TYRE MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY

N. C. Das
Rubber Technology Centre
I.I.T. Kharagpur
 INTRODUCTION
In human history, the wheel is considered one of the most important
inventions, because it is found use in a wide range of applications such
as,

 Transportation vehicles
 Construction equipment and
 Internal parts of machinery
Wheel, which is a predecessor of the tyre was a development of earlier devices
such as rollers, dating to the Bronze age over 5000 years ago, which was
used to move heavy objects.
Roller Wheel Tyre
Wheeled vehicles were found in
 Sumeria in 3500 BC
 Assyria in 3000 BC and
 Central Europe toward 1000 BC
Four-wheeled wagons using a swiveling front axle for steering were recorded
in 1500 BC.
History of Tyre
 The first tyres were solid rubber carriage tyres exhibited in London in
1841. They were used for transportation until the early years of this
century. The requirements of increased speed and comfort led to the
development of pneumatic tyre.

 The next most important event was probably in 1845 R.W. Thomson, a
Scottish Engineer, developed and patented the concept of pneumatic
tyre. These tyres were filled with air and used leather for tread. They
were fastened to wheels with bolts but were not strong enough to wear
well.

 It was not until 1888 that Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon in Belfast, built
an acceptable pneumatic bicycle tyre. It consisted of a canvas-covered,
vulcanized rubber tube, with an air valve, loaded to a wheel.

 The discovery of vulcanization by Charles Goodyear in 1839 and

industrialization of Europe and North America enabled the tyre to
evolve from a rubberized canvas covering a rubber tube to a complex
fabric, steel and electrometric composite.
and others
 Tyre classification

Based on Based on Based on Based on

Carcass Materials construction construction Pattern design
 Nylon
 Radial  Truck/bus  Lug
 Steel belt
 Bias-tube type  Light truck  Rib
 All steel
 Bias-tube less  Passenger car  Semi lug
 Polyester belt
 2/3 wheelers
 Rayon's
 Agriculture
 Others
 Of the rod
 Aero
 Bicyle
The construction of a PCR tyre
The construction of a PCR tyre
 Definition of Tyre
 To many people tyre is a large rubber donut.
[Donut/doughnut means ring shaped cake fried in fat or
something that resembles a doughnut especially in shape :
specif. torus].
 Actually a tyre is many things –
 Geometrically – a tyre is a torus.
 Mechanically – a tyre is a flexible membrane pressure
container.
 Structurally – a tyre is a high performance composite.
 Chemically – a tyre consists of materials from long chain
macromolecules.
 For common people – a tyre is an integral component of a
vehicle and is the intermediary between the vehicle and the
road.
 A broader definition of Tyre is as under:

The pneumatic tyre is a toroidal, high performance

polymeric composite, which exhibits characteristics of a
flexible-membrane pressure container providing load
carrying capability, cushioning and road handling abilities,
transmits driving and braking torque, cornering forces and
performs all functions essential to locomotion.
 Regardless of the design or application of the tyre, all tyres
must fulfill a fundamental set of functions:

 Provide Load Carrying Capacity : Air, enveloped in a tyre

at specific inflation pressure carries the load and
supporting vehicle load.

 Provide Cushioning and Dampening : Tyre must be

flexible enough to reduce or damp out the shocks and
vibrations resulting due to the irregularities of the road.

 Transmit Driving and Braking forces to the road surface.

 Provide Cornering Forces : Since the vehicle movement

is controlled through tyres only, the tyre must have
adequate steering response, produce lateral forces for
cornering and vehicle handling control, to help guide the
direction of travel.
 Provide Lateral and Dimensional Stability: The tyre
must provide good tracking for easy steering on many
types of road surfaces, allow control when a shell drops
over the edge of the road, and assure good control around
curves and on turns.
 Resist Abrasion: A tyre must be providing economy
through long tread life i.e. wear resistance.
 Generate Steering Response: A tyre should provide
enough steering response wet and dry traction, snow
traction and high speed performance.
 Have Low Rolling Resistance: Rolling resistance of a
tyre is defined as the “resistance for its free rolling”.
Resistance to free rolling of tyre causes vehicle engine to
consume were power loading to increased fuel
consumption. Rolling resistance depends on (i) load, (ii)
inflation pressure, (iii) temperature, (iv) speed, (v) road
conditions besides structural aspect and individual.
 Provide Minimum Noise and Minimum Vibration:
Ensuring that noise and vibration levels from tyre
resonance and interactions with the road surface are
acceptable.

 Seldom does a tyre buyer consciously seek a tyre for its

low noise level, but he resents and objects immediately
to a tyre which “sings” over the road surface at any
speed or which squeals as he turns a corner. Tread
design, road profile and tread compound affect the noise
produced.

 Be Durable throughout the Expected Life Span:

Durability means freedom from premature failure and is
the measure of tyre’s ability to meet the needs of the
customer over the expected life. Tyres can fail
prematurely from looseness between tyre components,
cord failure, compound fatigue and tread or sidewall
cracking.
 TYRE DEFINITION AND FUNCTIONS
Definition:
In many ways tyre is an engineering marvel. “Geometrically Tyre is a
Torus. Mechanically, a Tyre is a flexible, high-pressure container.
Structurally, a tyre is a high-performance composite. Chemically, a
tyre consists of materials from long chain macromolecules”.

