Understanding Food 6th Edition Amy C.

Brown
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/understanding-food-6th-edition-amy-c-brown/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation 6th

Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/understanding-food-principles-and-
preparation-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

When Parents Kill Children: Understanding Filicide 1st

Edition Thea Brown

https://ebookmass.com/product/when-parents-kill-children-
understanding-filicide-1st-edition-thea-brown/

eTextbook 978-0323354097 Understanding Pathophysiology

6th Edition

https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0323354097-
understanding-pathophysiology-6th-edition/

Practicing Texas Politics, 2017 - 2018 Edition Lyle C.

Brown

https://ebookmass.com/product/practicing-texas-
politics-2017-2018-edition-lyle-c-brown/
Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 6th
Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/understanding-and-managing-
organizational-behavior-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Pediatric Food Preferences and Eating Behaviors Julie C

Lumeng

https://ebookmass.com/product/pediatric-food-preferences-and-
eating-behaviors-julie-c-lumeng/

Programming in ANSI C 6th Edition E. Balagurusamy

https://ebookmass.com/product/programming-in-ansi-c-6th-edition-
e-balagurusamy/

Case Files Psychiatry 6th Edition Edition Eugene C. Toy

https://ebookmass.com/product/case-files-psychiatry-6th-edition-
edition-eugene-c-toy/

Surgical Decision Making 6th Edition Edition Robert C.

Mcintyre

https://ebookmass.com/product/surgical-decision-making-6th-
edition-edition-robert-c-mcintyre/
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Fit your coursework
into your hectic life.
Make the most of your time by learning
your way. Access the resources you need to
succeed wherever, whenever.

Study with digital flashcards, listen to audio

textbooks, and take quizzes.

Review your current course grade and compare

your progress with your peers.

Get the free MindTap Mobile App and learn

wherever you are.

Break Limitations. Create your

own potential, and be unstoppable
with MindTap.

MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU.

cengage.com/mindtap
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Understanding
Food Principles
and
Preparation
SIXTH EDITION

Amy C. Brown
University of Hawaii at Manoa

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right
to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For
valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate
formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for
materials in your areas of interest.

Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product
text may not be available in the eBook version.

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Understanding Food: Principles and © 2019, 2015 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Preparation, Sixth Edition
Amy C. Brown Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.

Product Director: Dawn Giovanniello ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Product Manager: Krista Mastroianni herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written
Project Manager: Ronald D’Souza permission of the copyright owner.

Content Developer: Oden Connolly

Product Assistant: Marina Starkey

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Marketing Manager: Ana Albinson Cengage Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.

Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt

For permission to use material from this text or product,
Photo and Text Researcher: submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.
Further permissions questions can be emailed to
Lumina Datamatics Limited
permissionrequest@cengage.com.
Production Management, and Composition:
MPS Limited

Art and Cover Direction: Michael Cook

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949419
Text Designer: Diane Beasley
Student Edition:
Cover Image: Thomas Northcut/Getty Images
ISBN: 978-1-337-55756-6

Loose-leaf Edition:
ISBN: 978-1-337-55792-4

Cengage
20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA

Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with

employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com.

Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, visit www.cengage.com.

To register or access your online learning solution or purchase materials for

your course, visit www.cengagebrain.com.

Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Brief Contents

PART I FOOD SCIENCE 18 Starches and Sauces 369

AND NUTRITION 19 Quick Breads 385

20 Yeast Breads 395
1 Food Selection 1
2 Food Evaluation 20 DESSERTS—REFINED
3 Chemistry of Food Composition 27 CARBOHYDRATES & FAT
PART II FOOD SERVICE 21 Sweeteners 411
22 Fats and Oils 428
4 Food Safety 61
23 Cakes and Cookies 453
5 Food Preparation Basics 91
24 Pastries and Pies 471
6 Meal Management 113
25 Candy 489
PART III FOODS 26 Frozen Desserts 505
PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY,
FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS WATER—BEVERAGES
27 Beverages 518
7 Meat 131
8 Poultry 163
PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY
9 Fish and Shellfish 177
28 Food Preservation 541
10 Milk 197
29 Government Food Regulations 555
11 Cheese 218
30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 570
12 Eggs 236

