mixtures are caustic and may cause chemical
burns to skin and tissue upon prolonged exposure.
Apparatus/Instruments and Equipment: Vicat Apparatus (With movable rod,
rod for measuring penetration should have a straight steel removable needle
with a diameter of 1.00 ± 0.05 mm and length no less than 50 mm with flat
end and right angles to the axis of the rod; and mass 300 ± 0.5 grams), Glass
Graduated Cylinder (200 or 250 mL), Plane Non-absorptive Plate, Flat Trowel,
Conical Ring, Vicat mold, Mixer, Bowl Paddle and Stop Watch
Procedure:
a. For Specimen Preparation:
 Prepare a cement paste by mixing with the required amount of water

to achieve standard consistency.
 Start the time immediately when water is added to cement, fill the
Vicat mold with cement paste resting on plane non-absorptive plate.
 Completely fill the mold with cement paste and smooth off the
surface and level of the top of the mold as the test block.
 After molding, immediately place the test block in the moist room
and store until the determination of setting time.
b. For Initial Setting Time:
 Place the test block resting on plane non-absorptive plate under the
rod bearing needle.
 Slowly lower the needle until it comes in contact on the surface of the
test block and quickly release to allow the needle to penetrate in to
the test block.
 Repeat the previous step as described, the time elapsed when water
is added to cement and the time the needle fails to penetrate the test
block to a point 5.0 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mold
is the initial setting time.
c. For Final Setting Time
 For final setting time test, replace the needle of the Vicat apparatus
by a needle angular attachment
 Slowly apply the needle to the surface of the test block until it makes
an impression.
 The time elapsed between the time when water is added to cement
and the needle makes an impression; and the attachment fails is the
final setting time.
 In case there is unpleasant form on the surface of the test block use
the under surface of the test block.
Data Sheet:
a. For Initial Setting Time:
Trial No. Setting Time (second) Penetration (mm)

1
2
3
b. For Final Setting Time:
Trial No. Setting Time (second) Penetration (mm)

1
2
3
Computation:
Calculate the Vicat time of setting to the nearest 1 minute as follows:
𝐇−𝐄
𝐒𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 = 𝐱 𝐂 − 𝟐𝟓 + 𝐄
𝐂−𝐃
Where:
E = time in minutes of last penetration greater than 25 mm
H = time in minutes of first penetration less than 25 mm
C = penetration reading at time E
D = penetration reading at time H
Note: Calculate the Vicat final time of setting by determining the elapsed
time between the time of the initial contact between cement and water
and the time when the needle does not sink visibly into the paste and
rounded to the nearest 5 minutes.
References:
Jr., 1999
Unit 11: Testing the Tensile Strength of Steel Bars
Outline:
1. Description and Classification of Steel
2. Properties of Steel
3. Testing of Steel for Tensile Strength
Objectives:
1. You will be able to explain the importance of classifying steel.
2. You will be able to describe the properties of steel.
3. You will be able to explain the importance of testing steel for tensile
strength.
A. Description and Classification of Steel
1. Description of Steel
Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials.

This is due to a wide range and combination of physical and mechanical
properties that steels have. By suitably controlling the carbon content,
alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of hardness,
ductility and strength can be obtained in steel.
Steel is an excellent partner of concrete in providing tensile strength

since concrete is compressive material. Steel one hundred times stronger in
tensile and ten times stronger in resisting compression than concrete.
2. Classification of Steel on the Basis of Carbon Content
Classification of Steel Carbon Content (%)