Functions/Rquirements:
1. Provide load carrying capacity
2. Provide cushioning and damping
3. Transmit driving and braking torque.
4. Provide cornering force.
5. Provide dimensional stability
6. Resist abrasion
7. Generate steering response
8. Have low rolling resistance
9. Provide minimum noise and minimum vibration
10. Be durable throughout the expected life span.
 TYRE SIZE DESIGNATIONS
A tyre is designated by its:
(1) Size
(2) Aspect ratio
(3) Type of construction (bias/radial/bias belted)
(4) Ply rating
(5) Pattern code
(6) Load plate (marked on side wall).
(7) Rim diameter
(8) Serial No.
(9) Manufacturer’s name
(10) Collaborators name
(11) Company logo
For example, 10.00-20 16 PR N 416 designates a truck tyre.

 10.00 denotes approximately 10” nominal sectional width

 20” as nominal diameter of the desired rim in inches (bias

construction no letter R).

 N 416 indicates tread pattern code (In case of lug pattern).

 16 PR indicates sixteen ply rating. PR indicates index of

strength of the carcass to carry a specified load under
specified inflation pressure. Since this is an index of
strength, it does not denote the numerical number of plies.
 Another example, the tyre size designation 195/75 R 14”,
has the following meaning:

 P Passenger car tyre

 Approximate section width in millimeters, when mounted

on a proper rim.

 Aspect ratio [(tyre section height/tyre section width)x100]

 R Radial construction

 Nominal rim diameter in inches.

 Load values for a 11 R 24.5 radial heavy duty
truck tyre (Tyre & Rim Association)

Load range Corresponding Tyre & Rim Association Inflation

ply rating (designation loaded tyre (psi)
limit (lb)
F 12 5780 90
G 14 6430 105
H 16 7030 120
A heavy-duty truck tyre would typically have the size
designation of 11 R 24.5 for a conventional tubeless tyre, a
low profile could be sized 295/75 R 22.5. For the
conventional tyre,
 11 Nominal section diameter in inches
 R Radial construction
 24.5 Rim diameter in inches
Such conventional-size tyres have standard aspect ratio of
80.
145/60 SR 14 indicates
 Sectional width = 145 mm = 14.5 cm
 Nominal rim dia = 14 inches
 VR = very high speed (upto 300 km/hr)
 SR = slow speed < 100 km/hr
 R = high speed (upto 150 km/hr)
Tyre Terminologies
 TYPES OF TYRES

(A) According to use:

(I) Automobile tyres: Vary in size, shape, load rating and

speed rating. Automobile tyre types includes winter, all season,
summer and high performance tyres.

(II) Truck tyres: Light, medium or heavy load truck tyres. Bus
tyres are usually included in the medium truck tyres.

(III) Off-road tyres: These are used on earth moving road

construction, mining and some recreational vehicles. Often required
to operate on uneven terrain, these vehicles impose special demands
on their tyres for floatation on soft grounds and resistance to
bruising and cutting by sharp objects.
 TYPES OF TYRES
(IV) Farm tyres: Requires floatation on soft grounds, hillside
stability, minimum soil compact and resistance to damage from
weathering.

(V) Aircraft tyres: Includes those for commuter, commercial

and military aircraft. Special demands on aircraft tyres are required
by their use at high speeds and high loads relative to their size.

(VI) Race tyres: These are required to provide high speed

performance, high reliability during their relatively short service time
and high friction levels in cornering, acceleration and braking modes
of vehicle operation.

(VII) Military tyres: Also have special demands such as extra

margin of safety and a run flat capability.
 TYPES OF TYRES

(B) Tubeless and tube type tyres:

Advantages of tubeless tyres over tube type:

1. Simplicity
2. Weight saving
3. Fewer road delays
4. Cooler running
5. Labour savings

(C) Solid tyre

No scope of puncher, low speed, chance of high heat build-up
 TYPES OF TYRES
The pneumatic tyre is a fabricated structure, which envelops the
air that carries the load. There are three basic types (construction)
of tyre used now-a-days.
(I) Bias / Cross ply tyre, (II) Radial ply tyre, (III) Bias belted tyre

Cross Ply Tyre Radial Ply Tyre Bias Belted Tyre

 Bias on cross ply: The reinforcing cords extend diagonally across the tyre
from head to head. The angle of the cord path to the centre line of the tyre is
generally in the range of 54-63o. The cords run in opposite direction in each
successive layer (ply) of reinforcing material.

Tyre Cross ply

Condition

Casing Belt

Raw 54-63o -
Vulcanized 29-36o
Basic Tyre Types (Tyre Construction)

 Bias Belted: This construction consists

 of a bias angle carcass with a restarting
 belt. The carcass angle generally maintained
 between 58 and 61 degrees and the belt angle
 between 50 and 52oC. The angle of the belt
 is at least 5o lower than the angle of the
 carcass.