PHYTOCHEMICALS— APPENDIXES
VEGETABLES, FRUITS, A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
SOUPS, & SALADS B Food Yields B-1
C Substitution of Ingredients C-1
13 Vegetables and Legumes 256
D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
14 Fruits 284
E Common Food Additives E-1
15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 310
F Answers to Multiple-Choice
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES— Questions F-1
CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS
GLOSSARY G-1
16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 326
INDEX I-1
17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 346
iii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents
Preface xxiv Geography and Climate 12
About the Author xxvii Cultural Influences on Manners 12
Religious Criteria 12
Buddhism 12
PART I FOOD SCIENCE Hinduism 12
Seventh-Day Adventist Church 12
AND NUTRITION Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormon Church) 12
Chapter 1 Food Selection 1 Judaism 13
Sensory Criteria 1 Islam 13
Sight 1 Psychological and Sociological
Odor 2 Criteria 14
Classification of Odors 2 Bioengineering 14
Detecting Odors 2 History of Biotechnology 14
Taste 3 Foods Created with Biotechnology 14
Mechanism of Taste 3 Concerns about GMO Foods 15
The Six Taste Stimuli 3 Acceptance/Rejection of GM Foods 16
Taste Interactions 4 Organic Foods 16
Factors Affecting Taste 4 Organic Certification 16
Definition of Flavor 4 “Natural” Foods 17
Touch 4 Processed Foods 17
Hearing 6
Budgetary Criteria 17
Nutritional Criteria 6
Weight Management 6
Chapter 2 Food Evaluation 20
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 6
ChooseMyPlate 6 Sensory (Subjective) Evaluation 20
SuperTracker 8 Two Types of Sensory Testing 20
Previous Food Group Plans 8 Analytical (Effective) Tests 22
Vegetarianism 8 Affective (Acceptance or Preference)
Consumer Dietary Changes 9 Tests 22
Kcalories on Menus 9 Taste Panels 22
Complementary and Integrative Sample Preparation 23
Medicine 9
Objective Evaluation 23
Functional Foods 10
Physical Tests 23
Nutrigenomics 11
Chemical Tests 24
Cultural Criteria 11 Electronic Noses 25
Ethnic Influences 11 Comparison of Sensory and Objective
Place of Birth 11 Evaluations 25

iv

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Chapter 3 Chemistry of Food Fatty Acid Structure 43
Composition 27 Fatty Acids in Foods 44
Fatty Acid Nomenclature 45
Basic Food Chemistry: The Six Key Phospholipids 45
Atoms (CHNOPS) 27 Food Industry Uses 45
Water 28 Sterols 45
Water Content in Foods 29 Plant Sterols 45
Composition of Water 29 Functions of Lipids in Foods 47
Measuring Heat Energy 30 Proteins 47
Specific Heat 30 Protein Quality in Foods 47
Freezing Point 30 Composition of Proteins 47
Melting Point 31 Amino Acids 48
Boiling Point 31 Functions of Proteins in Food 49
Elevation and Boiling Point 31 Hydration 49
Hard vs. Soft Water 31 Denaturation/Coagulation 49
Functions of Water in Food 31 Enzymatic Reactions 49
Heat Transfer: Moist-Heat Cooking Methods 32 Buffering 51
Solvent 32 Browning 51
Dispersions 32
Solutions 33 Vitamins and Minerals 52
Colloidal Dispersions 33 Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 52
Coarse Dispersions (Suspensions) 34 Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 53
Dispersion Destabilization 34 Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in
Chemical Reactions 34 Food 53
Ionization 34 Enrichment and Fortification 53
Changes in pH—Acids and Bases 34 Antioxidants and Their Food Industry
Salt Formation 35 Uses 53
Hydrolysis 35 Sodium and Its Food Industry Uses 53
Carbon Dioxide Release 35 Nonnutritive Food Components 53
Food Preservation 35 Food Additives 54
Water Activity 35 Purposes of Food Additives 54
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 36 Additives that Improve Appeal 54
Additives that Extend Storage Life 56
Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Maximize Performance 56
Foods High in Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Protect Nutrient Value 57
Composition of Carbohydrates 36 Plant Compounds 57
Monosaccharides 37 Beneficial 57
Disaccharides 38 Harmful 57
Oligosaccharides 38 Caffeine 57
Polysaccharides 38
Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 43
Lipids (Fats) 43 PART II FOOD SERVICE
Foods High in Lipids 43
Composition of Lipids 43
Chapter 4 Food Safety 61
Triglycerides 43 What is a Foodborne Illness? 62
Fatty Acids 43 What Causes Foodborne Illness? 62

