ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
Prepared by: Dr. Roshayati Abdul Hamid
 Speaker’s
Profile
Email: wanrose@ukm.edu.my
Phone Number: 017-2125506
Dr. Roshayati binti Abdul Hamid
https://ukmsarjana.ukm.my/main/lihat_profil/SzAxNjE4Nw==
Research CentreValue Creation
and HumanWell-being
Faculty of Economics and Management
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
 The objective of this course is to give exposure to
the key aspects of employee behavior in the
organization at the individual and group levels.

At the end of this training, participants will be able to:

• Identify the concepts and theories of employee behavior

in organizations for smoothen organizational
management.
• Examines organizational behavior issues at the individual
and group levels within the organization.
• Select alternative solutions related to employee behavior
issues in ensuring the effectiveness of organizational
management.
Introduction
 Organization

People

System Goals
 What is Organization?

What is Organization?
• Organization is a systematic arrangement of people to
accomplish some specific purpose.
• Every organization is composed of three elements i.e.
people, goals (purpose) and system.
• There are a variety types of organizations, including
corporations, governments, non-governmental
organizations, international organizations, armed forces,
charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships,
cooperatives, universities, and various types of political
organizations.
HOW? Introduction
Attitude & Behavior
 Attitude & Behavior

• Difference between Attitude and Behavior.

• Attitude is how you feel and what you say.
Behavior is how you act.
Human’s Attitude
 What is Organizational Behavior?

The field of study devoted to:

UNDERSTANDING, EXPLAINING, IMPROVING
the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in organizations.

WHY individuals in organizations ACT the way they do.

 Why??
Employee’s Behavior

Employee’s Performance

Organizational Performance
Integrative Model of Organizational Behavior

• Individual Outcomes
• Job performance (Chapter 2)
• Organizational commitment (Chapter 3)
• Individual Mechanisms
• Job satisfaction (Chapter 4)
• Stress (Chapter 5)
• Motivation (Chapter 6)
• Trust, justice, and ethics (Chapter 7)
• Learning and decision making (Chapter 8)
Integrative Model of Organizational Behavior

• Individual Characteristics
• Personality and cultural values (Chapter 9)
• Ability (Chapter 10)
• Group Mechanisms
• Teams: characteristics and diversity (Chapter 11)
• Teams: processes and communication
(Chapter 12)
• Leadership: power and negotiation (Chapter 13)
• Leadership: styles and behaviors (Chapter 14)
 Organizational Behavior Foundation
Theories and concepts in OB are drawn from a wide variety
of disciplines:
• Industrial and organizational psychology
• Job performance and individual characteristics
• Social psychology
• Satisfaction, emotions, and team processes
• Sociology
• Team characteristics and organizational structure
• Economics
• Motivation, learning, and decision making
 Does Organizational Behavior Matter?

• Resource-based view model (RBV) by Barney (1991).

• RBV sees resources as key to superior firm performance.
• Financial resources (revenue, equity)
• Physical resources (buildings, machines, technology)
• Knowledge, decision-making, culture, ability, wisdom
• Image, goodwill

EMPLOYEES
 What Makes A Resource Important?

• Valuable - they enable a firm to implement

strategies that improve its efficiency and
effectiveness.
• Rare - not available to other competitors.
• Imperfectly imitable - not easily implemented by
others.
• Non-substitutable - not able to be replaced by
some other non-rare resource.
Integrative Model of OB
 How to Measure?

JOB PERFORMANCE

ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE

EMPLOYEE
COMMITMENT
Job
Performance
 Job Performance

Job performance is the value of the set of

employee behaviors that contribute, either
positively or negatively, to organizational goal
accomplishment.

TASK PERFORMANCE: CONTEXTUAL

Behavior within work PERFORMANCE:
responsibility Behaviors that
contributing good
environment
 Task Performance

v Routine task performance involves well-known responses to

demands that occur in a normal, routine, or otherwise
predictable way.
v Adaptive task performance, or more commonly “adaptability,”
involves employee responses to task demands that are novel,
unusual, or, at the very least, unpredictable.
v Creative task performance is the degree to which individuals
develop ideas or physical outcomes that are both novel and
useful.
Behaviors Involved in Adaptability
 Job Analysis

• Many organizations identify task performance

behaviors by conducting a job analysis.
• A list of the activities involved in a job is generated.
• Observation, interview, survey
• Each activity on this list is rated by “subject matter
experts” according to things like the importance and
frequency of the activity.
• The activities that are rated highly in terms of their
importance and frequency are retained and used to
define task performance.
Performance Review Form
Men’s Wearhouse
 Contextual Performance

POSITIVE BEHAVIOR NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR

PERFORMER PERFORMER
Contextual Performance – Citizenship Behavior

Citizenship Behavior/Extra-mile Behavior - voluntary

employee activities that may or may not be rewarded
but that contribute to the organization by improving the
overall quality of the setting in which work takes place.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Interpersonal Citizenship Behavior

Voice Helping
Civic Virtue Courtesy
Boosterism Sportsmanship
Contextual Performance – Citizenship Behavior

Behaviors that benefit coworkers and colleagues and involve

assisting, supporting, and developing other organizational
members in a way that goes beyond normal job expectations.
Helping involves assisting coworkers who have heavy
workloads, etc.
Courtesy refers to keeping coworkers informed about matters
that are relevant to them.
Sportsmanship involves maintaining a good attitude with
coworkers, even when they’ve done something annoying.
Contextual Performance – Citizenship Behavior

Behaviors that benefit the larger organization by supporting and

defending the company, working to improve its operations, and
being especially loyal to it.
Voice involves speaking up and offering constructive suggestions
for change.
Civic virtue requires participating in the company’s operations at
a deeper-than-normal level.
Boosterism means representing the organization in a positive
way when out in public, away from the office, and away from
work.
Contextual Performance - Counterproductive Behavior

Counterproductive behaviors are employee negative

behaviors that intentionally hinder organizational goal
accomplishment.

Property Deviance

Production Deviance

Political Deviance

Personal Aggression
Counterproductive Behavior
 Counterproductive Behaviors

Counterproductive behaviors are employee behaviors that

intentionally hinder organizational goal accomplishment.
v Property deviance refers to behaviors that harm the
organization’s assets and possessions.
v Production deviance is also directed against the organization
but focuses specifically on reducing the efficiency of work
output.
v Political deviance refers to behaviors that intentionally
disadvantage other individuals rather than the larger
organization.
v Personal aggression refers to hostile verbal and physical actions
directed toward other employees.
 Property Deviance

• Sabotage represents the purposeful destruction

of physical equipment, organizational processes,
or company products.

• Theft represents another form of property

deviance and can be just as expensive as
sabotage (if not more).
 Production Deviance

• Wasting resources is the most common form of

production deviance, when employees use too
many materials or too much time to do too little
work.
• Working too slowly, taking too many breaks
• Substance abuse is the abuse of drugs or
alcohol before coming to work or while on the
job.
• Compromises efficiency
 Political Deviance

• Gossiping is having casual conversations about

other people in which the facts are not confirmed
as true.
• Undermines morale
• Incivility represents communication that is rude,
impolite, discourteous, and lacking in good
manners.
 Personal Aggression

• Harassment occurs when employees are

subjected to unwanted physical contact or
verbal remarks from a colleague.