Tyre Belted Bias

Condition

Casing Belt

Raw 58-61o 52o

Vulcanized 32o 26o
 Basic Tyre Types (Tyre Construction)

 Radial ply: In this tyre, the plies of reinforcing cords extend transversely from
head to head (i.e. ply cords run in the radial direction i.e. in the direction of tyre
axis). On top of the plies (under the tread) is an in-extensible belt composed of
several layers of cords in the circumferential direction. The belt cords are low angle
(16-21oC) and act to restrict the carcass plies.

Tyre Radial
Condition

Casing Belt

Raw 80-90o 16-21o

Vulcanized 75-90o 12-18o
 Tyre Components
Primary components Secondary components
Bead, Tread, Carcass, Plies, Chafer, Flipper, Fillers, Side
Belts [which gives walls, Inner liners, Breaker
fundamental properties like (Basic function of it is to
(i) tyre geometry, (ii) stress protect primary component
capacity (load bearing from stress concentration by
capacity), (iii) tyre distributing evenly in tyre
fundamental characteristics structure and thereby
(basic tyre requirements).] improving mechanical
Breaker is not acting as properties.
restricting component, it
provide extra strength at the
crown area, distributing the
forces throughout the
carcass.
Tyre Components
Tread: This is the portion of tyre, which comes
in contact with the road. The tread is the
abrasion resistance component of the tyre and
forms a protective coating for the carcass. It
has to designed for (i) traction, (ii) low noise,
(iii) heat build-up.

RIBS: are the circumferential rows of the

tread rubber in direct contact with the road
surface.

Grooves: are the circumferential channels,

between the ribs and are essential for traction,
directional control, high speed performance
etc.
Side Walls: These are larger of appropriate
thickness rubber compound applied on both sides
of the tyre between the head and tread (buttress
region) and protects the carcass from external
damage. Side wall rubber is compounded for high
flex resistance (NR/BRRadial; SBR/BRBias).
Tyre Components
Side Walls: These are larger of appropriate
thickness rubber compound applied on both sides
of the tyre between the head and tread (buttress
region) and protects the carcass from external
damage. Side wall rubber is compounded for high
flex resistance (NR/BRRadial; SBR/BRBias).

To prevent carcass damage

High elasticity
1 High stability
To increase stability bead area
Two compounds
2 1 flexible low plasticity
2 stiff (hard)
 Tyre Components
Plies: These are reinforcing members of the
tyre and is cut from rubber coated fabric. Plies
are layers of cord fabric extending from head
to head. These are normally of rayon, nylon,
polyester or steel cord coated with rubber
compound. The plies are turned up around
the head thereby locking the head into the
tyre carcass. The plies are so arranged that
the cords extend across the tyre at an angle,
the cords in each successive ply crossing at
opposite angles.
Ply coat: Raw fabric being treated under
specific time, temperature and tension in a
Resorcinol, formaldehyde latex (RFL) dip
solution to achieve (i) adhesion to rubber and
(ii) shrinkage characteristics is coated with
specific rubber compound by calendering
process to get uniform and consistent gauge.
Breakers: These are short plies of rubber
coated fabric cut at an angle and are
positioned centrally between the tyre casing
and tread to strengthen carcass against
impacts.
 Tyre Components
Liner: It is a thin layer of rubber compound on
the inside of the tyre (carcass) to contain
compressed air. (Material  NR).

 Low air permeability

 Minimal cord penetration

Breakers: These are short plies of rubber

coated fabric cut at an angle and are
positioned centrally between the tyre casing
and tread to strengthen carcass against
impacts.
 Tyre Components
Chafers: These are narrow strip of material (made
from cross-woven rubberised fabric-cotton, rayon,
nylon etc.) placed around the ply lock assembly
(outside of the head) to protect the cord plies
against wear and chafing (cutting) by rim and
prevent penetration of moisture and foreign matter
into the tyre.
Squeezees/Cushions: are the additional layers of
rubber compound placed across the crown of a tyre
between the plies to provide insulation against ply-
to-ply friction and improve ply-to-ply adhesion in
critical areas of the tyre. This also held absorb and
spread impacts.
Beads: are composed of a number of layers of
rubber coated high tensile strength wires formed
into inextensible loops. The bead functions to Bead insulation: It is a specially
anchor the plies and to hold the tyre on the rim. compounded hard rubber for
The shape or contour of the bead conforms to the insulating bead wire from each
flange of the wheel and prevents the tyre from other and holding them together
rocking or slipping on the rims
 Tyre Components
Beads: are composed of a number of layers
of rubber coated high tensile strength wires
formed into inextensible loops. The bead
functions to anchor the plies and to hold the
tyre on the rim. The shape or contour of the
bead conforms to the flange of the wheel
and prevents the tyre from rocking or
slipping on the rims

 Holds a tyre on the rim

 High forces resistant
 Rubber coated brassed/brassed
coate wire

Bead insulation: It is a specially

compounded hard rubber for
insulating bead wire from each
other and holding them together
 Tyre Components
Bead wrap: It is the rubber or rubberized thin cross
woven fabric strip wrapped around the insulated
bead to bind them firmly.