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Biological Hazards—Living Labeling of Common Food Allergens 73
Culprits 62 Cross-Contamination 73
Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne
Preventing Foodborne Illness 74
Illness 63
Prevention Factors Overview 74
Food Infections 63
Personnel 74
Food Intoxication 64
Training 74
Toxin-Mediated Infection 64
Personal Hygiene Habits 74
Bacterial Food Infections 65 Food Flow 75
Salmonella 65 Purchasing: Written Specifications 75
Listeria monocytogenes 65 Inspection 76
Yersinia enterocolitica 65 Storage 76
Shigella 66 Temperature 76
Proper Refrigerator and Freezer Use 77
Bacterial Food Intoxications 66
Storage Times 77
Clostridium perfringens 66
Vulnerable Foods 78
Staphylococcus aureus 66
High-Risk Foods 78
Clostridium botulinum 66
Foods with High Water Activity 78
Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 66 Foods with Low Acidity 78
Escherichia coli 67 Exceptions to the High-Protein/Water/pH
Campylobacter jejuni 68 Rules 79
Vibrio 68 Oxygen and Food 79
Hepatitis A Virus 68 Preparation 79
Molds 68 Pre-preparation 79
Viruses 68 Cooking (Heating) 80
Norovirus 69 Holding 80
Parasites 69
Proper Use of Thermometers 82
Roundworms 69
Types of Thermometers 82
Protozoa 69
Testing Temperatures 82
Prions—Mad Cow Disease 70
Care of Thermometers 83
New Virulent Biological Hazards 71
Calibration of Thermometers 83
Advanced Techniques for Detecting
Cooling 84
Contamination 71
Reheating 84
Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals Serving 84
in Food 71 Sanitation 84
Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/ Dishes 84
Shellfish 72 Scheduling 85
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning 72 Euipment 85
Histamine Food Poisoning 73 Facilities 85
Puffer Fish Poisoning 73 Pest Control 86
Red Tide 73 Food Safety Monitoring 86
Health Department Inspections 86
Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 73
HACCP 87
Food Allergy, Intolerance, and HARPC 88
Sensitivity 73 Foodborne Illness Surveillance 88
Allergic Reaction Prevention 73 World Health Organization 88

vi

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Chapter 5 Food Preparation Basics 91 Sugar 102
Flour 103
Heating Foods 91 Other Ingredients and Substitutions 103
Moist-Heat Preparation 92
Approximating Food Requirements 103
Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 92 Mixing Techniques 104
Scalding 92
Baked Products 104
Poaching 92
Simmering 92 Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Stewing 92 Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Braising 92 Salt 104
Boiling 93 Salt Substitutes 106
Steaming 93 Pepper 106
Microwaving 93 Herbs and Spices 106
Dry-Heat Preparation 93 Flavor Enhancers 108
Oil Extracts 108
Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 94 Marinades 108
Baking 94
Rubs and Pastes 108
Rack Position 94
Breadings 109
Pan Color 94
Batters 109
Roasting 94
Condiments 110
Broiling 94
Adding Seasonings and Flavorings
Grilling 94
to Food 110
Barbecuing 94
How Much to Add? 110
Frying 95
When to Add? 110
Sautéing and Stir-Frying 95
Food Industry Uses 110
Pan-Broiling and Pan-Frying 95
Deep-Frying 95
Chapter 6 Meal Management 113
Types of Heat Transfer 95
Conduction 95 Food-Service Organization 113
Convection 96 Commercial Food-Service
Radiation 96 Organization 114
Induction 96 Escoffier’s System of Organization
Measuring Heat 96 via Stations 114
Administrative Positions 115
Cutlery Techniques 97 Hospital Food-Service Organization 115
Handling Knives 97
Cutting Styles 98 Types of Meal Planning 116
USDA Menu Patterns 116
Measuring Ingredients 101 Hospital Menu Patterns 117
Measuring Weight vs. Volume 101
Types of Menus 117
Using Scales 101
Cycle Menus 117
Metric vs. Nonmetric 101
Nutrition 118
Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 101
Using an Accurate Measuring Purchasing 118
Technique 101 Buyers 121
Liquids 101 Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 121
Eggs 102 Supermarkets 122
Fat 102 Warehouse Stores 122