• Abuse occurs when an employee is assaulted

or endangered in such a way that physical and
psychological injuries may occur.
Organizational
Commitment
 Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment
is defined as the desire on the
part of an employee to remain
a member of the organization.

vs
Withdrawal behavior
is defined as a set of actions
that employees perform to
avoid the work situation—
behaviors that may eventually
culminate in quitting the
organization.
Organizational Commitment vs. Employee
Withdrawal
 Types of Commitment

Affective commitment – a desire to remain a member of an

organization due to an emotional attachment to, and
involvement with, that organization.
You stay because you want to.
Continuance commitment - a desire to remain a member of
an organization because of an awareness of the costs
associated with leaving it.
You stay because you need to.
Normative commitment - a desire to remain a member of
an organization due to a feeling of obligation.
You stay because you ought to.
Types of Commitment
 Affective Commitment

Employees who feel a sense of affective commitment

identify with the organization, accept that organization’s
goals and values, and are more willing to exert extra effort
on behalf of the organization.
“She’s committed”
“He’s loyal”
 Social Network & Affective Commitment

The erosion model suggests that

employees with fewer bonds will
be most likely to quit the
organization.

The social influence model

suggests that employees who
have direct linkages with
“leavers” will themselves
become more likely to leave.
 Continuance Commitment

Continuance commitment exists when there is a profit

associated with staying and a cost associated with leaving.
Tends to create a more passive form of loyalty.
Increases to continuance commitment:
Total amount of investment (in terms of time, effort,
energy, etc.) an employee has made in mastering his
work role or fulfilling his organizational duties.
Lack of employment alternatives
Embeddedness & Continuance Commitment
 Normative Commitment

Normative commitment exists when there is a sense that

staying is the “right” or “moral” thing to do.
The sense that people should stay with their current
employers may result from personal work philosophies or
more general codes of right and wrong developed over the
course of their lives.
Build a sense of obligation-based commitment among
employees:
Create a feeling that the employee is in the organization’s
debt
Becoming a particularly charitable organization
 Psychological & Physical Withdrawal

Psychological withdrawal Physical withdrawal

consists of actions that provide a consists of actions that provide a
mental escape from the work physical escape, from the work
environment. environment.
• Daydreaming • Tardiness
• Socializing • Long Break
• Looking Busy • Missing Meeting
• Moonlighting • Absenteeism
• Cyberloafing • Quitting
 Psychological Withdrawal
Psychological withdrawal consists of actions that provide a
mental escape from the work environment. (“warm-chair
attrition”)

Daydreaming - when an employee appears to be working but is

actually distracted by random thoughts or concerns.
Socializing - verbal chatting about non-work topics that goes on
in cubicles and offices or at the mailbox or vending machines.
Looking busy - intentional desire on the part of the employee to
look like he or she is working, even when not performing work
tasks.
Moonlighting - using work time and resources to complete
something other than their job duties, such as assignments for
another job.
Cyberloafing - using Internet, e-mail, and instant messaging
access for their personal enjoyment rather than work duties.
 Physical Withdrawal
Physical withdrawal consists of actions that provide a physical
escape, whether short term or long term, from the work
environment.

Tardiness - the tendency to arrive at work late (or leave

work early).
Long breaks involve longer-than-normal lunches, soda
breaks, coffee breaks, and so forth that provide a physical
escape from work.
Missing meetings - employees neglect important work
functions while away from the office.
Absenteeism occurs when employees miss an entire day of
work.
Quitting - voluntarily leaving the organization.
 Types of Employees

Organizational Commitment
STARS CITIZENS

High
Low
LONE WOLVES APATHETICS

High Low

Task Performance
 Types of Employees
High
STARS CITIZENS

Organizational Commitment
Active and Constructive Passive and Constructive
Respond with VOICE Respond with LOYALTY

LONE WOLVES APATHETICS

Active and Destructive Passive and Destructive
Respond with EXIT Respond with NEGLECT

Low
High Low
Task Performance
Task Performance & Organizational Commitment

Stars possess high commitment and high performance and are held up
as role models for other employees.
Likely respond to negative events with voice

Citizens possess high commitment and low task performance but

perform many of the voluntary “extra-role” activities that are needed
to make the organization function smoothly.
Likely to respond to negative events with loyalty
Task Performance & Organizational Commitment

Lone wolves possess low levels of organizational commitment but

high levels of task performance and are motivated to achieve work
goals for themselves, not necessarily for their company.
Likely to respond to negative events with exit

Apathetics possess low levels of both organizational commitment

and task performance and merely exert the minimum level of effort
needed to keep their jobs.
Respond to negative events with neglect
 Job
Satisfaction
 Individual Mechanism

JOB
SATISFACTION JOB
PERFORMANCE
ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
EMPLOYEE
COMMITMENT
LEARNING
 Job Satisfaction

It represents how you feel about your

job and what you think about your job.
Why Are Some Employees More Satisfied
Than Others?

At a general level, employees are satisfied when their

job provides the things that they value.
Commonly Assessed Work Values
 Value-percept Theory

• People evaluate job satisfaction according to specific

“facets” of the job.

Satisfaction = (Vwant - Vhave) (Vimportance)

Vwant: reflects how much of a value an

employee wants
Vhave: indicates how much of that value the
job supplies
Vimportance: reflects how important the value is to
the employee
The Value-percept Theory of Job Satisfaction
 Value-percept Theory
• Pay satisfaction

• Promotion satisfaction

• Supervision satisfaction

• Coworker satisfaction

• Satisfaction with the work itself

Correlations Between Satisfaction Facets and
Overall Job Satisfaction
 Critical Psychological States

• Meaningfulness of work – The degree to which work

tasks are viewed as something that ‘counts’ in the
employee’s system of philosophies and beliefs
• Responsibility for outcomes – The degree to which the
employees feel that they’re the key drivers of the quality
of the unit’s work.
• Knowledge of results – The extent to which employees
know how well or how poor they’re doing.

What type of tasks create these psychological

states?
Job Characteristics Theory
 Job Characteristics Theory
• Variety – The degree to which the job requires a number of
different activities involve a number of different skills and
talents.
• Identity – The degree to which the job requires completing a
whole, identifiable, piece of work from beginning to end with
visible outcome.
• Significance – The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives of other people.
• Autonomy – The degree to which the job provides freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual performing the
work.
• Feedback – The degree to which carrying out the activities
required by the job provides employee with clear information
about how well they’re performing.
 Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is the

process of using the five
items in the job
characteristics model to
create more satisfaction.
 Moods and Emotions

• Job satisfaction reflects what you think and feel

about your job.
• A satisfied employee feels good about his or her
job on average.

Mood
States of feeling that are often
mild in intensity, last for an
extended period of time, and
are not explicitly directed at or
caused by anything
Emotions
States of feeling that are often
intense, last for only a few
minutes, and clearly directed at
and caused by someone or some
circumstances.
Hour-by-hour Fluctuations in Job
Satisfaction During the Workday
Different Kinds of Mood
 Moods and Emotions

• Emotions – An individual assessment of an event or

situation
• Positive emotions – Pleasant moments create
positive emotions
• Negative emotions – Unpleasant moments create
negative emotions
• Emotional labor - the process of managing feelings and
expressions to fulfil the emotional requirements of a job
• Emotional contagion - Can be shared across
individuals in different ways either implicitly or explicitly.
Plutchik’s
Wheel of
Emotions
Why Are Some Employees More Satisfied Than Others?
 How Important is Satisfaction?