Dead mild steel < 0.15
Mild steel 0.15 - 0.3
Medium carbon steel 0.3 - 0.8
High carbon steel or hard steel 0.8 – 1.5 (> 1 is
also called cast steel or tool steel
B. Properties of Steel
a. Mild Steel also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile,

malleable; tougher and more elastic than wrought iron. Mild steel can
be forged and welded, difficult to temper and harden. It rusts quickly
and can be permanently magnetized. It is used in the form of rolled
sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and in railway
tracks. Its specific gravity is 7.30. Mild steel is used in the form of rolled
sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and in railway
tracks.
b. High Carbon Steel also known as hard steel. It is tougher and more
elastic than mild steel. It can be forged and welded with difficulty. It is
used for reinforcing cement concrete and pre-stressed concrete
members. It can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools
and machine parts. Its specific gravity is 7.90. High carbon steel is used
for reinforcing cement concrete and pre-stressed concrete members. It
can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine
parts.
c. High Tensile Steel also known as high strength steel and is essentially a
medium carbon steel. It is used in pre-stressed concrete construction.
High tensile steel is used in pre-stressed concrete construction.
Classification of Maximum Compressive Maximum Tensile

Steel Strength Strength
Mild Steel 800–1200 N/mm2 600–800 N/mm2
High Carbon
1350 N/mm2 1400–2000 N/mm2
Steel
2000 N/mm2
High Tensile
------------- (min. elongation of 10
Steel
%)
C. Testing of Steel for Tensile Strength (ASTM A 615/A 615M 04a)
This standard specification covers deforms and plain carbon steel bars
for concrete reinforcement in cut lengths and coils. Steel bars containing
alloy additions, such as AISI and SAE series of alloy steels are permitted if
the resulting product meets all other requirements of the specifications.
Bars are categorized on their yield levels as shown below in the table.
Classification Yield Strength (MPa)
Grade 40 280
Grade 60 420
Grade 75 520
1. Test Specimens
a. All mechanical tests for the specimens shall be conducted in accordance
with test methods and definitions.
b. Specimens for tension tests shall be the full section of the bar rolled and
the unit stress determination shall be based on the nominal bar area.
2. Number of Tests
a. One test for bar sizes number 10 – 35, if from one batch differs by three
or more designation numbers; one test shall be made from both lowest
and highest designation number.
b. One test for bar sizes number 45 and 55 of each size from each batch.
3. Tensile Requirements
a. The test specimen shall conform to the requirements for tensile as

prescribed.
b. The yield point or yield strength shall be determined by one of the
following methods:
 The yield point shall be determined by drop of the beam or halt in
the gage of the testing machine.
 If the specimen tested does not have a well-defined yield point, the
yield point shall be determined by reading the stress corresponding
to the prescribed strain using an autograph diagram method or an
extensometer. The strain shall be 0.5% of gage length for Grade 40
and Grade 60; and shall be 0.35% of gage length for Grade 75%.
c. The percentage of elongation shall conform to the tensile requirements.
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) for Tensile
References:
Jr., 1999
Module 12: Field Tests of Construction Materials
Outline:
1. Importance of Field Tests of Construction Materials
2. Methods of Field Tests of Construction Materials such as Cement and
Concrete
Objectives:
1. You will be able to understand the importance of field tests of
construction materials.
2. You will be able to explain the different methods of field tests of
construction materials such as cement and concrete.
A. Importance of Field Tests of Construction Materials
Field testing is a process that involves inspection and testing of

materials used in construction. This is an important process that will
help builders and site inspector to identify the quality, specifications and
conformities of the materials to be used in building structures and
essential in keeping the materials in line with the standard specifications
by proper inventories and storage or stocking.
B. Methods of Field Tests of Construction Materials such as Cement and
Concrete
1. Inspection of the Information Available on a Standard Cement Bag

The following information normally printed on a standard cement bag
may be noted at the time of receiving cement bags.
a. Type of cement
b. Standard certification Mark
c. Approximate net weight of cement
d. Week, month and year of manufacture
e. Manufacturer’s name and registered Trade Mark, if any
f. Proper Method For Removal of Cement Bags
2. Proper Method of the Removal of Cement Bags
a. Stepping of Tiers while Removing Cement Bags
When removing bags for use, apply the “First in, First out” (FIFO)
principle i.e. take out the oldest cement first. Each consignment of cement
should be stacked separately in the go-down so as to permit easy access
for inspection and to facilitate removal in a proper sequence. It would be
desirable to pin a play card on each pile of cement indicating the date of
its arrival in the Go-down.
b. Storage Capacity of a Cement Go-down
While working out the inside dimensions of a cement go-down for

storage of specified quantity of cement filled bags, the following
dimensions may be considered.
Length of Cement bags: 70 cm (average)

