© O key take aways from this file in bullet form Key Takeaways from the Document on Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAc) + Historical Use + Early use of LWAC dates back to 3000 8C inthe Indus Valley civilization ‘© Romans used LWAC in structures like the Pantheon, aqueducts, and the Colosseum. ‘Natural and Synthetic Aggregates: + Initially, natural aggregates lke pumice, scoria, and tuff were used ‘© Modern LWAC uses industrial by-products such as fly ash and blast furnace slag ‘+ Lightweight aggregates are now also manufactured from materials ike expanded clay and shale + Properties and Production + LWAC densities range from 50 ka/m* (expanded perlite) to 1000 kg/m* (linkers) © High range water reducers allow for LWAC with compressive strengths up to 80 MPa, © Advantages ‘© Reduces the weight of the superstructure, leading to cost savings in foundations and construction, ‘© Provides high thermal insulation and fire resistance. = Can be easily worked with using standard wood-working tools. ‘+ Historical and Modern Applications: ‘© Eatly 20th-century use in UK construction (e.g, British Museum) Patent of "Haydite” in 1918 marked the advent of synthetic aggregates ‘© Use in shipbuilding during World War | demonstrated LWAC’s durability. ‘© Technological Advancements: ‘© Development of high strength LWAC (HSLAC) in Norway for off-shore construction, ‘© Enhancements in strength balanced by high strength cement mortar. ‘© Use of polymers, ar-entraining agents, and polymer fibers to improve fire resistance. ‘+ Economic and Environmental Impact ‘¢ Higher initial cost but lower overall costs due to ease of handling and reduced medical expenses for workers Lower demolition costs and reduced waste generation, ‘+ Helps solve ecological and environmental issues by using industrial by-products. © Durability: ‘© Strong bond between aggregate and matrix due to porous nature of aggregates.6 ‘Little to no interfacial transition zone, improving durability. Current Trends and Research: ‘= Increasing use and ongoing research to develop high performance structural LWAC. 14867.01pat POF similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (cwac) Historical Use: ‘© LAC has been used since ancien 1s, dating back to the 3rd millennium B.C. in Babylon by the Sumerians. Prominent ancient structures lke St. Sofia Cathedral, the Pantheon, Pont du Gard aqueduct, and the Colosseum utilized LWAC. Natural and Synthetic Aggregates: ‘© Early LWAC was made using natural volcanic aggregates such as pumice and scoria, ‘© The use of porous clay bricks in the Indus Valley civilization around 2500 B.C. is an early example, ‘© Inthe 19th century, technology for producing lightweight aggregates developed in Germany and other parts of Europe. «Synthetic aggregates are produced from natural materials (lay, shale, slate) and industrial by-products (fly ash, expanded slag). Properties and Applications: © LWAC offers low density, reducing structural weight and providing thermal insulation, ‘© The material can vary in density from 300 to 3000 kg/m? and in strength from 1 to over 100, Mpa, ‘© WAC is used in structural applications, including offshore construction, due to its advantageous properties. Technological Advancements: ‘© The 20th century saw significant advancements, such as Stephen John Hayde's patent in 1918 for expanded shale aggregates. + Germany, Denmark, and the UK developed commercial production of LWAC, with notable products like Leca (expanded clay aggregate). Global Production and Usage + Europe and North America have been leaders in the production and use of LWAC ‘©The USSR saw significant growth in LWAC production starting in the 1930s.‘©The USA, Canada, Japan, South America, and Africa also have notable LWAC production, ‘© Environmental and Economic Impact ‘© Use of industrial by-products like fly ash in LWAC helps address ecological and environmental issues. Despite higher initial costs, LWAC reduces overall construction costs through ease of handling and reduced structural weight. The development of organic natural aggregates, such as palm cil shells, is ongoing but not yet commercially widespread. Challenges and Trends ‘© Production of LWAC faces challenges such as raw material availability, production processes, and economic viability, ‘© There has been a decline in the number of LWAC plants in some regions due to environmental restrictions and economic factors. ‘© Ongoing research aims to improve LWAC properties and expand its applications in the construction industry. 