Job satisfaction does influence job performance.

Job satisfaction is correlated moderately with

citizenship behavior.

Job satisfaction influences organizational

commitment.
Effects of Job Satisfaction on Performance and
Commitment
 Learning
and Decision
Making
 Learning and Decision Making

Learning reflects relatively permanent changes in an

employee’s knowledge or skill that result from experience.
The more employees learn, the more they bring to the table
when they come to work.

Decision making refers to the process of generating and

choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.
The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the
more likely they are to make accurate and sound
decisions.

Expertise refers to the knowledge and skills that

distinguish experts from novices and less
experienced people.
 Types of Knowledge

EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE TACIT KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge that is easy to Knowledge gained from
articulate, write down, and personal experience that is
share. more difficult to express.

IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE
The application of explicit
knowledge. Skills that are
transferable from one job to
another are one example of
implicit knowledge.
Characteristics of Explicit and Tacit Knowledge
 Methods of Learning
• We learn through reinforcement (rewards and
punishment), observation, and experience.
• Operant conditioning says that we learn by
observing the link between our voluntary behavior
and the consequences that follow it.
Contingencies of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement and
extinction should be the
most common forms of
reinforcement used by
managers to create
learning among their
employees.
 Contingencies of Reinforcement

• Two contingencies used to increase desired behaviors:

• Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive outcome follows a
desired behavior.
• Praise
• Negative reinforcement occurs when an unwanted outcome is
removed following a desired behavior.
• Get yelled at
• Two contingencies used to decrease undesired behaviors:
• Punishment occurs when an unwanted outcome follows an
unwanted behavior.
• Warning letter
• Extinction occurs when there is the removal of a consequence
following an unwanted behavior.
• Cut salary
 Learning Through Observation

• Social learning theory argues that people in

organizations have the ability to learn through the
observation of others.

• Behavioral modeling happens when employees

observe the actions of others, learn from what they
observe, and then repeat the observed behavior.
The Modeling Process
 Goal Orientation

• Learning orientation - where building competence is

deemed more important than demonstrating competence.
• Enjoy working on new kinds of tasks, even if they fail
during their early experiences.
• View failure in positive terms—as a means of increasing
knowledge and skills in the long run.

• Performance-prove orientation focus on demonstrating

their competence so that others think favorably of them.

• Performance-avoid orientation focus on demonstrating

competence so that others will not think poorly of them.
Decision Making
 Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making

choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative
resolutions.

Using a step-by-step decision-making process

can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information
and defining alternatives.
 Methods of Decision Making

PROGRAMMED DECISIONS are decisions that become

somewhat automatic because a person’s knowledge
allows him or her to recognize and identify a situation
and the course of action that needs to be taken.

Intuition can be described Intuitive decision making is

perhaps never more
as emotionally charged
important than it is during a
judgments that arise crisis.
through quick, A crisis situation is a change—
nonconscious, and holistic whether sudden or evolving—that
associations. results in an urgent problem that
must be addressed immediately.
 Methods of Decision Making

When a situation arises that is new, complex and not

recognized, it calls for a NONPROGRAMMED DECISION
on the part of the employee.

As employees move up the corporate

ladder, a larger percentage of their
decisions become less and less
programmed.
 Methods of Decision Making

RATIONAL DECISION-MAKING MODEL offers a step-by-

step approach to making decisions that maximize
outcomes by examining all available alternatives.
Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions
Decision Making
Rational Decision Making vs. Bounded Rationality
 Decision-making Problems

Limited Information
Bounded rationality is the notion that decision makers
simply do not have the ability or resources to process all
available information and alternatives to make an optimal
decision.

Satisficing results when decision makers select the first

acceptable alternative considered.
 Decision-making Problems

Faulty Perceptions
Selective perception is the tendency for people to see their
environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with
their expectations.

Projection bias is the belief that others think, feel, and act the
same way they do.

Social identity theory holds that people identify themselves by

the groups to which they belong and perceive and judge others
by their group memberships.

Stereotype occurs when people make assumptions about

others on the basis of their membership in a social group.
 Decision-making Problems

Faulty Attributions
The fundamental attribution error argues that people have a
tendency to judge others’ behaviors as due to internal factors.

The self-serving bias occurs when we attribute our own

failures to external factors and our own successes to internal
factors.

Attribution Process
• Consensus: Did others act the same way under similar situations?
• Distinctiveness: Does this person tend to act differently in other
circumstances?
• Consistency: Does this person always do this when performing this task?
• An internal attribution will occur if there is low consensus, low distinctiveness,
and high consistency.
• An external attribution will occur if there is high consensus, high
distinctiveness, and low consistency.
Consensus, Distinctiveness and Consistency
 Decision-making Problems

Escalation of commitment refers to the decision to

continue to follow a failing course of action.
People have a tendency, when presented with a series of
decisions, to escalate their commitment to previous
decisions, even in the face of obvious failures.
Why Do Some Employees Learn To Make Decisions
Better Than Others?
Stress
 Individual Mechanism

STRESS
JOB
PERFORMANCE
ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
EMPLOYEE
COMMITMENT
MOTIVATION
 S
TENSIO
N STRES

ANXIETY

SION
RES
P
DE
 Stress

In psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events

or environments that individuals might consider
demanding, challenging, and/or threatening individual
safety

Stress is your body's reaction to a

challenge or demand

Strains is caused by stress

 Stress Symptoms

• Becoming easily frustrated, and moody

• Feeling overwhelmed, like you are losing control or need to
take control
• Having difficulty relaxing and quieting your mind
• Feeling bad about yourself (low self-esteem), lonely and
worthless
• Avoiding others

EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS
 Stress Symptoms

• Racing thoughts
• Forgetfulness and disorganization
• Inability to focus
• Poor judgment
• Being pessimistic or seeing only the negative side

COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS
 Stress Symptoms

• Low energy
• Headaches
• Upset stomach, including diarrhea
• Aches, pains, and tense muscles
• Chest pain and rapid heartbeat
• Insomnia
• Frequent colds and infections
• Nervousness and shaking, ringing in the ear, cold or sweaty hands
and feet
• Dry mouth and difficulty swallowing
• Clenched jaw and grinding teeth

PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS
Why Are Some Employees
More “Stressed” Than
Others?

When people first encounter

stressors, the process of primary
appraisal is triggered. It occurs as
people evaluate the significance and
the meaning of the stressors they
are confronting.
 Transactional Theory of Stress

STRESSOR

Primary Appraisal

Threat No Threat
Perceived Perceived

Secondary Appraisal

Coping Coping NO STRESS

Possibilities Possibilities Not (Benign Job
Perceived Perceived Demands)

EUSTRESS DISTRESS
(+ve) (-ve)
Transactional Theory of Stress
 Work Hindrance Stressors
• Role conflict – Conflicting expectations that other people
may have of us.

• Role ambiguity – Lack of information about what need to be

done in a role, as well as unpredictability regarding the
consequences of performance in the role.

• Role overload – The number of demanding roles a person

holds is so high that the person simply cannot perform some
or all of the roles effectively.