Bead filler or apex: This is hard rubber strip in

triangular shape and is fitted on the outer
circumference of the wrapped bead stock which is
covered by rubber coated cross fabric known as
flipper.
 Stiff & hard
 To prevent irregularity in carcass turn-up
 To prevent trapped air
 Very hard compound

Belts: are narrow layers of reinforcing material

directly under the tread in the crown of the tyre.
The belts acts to restrict the carcass plies and are
lower in angle than the plies. Belts should be
differentiated from breakers, which are also used in
the crown of the tyre. Breakers have more or less
same angle as the carcass plies and do not restrict
 Manufacturing technology

 Compound mixing
 Textile processing (dipping and hot stretching bonding)
 Calendering
 Extrusion
 Component preparation (ply, band, head etc.)
 Tyre fabrication
 Tyre vulcanization (curing)
 Tyre inspection
 Efficient energy utilization
TYRE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 Carcass materials

1. Nylon, 2. Steel belt, 3. All steel, 4. Polyester belts, Rayons

For Nylon and polyester: heat treatment is very important to give the dimensional
stability by reducing residual shrinkage:- Apply post curing inflation (PCI)

In Bias tyre, there should be even no. of cord, because they always crossply.
Sidewall will be rigid due to cross ply

For radial tyre, the cord should be high modulus to bear the load which acts in
perpendicular direction to the cord of the tyre. Hence the side wall is flexible.

Single ply radial tyre can be prepared by using steel which is not possible for bias
tyre, because there are always crossply so during dynamic condition high degree
of friction and heat generation is more.

Belts are generally placed in a angle of 10 – 200. in case of glass it can not
withstand repeated fatigue and durability is also low
 Quality control
 Raw materials

 Intermediate processed materials

 Processes

 Components

 Finished products
 Product evaluation methods/controls

 Machine simulation tests

 Field tests

 Analysis – both destructive and non-destructive

 Examination/analysis of field failures – establishment of

cause and effect
 Application engineering
 Vehicle/tyre interaction

 Tyre/road interaction

 Safety

 Six widely different tyres are analysed in Table 1. Notice

the difference in requirements just for these six tyres –
load requirements range from 1200 to 21,000 lbs. Speed
requirements vary from 5 to 250 mph and mileage
requirements range from 500 to 40,000 miles.
 Breakers and Belts

 Breakers are short plies of rubber coated fabric cut at an

angle and are positioned centrally between the tyre casing
and tread to strengthen carcass against impacts. On the
other hand, the breaker is a blanket of one or more layers of
cord or wire and rubber built into the tyre between the outer
ply and tread.

 Generally, it covers laterally about the width of the tread

contact on the road and serves to distribute impact stocks
over a broad area of carcass plies and lessens punctures
and ply breaks. The breaker may be square-woven fabric or
plied-up bias-cut cord or wire, and is of open construction so
that the rubber “rivets” between the plies and the tread are
strong and tread adhesion high.
 Materials used variously for breakers or bands include rayon,
nylon, polyester, fibre glass and steel wire.

 Belts are narrow layers of reinforcing material directly under

the tread in the crown of the tyre. The belts act to restrict the
carcass plies and are lower in angle than the plies. Belt
should be differentiated from breakers, which are also used
in the crown of the tyre. Breakers have more or less same
angle as the carcass plies and do not restrict.

 Belt angle < carcass angle  Belt

 Belt angle = carcass angle  Breaker

 Compounding in Tyre Industry

 Compounding for tyre compounds are complicated and

requires thorough technological skill for successful
performance of tyres.

 The design of compounds are varied to meet the demand of

various infrastructures to cope with the enormous static and
dynamic forces.

 Each segment of cross-section is designated with particular

compound to sustain forces acting differently onto it.
Tyre design & construction
SUMMER TYRES
 Max. safety, even in wet
conditions
 Top safety performance,
even at high speeds
 Various sizes
 Poor winter performance
Tyre design & construction
WINTER TYRES
 Max. traction on wet &
slippery roads
 Siped tread pattern
 Many sizes available
 Max. speed 240 km/h
 Silica in tread compound
Tyre design & construction
USE OF SIPES
 More deformation when
driven (self cleaning)
 More sharp edges (more
traction)
 Reduced united surfaces
(no skating effect)
 Minimum tread depth 4 mm.
Tyre design & construction
STUDDED TYRES
 Max. traction & optimal
braking power on ice
 Protrusion height 1,5 mm.
 Not allowed in all countries,
causing road surface
damage
 High noise level
 Limited size range
Tyre design & construction
ALL SEASON TYRES
 Combination of summer-
and winter tyre
 Especially for areas with
limited snow-fall
 Tyre design & construction
Tyre requirements are stipulated by:
 Government
 Automobile industry
 End-users
 Automotive journalists
Tyre design & construction