14867.02.pdt POF _—— similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Production of Lightweight Aggregates (LWA) # Categories of LWA: + Natural aggregates: Used after mechanical treatment (crushing, sieving). + Synthetic aggregates: Produced by thermal treatment of natural materials or industrial by- products + Properties of LWAC: + Related to the type and process of aggregates used ‘© Varying density leads to a wide range of compressive strengths. Natural Materials for LWA: Includes perlite, vermiculite, clay, shale, and slate, Industrial by-products include pulverized fly ash (PFA), blast furnace slag, and industrial waste, Production Processes: © Rotary Kiln: Long cylinder lined with refractory bricks; material fed at one end and fired at the other, © Vertical Shaft Kiln: Material lifted by a hot jet of flue gases, falls, and is re-lifted ‘Sintered Strand: Raw material placed on a moving strand, ignited, and expanded by gases.‘© Foaming Bed Reactor: Used for foamed blast furnace slag; involves rapid expansion by steam. ‘© Cold Bonding: Uses chemical reactions between lime and ash to form pellets. + Natural Lightweight Aggregates: + Pumice and Scoria: Volcanic origin, low density due to gas bubbles. + alm Oil Shells: Hard, low-cost building material with good structural performance + Crushed Burnt Bricks: Used in ancient masonry, porous, and similar to sintered clay aggregates + Synthetic Aggregates + Produced by processes lke expansion and agglomeration + Different methods include: + Perlite: Rapidly heated to expand, producing cellular material + Vermiculite: Hated to expand, forming lightweight aggregates. + Expanded Clay (Leca™): Made by mixing clay and water, heated ina rotary Kiln ‘= Liapor™: Dry process using shale, pelletized, and sintered. ‘© Properties and Applications: ‘© Varying density and strength depending on the process ‘© Used in various structural and insulating applications, ‘+ LWA from industrial By-Products + Fly Ash Aggregates: Produced by pyro-processing ly ash, used in high-strength concrete, + Expanded Slag Aggregates: Produced from molten slag, used in construction and masonry. + Municipal Waste Aggregates: Produced from incinerated waste, potential fr lightweight + Environmental Impact + Use of industrial by-products helps address ecological issues + Production processes can be environmentally challenging but aso provide solutions for waste management + Technological innovations: + Development of new types of aggregates with improved properties + Research focuses on high strength, low density, and low water absorption aggregates ‘These key points cover the broad aspects of lightweight aggregate production, types, properties, and applications as discussed in the document, 14867.03.pdt POF Ze similarly from this fileS Key Takeaways from the Document on Supplementary Cementing Materials and High-Strength LWAC ‘© Introduction: ‘* High-strength lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is beneficial for offshore and marine structures, high-rise buildings, and long-span bridges ‘* Modern concrete is based on Portland cement, which has disadvantages like high energy consumption and environmental interactions. ‘© Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCMs} ‘© SCMs such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, and silica fume are used to enhance the properties of concrete. ‘© Pozzolanic materials strengthen the mortar matrix and modify the microstructure, contributing to strength and durability ‘+ High-Performance Cement: ‘¢ High-strength cement, like HS65 developed in Norway, has improved properties compared to ordinary Portland cement, ‘* HS65 cement provides higher long-term strength and reduced heat of hydration, essential for thick sections in offshore platforms and marine structures, «Silica fume is commonly added to high-performance LWAC in Norway to increase strength and durability. ‘© Mineral Admixtures: ‘= Fly ash and slag enhance the durability properties but slow down early strength development. Silica fume, a highly pozzolanic material, produces high-strength concrete and accelerates early strength development, ‘© Colloidal silica (Cembinder) reacts with calcium hydroxide, increasing early strength and contributing to long-term durability ‘© Strength Properties of LWAC with SCMs: ‘+ LWAC made with sintered fly ash aggregate (Lytag) and SCM like fly ash, slag, and silica fume shows varying strength development. ‘Silica fume compensates for the loss of early-age strength, and its combination with fly ash and slag produces high-strength LWAC. ‘© Mixes with different proportions of SCMs demonstrate the importance of mix design in achieving desired strength and durability. ‘© Elastic Modulus ‘© The dynamic modulus of elasticity for LWAC with SCMS is higher than that of Portland cement concrete. ‘© Drying environments reduce the elastic modulus over time, impacting the structural stiffness of LWAC.