• Daily hassles – The relatively minor day-to-day demands

that get in the way of accomplishing the things that we really
want to accomplish.
 Work Challenge Stressors

• Time pressure – A strong sense that the amount of time have

to a task is not quite enough

• Work complexity – The degree to which the requirements of

the work, in terms of knowledge, skills, and abilities exceed
the capabilities of a person.

• Work responsibility – The nature of the obligations that a

person has toward others.
 Nonwork Hindrance Stressors

• Work–family conflict – A special form of role conflict in

which the demands of a work hinder the fulfillment of the
demands of a family role (vice-versa)

• Negative life events – Hinder the ability to achieve life

goals and are associated with negative emotions.

• Financial uncertainty - Conditions that create uncertainties

with regard to the loss of the ability to pay expenses.
 Nonwork Challenge Stressors

• Family time demands – Time that a person commits to

participate in an array of family activities and responsibilities

• Personal development – Participation in formal education,

sports-related training, hobby-related self education,
volunteer work etc.

• Positive life events – Associated with more positive, rather

that negative emotions
Coping Stress
How Do People Cope With Stressors?
 Experience of Strain

Psych
ologic
rains al stra
l st ins
ologica
i
Phys

Behavioral strains
Type A Behavior Individual

• Type A Behavior Pattern

• Have a strong sense of time urgency and tend to be
impatient, hard-driving, competitive, controlling,
aggressive, and even hostile.
• May have a direct influence on the level of
stressors that a person confronts.
• Influences the stress process itself.
• Directly linked to coronary heart disease and other
physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains.
Motivation
Motivation?

Motivation is defined as a set of energetic

forces that originates both within and
outside an employee, initiates work-
related effort, and …………..
Motivation and Effort
 Motivation

Extrinsic motivation is Intrinsic motivation is

motivation that is motivation that is felt
controlled by some
when task performance
contingency that depends
serves as its own reward.
on task performance.
 Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory describes the cognitive

process that employees go through to make
choices among different responses.

Employee behavior is directed toward

pleasure and away from pain or, more
generally, toward certain outcomes and
away from others.
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy Theory

Expectancy represents Instrumentality Valence reflects the

the belief that exerting a represents the belief anticipated value of
high level of effort will that successful the outcomes
result in the successful performance will result associated with
performance of some in some outcome(s). performance
task. (abbreviated V).
Instrumentality is a set
Expectancy is a subjective of subjective Can be positive,
probability, ranging from probabilities, each negative, or zero
0 to 1 that a specific ranging from 0 to 1
amount of effort will that successful Outcomes are
result in a specific level of performance will bring deemed more
performance a set of outcomes attractive when
(abbreviated E → P). (abbreviated P → O). they help satisfy
NEEDS.
 Self-efficacy Source of Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is
defined as the belief
that a person has the
capabilities needed to
execute the behaviors
required for task
success.
Past accomplishments,
vicarious experiences,
verbal persuasion,
emotional cues
 Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory views goals as the primary

drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort.
Assigning employees specific and difficult goals
will result in higher levels of performance.
Goal Difficulty & Task Performance
Goal Setting Theory

Why do specific and

difficult goals have such
positive effects?

Assignment of a specific and difficult

goal shapes people’s own self-set goals
— the internalized goals that people
use to monitor their own task progress.
Goals trigger the creation of task
strategies, defined as learning plans
and problem-solving approaches used
to achieve successful performance.
 Goal Setting Theory

Moderators on Task Performance

Task complexity Goal commitment

reflects how is defined as the
Feedback consists of
updates on complicated the degree to which a
employee progress information and person accepts a
toward goal actions involved in a goal and is
attainment task are, as well as determined to try
how much the task to reach it
changes
Goal Setting Theory
Strategies for Fostering Goal Commitment
 Equity Theory

Equity theory acknowledges that motivation

doesn’t just depend on your own beliefs and
circumstances but also on what happens to other
people.

Employees create a “mental ledger” of the

outcomes (or rewards) they get from their
job duties.
 Equity Theory

You compare your ratio of outcomes and inputs to the ratio of

some comparison other — some person who seems to provide
an intuitive frame of reference for judging equity.

Cognitive
calculus: Ratio
of outcomes to My Outcomes vs. Other’s Outcomes
inputs is balanced My inputs Other’s Inputs
between you and
your comparison
other.
 Equity Theory
Cognitive Calculus
Your ratio of outcomes to
inputs is less than your
comparison other’s ratio.
Any imbalance in ratios
triggers equity distress —an
internal tension that can only
be alleviated by restoring
balance to the ratios.
Your ratio of outcomes
to inputs is greater than
your comparison other’s
ratio.
Change your comparison
other.
Internal versus external
comparisons
Some Outcomes and Inputs Considered by Equity Theory
Three Possible Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons
Judging Equity With Different Comparison Others
How to Motivate Millennials to Stay

Millennials Characteristics
 How to Motivate Millennials to Stay

CREATE A FRIENDLY & POSITIVE WORK

SUPPORTIVE LEADERSHIP
ENVIRONMENT

ACKNOWLEDGE EMPLOYEES’ EMPOWERMENT

ACHIEVEMENT

ATTRACTIVE BENEFITS PACKAGE ENCOURAGE TEAMWORK

ENCOURAGE CREATIVITY & WELCOME

IDEAS RECOGNIZE & REWARD

TRAINING & CAREER DEVELOPMENT KNOCK OUT BOREDOM

POSITIVE COMMUNICATION MEANINGFUL & WORTHWHILE GOAL

How do you keep yourself
motivated?

Video: “No Excuses”

 INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL
CHARACTERISTICS MECHANISM

PERSONALITY

STRESS
JOB
PERFORMANCE
ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
EMPLOYEE
COMMITMENT
MOTIVATION

ABILITY
PERSONALITY

ABILITY
Personality
Personality refers to the structures and propensities
inside a person that explain his or her characteristic
patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior.
The Big Five Personality
 Personality Determinants

Surrounding
How does personality Experiences
develop?

Genes
Changes in Big Five Dimensions Over The Life Span
v Conscientiousness has the biggest influence on job performance.
v Conscientious employees prioritize accomplishment striving
v Prioritize communion striving - strong desire to obtain acceptance in
personal relationships as a means of expressing personality.
v Agreeable people focus on “getting along,” not necessarily “getting
ahead.”
v Easiest to judge in zero acquaintance situations — situations in
which two people have only just met.

v Prioritize status striving — strong desire to obtain power and

influence within a social structure as a means of expressing
personality.

v Tend to be high in positive affectivity — a dispositional tendency to

experience pleasant, engaging moods such as enthusiasm,
excitement, and elation.
v Synonymous with negative affectivity —a dispositional tendency to
experience unpleasant moods such as hostility, nervousness, and annoyance.
v Associated with a differential exposure to stressors —neurotic people are
more likely to appraise day-to-day situations as stressful.
v Associated with a differential reactivity to stressors — neurotic people are
less likely to believe they can cope with the stressors
 Neuroticism – Locus of Control

Low Neurotic High Neurotic

External and Internal Locus of Control
 Typical Moods

Neuroticism Extraversion
v Openness to experience is also more likely to be valuable in
jobs that require high levels of creative performance.
v Highly open individuals are more likely to migrate into artistic
and scientific fields.
Proactive Personality
v Proactive personality as a dispositional construct capturing a self-starting
approach to work
v Reactive person is someone who only react; always ready to react but not
to act on own. React is to do something in response to something else.
Are you reactive or proactive?
 Proactive Personality

Proactive Personality Proactive Behavior

IMPORTANCE OF PROACTIVE BEHAVIOR

Complex and uncertain workplace Employees must use own initiative to
identify what needs to be done. If they wait
to be told, or follow only prescribed actions,
they will be both inefficient and ineffective.