vii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Co-ops 122 Connective Tissue 133
Smaller Outlets 122 Adipose (Fatty) Tissue 133
Food-Service Vendors 122 Bone 134
Cost Control 122 Antibiotics and Hormones 134
Meats 122 Pigments 136
Fish 122 Effect of Oxygen on Color 136
Dairy 122 Effect of Heat on Color 137
Bread/Grains 122 Extractives 137
Fruits and Vegetables 122
Purchasing Meats 137
Price Comparisons 122
Inspection 137
Reading Label Product Codes 123
Grading 139
Reducing Waste Saves Costs 123
Quality 139
As Purchased vs. Edible Portion 123
Yield 140
Percentage Yield 123
Tenderness of Meats 141
Portion Control 123
Natural Tenderizing 141
Time Management 124 Artificial Tenderizing 143
Estimating Time 124 Cuts of Meat 144
Efficient Meal Preparation 124 Terminology of Retail Cuts 144
Recipes 124 Beef Retail Cuts 144
Veal Retail Cuts 146
Types of Meal Service 125
Pork Retail Cuts 146
Russian Service 125
Lamb Retail Cuts 147
French Service 127
Variety Meats 147
English Service 127
Kosher Meats 149
American Service 127
Halal Meats 149
Family Service 127
Organic Meats 149
Buffet Service 127
Processed Meats 149
Table Settings 127 Processing Methods 149
Cover and Linens 127 Food Additives in Processed Meats 150
Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 127 Types of Processed Meat 152
Accessories 127 Mechanically Deboned Meat 152
Centerpieces 128 Restructured Meat 153
Preparation Of Meats 153
Changes during Heating 153
PART III FOODS Tenderness and Juiciness 153
Searing 153
Chapter 7 Meat 131 Flavor Changes 154
Flavor Enhancements 154
Types Of Meats 131
Determining Doneness 154
Beef 131
Internal Temperature 154
Veal 132
Time/Weight Charts 155
Lamb and Mutton 132
Color Changes 155
Pork 132
Touch 156
Composition of Meats 132 Dry-Heat Preparation 156
Structure of Meat 132 Roasting 156
Muscle Tissue 132 Broiling and Grilling 156
viii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Pan-Broiling 157 Stewing 173
Frying 157 Poaching 173
Deep-Frying 158 Microwaving 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 158
Storage of Poultry 174
Braising 158
Refrigerated 174
Simmering or Stewing 158
Frozen 174
Steaming 159
Microwaving 159
Chapter 9 Fish and Shellfish 177
Carving 159
Classification of Fish and Shellfish 177
Storage of Meats 159 Vertebrate or Invertebrate 177
Refrigerated 159
Vertebrates 178
Wrapping Meat 159
Invertebrates 178
Refrigeration Times 159
Saltwater or Freshwater 178
Packaging 160
Lean or Fat 178
Frozen 160
Composition of Fish 178
Chapter 8 Poultry 163 Structure of Finfish 178
Collagen 179
Classification of Poultry 163
Amino Acid Content 179
Composition of Poultry 163 Muscle Structure 179
Pigments 179
Purchasing Poultry 163
Inspection 163 Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 180
Grading 165 Inspection/Grading 181
Types and Styles of Poultry 165 Shellfish Certification 181
Processed Poultry 165 Selection of Finfish 181
Labeling 166 Fresh and Frozen Fish 181
Standardized Poultry Buying 166 Canned Fish 184
How Much to Buy 167 Cured Fish 185
Fabricated Fish 185
Preparation of Poultry 168
Caviar 186
Preparation Safety Tips 168
Selection of Shellfish 186
Thawing Frozen Poultry 168
Purchasing Live Shellfish 186
Stuffing 168
Purchasing Processed Shellfish 187
Brining 168
Shucking Shellfish 187
Changes during Preparation 169
Oysters 187
Determining Doneness 170
Clams 188
Internal Temperature 170
Scallops 188
Color Change 170
Mussels 188
Touch 170
Abalone 188
Time/Weight Charts 170
Lobsters 188
Dry-Heat Preparation 170
Shrimp 189
Roasting or Baking 170
Crab 189
Broiling or Grilling 172
Crayfish 190
Frying 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 173 Preparation of Fish and Shellfish 190
Braising 173 Dry-Heat Preparation 190

ix

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Baking 190 Reduced-Fat and Low-Fat Milks 204
Broiling 191 Fat-Free or Nonfat Milk 204
Grilling 191 Fresh Fluid Milks from Other Animals 204
Frying 191 Flavored Fluid Milks 204
Moist-Heat Preparation 191 Chocolate Milk 205
Poaching 191 Eggnog 205
Simmering 192 Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 205
Steaming 192 Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 205
Microwaving 192 Imitation Milk 206
Raw Fish Preparation 193 Filled Milk 206
Sashimi 193 Low-Sodium Milk 206
Sushi 193 Reduced-Lactose Milk 206
Ceviche 193 Plant-Based “Milks” 206
Food Safety Concerns 193 Soy Milk 206
Rice Milk 206
Storage of Fish and Shellfish 193
Almond Milk 206
Fresh Finfish 194
Nut Milks 207
Refrigerated 194
Hemp Milk 207
Spoilage Factors 194
Grain Milk 207
Storing Caviar 194
Coconut Milk 207
Fresh Shellfish 194
Canned Fluid Milks 207
Frozen 194
Whole Milk 207
Thawing 194
Evaporated Milk 207
Canned and Cured 194
Sweetened Condensed Milk 208
Dry Milk 208
Chapter 10 Milk 197
Nonfat Dry Milk 208
Functions of Milk in Foods 198 Instant Milk 208
Cultured Milk Products 208
Composition of Milk 198
Cultures Added to Milk 208
Nutrients 198
Buttermilk 209
Carbohydrate 198
Yogurt 210
Protein 199
Functional Foods—Probiotics 211
Fat 199
Acidophilus Milk 211
Vitamins 200
Kefir 211
Minerals 200
Sour Cream 211
Color Compounds 200
Creams and Substitutes 212
Food Additives 201
Cream 212
Purchasing Milk 202 Cream Substitutes 212
Grades 202
Milk Products in Food Preparation 212
Pasteurization 202
Flavor Changes 212
Ultrapasteurization 202
Coagulation and Precipitation 212
Ultrahigh-Temperature Processing 202
Heat 212
Homogenization 203
Acid 212
Types of Milk 204 Enzymes 213
Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 204 Salts 213
Whole Milk 204 Whipped Milk Products 213