Width: 35 cm (average)
Thickness: 14 cm (average)
Clearance and passages: 60 cm (average)
c. Effect of Storage on Strength of Cement
The cement when stored for longer period of time loses its strength
characteristics. The strength of cement when used after one year of its
production loses its strength by about 40-50% on application as
compared to that of freshly produced cement. The loss of strength
characteristic of cement at different interval of times is as given below in
the table.
Age of Cement % Reduction in its Strength
3 Months 20-30
6 Months 30-40
12 Months 40-50
3. Tips for Storage of Cement
a. Do not store in a building where walls, roof and floor are not completely
weather proof.
b. Do not store in a new warehouse until the interior is thoroughly dried out.
c. Do not make contact with a badly fitted windows and doors and see that they
are kept closed.
d. Do not stack against the wall. Always pile on the floor on wooden planks.
e. Do not forget to pile bags together.
f. Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in header and
stretcher fashion.
g. Do not take cement from one tier. Step back to three or four tiers.
h. Do not keep dead storage.
i. Do not keep bags on the grounds for temporary storage at work site. Pile on
raised dry platform and cover with tarpaulin or Polythene sheets.
4. Field Examination of Cement
a. If one’s hand is plunged into a bag of cement he should feel cool and
not warm.
b. When a handful of cement is thrown into a bucket of water it would
not float but sink.
c. A thin paste of Portland cement with water should be felt sticky
between the fingers.
d. Reddish or blackish color of cement will indicate adulteration of
foreign materials.
e. The cement should be in form of impalpable powder.
f. The cement paste will give an earthy smell.
g. A thick paste of cement with water on a glass plate, kept under water
for 24 hours, should not rack but set.
h. A bar 2.5cm x 2.5cm – 20cm long made of cement and after seven
days immersion in water should not show any sign of failure, if it is
placed on supports 15 cm apart and loaded with 34 kg.
i. Initial setting time may be observed in the field by preparing a thin
cement paste in a ware and inserting a very thin stick or wire into it
after 30 minutes. If the paste resist penetration of the stick or the
wire, the quality of cement may be ensured.
5. Field Test of Cement
Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at site

within a very short period of time for evaluating the condition of the
supplied cement. In most of the case it is not possible to have any
laboratory test in short period of time. Therefore, quality check is
performed with the help of some basic field tests. Although these tests
are not very accurate, they provide some basic idea to the civil engineer
regarding the quality of the cement.
a. Date of Manufacturing. As the strength of cement reduces with age, the
date of manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.
b. Cement Color. The color of cement should be uniform. It should be
typical cement color i.e. grey color with a light greenish shade.
c. Presence of Lumps. Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such lumps
are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
d. Temperature inside Cement Bag. If the hand is plunged into a bag of
cement, it should be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction
takes place inside the bag, it will become warm.
e. Smoothness Test. When cement is touched or rubbed in between
fingers, it should give smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates
adulteration with sand.
f. Water Sinking Test. If a small quantity of cement is thrown to the water,
it should float some time before finally sinking.
g. Smell of Cement Paste. A thin paste of cement with water should feel
sticky between the fingers. If the cement contains too much pounded
clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
h. Block Test. A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with
water is made. The block is then immersed under water for three days.
After removing, it is supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg
uniformly placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure the cement is good.
6. Proper Storage of Materials Used in Concrete Operation
The storage of cement should be ensuring completely the dry

condition and protection from moisture. Aggregates should be stacked in
such a manner that its size and grading is not disturbed.
a. Storing of aggregates should be done in such a way as to:
• Maintain the uniformity of grading