REQUIREMENTS AS TO:
 Product reliability
 Driving stability
 Comfort
 Economy
 Environment
Tyre design & construction

PRODUCT RELIABILITY
 Resistance
– High speed
– Endurance
– Penetration
– High inflation
pressure

 Simple fitting
Tyre design & construction

COMFORT
 Shock absorption
 Vibrations
 Noise
 Tyre design & construction

Energy consumption

ECONOMY
 Price
 Lifetime
 Retreadability
 Rolling
resistance
 In a nutshell the various compounds in a giant tyre cross-
section can be sub-divided as follows:
Compound
1. Tread compound
2. Base compound
3. Side wall compound
4. Cushion and breaker
compound
5. Outer ply compound
6. Inner ply compound
7. Bead insulation compound
8. Bead filler compound
9. Chaffer compound
10. Inner liner compound
Miscell. Compound
Characteristics
(i) high wear resistant, (ii) low heat build-up properties, (iii)
protection against crack/cut/weather etc.
(i) resistance to reversion, (ii) resistance to dynamic adhesion
failure and flex fatigue failure
Capable of sustaining very high flexing and weather resistance
Very high bonding properties and resistance to reversion
-do-
-do-
Capable to give very high rubber to metal bonding
Hard enough to fill the void of turn up of plies with adequate
bonding.
Strong enough to sustain rim chaffing with adequate bonding with
cords.
Strong enough to protect tube and tyre during service (in case of
tubeless tyre to hold air i.e. to reduce air permeability)
(i) Steel cord skim compound, (ii) rim strip compound, (iii)
shoulder pad compound etc.
Elastomer NR, SBR, BR NR, BR, IR NR/BR, NR, IR NR, IR, BR, Halo-butyl, Base material
Properties Max.- SBR, Max.- SBR NR, into
Max.- thermal EPDM, adhesion Max.- SBR which all other
Traction & oxidative Halo-butyl to Adhesion Max.- compounds are
Min.- stability Max.- wire to thermal & incorporated.
wear, groove, Min.- adhesion to Min-.heat cord, oxidative
cracking, cut hysteresis outer body build-up oxidative stability,
growth, rolling (heat ply, self- and adhesion to
resistance build-up or cleaning thermal body stock
energy loss (white) stability Min.-
Min.- Permeability
Hysteresis in air
Reinforcing Carbon blacks HAF (N- GPF (N- W-330 GPF (N- GPF, clay Increase
agents like 330), 660), (HAF), 660), hardness,
ISAF, HAF, FEF (N-550) FEF Silica Silica – strength,
SAF (normally a level of stiffness,
(ISAF gives used), 10 phr and resistance
higher mileage TiO2, better to tear and
but higher ZnO (FEF adhesion abrasion.
heat gives better properties
build-up, while extrusion for
HAF provide along with dry binding
cooler running other
compound.) required
properties.
Curing Normal sulfur Normal Normally High Normal sulfur CV, Variable In presence of
System to medium sulphur to CV-system sulphur Normally high S heat causes
sulfur; low sulfr; provides better rubber to
Low to High adhesion but vulcanize.
medium accelerator poor ageing
accelerator SEV-system properties, so to
CV-system. optimize CV-
system is used

Accelera-tors All based on sulphenamides accelerator for better processing safety and to reduce Increases
scorch. speed

Accelerator Zinc oxide and stearic acid Improve

activator control of cure,
“kick off”
accelerator
narrow heat
requirements.
Age resistors Antiocidants (6 PPD), waxes and antiozonants Reduce weather checks and sun checks on side walls,
lessen ozone destruction.

Processing Peptizers, plasticizers, tackifiers, lubricants Speed break down time, reduce plasticity, increase
aid handling tack, soften vulcanized product, reduce
condition.

Coloured TiO2, colour pigments and dyes For white side walls stocks, coloured liners, brands,
pigment colour bands.
s

Retarder Organic chemicals Reduce scorch tendency.

 MANUFACTURE OF TYRE

 The production sequence is briefly described below:

 Compounding of rubber processing
 Mastication of rubbers
 Mixing of rubber and ingredients
 Extrusion
 Fabric (tyre cord) processing
 Dipping and processing
 Calendering/rubberising the treated fabric
 Bias cutting of calendered fabric
 Bead construction/building
 Green tyre building
 Tyre curing
 Different types of Extruders
 This is used to cover tyre bead wire and the extruder function
here remain same as for regular extruder and cold feed type
is preferred.

 Cross-head Extruder: The extruder barrels, screw and head

can be heated/cooled to desired temperature. The material to
be coated comes at 90o angle to the extruder screw system,
and rubber thus makes a 90o turn after bead wired curing
system. A vacuum device can be fitted in the barrel of an
extruder to remove any trace of entrapped air or other volatile
matter from the compound.