Pressure for innovation Employees need to be willing to make

suggestions, try new ways of doing things,
and take responsibility for bringing about
change.

Changing career structures No “Job for life” - Employees need to take

charge of their careers and their work
performance.
 Other Taxonomies of Personality
• Holland’s RIASEC model suggests that interests
can be summarized by six different personality
types
• Realistic: Enjoy practical, hands-on, real-word tasks.
• Investigative: Enjoy abstract, analytical, theory-
oriented tasks.
• Artistic: Enjoy entertaining and fascinating others
using imagination.
• Social: Enjoy helping, serving, or assisting others.
• Enterprising: Enjoy persuading, leading, or
outperforming others.
• Conventional: Enjoy organizing, counting, or
regulating people or things.
Holland’s RIASEC Model
Ability
 Ability

Ability refers to the relatively stable capabilities people

have to perform a particular range of different but
related activities.
Cognitive abilities are capabilities related to the acquisition
and application of knowledge in problem solving.

Emotional intelligence refers to the capability of a person to

manage and control his or her emotions and possess
the ability to control the emotions of others as well. In
other words, they can influence the emotions of other
people too.

Physical ability is the capacity to do tasks that demand

stamina, desired, strength and similar characteristics
 lity
bi
e A
itiv
gn
Co

factor
 Verbal Ability

Verbal ability refers to various capabilities associated

with understanding and expressing oral and written
communication.

Oral comprehension is the ability to understand

spoken words and sentences.

Written comprehension is the ability to

understand written words and sentences.

Oral expression refers to the ability to

communicate ideas by speaking

Written expression refers to the ability to

communicate ideas in writing
 Quantitative Ability

Quantitative ability refers to two types of mathematical

capabilities.

Number facility is the capability to do simple

math operations (adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing).

Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability to

choose and apply formulas to solve problems
that involve numbers.
 Spatial Ability

Spatial ability refers to the capabilities associated with

visual and mental representation and manipulations of
objects in space.

Spatial orientation refers to having a good

understanding of where one is relative to other
things in the environment.

Visualization is the ability to imagine how

separate things will look if they were put
together in a particular way.
 Reasoning Ability

Reasoning ability is actually a diverse set of abilities

associated with sensing and solving problems using
insight, rules, and logic.

Problem Sensitivity is the ability to sense that

there’s a problem right now or likely will be one.

Deductive Reasoning refers to the use of general

rules to solve problems.

Inductive Reasoning refers to the ability to

consider several specific pieces of information
and then reach a more general conclusion.

Originality refers to the ability to develop clever

and novel ways to solve problems.
 Perceptual Ability

Perceptual ability generally refer to being able to

perceive, understand, and recall patterns of information.

Speed and Flexibility refers to being able to pick

out a pattern of information quickly in the
presence of distracting information, even
without all the information present.

Perceptual Speed refers to being able to

examine and compare numbers, letters, and
objects quickly.
Emotional Ability
The World Economic Forum (2016) ranked emotional intelligence sixth in the top
ten skills employees need by 2020 to succeed in the future workplace
 Emotional intelligence human ability that
affects social functioning.

Motivation is
Self-awareness Ability the process that
of an individual to Self-regulation initiates, guides,
understand the types being able to and maintains
of emotions he or she recover quickly from goal-oriented
is experiencing, the emotional behaviours
willingness to experiences.
acknowledge them, Empathy is the
capacity to
and the capability to
express them understand or feel
naturally. what another person
Social Skill ability to is experiencing from
recognize and within their frame of
understand the reference, that is, the
emotions that other capacity to place
people are feeling. oneself in another's
position.
 Emotional Intelligence – Low vs High

People With Low EQ

People With High EQ • Play the role of the
• Make better decisions victim or avoid taking
and solve problems responsibility for errors
• Keep cool under • Have passive or
pressure aggressive
• Resolve conflicts communication styles
• Have greater empathy • Refuse to work as a
• Listen, reflect, and team
respond to constructive • Are overly critical of
criticism others or dismiss others'
opinions
 Benefits of Emotionally Intelligent

• Providing effective communication

• Predicting staff reactions to negative news and aptly preparing for this
• Effectively listening
• Successfully managing difficult situations
• Recognising potential mental health risks to staff
• Making employees feel comfortable in sharing ideas and concerns with you
• Remaining optimistic and having a positive attitude
• Gaining trust and loyalty quickly which subsequently increases staff
performance
• Being empathetic and compassionate towards staff and clients
• Remaining calm and handling pressure effectively
• Being open to positive and negative feedback
• Influencing and inspiring staff which helps when trying to gain support for
future projects
• Motivating yourself and your staff
• Resolving conflict fairly
 Becoming Empathetic
Tips for Applying
ü Put yourself in their shoes-at
Emotional intelligence work and in your personal life.
in the Workplace ü Pay attention to your own
responses to others.
Practicing self-regulation
ü Find techniques that help you deal Improving social skills
with your work-related stress, like ü Listen actively and attentively to
hobbies, exercise, meditation, etc. your managers, co-workers, and
ü Try to accept reality and keep a cool peers.
head when work gets crazy. ü Keep an eye out for nonverbal
ü Give yourself time to think and plan communication.
before making decisions-especially ü Work on your persuasion and
big decisions. influencing skills.
ü Handle conflict when appropriate
Becoming self-aware
and necessary.
ü Pay attention to how you are
feeling throughout your day and
Working on motivation
noticing how your emotions
contribute to your decisions and
ü Focus on what you love
actions.
about your job rather than
ü Identify and understanding your
what you hate about it.
emotional strengths and
weaknesses. ü Try to maintain a positive,
optimistic attitude
ü Understand that emotions can be
fleeting and easily changed.
Emotional Control
 Physical Ability
Physical Abilities
Sensory Abilities

Psychomotor Abilities
Physical Abilities

Strength is the degree to which the body is capable of exerting

force.

Stamina refers to the ability of a person’s lungs and circulatory

system to work efficiently while he or she is engaging in
prolonged physical activity.

Flexibility refers to the ability to bend, stretch, twist, or reach.

Coordination is the quality of physical movement

Psychomotor abilities

Fine manipulative abilities refer to the ability to keep the arms

and hands steady while using the hands to do precise work.

Control movement abilities are important in tasks for which

people have to make different precise adjustments using
machinery to complete the work effectively.

Response orientation refers to the ability to choose the right

action quickly in response to several different signals.

Response time reflects how quickly an individual responds to

signaling information after it occurs.
Sensory abilities
Near and far vision is the ability to see things up close and at a
distance or in low light contexts (night vision).
Visual color discrimination and depth perception is the ability
to perceive colors and judge relative distances between things
accurately.
Hearing sensitivity is the capability to hear and discriminate
sounds that vary in terms of loudness and pitch.
Auditory attention is being able to focus on a single sound in
the presence of many other sounds.
Speech recognition is the ability to identify and understand the
speech of another person.
 Teams:
Characteristics
and Diversity
 Team

• A team consists of two or more people who work

interdependently over some time period to
accomplish common goals related to some task-
oriented purpose.
A special type of “group.”
The interactions among members within teams revolve
around a deeper dependence on one another than the
interactions within groups.
The interactions within teams occur with a specific
task-related purpose in mind.
 What
Characteristics
Can Be Used To
Describe Team?
Types of Teams
 Team Types

• Work teams are designed to be relatively permanent.