‘© Superplasticizers (SP): reduce water content while maintaining workability, essential © Superplasticizers are used for high-performance concrete (HPC) and high-strength concrete (HSC). Different superplasticizers have varying effects on workability and strength development, influenced by the type of cement used. ‘© Proper timing and dosage of SP addition are crucial to prevent issues like bleeding and segregation in concrete mixes. ‘+ Concluding Remarks: +The combination of SCM and superplasticizers can produce high-strength, durable LWAC, ‘© The proper mix design, including the use of reactive pozzolans and water-reducing admixtures, is essential for optimizing the performance of LWAC. ‘These key points summarize the broad aspects of high-strength LAG, its components, properties, and the influence of supplementary cementing materials and superplasticizers as discussed in the document, ~ 14867.04pd¢ POF Ze similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Mix Proportioning of Lightwé Aggregate Concrete (LWAC) ‘= Introduction to LWAC Types: Three main types of lightweight concrete: Lightweight aggregate concrete using lightweight aggregates instead of normal weight aggregates, 2. Aerated, foamed, or gas concrete with large voids introduced into the concrete mass. 3. No-fines concrete where fine aggregate is omitted, creating interstitial voids, ‘© Classification by Density: ‘© LWAC is classified based on density, which correlates with compressive strength, ‘© Structural LWAC typically has compressive strengths ranging from 10 to 70 MPa. © No-Fines LWAC: ‘= Composed of coarse lightweight aggregate, cement, and water. ‘© Fine aggregates are omitted, leading to large voids between particles. ‘© The strength depends on the aggregate type, particle density, and compaction degree. © Mix Proportioning ‘© Mix proportioning involves calculating the bulk density of fresh and dry concrete. ©The water-to-cement ratio is crucial but has a narrow optimum range for each aggregate.‘© Atrial mix method is recommended to determine the actual compressive strength. ‘© Structural LWAC: ‘© Structural WAC has a closed structure where all voids are filled with binder or cement paste. ‘+ The production process is more complicated than normal weight concrete, considering water absorption by porous aggregates. ‘+ Basic Steps of Mix Proportioning: ‘© Define the required properties of the concrete, such as compressive strength, density, and workability, Calculate the combined aggregate particle size distribution and mean particle density ‘© Determine the compressive strength of mortar and lightweight aggregate particles, ‘© Establish the volume of cement past cement content, and consistency. + Examples of Mix Proportioning + Detailed examples are provided for diferent compressive strength and density lasses + Adjustments for factors ike ai-entrainment, water absorption, and cement content are considered + Properties and Volume Relations +The relationship between the strength and density of LWAC is crucial The volume of components such as lightweight aggregate and cement paste affects the overall properties of concrete, ‘Specific calculations and formulas are provided to guide proportioning based on these relationships. ‘© Final Mix and Testing: ‘+The final mixis tested for density and compressive strength at 28 days. ‘+ Adjustments and corrections are made based on trial mixes to achieve the desired properties. ‘© Concluding Remarks: ‘LAC design depends on the intended structural use, availability of aggregates, and economic considerations. ‘Different methods of proportioning are used for various applications, such as block production or structural reinforced concrete. ‘© Optimal mix design involves balancing strength, density, and other properties through careful calculation and testing. ‘These key points summarize the document's discussion on the various types, properties, and ‘methods of mix proportioning for lightweight aggregate concrete. © 14867.06.pat PDF — similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Microstructure Interfaces in Concrete ‘+ Composite Nature: Concrete is a composite material with aggregate particles embedded in a matrix of hydrated cement paste (hcp). It includes additional ingredients like chemical admixtures, pozzolanic materials (fly ash, silica fumes, blast furnace slag), discontinuous fibers, and steel reinforcement. ‘+ Interfacial Regions: Various interfaces exist, including those between hcp phases, unhydrated cement grains, pozzolanic materials, aggregate, fibers, and steel reinforcement. These interfaces influence the mechanical properties of concrete, ‘© Bonding Mechanisms: Bonds in