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Whipped Cream 213 Storage of Cheese 232
Whipped Evaporated Milk 214 Dry Storage 232
Whipped Reconstituted Nonfat Dry Refrigeration 232
Milk 215 Frozen 233
Storage of Milk Products 215 Chapter 12 Eggs 236
Refrigerated 215
Dry Storage 215 Composition of Eggs 236
Yolk 236
Chapter 11 Cheese 218 Albumen 237
Shell Membranes 237
Classification of Cheeses 218 Air Cell 237
Place of Origin 219 Shell 238
Moisture Content 219
Purchasing Eggs 238
Cheese Production 219 Inspection 238
Milk Selection 221 Eggs Failing USDA Inspection 238
Coagulation 221 Grading 238
Enzyme Coagulation 221 Grading Methods 238
Acid Coagulation 223 Sizing 240
Curd Treatment 223 Egg Substitutes 240
Curing and Ripening 224 Value-Added Eggs 240
Whey and Whey Products 226
Types of Eggs 241
Whey Cheeses 228
Dry Whey 228 Functions of Eggs in Foods 241
Modified Whey Products 228 Emulsifying 241
Process (Processed) Cheeses 228 Binding 241
Process Cheese 228 Foaming 241
Cold-Pack Cheese 228 Beating Technique 243
Process Cheese Food 229 Temperature 243
Process Cheese Spread 229 Bowl Selection 244
Imitation Cheese 229 Separation of Eggs 244
Tofu and Other Nondairy Cheeses 229 Additives 244
Food Additives in Cheese 229 Interfering 244
Clarifying 244
Purchasing Cheese 229 Color 244
Grading 229
Forms of Cheese 230 Preparation of Eggs 244
Changes in Prepared Eggs 245
Food Preparation with Cheese 230 Effects of Temperature and Time 245
Selecting a Cheese 230 Effects of Added Ingredients 245
Shreddability 230 Color Changes 245
Meltability 230 Dry-Heat Preparation 246
Oiling Off 231 Frying 246
Blistering 231 Baking 247
Browning 231 Moist-Heat Preparation 248
Stretchability 231 Hard or Soft “Boiling” 248
Temperatures 231 Coddling 249
Cutting Cheese 232 Poaching 249
xi

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Custards 250 Corn 266
Microwaving 250 Cucumbers 266
Eggplant 267
Storage of Eggs 251
Exotic Vegetables 267
Refrigerator 251
Garlic 267
Whole Eggs 251
Ginger 268
Storage Eggs 251
Greens 268
Pasteurized Eggs 251
Leeks 268
Frozen 251
Lettuce 268
Dried 252
Mushrooms 268
Rehydrating Dried Eggs 252
Okra 269
Safety Tips 252
Onions 269
Purchase 253
Parsley 270
Preparation 253
Parsnips 270
Consumption 253
Peas 270
Storage 253
Peppers, Hot 270
Peppers, Sweet 270
Chapter 13 Vegetables and Potatoes 270
Legumes 256 Radishes 271
Classification of Vegetables 256 Rutabagas 271
Spinach 271
Composition of Vegetables 256 Sprouts 271
Structure of Plant Cells 256 Squash 272
Cell Wall 256 Sweet Potatoes 272
Storage Structures in Parenchyma Cells 257 Tomatoes 273
Intercellular Air Spaces 258 Turnips 273
Plant Pigments 258
Carotenoids 258 Legumes 273
Chlorophyll 258 Textured Vegetable Protein 274
Flavonoids 259 Meat Analogs 274
Plants as Functional Foods 259 Tofu 274
Additives 261 Fermented Soybean Foods 274

Purchasing Vegetables 263 Preparation of Vegetables 275

Grading Vegetables 263 General Guidelines 275
Selecting Vegetables 263 Changes During Heating 275
Artichoke 263 Texture 275
Asparagus 266 Flavor 275
Beans (Green Snap, Green, Wax, and Yellow Odor 276
Wax-Pod Beans) 266 Color 276
Beets 266 Nutrient Retention 277
Broccoli 266 Dry-Heat Preparation 277
Brussels Sprouts 266 Baking 277
Cabbage 266 Roasting 278
Carrots 266 Frying 278
Cauliflower 266 Moist-Heat Preparation 278
Celery 266 Simmering 278