• Purpose is to produce goods or provide services
• Require a full-time commitment from their members.
• Members involvement is high because team members
inspect each others work.
• Management teams are designed to be relatively
permanent.
• Responsible for coordinating the activities of
organizational subunits; departments or functional area
• to help the organization achieve its long-term goals.
 Team Types

• Parallel teams are designed to be permanent/temporary

• Composed of members from various jobs/department
• Provide recommendations to managers about important issues
that run “parallel” to the organization’s production process.
• Project teams are formed to take on “one-time”
• Tasks that are generally complex and require a lot of input from
members with different types of training and expertise.
• Action teams perform tasks that are normally limited in
duration (on-off)
• Perform complex tasks that vary in duration and take place in
contexts that are either highly visible to an audience or of a
highly challenging nature.
Team Types
 Variations Within Team Types

• Virtual teams are teams in which the members

are geographically dispersed, and
interdependent activity occurs through
electronic communications—primarily e-mail,
instant messaging, and Web conferencing.
 Stages of Team Development
• Forming - trying to understand the boundaries in
the team and get a feel for what is expected of
Forming them.

• Storming - remain committed to ideas they bring,

Storming triggers conflict that affects some relationships and
Time harms the team’s progress.

Norming • Norming - realize that they need to work together

to accomplish team goals, begins to cooperate.
• Performing - members are comfortable working
Performing within their roles, and the team makes progress
toward goals.
• Adjourning – members experience anxiety and
Adjourning other emotions as they disengage and ultimately
separate from the team.
 Team Interdependence
Interdependence that governs connections among team
members.

Task
Interdependence

Team
Interdependence

Outcome Goal
Interdependence Interdependence
 Task Interdependence
Task interdependence refers the degree to which team
members interact with and rely on other team members for the
information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish
work for the team.

Ø Pooled interdependence
requires lowest degree of
required coordination,
members complete their
work assignments
independently, and then
this work is simply “piled
up” to represent the
group’s output.
 Task Interdependence

ØSequential interdependence requires different tasks to be

done in a prescribed order, members interact to carry out
their work, the interaction only occurs between members
who perform tasks that are next to each other in the
sequence.
 Task Interdependence

ØReciprocal interdependence requires members to be

specialized to perform specific tasks. However, instead
of a strict sequence of activities, members interact
with a subset of other members to complete the
team’s work.
 Task Interdependence
ØComprehensive interdependence requires
the highest level of interaction and
coordination among members. Each
member has a great deal of discretion in
terms of what they do and with whom they
interact in the course of the collaboration
involved in accomplishing the team’s work.
 Goal Interdependence

• A high degree of goal interdependence exists when team

members have a shared vision of the team’s goal and
align their individual goals with that vision as a result.
• Develop a formalized mission statement that members buy into.
• Encourage “feelings of ownership”
 Outcome Interdependence

• A high degree of outcome interdependence exists

when team members share in the rewards that the
team earns.
• Linked by feedback or outcomes they want to receive
• Pay, bonuses, formal feedback and recognition, pats on the
back, extra time off, and continued team survival.
 Team Composition

• Team composition is the mix of people who make up

the team.
• Role is defined as the behaviors a person is expected
to display in a given context.
• Leader–staff teams - the leader makes decisions for the
team and provides direction and control over members
who perform assigned tasks.
• Team task roles refer to behaviors that directly facilitate
the accomplishment of team tasks.
• Team building roles refer to behaviors that influence the
quality of the team’s social climate.
• Individualistic roles reflect behaviors that benefit the
individual at the expense of the team.
Team and Individualistic Roles
Team and Individualistic Roles
 Team Composition

• Member ability – team members provide a wide

array of abilities, both physical and cognitive.
• Disjunctive tasks are tasks with an objectively
verifiable best solution, and the member who
possesses the highest level of the ability relevant to
the task will have the most influence on the
effectiveness of the team.
• Conjunctive tasks are tasks where the team’s
performance depends on the abilities of the “weakest
link.”
• Additive tasks are tasks for which the contributions
resulting from the abilities of every member “add up”
to determine team performance.
 Team Composition

• Member personality - team members possess a

wide variety of personality traits.
Agreeable people tend to be more cooperative and
trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes
about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions,
concern about their team’s interest and tend to prefer
harmony and cooperation.
Conscientious people tend to be dependable and work
hard to achieve goals.
Extraverted people tend to perform more effectively in
interpersonal contexts and are more positive and
optimistic in general. However, very high extraversion
can hurt team; tendency to be assertive and dominant.
 Team Composition

• Team diversity is the degree to which members are

different from one another in terms of any attribute that
might be used by someone as a basis of categorizing
people.
• Value in diversity problem-solving approach says diversity is
beneficial because it provides for a larger pool of knowledge
and perspectives from which a team can draw as it carries out
its work.
• Similarity-attraction approach says people tend to be more
attracted to others who are perceived as more similar.
• Surface-level diversity refers to diversity regarding observable
attributes such as race, ethnicity, sex, and age.
• Deep-level diversity refers to diversity with respect to
attributes that are less easy to observe initially, but that can be
inferred after more direct experience.
 Team Composition

• Team Size
• Having a greater number of members is beneficial
for management and project teams but not for
teams engaged in production tasks.
• Research concluded that team members tend to be
most satisfied with their team when the number of
members is between 4 and 5.
Five Aspects of Team Composition
 Teams:
Processes and
Communication
 Team Processes

Team Process Team Effectiveness

• Team process is a term that reflects the different types

of activities and interactions that occur within teams
and contribute to their ultimate end goals.
• Team characteristics, like member diversity, task
interdependence, team size, and so forth, affect team
processes.
• Team processes, in turn, have a strong impact on team
effectiveness.
Why Are
Some Teams
More Than
The Sum of
Their Parts?
 Team Value

• Process gain is getting more from the team

than you would expect according to the
capabilities of its individual members.
• Process loss is getting less from the team than
you would expect based on the capabilities of
its individual members.
 Process Loss

Factors conspire to create Process Loss:

• Coordination loss consumes time and energy that could
otherwise be devoted to task activity. Driven by:
Production blocking occurs when members have to wait on
one another before they can do their part of the team task.
• Motivational loss is the loss in team productivity that
occurs when team members do not work as hard as they
could.
• Social loafing happens when members exert less effort
when working on team tasks than they would if they
worked alone on those same tasks.
Taskwork Processes
 Taskwork Processes

• Taskwork processes are the activities of team members that

relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks.
• Three (3) types of taskwork process:
Creative Behavior - when teams engage in creative
behavior, their activities are focused on generating
novel and useful ideas and solutions.
• Brainstorming involves a face-to-face meeting of team
members in which each offers as many ideas as possible
about some focal problem or issue.
• Nominal group technique is similar to a traditional
brainstorming session, but it makes people write down
ideas on their own, thereby decreasing social loafing and
production blocking.
 Taskwork Processes