concrete result from van der Waal's forces, hydrogen bonds, and possibly chemical bonds, which vary based on raw materials and hydration conditions. Cement-Aggregate Bond, ‘* Weak Link: The interface between hep and aggregate is considered the weak link in concrete, characterized by open morphology, large portlandite crystals, and planes of weakness due to bleed water. ‘© Crack Propagation: Cracks tend to propagate in the interfacial region, and improving bond strength can moderately increase concrete strength ‘© Improving Bond Strength: Adding silica fumes densifies the interfacial region, reduces free water, and diminishes the transition zone size, Lightweight Aggregate-Cement Paste Interface ‘+ Mechanical and Chemical Interaction: Lightweight aggregates (LWA) have a porous surface allowing binder penetration, which reduces internal bleeding and improves interfacial transition zones (ITZ). ‘© Water Absorption: LWA's porous structure impacts water absorption, which varies among different LWAs like Swedish Leca™ and Liapor™. This affects the interconnectivity of pores and overall permeability Pore Structure of LWA ‘+ Open and Closed Pores: LWAs have open (interconnected) and closed (non-interconnected) pores. Open pores contribute to permeability, while closed pores do not. ‘+ Water Absorption Testing: Immersing aggregates in water and measuring absorption under vacuum helps determine pore connectivity. Differences in water absorption among LWAS indicate varying interconnectivity and permeability. Microstructure of the ITZ ‘© Backscattered Electron Imaging (BSEI); BSEI and elemental x-ray analysis help study the ITZ microstructure, showing the distinct phases in the interfacial zone. ‘© Effect of Dense Shells: Dense outer shells in LWAs like Liapor" 8 create a more porous interfacial zone, while aggregates without a dense shell form better bonds due to mechanicalinterlocking Old Concrete Microstructure ‘© Long-Term Changes: Studies on old concrete show well-bonded LWAs to the cement paste ‘matrix, with a 60 im thick interface layer containing fewer voids and pores. ‘© Stress Concentrations: LWAC shows reduced microcracking due to similar elastic stiffness of LWA and mortar, unlike in regular concrete where stiff aggregates cause stress concentrations. Pozzolanic Interaction ‘© Glassy Surface: LWAs have a glassy, potentially reactive surface formed during sintering, acting like pozzolanic material and interacting with calcium hydroxide from cement hydration, ‘* Microhardness: Studies show increased microhardness in the ITZ due to new chemical formations, indicating a strong pozzolanic reaction. Elemental Distribution ‘© Elemental Analysis: Differences in elemental distribution (e.g, calcium, silicon, iron) in aggregates affect concrete properties. High solubility rates of ions from aggregates like Liapor™ indicate significant interactions. Interrelation of Microstructure and Strength ‘+ Strength Factors: Concrete strength is related to microstructure, batch composition, chemical admixtures, water-to-cement ratio, porosity, and density. ‘+ Paste-Aggregate Bond: The nature of the external shell of LWA influences paste-aggregate bonding. Rough surfaces promote strong bonds, while smooth surfaces benefit from additives like silica fume, ‘© Influence of Water-to-Cement Ratio: The water-to-cement ratio significantly impacts the strength and porosity of the paste, affecting overall concrete strength. Concluding Remarks ‘© Role of Microstructure: The paste-aggregate bond in LWAC is influenced by the aggregate's, external shell and the mechanical interlocking. Absence of oriented calcium hydroxide crystals in ‘the ITZis linked aggregate water absorption '* Optimization: Microstructure refinement and pozzolanic activity improve LWAC properties, with silica fume and slag enhancing early and late strength, respectively. These key points summarize the document's detailed discussion on the microstructure and interfacial properties of lightweight aggregate concrete and its implications for concrete strength and durability 14867.07,pdt POF J similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Physical Properties of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC) Introduction+ Physical Properties: 4+ Essential for maintaining structural integrity + Strengths the primary property, followed by density. + Other reviewed properties include elasticity, shrinkage and creep, thermal conductivity, and Density and Strength ‘+ Aggregate Size and Strength ‘© Strength of LWA is influenced by compaction and void formation Larger pellets have less compact outer layers and lower bulk density and strength, ‘© Strength of LWA directly impacts the resultant concrete