xii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Steaming 278 Guavas 293
Braising 279 Kiwifruit 293
Microwaving 279 Kumquats 293
Preparing Legumes 279 Lemons 293
Preparing Sprouts 280 Limes 293
Growing Sprouts 280 Mandarins 293
Storing Sprouts 280 Mangoes 294
Melons 294
Storage of Vegetables 280
Nectarines 294
Refrigerated 281
Olives 295
Special Storage Requirements 281
Oranges 295
Maintaining Moisture 281
Papayas 296
Freezing 281
Peaches 296
Dry Storage 281
Pears 296
Storing Potatoes 281
Persimmons 296
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 281
Pineapple 296
Plums 297
Chapter 14 Fruits 284
Pomegranates 298
Classification of Fruits 284 Rhubarb 298
Classification Exceptions 285 Tangerines—see Mandarins 298
Tropical Fruits 298
Composition of Fruits 285
Superfruits 298
Organic Acids 285
Processed Fruits 299
Acidity of Fruits 285
Canned 299
Pectic Substances 285
Frozen 300
Use of Pectin by the Food Industry 286
Dried 300
Pectin Formation in Ripening Fruit 286
Fruit Juices 300
Pectic Substances and Juice
Fruit/Vegetable Juice Processing 300
Cloudiness 286
Phenolic Compounds 286
Preparation of Fruits 302
Phenolic Compounds and Enzymatic
Limiting Enzymatic Browning 302
Browning 286
Denaturing Enzymes 302
Fruits as Functional Foods 287
Reducing pH 302
Food Additives in Fruits 288
Lowering Temperature 302
Purchasing Fruits 289 Coating Fruits with Sugar or Water 302
Grading Fruit 289 Adding Antioxidants 302
Selecting Fruits 290 Changes during Ripening and
Apples 290 Heating 302
Apricots 290 Color 302
Avocados 290 Texture 303
Bananas 291 Flavor 304
Berries 291 Dry-Heat Preparation 304
Cherries 292 Baking 304
Dates 292 Broiling 304
Figs 292 Frying/Sautéing 304
Grapefruit 293 Moist-Heat Preparation 304
Grapes 293 Stewing/Poaching 304
xiii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Applesauce Preparation 305 Gelatins 321
Preparing Dried Fruit 305 What Is Gelatin? 321
Fruit Spreads 305 Is Gelatin Nutritious? 321
Types of Fruit Spreads 305 Preparation of a Gel 321
Ingredients 305 Phases of Gel Formation 321
Preparing Fruit Spreads 306 Phase 1—Hydration 321
Phase 2—Dispersion 321
Storage of Fruits 307
Phase 3—Gelation 322
Storing Fresh Fruit 307
Unmolding a Mold 322
Storing Canned Fruit 307
Factors Influencing Gel Formation 322
Olives 307
Gelatin Concentration 322
Chapter 15 Soups, Salads, Temperature 322
Added Ingredients 323
and Gelatins 310
Whipping 323
Soups 310 Storage of Gelatin 323
Types of Soups 310
Stocks 311 Chapter 16 Cereal Grains and
White and Brown Stocks 311 Pastas 326
Water: The Main Ingredient 311
Flavoring Ingredients 312 Composition of Cereal Grains 327
Meat Stocks 312 Structure 327
Poultry Stocks 312 Husk 327
Fish Stocks 312 Bran 327
Vegetable Stocks 313 Endosperm 327
Storage of Soup Stocks 313 Germ 328
Clear and Thin Soups 313 Food Additives in Grain Products 328
Bouillon 313
Uses Of Cereal Grains 329
Consommé 313
Flour 329
Thin Soups 313
Pasta 329
Thickened Soups 313
Breakfast Cereal 329
Cream Soups 314
Alcoholic Beverages 329
Salads 315 Animal Feeds 329
Salad Ingredients 316 General Types of Cereal Grains 329
Garnishes 316
Toasting Nuts 316 Cereal Grains Containing
Principles of Salad Preparation 316 Gluten 330
Leafy Green Salads 316 Wheat 330
Vegetable Salads 318 Classification of Wheat 330
Fruit Salads 318 Forms of Wheat 331
Protein Salads 319 Ancient Wheat Grains 331
Pasta/Grain Salads 319 Barley 331
Salad Dressings 319 Forms of Barley 331
Oil and Vinegar Dressings 320 Oats 332
Emulsified Dressings 320 Forms of Oats 332
Other Dressings 320 Rye 332
Adding Dressings to Salads 321 Triticale 333