Decision Making
• Decision informity reflects whether members
possess adequate information about their own
task responsibilities.
• Staff validity refers to the degree to which
members make good recommendations to the
leader.
• Hierarchical sensitivity reflects the degree to
which the leader effectively weighs the
recommendations of the members.
 Taskwork Processes

Boundary Spanning involves activities with

individuals and groups other than those who are
considered part of the team.
• Ambassador activities refer to communications that are
intended to protect the team, persuade others to
support the team, or obtain important resources for the
team.
• Task coordinator activities involve communications that
are intended to coordinate task-related issues with
people or groups in other functional areas.
• Scout activities refer to things team members do to
obtain information about technology, competitors, or
the broader marketplace.
Teamwork Processes
 Teamwork Processes

• Teamwork processes refer to the interpersonal

activities that facilitate the accomplishment of
the team’s work but do not directly involve task
accomplishment itself.
• Behaviors that create the setting or context in which
taskwork can be carried out.
• Transition processes, action processes, interpersonal
processes
 Teamwork Processes

Transition processes are teamwork activities that

focus on preparation for future work.
ØMission analysis involves an analysis of the team’s task,
the challenges that face the team, and the resources
available for completing the team’s work.
ØStrategy formulation refers to the development of
courses of action and contingency plans, and then
adapting those plans in light of changes that occur in the
team’s environment.
ØGoal specification involves the development and
prioritization of goals related to the team’s mission and
strategy.
 Teamwork Processes

Action processes are important as the taskwork is

being accomplished.
Ø Monitoring progress toward goals
ØSystems monitoring involves keeping track of things that
the team needs to accomplish its work.
ØHelping behavior involves members going out of their
way to help or back up other team members.
ØCoordination refers to synchronizing team members’
activities in a way that makes them mesh effectively and
seamlessly.
 Teamwork Processes
Interpersonal processes are important before, during,
or in between periods of taskwork.
ØMotivating and confidence building refers to things team
members do or say that affect the degree to which members
are motivated to work hard on the task.
Affect management involves activities that foster a sense
of emotional balance and unity.
ØConflict management involves activities that the team uses to
manage conflicts that arise in the course of its work.
Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team
members in terms of interpersonal relationships or
incompatibilities with respect to personal values or
preferences.
Task conflict refers to disagreements among members
about the team’s task.
 Communication
• Communication is the process by which
information and meaning gets transferred from a
sender to a receiver.
 Communication

• Factors that influence the communication

process
Communication issues
• Participants may lack communication competence, receiver
may not be skilled in listening
Noise
Information richness
• Messages transmitted through face-to-face channels have
the highest level of information richness
Networked structures
 Communication

• Network structure, cont’d

• The pattern of communication that occurs regularly among
each member of the team.
• All channel – highly decentralized
• Circle
• Y
• Wheel – highly centralized
• Members tend to prefer decentralized network structures
Communication Network Structures
Team States
 Team States

• Team states refer to specific types of feelings

and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of
team members as a consequence of their
experience working together.
• Cohesion, potency, mental models, transactive
memory
 Team States

• Cohesion happens when members of teams develop

strong emotional bonds to other members of their
team and to the team itself.
• Groupthink happens in highly cohesive teams when
members may try to maintain harmony by striving toward
consensus on issues without ever offering, seeking, or
seriously considering alternative viewpoints and
perspectives.
• Avoid too much cohesion by assessing the team’s
cohesion and appointing a devil’s advocate.
 Team States

• Potency refers to the degree to which members

believe that the team can be effective across a
variety of situations and tasks.
• High potency, members are confident that their team
can perform well, and as a consequence, they focus
more of their energy on achieving team goals.
• Team members’ confidence in their own capabilities,
their trust in other members’ capabilities, and
feedback about past performance play a role in
developing high potency.
 Team States

• Mental models refer to the level of common

understanding among team members with
regard to important aspects of the team and
its task.
• Transactive memory refers to how specialized
knowledge is distributed among members in a
manner that results in an effective system of
memory for the team.
Leadership:
Power and
Negotiation
 Leadership and Power

• Leadership is the use of power and influence to direct

the activities of followers toward goal achievement.
• Power can be defined as the ability to influence the
behavior of others and resist unwanted influence in
return.
• Just because a person has the ability to influence others
does not mean he or she will actually choose to do so.
• Power can be seen as the ability to resist the influence
attempts of others.
Types of Power
 Types of Power

• Organizational Power
• Legitimate power is derived from a position of
authority inside the organization and is sometimes
referred to as “formal authority.”
• Reward power exists when someone has control
over the resources or rewards another person
wants.
• Coercive power exists when a person has control
over punishments in an organization.
 Types of Power

• Personal Power
• Expert power is derived from a person’s expertise,
skill, or knowledge on which others depend.
• Referent power exists when others have a desire
to identify and be associated with a person.
Guidelines for Using Power
Guidelines for Using Power
The Contingencies of Power
 Using Influence

• Influence is the use of an actual behavior that

causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in
others.
• Influence can be seen as directional.
• Most frequently occurs downward (managers
influencing employees) but can also be lateral
(peers influencing peers) or upward (employees
influencing managers).
• Influence is all relative.
• Absolute power of the “influencer” and
“influencee” isn’t as important as the disparity
between them.
 Influence Tactics

• Rational persuasion is the use of logical arguments

and hard facts to show the target that the request is
a worthwhile one.
• An inspirational appeal is a tactic designed to
appeal to the target’s values and ideals, thereby
creating an emotional or attitudinal reaction.
• Consultation occurs when the target is allowed to
participate in deciding how to carry out or
implement a request.
• A leader uses collaboration by attempting to make
it easier for the target to complete the request.
 Influence Tactics

• Ingratiation is the use of favors, complements, or

friendly behavior to make the target feel better
about the influencer.
• Personal appeals are when the requestor asks for
something based on personal friendship or loyalty.
• An exchange tactic is used when the requestor
offers a reward or resource to the target in return
for performing a request.
• Apprising occurs when the requestor clearly
explains why performing the request will benefit the
target personally.
 Influence Tactics

• Pressure is the use of coercive power through threats

and demands.
• Coalitions occur when the influencer enlists other
people to help influence the target.
• Influence tactics tend to be most successful when
used in combination.
• The influence tactics that tend to be most successful
are those that are “softer” in nature.
• Rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational
appeals, and collaboration
Influence Tactics and Their Effectiveness
 Response to Influence Tactics

• Engagement occurs when the target of influence

agrees with and becomes committed to the
influence request (behaviors and attitudes).
• Compliance occurs when targets of influence are
willing to do to what the leader asks, but they do it
with a degree of ambivalence (behaviors but not
attitudes).
• Resistance occurs when the target refuses to
perform the influence request and puts forth an
effort to avoid having to do it.
Responses To Influence Attempts
 Organizational Politics
• Organizational politics can be seen as actions by individuals that
are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests.
• Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work
and use that knowledge to influence others in ways that enhance
personal and/or organizational objectives.
• Networking ability is an adeptness at identifying and developing diverse
contacts.
• Social astuteness is the tendency to observe others and accurately
interpret their behavior.
• Interpersonal influence involves having an unassuming and convincing
personal style that’s flexible enough to adapt to different situations.
• Apparent sincerity involves appearing to others to have high levels of
honesty and genuineness.
The
Organizational
Politics Process
 Conflict Resolution