• Prevent segregation
• Maintain uniform surface water condition
• Avoid mixing of harmful material in the aggregates
b. Precaution for maintaining uniformity of grading:
• Hard and dry patch of ground should be selected for storing of the aggregate. If
a hard surface is not available, provide a platform of planks, G.I. sheets, floor of
bricks or a weak concrete layer.
• The aggregates of various sizes should be kept separately. Piles of sand and
coarse aggregate should be kept separate.
c. Precaution for prevention of segregation:
• During stock piling successive consignments should not be dropped on the
same place to form a pyramid. It will lead to segregation i.e. the coarse material
rolls down the sides of piles and fine material will concentrate in the center.
• The aggregates should be placed in layer not thicker than one truck dumped at
same place.
• The aggregates should not fall from a height while being transported and
dumped.
• The pile should be as near as possible to the mixer to avoid greater distance of
transportation.
d. Precaution for preserving uniformity of moisture content:
• The area occupied by each pile should be as large as possible. The

height of pile should be from 1.25m to 1.75 m.
• The pile should be allowed to stand for 24 hours at least before
being used so that the moisture has time to settle.
• In the case of sand, the bottom layer (last 300mm) should not be
used as the bottom layer becomes saturated with water.
e. Precaution for cleanliness of aggregates:
The piles of aggregates should be kept clean of leaves, vegetable

debris, animal refuse etc.
f. Storage of cement
Cement is a finely ground material. It is highly hygroscopic. It absorbs
moisture which may be in the form of free water. An absorption of 1% to
2% of water has no effect, but further amount of absorption reduces the
strength of cement. If the absorption exceeds 5% the cement is, for all
ordinary purposes ruined. During the storing and transporting of cement,
care is always taken to keep it away from moisture.
g. Storing of water
Water is stored at site in a masonry tank built for the purpose or in the
other clean containers. The walls of the tank should be somewhat higher
than the surrounding ground. Sufficient quantity of water should be
stored in advance to ensure the continuity of concreting operations. If
water obtained from a source contains dust etc. it should be collected a
day in advance to allow such suspended impurities to settle down before
use.
7. Principles of Concrete Placement
a. Segregation. Avoid segregation during all operations.
b. Consolidation. Thoroughly consolidate the concrete.
c. Bonding. Make sure that the bond develops.
d. Temperature Control. Protect the concrete from temperature extremes
after placement.
e. Maximum Drop. If the free fall into the form is less than 4 feet, use
vertical pipes.
f. Layer Thickness. Place concrete in even horizontal layers. Place each
layer in one operation and consolidate it before placing the next layer
to prevent honeycombs. Layer thickness depends on the type of
construction.
g. Compacting. Place concrete into its final position as nearly as possible.
Then work the concrete thoroughly around reinforcement and
imbedded fixtures, into the corners, and against the sides of the forms.
h. Placing Rate. The filling rate should not exceed 4 vertical feet per hour,
except for columns. Coordinate the placing and compacting so that the
concrete is not deposited faster than it can be compacted properly.
i. Wall Construction. Place the first batches of each layer at the end of the
section, then proceed toward the center to prevent water from
collecting at the form ends and corner.
j. Slab Construction. When constructing slabs place the concrete at the far
end of the slab first, and then place subsequent batches against
previously placed concrete. Do not deposit concrete in piles and then
move them horizontally to their final position. These may cause
segregation.
k. Placing Concrete on Slope. Place the concrete at the bottom of the slope
then proceed up the slope.
8. Methods in Determining the Consistency and Workability of Concrete
a. Slump Test of Concrete Mixture
The most well-known and widely use test method to characterize the
workability of fresh concrete. The concrete slump test measures the
consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It can also be used as an
indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is popular due to the
simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. The slump test is used
to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field conditions.
Instruments for slump test: Slump Cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm
bottom diameter x 300 mm high) it is actually a frustum of a cone. Small
scoop, Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16mm diameter), Ruler and Slump
plate (500 mm x 500 mm).
Testing Procedure:
• Clean the cone and place the cone on the slump plate; make sure that
the slump plate is clean, level and non-absorbent.
• Collect the sample and stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill the cone
up to one-third of its volume with the mix sample. Compact the
concrete by rodding 25 times.
• Now fill it up to two-thirds and rod again 25 times, just into the top
layer of the first layer.
• Fill it up until it overflows.
• Level the surface using the steel rod with a rolling action. Clean any
concrete from around the base and top of the cone.
• Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
• Turn the cone upside down near the sample and pace the rod across
the up-turned cone.
• Measure how far the concrete sinks or slumps.
Types of Slump
• Collapse Slump. The concrete collapses completely. A collapse slump will generally
mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test
is not appropriate.
• Shear Slump. In this type, the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips
sideways or if one-half of the cone slides down an inclined plane, the slump is said to
be a shear slump. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be
taken and the test is repeated and if the shear slump persists, as may the case with
harsh mixes, this is an indication of lack of cohesion of the mix.
• True Slump. In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to
shape. This is the only slump which is used in various tests. Mixes of stiff consistence
have a Zero slump, so that in the rather dry range no variation can be detected
between mixes of different workability.
• Zero Slump. Zero slumps is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which
results in dry mixes. This type of concrete is generally used for road construction.
Relation between Consistency and Slump Values
Slump (mm) 0-20 20-40 40-120 120-200 200-220
Consistency Dry Stiff Plastic Wet Sloppy