 Extruders with two (duplex), three (triplex) or four

(quadruplex) barrel and screw system allowing different
compounds extruding through a single head/die are used in
practice.
 TYRE CORD PROCESSING
 Tyre cord processing is the critical stage in preparing a cord
fabric for use in a tyre.
 During processing a dip solution is applied and fabric is
treated under controlled conditions of time, temperature and
tension. This is commonly known as 3T processing.
 The process gives the fabric the following properties: (a)
besides applying dip solution (essential for adhesion to
rubber), (b) optimizes physical properties of the cord, i.e.
strength, durability, growth and elongation of the cord for tyre
application, (3) stabilizes the fabric for further processing and
in service of the tyre (minimizing of growth) and (4) equalizes
differences due to fabric source of supply.
 A dip unit is the largest and most expensive equipment in the
tyre manufacturing process. Dip solution (adhesion system)
comprises only 1.0-1.5% of the tyre weight but has large
effect on tyre performance.
 Besides providing excellent adhesion the dip solution must
also conform to different requirements –

 Rapid rate of adhesive formation

 High fatigue resistance
 Compatibility with many types of rubber compounds
 No adverse effect on cord properties
 High resistance
 Resistance to ageing during tyre service mechanical stability
 Preferably be water based
 Nylon-6 (a polar compound) does not adhere well to rubber
(usually a hydrocarbon like cotton specially because of the
smooth surface of nylon fibre entirely free from fluffs. In
order to adhere nylon with rubber, adhesive system consists
of resorcinol-formaldehyde resin (RF resin) and a latex was
developed and found most suitable.
 The dip constituents that effects the performance of RFL-
dips are the resorcinol-formaldehyde ratio, resin formation
conditions, reaction time, temperature, pH of the resin
solution, type of latex (for nylon normally VP-latex is used),
ratio of latex to resin, catalyst composition and its amount
and total solid of the dip.
 The most common dip solution system throughout the world
is based on RFL (Resorcinol-Formaldehyde-Latex) system
is an aqueous medium.
 On formation of resin (at definite time and temperature –
time=6-8 hrs, temperature 232oC) latex is added under
slow stirring and the whole solution is matured for definite
time (minimum 6 hours) at a specific temperature (slightly
higher or lower than ambient temperature) before use.

 Normally a blend of vinyl pyride (V.P.) latex and natural or

styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) latex is used for tyre cord
processing.
 DIPPING
 A dip unit is the largest and most expensive equipment in the
tyre manufacturing process.
 Dip solution (adhesion system) comprises only 1.0-15% of the
tyre weight but has large effect on tyre performance.
 Besides providing excellent adhesion, the dip solution must
also conform to different requirements.
 Rapid rat eof adhesive formation
 High fatigue resistance
 Compatibility with many tyres of rubber compounds
 No adverse effect on cord properties
 Heat resistance
 Ageing resistance in tyre service
 Mechanical stability
 Preferably be water based
 Dipping is carried out to bring adhesion to rubber and to adjust
certain properties of the cord.
 An organic fibre (basically a rubber compound) does not adhere
well with rubber ( a hydrocarbon). In order to achieve good
bonding between the two, an adhesive larger to be applied on
the fabric. This adhesive layer for most of the organic fibre like
nylon, rayon is a mixture of resorcinol formaldehyde and latex.
Most common dip solution system throughout the world is based
on RFL (Resorcinol-Formaldehyde-Latex) system in an aqueous
medium. [Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (RF) resin is first prepared
by dissolving resorcinol in water and then adding formaldehyde
and an alkaline (NaOH) catalyst]
 On formation of resin (at definite time and temperature) latex is
added under slow stirring and the whole solution is matured for
definite time at a specific temperature before use. Normally a
blend of vinyl pyridine (VP) latex and natural or styrene
butadiene (SBR) latex is used for tyre cord processing.
 aTime = 6-8 hrs bTime = minimum 6 hrs

 Temperature = 232oC Temperature = slightly higher or lower

than ambient temperature
 Calendering: Calendering is the forming operation in which
the rubber compound is spread on the processed fabric from
dip unit.

 The calender is a heavy-duty machine equipped with two or

more rolls revolving in opposite directions, so that a mass of
masticated or plastic rubber fed between them will be
squeezed into sheet form by rolling action. Thus the chief
function of the calender is to prepare compounded rubber as
a uniform smooth sheet of definite thickness and width.
 The other allied operations of the calender where fabric or
cloth is involved are frictioning and skim coating or hopping.
In frictioning a thin film of rubber is forced into the interstices
of the fabric by means of friction thus leading to the term
frictioning. The object of skim coating is to apply a thick
coating of rubber on the fabric.
 Rolls are heated by circulating water or by steam and
gears permit the rolls to operate at varying speed ratios.

 The amount of compound deposited i.e. compound gauge

onto the fabric is determined by the distance between rolls
(i.e. roll gap) and is automatically monitored by beta gauge
or manually by measuring coated fabric gauge or
determining weight per unit area. Compound gauge on the
fabric i.e., total calendered fabric gauge for nylon fabric =
0.86 to 1.37 mm, for sheet belted ply = 1.62 to 2.3 mm.