• There are five different styles a leader can use

when handling conflict, each of which is
appropriate in different circumstances.
• The five styles can be viewed as combinations of
two separate factors: how assertive leaders want to
be in pursuing their own goals and how cooperative
they are with regard to the concerns of others.
 Styles of
Conflict
Resolution
 Conflict Resolution
• Competing (high assertiveness, low cooperation) occurs when one
party attempts to get his or her own goals met without concern for
the other party’s results.
• Avoiding (low assertiveness, low cooperation) occurs when one
party wants to remain neutral, stay away from conflict, or
postpone the conflict to gather information or let things cool
down.
• Accommodating (low assertiveness, high cooperation) occurs
when one party gives in to the other and acts in a completely
unselfish way.
• Collaboration (high assertiveness, high cooperation) occurs when
both parties work together to maximize outcomes.
• Compromise (moderate assertiveness, moderate cooperation)
occurs when conflict is resolved through give-and-take
concessions.
When To Use Conflict Resolution Styles
When To Use Conflict Resolution Styles
Why Are Some Leaders More Powerful Than Others?
 Leadership: Traits,
Styles and Behaviors
 Leadership

Leadership is the use of power and influence

to direct the activities of followers toward
goal achievement.

§ How leaders get the power and

influence needed to direct others (previous
chapter).
§ How leaders actually use their power
and influence in an effective way (this
chapter).
 Leader-member Exchange Theory

• Leader–member exchange theory describes how

leader–member relationships develop over time on a
dyadic basis.
• Role taking phase - a manager describes role expectations
to an employee and the employee attempts to fulfill those
expectations with his or her job behaviors.
• Role making phase - the employee’s own expectations for
the dyad get mixed in with those of the leader.
Leader-member Exchange Theory
 Leader Effectiveness

• Leader effectiveness is the degree to which the

leader’s actions result in the achievement of the
unit’s goals, the continued commitment of the unit’s
employees, and the development of mutual trust,
respect, and obligation in leader–member dyads.
• Most studies have concluded that traits are more
predictive of leader emergence (i.e., who becomes a
leader in the first place) than they are of leader
effectiveness (i.e., how well people actually do in a
leadership role).
Traits/Characteristics Related to Leader
Emergence and Effectiveness
 Leader Decision-making Styles

Decision-making styles capture how a leader decides

as opposed to what a leader decides.
• Autocratic style - the leader makes the decision
alone without asking for the opinions or suggestions
of the employees in the work unit.
• Consultative style - the leader presents the problem
to individual employees or a group of employees,
asking for their opinions and suggestions before
ultimately making the decision him- or herself.
 Leader Decision-making Styles

• Facilitative style - the leader presents the problem to

a group of employees and seeks consensus on a
solution, making sure that his or her own opinion
receives no more weight than anyone else’s.
• Delegative style - the leader gives an individual
employee or a group of employees the responsibility
for making the decision within some set of specified
boundary conditions.
Leader Decision-making Styles
 Time-driven Model of Leadership

• The model suggests that the focus should shift away

from:
ü autocratic, consultative, facilitative, and delegative leaders
to
ü autocratic, consultative, facilitative, and delegative situations.

• The model suggests that seven (7) factors combine to

make some decision-making styles more effective in a
given situation and other styles less effective.
 Time-driven Model of Leadership

Decision significance: Is the decision significant to

the success of the project or the organization?
Importance of commitment: Is it important that
employees “buy in” to the decision?
Leader expertise: Does the leader have significant
knowledge or expertise regarding the problem?
Likelihood of commitment: How likely is it that
employees will trust the leader’s decision and
commit to it?
 Time-driven Model of Leadership

Shared objectives: Do employees share and support

the same objectives, or do they have an agenda of
their own?
Employee expertise: Do the employees have
significant knowledge or expertise regarding the
problem?
Teamwork skills: Do the employees have the ability
to work together to solve the problem, or will they
struggle with conflicts or inefficiencies?
 Leadership Style: Ohio States Studies
• Initiating structure reflects the extent to which the leader defines
and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal
attainment.
• Leaders who are high on initiating structure play a more active role in
directing group activities and prioritize planning, scheduling, and trying out
new ideas.
• Consideration reflects the extent to which leaders create job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee
ideas, and consideration of employee feelings.
• Leaders who are high on consideration create a climate of good rapport
and strong, two-way communication and exhibit a deep concern for the
welfare of employees.

Initiating structure and consideration were independent concepts,

meaning that leaders could be high on both, low on both, or high on
one and low on the other.
Day-to-day Behaviors Performed by Leaders
 Leadership Style: Michigan Studies

• Identified concepts similar to initiating structure and

consideration, calling them production-centered (or
task-oriented) and employee-centered (or relations-
oriented) behaviors.
• Framed their task-oriented and relations-oriented
concepts as two ends of one continuum, implying
that leaders couldn’t be high on both dimensions.
 Life Cycle Theory of Leadership

• Optimal combination of initiating structure and

consideration depends on the readiness of the
employees in the work unit.
• Readiness is broadly defined as the degree to which
employees have the ability and the willingness to
accomplish their specific tasks.
• Readiness varies from R1 (unable and unwilling) to R2
(unable but willing) to R3 (able but unwilling) to R4 (able
and willing).
The Life Cycle Theory of Leadership
 Life Cycle Theory of Leadership

• Telling (high initiating structure, low consideration) — the leader

provides specific instructions and closely supervises
performance.
• Selling (high initiating structure, high consideration) — the
leader supplements his or her directing with support and
encouragement to protect the confidence levels of the
employees.
• Participating (low initiating structure, high consideration) — the
leader shares ideas and tries to help the group conduct its
affairs.
• Delegating (low initiating structure, low consideration) — the
leader turns responsibility for key behaviors over to the
employees.
 Other Styles of Leadership

• Transformational leadership involves inspiring

followers to commit to a shared vision that provides
meaning to their work while also serving as a role
model who helps followers develop their own
potential and view problems from new perspectives.
• Laissez-faire leadership (i.e., hands-off) is the
avoidance of leadership altogether.
 Other Styles of Leadership

• Transactional leadership occurs when the leader

rewards or disciplines the follower depending on the
adequacy of the follower’s performance.
• With passive management-by-exception, the leader waits
around for mistakes and errors, then takes corrective
action as necessary.
• With active management-by-exception, the leader
arranges to monitor mistakes and errors actively and again
takes corrective action when required.
• Contingent reward happens when the leader attains
follower agreement on what needs to be done using
promised or actual rewards in exchange for adequate
performance.
Laissez-faire,
Transactional,
and
Transformational
Leadership
 Dimensions of Transformational Leadership

• Idealized influence involves behaving in ways that

earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers,
causing followers to want to identify with and
emulate the leader.
• “The leader instills pride in me for being associated with
him/her.”
• Inspirational motivation involves behaving in ways
that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a
shared vision of the future.
• “The leader articulates a compelling vision of the future.”
 Dimensions of Transformational Leadership

• Intellectual stimulation involves behaving in ways

that challenge followers to be innovative and creative
by questioning assumptions and reframing old
situations in new ways.
• “The leader gets others to look at problems from many
different angles.”
• Individualized consideration involves behaving in
ways that help followers achieve their potential
through coaching, development, and mentoring.
• “The leader spends time teaching and coaching.”
Why Are
Some
Leaders
More
Effective
Than
Others?
DR.ROS