b. Slump Flow Concrete Test
Flow table test also known as the slump-flow test, is a method to
determine consistency of fresh concrete mixture. It is also used to identify
transportable moisture limit of solid bulk cargoes. It is used primarily for
assessing concrete that is too fluid (workable) to be measured using
the slump test method, because the concrete will not retain its shape
when the cone is removed.
𝐃𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝒄𝒎 −𝟐𝟓
Formula: 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 % = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟓
Percent of Flow 0-20 20-60 60-100 100-120 120-150

Consistency Dry Stiff Plastic Wet Sloppy
c. Ball Penetration Test (ASTM C360)
It is another method used in the field and laboratory to measure the consistency
of concrete. It is also known as the Kelly ball test. The advantage of this test is that it
can be conducted directly on the concrete in site (in a form, a hopper, and
wheelbarrow), there is no need for filling and rodding a container. This means that the
test can be completed faster than with a slump test and will yield more precise
results.
d. Compacting Factor Test
It was developed by Glanville and it measures the degree of compaction for the
standard amount of work and thus offers a direct and reasonably reliable assessment
of the workability of concrete.
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆
Formula: 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝑭𝑪 =
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆
Note:
For the normal range of concrete the compacting factor lies between 0.8 – 0.92.
Workability Slump (mm) C.F. Uses
Very Low 0-25 0.78 Roads-Pavements

Foundations
Low 25-50 0.85
Concrete
Medium 25-100 0.92 Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
High 100-175 0.95 (High
Reinforcement)
e. VE-BE TEST
This method is suitable for dry concrete having very low workability. It
is based on measuring the time (Called VEBE time) needed to transfer the
shape of a concrete mix from a frustum cone to a cylinder (these shapes
are standardized by the apparatus of this test), by vibrating and
compacting the mix. The more VEBE time needed the less workable the
mix is.
Note: The test fails if VEBE Time is less than 5 seconds. And the test must
be created when no collapse or shears slump in concrete.
g. Removal of Formworks
The hardening of concrete depends upon the temperature of