strength, ‘© Density and Application: ‘© Low-density concretes are suited for non-load-bearing applications. + Densities from 1550 to 1850 kg/m? are suitable for load-bearing structures. ‘+ Maplelite building blocks with pumice aggregates have a density of 978 kg/m’ and a compressive strength of 3.5 MPa. Elasticity * Modulus of Elasticity ‘©The dynamic modulus of elasticity for LWAC is higher ti in for regular concrete, ‘© Adecrease in the modulus over time can affect structural stiffness. Shrinkage and Creep + Drying Shrinkage: + Caused by loss of water from the cement paste + Aggregates with higher elasticity help reduce shrinkage + Non-burned fly ash LWA results in higher shrinkage compared to burned LWA + creep: + LWAC creep is influenced by the type of agaregate used + Drying shrinkage and creep are interconnected phenomena. + Pre-wetted aggregates can lead to lower long-term creep, Thermal Conductivity + Influence of Aggregates: + LWAC has lower thermal conductivity due to its porous structure + Wet concrete transmits heat better than dry conerete ‘+ Thermal conductivity depends on the air-void system within the aggregates and the matrix ‘Abrasion Resistance + Durability ‘¢ LAC shows good resistance to wear and tear.‘© Use of specific aggregates can enhance abrasion resistance Examples of Mix Proportioning + Mix Design: + Optimal mix design involves balancing strength, density, and other properties + High-strength LWAC can be achieved withthe ight combination of SCMs and superpastcizers, Concluding Remarks + Performance Improvement ‘© Using pozzolanic materials and optimizing mix proportions can significantly enhance LWAC properties ‘© Proper curing and compaction methods are essential for achieving desired strength and durability. ‘These key points summarize the document's discussion on the physical properties, mix proportioning, and performance characteristics of lightweight aggregate concrete 14867.08.pdt POF —_— similarly from this file Key Takeaways from the Document on Durability of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC) to Chemical Attack Introduction + Chemical Durability ‘© Defined as the resistance of concrete against gases, chemicals, and temperature variations that chemically interact with the binder components, causing deterioration. ‘© WAC is influenced by variations in cement, mineral admixtures, and aggregates, affecting the degree and rate of deterioration, ‘Types of Chemical Attack 1. Acid Resistance: ‘= LWAC shows varying resistance to acids like hydrochloric acid (HCD, sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and lactic acid (CH3 CHOH COOH). ‘© LWAC with polymer admixture (CEMOS) demonstrates higher resistance compared to normal weight concrete, ‘¢ Minimum damage occurs in LWAC with polymer micro-particles, attributed to a more compact structure and hydrophobic properties, 2. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR): ‘© Alkali ions in Portland cement can react with siliceous constituents in aggregates, leading to expansion and cracking.‘© LWAC, especially with non-alkali-sensitive aggregates, reduces the risk of AAR, The inclusion of lightweight aggregates and mineral admixtures like silica fume decreases permeability and AAR risk. 3. Carbonation and Corrosion: ‘© Carbonation occurs when CO2 reacts with calcium hydroxide in concrete, lowering pH and leading to reinforcement corrosion. + LWAG, especially high-strength LWAC, shows higher resistance to carbonation due to denser matrix and lower permeability. ‘* Field studies show LWAC panels remain in good condition compared to normal weight conerete panels. 4. Chloride ton Penetration: © Chloride ions penetrate concrete, reacting with calcium hydroxide and aluminate, causing microcracks and decreasing concrete strength. ‘© LWAC’s low density and high strength mortars improve resistance to chloride ion penetration, ‘+ Laboratory and field tests indicate that high-strength LWAC has good performance against chloride ingress. Concluding Remarks ‘© Performance Improvement ‘© Utilizing polymer admixtures and optimizing mix proportions significantly enhance LWAC properties ‘© Proper mix design, curing, and compaction methods are essential for achieving desired durability and resistance to chemical attacks ‘© Environmental Impact: ‘© LWAC’s resistance to various chemical attacks makes it suitable for harsh environments like offshore structures and chemical plants. ‘©The use of industrial by-products in LWAC helps address ecological concerns and improve sustainability, These key points summarize the document's detailed discussion on the durability of lightweight aggregate concrete against chemical attacks and the factors influencing its performance.