 To achieve uniform gauge throughout the width of the

fabric, it is necessary to pay attention to the following
factors: (a) M.V. of the compound (40-70); (b) temperature
of the compound (905oC); (c) temperature of rolls (80-
85oC) and (d) feeding of compound evenly across the in-
going side of the calender nip.
 Bias Cutting

 The rubber coated fabric from calender is then wound on a liner

and taken to bias cutter where the fabric is cut at the desired
angle. Bias cutter consists of –
 let off unit for the rubberised fabric roll
 a conveyor belt
 speed is accurately controlled electronically to maintain correct
ply length over which fabric is run, the electronically controlled
cutting device
 cut ply collecting station
 cut plies are joined, end to end into a continuous length and
batched into a roll form using liner in between the layers.
 BEAD BUILDING
 Bead wires are received in the form of large spools.
 Number of such spools equivalent to the number of strand are
mounted on free rolling stands.
 Multi-strand copper coated high tensile steel wires are passed through
a cross-head extruder die to give coating of rubber compound.
 The rubber coated wires are coiled in the form of a ring of desired
diameter and thickness and the free wire ends are trapped/wrapped
with rubber or Rubberised fabric strips.
 Bead apex, a triangular in shape with a tapered edge, is applied to the
outer circumference of the bead by a semi-automatic machine
operation.
 The bead is gripped and rotated while the apex is fed manually and
considered by means of angled pressure rotors.
 Bead apex is a rubber compound strip formed by extrusion, located on
the top side of the bead. Its primary function is to pack out the area of
the structure immediately above the bead coil between casing ply and
ply turn up.
 Next bead flipper is applied over bead to further enhance the strength
of this area. Bead flipper is a rubber coated ply from cross-woven
fabric.
 GREEN TYRE BUILDING STAGES (BIAS)
 10.00-20 truck tyre 16 PR (8 ply + 2 breaker) 8 plies = 3 bands = 1st
band (3 plies) + 2nd band (3 plies) + outer band (2 plies). Each ply
having squeezee on the top side.
 Tyre building drum is collapsed and two beads are placed on the inner
bead carrier ring and the drum is expanded.
 Drum cement namely naptha is applied over the building drum by a
brush.
 Inner liner (compounded rubber stip) is placed circumferencially over the
drum.
 Placement of 1st band (inner band) over the drum.
 Turned the ply down over the shoulder of the drum.
 Placement of two beads on either side from the bead carrier ring (BCR)
to provide an interference contact with the drum shoulder and thereby
transfer and consolidate the tyre beads against the partially built casing
structure.
 Turned the ply up with the help of turned up roller for interlocking the
beads.
 Next, the second inner band (3 plies) is placed over the drum.
 Turned the ply down over the shoulder of the drum.
 Placement of next two beads on either side of the partially built casing
structure.
 Again, turned the ply up with the help of turned up roller for interlocking
the beads.
 Next, outer band consisting of two outer ply is placed over the partially
built casing structure.
 Two breakers are placed (in the middle position) over the outer band.
 Two chafers are placed on either side along the edges of the outer ply
(outside of bead) to protect cord plies against wear and chafing by rim
and prevent penetration of moisture and foreign matter into the tyre.
 Next, tread is placed over the breaker and consolidated by tread
spinners.
 Two side walls are placed over the chafers upto tread shoulder area.
 Final consolidation is done by traversing rollers.
 Finally, a mould releasing agent (a solution comprising 70%
isopropanol and 30% naptha) is used for easy removal of green tyre
from the drum.
 On completion drum is collapsed.
 The green tyre is removed from the collapsed drum of tyre building
machine.
 Pre-Cure Operations of Green Tyre
 Since joining portions of tread is the weakest portion of
green tyre, so jamming operation is performed for joining
the tread splices.
 Painting Operation: Inner and outer side of the green
tyre is painted by spraying technique.
 Outer painting is done for better flow of compound in the
mould and prevent sticking off tyre external surface with
the mould. Also there will be good appearance after cure
(shining). This is called outer cube.
 Inner painting (white) is done for removal of entrapped air
between tyre and curing bladder. Also, it prevents folding
and crease formation on the bladder surface and thereby,
increase life of bladder by preventing sticking tyre with the
bladder. Solution for painting of side wall is Naptha,
silicone oil and rubber compound.
 Solution for inner painting – mica, silicone oil, naptha,
ethyl alcohol, French chalk.
 TYRE CURING

Tyre shaping
Diaphragm Bladder Assembly at Tyre during mould
loading Stage closure
 TYRE CURING
 Curing of the tyre is carried out by putting the green tyre in
mould to give permanent shape. Curing can be carried out in
press in (Beg-o-matic or NRM type) in which a cylindrical
diaphragms shapes the tyre as the press carrying the
segments of the mould closes.
 To avoid porosity, to consolidate the components and to force
the uncured tyre into contact with the mould profile, internal
pressure must be applied. For this purpose, curing bag or
bladder is used.
 In modern curing press, curing diaphragm or bladder is fitted
which remains in situ permanently in the press.
 Heat is applied to green tyre born internally by passing steam
or hot water through the bladder and externally by passing
steam through the mould jacket.
 The green tyres are cured under specific pressure,
temperature and time.
 Modern curing presses are equipped with automatic
operations like steam circulation, shaping, high pressure both
circulating and dead end followed by hot water at high
pressure and then cold water, finally deflate/drain, opening of
the mould/press and ejecting out the cured tyre.