atmosphere and hence, removal of formwork will have to be decided
according to the temperature. When temperature above 20°C and ordinary
cement has been used for concreting, formwork may be removed after
period as given in the table.
If place of ordinary cement, rapid hardening cement has been used, the
forms can be removed after 3/7 time given in table. However, it should be
retained for at least 24 hours for vertical sides of beam, slabs and columns.
Formworks Removal Time
Columns, walls, vertical sides of beams and slabs 1-2 days
Slabs when props are left in position 3 days
Beam soffits, when props are left in position 7 days
For slabs spanning up to 4.5m, removal of props may be after 7 days
For slabs spanning more than 4.5m, removal of props may be 14 days
after
For beams up to 6m, span props can be removed after 14 days
For beams more than 6m span props can be removed after 21 days
h. Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strength test is the test most commonly performed
on hardened concrete. The compressive strength of normal-weight
concrete is between 20 MPa to 40 MPa. The test is performed on
cylindrical specimens and is standardized by ASTM C39. The specimen is
prepared, either in the lab or field, according to ASTM C192 or C31,
respectively. The standard specimen size is 0.15 m in diameter and 0.3
meter high, although other sizes with a height-diameter ratio of two can
also be used. The diameter of the specimen must be at least three times
the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate in the concrete.
Procedure:
• Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and
wipe out excess water from the surface.
• Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m.
• Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
• Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load
shall be applied to the opposite sides.
• Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
• Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top
surface of the specimen.
• Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate
of 140 kg/cm /minute till the specimen fails
• Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type
of failure.
Compressive strength of concrete at various ages: Table shows the
strength of concrete at different ages in comparison with the strength at
28 days after casting.
Age Strength Percent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
References:
Jr., 1999

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Construction Materials and Testing

Unit 7: Familiarization with the Parts and Functions/Uses of the

A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to determine the

Unit 8: Testing of Wood Samples for Bending, Compression,

1. Description of Wood or Timber

Unlike many building materials, wood is not a processed material but

The wood that are classified as good lumber used in building

a. Physical Properties of Wood

a. Bending or Flexural Testing of Wood

Bending test is performed to determine the elastic

Bending or Flexural Testing

The determination of the measurement

The shearing strength of the wood is

Shearing Testing Machine

Tensile strength tests of wood are conducted

Tensile Testing Machine

The moisture content of wood varies from 8%

Unit 9: Determine the Compressive Strength of Concrete Hollow Blocks

1. Description of Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)

Minimum Compressive Strength

a. Sample selections from unit samples to ensure the results of the

a. Sample specimens age must be twenty eight (28) days.

1. Description of Portland Cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use

Name Chemical formula Abbreviation

Hydration starts as soon as the cement and water are mixed.

Each compound produces different products when it hydrates.

Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A). Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates

Dicalcium Silicate (C2S). Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely

a. Ordinary Portland Cement (Type I)

b. Moderate Sulfate Resistance(Type II)

Strength developed in standard mortar cube after 3 days is of the same

e. Sulphate Resisting Cement (Type V)

Slag is a waste product in the manufacture of steel. It is a mixture of

h. Super Sulphated Cement

j. High Alumina Cement , also known as HAC

Type Classification Characteristics Applications

Types II and V OPC are designed to be resistant to sulfate

C4AF is comparatively inactive and contributes little to the strength of

a. For Specimen Preparation:

 Prepare a cement paste by mixing with the required amount of water

a. For Initial Setting Time:

Trial No. Setting Time (second) Penetration (mm)

b. For Final Setting Time:

Trial No. Setting Time (second) Penetration (mm)

Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials.

Steel is an excellent partner of concrete in providing tensile strength

Classification of Steel Carbon Content (%)

a. Mild Steel also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile,

Classification of Maximum Compressive Maximum Tensile

a. The test specimen shall conform to the requirements for tensile as

Field testing is a process that involves inspection and testing of

1. Inspection of the Information Available on a Standard Cement Bag

a. Stepping of Tiers while Removing Cement Bags

While working out the inside dimensions of a cement go-down for

Length of Cement bags: 70 cm (average)

Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at site

The storage of cement should be ensuring completely the dry

a. Storing of aggregates should be done in such a way as to:

• Maintain the uniformity of grading

• The area occupied by each pile should be as large as possible. The

e. Precaution for cleanliness of aggregates:

The piles of aggregates should be kept clean of leaves, vegetable

a. Slump Test of Concrete Mixture