xiv

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Gluten-Free Cereal Grains 334 Baker’s Asthma 350
Amaranth 334 Wheat Allergy 350
Buckwheat 334 Celiac Disease 350
Chia Seeds 334 Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS) 350
Corn 334 What Does “Gluten-Free” Mean? 350
Classification of Corn 334 Milling 350
Forms of Corn 335 Five Steps of Milling 351
Indian Rice Grass 336 Wet Milling 352
Millet 336 Wheat Flour Classifications 352
Quinoa 336 Percent Protein Content 352
Rice 336 Mineral Content 352
Classification of Rice 336 Types of Wheat Flour 352
Forms of Rice 337 Whole-Wheat Flour 352
Sorghum 337 Bread Flour 352
Teff 337 White Flour 353
Graham Flour 353
Preparation of Cereal Grains 338
Ancient Grain Flours 353
Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/
High-Gluten Flour 353
Simmering 338
Types of Nonwheat Grain Flours
Preparation 338
Containing Gluten 354
Cooking the Grain 338
Rye Flour 354
Determining Doneness 339
Triticale Flour 354
Standing Time 339
Types of Gluten-Free Grain Flours 354
Sautéing and Baking 339
Amaranth 354
Microwaving 339
Buckwheat Flour 354
Storage of Cereal Grains 339 Cornmeal Flour 354
Dry 339 Rice Flour 355
Refrigerated 340 Sorghum Flour 355
Frozen 340 Gluten-Free Flour 355
Pastas 340 Types of Nongrain, Gluten-Free
Types of Pasta 340 Flours 355
Tuber-Based: Potato Flour 355
Preparation of Pasta 341 Legume-Based 355
Moist-Heat Preparation 341 Nut-Based 355
Microwaving 342 Treated Wheat Flours 355
Storage of Pasta 342 Aged Flour 355
Bleached Flour 355
Chapter 17 Flours and Flour Phosphated Flour 355
Mixtures 346 Self-Rising Flour 356
Instant or Agglomerated Flour 356
FLOURS 347
Enriched Flour 356
Starch 347
Gluten 347 Flour Mixture Ingredients 356
Purpose of Gluten 347 Leavening Agents 356
Steps to Gluten Formation 348 Air and Steam 356
Dried Gluten 349 Yeast 356
Cereal-Grain Food Sensitivities 350 Bacteria 358

xv

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Baking Soda 358 Edible Films 370
Potassium Bicarbonate 359 Dextrose 370
Baking Powder 359 Starch Syrups 371
Too Much/Too Little Leavening 360 Starch Structure 371
Too Much/Too Little Flour 360
Starch Transformations 372
Sugar 360
Gelatinization 372
Functions of Sugar 360
Factors Influencing Gelatinization 372
Types of Sugar 360
Gel Formation 373
Too Much/Too Little Sugar 360
Retrogradation 374
Salt 361
Dextrinization 374
Salt Controls Yeast Growth 361
Instant or Pregelatinized Starches 375
Too Much/Too Little Salt 361
Resistant Starches (RS) 375
Flavorings 361
RS4 Modified (Chemically) Starches 375
Liquid 361
Milk 361 Sauces 376
Too Much/Too Little Liquid 361 Functions of Sauces in Foods 376
Fat 361 Types of Sauces 376
Functions of Fat 362 Mother Sauces 376
Types of Fat Used in Baked Goods 362 Small Sauces 376
Temperature of Fat 363 Preparation of Thickened Sauces 377
Lower-Fat Alternatives 363 Ingredients of Thickened Sauces 377
Too Much/Too Little Fat 363 Preparing Thickeners 378
Eggs 363 Preparing a Sauce from a Roux 379
Too Much/Too Little Egg 363 Preventing Lumps 379
Commercial Additives 363 Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 380
Aging or Maturing Agents 363 Gravy 380
Dough Conditioners 363 Hollandaise Sauce 381
Food Additives in Flours 364 Barbecue Sauce 381
Butter Sauce 381
Preparation of Baked Goods 365
Fruit Sauce 381
Doughs and Batters 365
Tartar Sauce 381
Doughs 365
Tomato Sauce 382
Batters 365
Changes during Heating 365 Storage of Starches And Sauces 382
High-Altitude Adjustments 366
Chapter 19 Quick Breads 385
Storage of Flour And Flour
Mixtures 366 Preparation of Quick Breads 385
Dry Storage 366 The Muffin Method 386
Frozen 366 Additives Used in Quick Breads 386
Varieties of Quick Breads 386
Chapter 18 Starches and Sauces 369
Pour Batters 386
Starch Characteristics 369 Pancakes 386
Sources of Starch 369 Crêpes 386
Cornstarch 370 Waffles 387
Starch in Food Products 370 Popovers 387
Thickening Agent 370 Drop Batters 387