 For setting up of proper cure cycle and correct temperatures

estimation in different section of tyre “thermocoupling” of tyre
is carried out by placing thermocouple wires at different
places of green tyre during green tyre building following the
temperature characterization with the help of precision
recording instrument during curing of thermocouple tyre
under specific condition and cycle.
 The heat cycle during cure generates strains in the tyre
materials. Not all these strains are relieved when the tyre is
ejected from the mould. Therefore, tyres with nylon or
polyester casing required to be cooled under pressure.
This can be done either by (i) cooling in press by
circulating cold water or (ii) by mounting the tyre on a rim
immediately after removal from the mould and cool under
inflation pressure. This is known as “Post Curing Inflation
(PCI). Fully automatic plant for this purpose is located
immediately behind the modern press.

 After curing and PCI tyres are brought to inspection section

whereby spews and flashes are trimmed, thoroughly
inspected, both inside and outside, or any defect and
necessary repair on the side wall region before passing to
ware house.
Advantages of radial tyre over bias tyres:

(1) Longer tread life - Almost upto 100% more wear life. Since
the tread is free from lateral deflection, the tread wear is less.

(2) Lower rolling resistance - Due to the lack of lateral

deflection of tread elements the rolling resistance of radial tyre is
less. The energy for traction is almost completely utilised.

(3) Higher cornering power & smaller slip angle.

(4) Better tractive and braking grip - Due to the greater area
of contact patch, the ground pressure is slightly lower and more
evenly distributed.
(5) Better high speed performance - Limiting speed for
occurrence for force of distortion (known as standing waves) is
higher for radial tyres due to its peculiar construction (mainly the
lower crown angle of the belt).

(6) Better riding comfort - This is because the greater flexibility

and suppleness of the sidewall which can easily accommodate the
damping vibrations.

(7) More resistant to bruise or impact - since the rigidity of

the belt and the flexibility of the body plies combined to distribute
the impact over a greater area and reduce its destructive effect.
 THE KEY ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES

ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY:
• Fewer raw materials are required to produce a tyre reducing
consumption of natural resources.
• Lower fuel consumption brings down pollutant exhaust gas
emissions.
• There are fewer unwanted spent carcasses.

GENERAL:
• The radial tyre produces ten times less heat than a conventional
tyre.
• For every speed increase of 10 kmph, its rolling capacity doubles
w.r.t bias.
• The reduced heat production from the radial tyre structure is an
enormous advantage w.r.t bias resulting in greater endurance,
longer mileage and less rolling resistance.
 THE KEY ADVANTAGES OF RADIAL TYRES
SAFE:

• Road holding and steering characteristics are better than ever before.
• Grip is improved on all types of ground - dry, wet, soft or snow covered.
• Thanks to improved resistance at high speed, the tyre can be used safely
at much higher speeds.
• With its steel reinforced belt, the tyre is highly puncture resistant. In 1995
the average distance traveled between punctures was 70,000 kms.

ECONOMICAL:
• Thanks to improved endurance, the radial’s tread life is often increased by
more than 100%.
• Radial tyres are simple to retread. A heavy vehicle tyre carcass runs for an
average of 600000 kms.
• The tyre structure is lighter.
• Rolling resistance is 30-40 % lower, reducing 5-10 % fuel consumption.
Disadvantages of Radial Tyre:

1) Harsh ride at speeds below 20 kmph. Why?

Due to increased contact patch area and higher stiffness (lesser flexibility)
particularly radial stiffness, at low speeds the radial tyres resulting in
comparatively higher harshness in riding because of immediate transmission of
forces in the contact patch to the vehicle system.

2) Heavier steering at low speeds and when parking. Why?

The aligning moment is very sensitive to the size of the contact patch. The
sheer stress and the torque arm responsible for the moment are both
proportional to the distance from the tyre centre.Thus the major contributors
to aligning moment are the tread elements at the extremes of the contact
patch. Because of the above reason, with the radial tyres, the increased
contact patch area particularly at the extremes of the contact patch results in
heavier steering at low speeds and when parking.

3) Higher cost
 Tyre design & construction
Tread Sidewall Rim Carcass Belt Innerliner Apex Bead
cushion

Wear
X X
Rolling resistance
X
Skid resistance
X
Tensile strength
X X X
Elasticity
X X X
Adhesion
X X X
Air permeability
X
Hardness 60 Sh
X X X
Hardness 60-75 Sh
X
Hardness >70 Sh
X X X X
The Magic Triangle (The Dream of Tyre Manufacturing)

Low Rolling Resistance (Fuel efficiency)

Abrasion Skid Resistance

resistance (Traction and
(low wear) breaking)