xvi

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Muffins 388 English Muffins 407
Muffin Breads 389 Pizza Crust 408
Coffee Cakes 390 Pretzels and Bread Sticks 408
Dumplings 390 Raised Doughnuts 408
Doughs 390
Storage of Yeast Breads 408
Unleavened Breads 390
Fresh 408
Biscuits 391
Staling 408
Scones 392
Preventing Staling 408
Crackers 392
Fresh Bread Additives 408
Refrigerated 408
Chapter 20 Yeast Breads 395
Frozen 408
Preparation of Yeast Breads 395
Ingredients 395 Chapter 21 Sweeteners 411
Food Additives in Baked Products 396
Natural Sweeteners 412
Mixing Methods 397
Sugars 413
Straight Dough Method 398
Sucrose 413
Sponge Method 398
Lactose 414
Batter Method 398
Maltose 414
Rapid Mix 398
Glucose 415
Kneading 398
Fructose 415
Proofing: Fermentation Causes the Dough
Syrups 415
to Rise 399
Corn Syrup 415
Changes during Fermentation 400
High-Fructose Corn Syrup 416
Optimal Fermentation Conditions 400
Honey 416
Avoid Overfermentation 400
Molasses 417
Punching Down and Second Proofing 401
Maple Syrup 417
Shaping 401
Agave Syrup 418
Selecting a Baking Pan 402
Invert Sugar 418
Decorating 402
Sugar Alcohols 418
Baking 402
Sugar Alcohols in Foods 418
Changes during Baking 402
Problems with Sugar Alcohols 419
Crumb Development 403
Problems with Texture 403 Nonnutritive Sweeteners 419
Testing for Doneness 403 Use in Foods and Beverages 419
Microwave Preparation 404 Safety 419
High-Altitude Adjustments 405 Food Functions 421
Saccharin 421
Types of Yeast Breads 405
Aspartame 421
Loaf Breads 405
Acesulfame-K 421
Wheat (White) Bread 405
Sucralose 421
Whole-Wheat Bread 406
Neotame 422
Sourdough Bread 406
Stevia and Its Derivatives 422
Malt Breads 406
Luo Han Guo 422
Specialty Breads 406
Other Nonnutritive Sweeteners 423
Rolls 406
Pita Bread 406 Functions of Sugars In Foods 423
Bagels 407 Sweetness 423
xvii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
body in its hollow. A contractile vacuole, here termed a "pusule,"
occurs in many species, communicating with the longitudinal groove
by a canal. Nematocysts (see p. 246 f.) are present in Polykrikos,
trichocysts (see p. 142) in several genera.

Fig. 46.—Peridinium divergens. a, Flagellum of longitudinal groove; b, flagellum

of transverse groove; cr.v, contractile vacuole surrounded by formative
vacuoles; n, nucleus. (After Schütt.)

Division is usually oblique, dividing the body into two dissimilar

halves, each of which has to undergo a peculiar growth to
reconstitute the missing portion, and complete the shell. The
incomplete separation of the young cells leads to the formation of
chains, notably in Ceratium and Polykrikos, the latter dividing
transversely and occurring in chains of as many as eight. The
process of division may take place when the cell is active, or in a
cyst, as in Pyrocystis (Fig. 47). Again, encystment may precede
multiple fission, resulting in the formation of a brood of minute
swarmers. It has been suggested that these are capable of playing
the part of gametes, and conjugating in pairs.[142]

The Dinoflagellates are for the most part pelagic in habit, floating at
the surface, and when abundant tinge the water of fresh-water lakes
or even ponds red or brown. Peridinium (Fig. 46) and Ceratium (the
latter remarkable for the horn-like backward prolongations of the
lower end) are common genera both in the sea and fresh-waters.
Gymnodinium pulvisculus is sometimes parasitic in Appendicularia
(Vol. VII. p. 68). Polykrikos[143] has four transverse grooves, each
with its flagellum, besides the terminal one. Many of the marine
species are phosphorescent, and play a large part in the luminosity
of the sea, and some give it a red colour.

Several fossil forms have been described. Peridinium is certainly

found fossil in the firestone of Delitzet, belonging to the Cretaceous.
A full monograph of the group under the name "Peridiniales" was
published by Schütt.[144]
 Fig. 47.—Pyrocystis fusiformis, Murray. × 100. From the surface in the Guinea
Current. (From Wyville Thomson.)

The Cystoflagellates contain only two genera,[145] Noctiluca,

common at the surface of tranquil seas, to which, as its name
implies, it gives phosphorescence, and Leptodiscus, found by R.
Hertwig in the Mediterranean. Noctiluca is enormous for a Flagellate,
for with the form of a miniature melon it measures about 1 mm.
(1⁄25") or more in diameter. In the depression is the "oral cleft," from
one end of which rises, by a broad base, a large coarse flagellum, as
long as the body or longer and transversely striated. In front of the
base of the flagellum are two lip-like prominences, of which one, a
little firmer than the other, and transversely ridged, is called the
tooth; at the junction of the two is a second, minute, flagellum,
usually called the cilium. Behind these the oral groove has an oval
space, the proper mouth; behind this, again, the oral groove is
continued for some way, with a distinct rod-like ridge in its furrow.
The whole body, including the big flagellum, is coated by a strong
cuticular pellicle, except at the oblong mouth, and the lips and rod
are mere thickenings of this. The cytoplasm has a reticulate
arrangement: the mouth opens into a central aggregate, from which
strands diverge branching as they recede to the periphery, where
they pass into a continuous lining for the cuticular wall, liquid filling
the interspaces. The whole arrangement is not unlike that found in
many plant-cells, but the only other Protists in which it occurs are the
Ciliata Trachelius (Fig. 56, p. 153) and Loxodes. The central mass
contains the large nucleus. Noctiluca is an animal feeder, and expels
its excreta through the mouth. The large flagellum is remarkable for
the transverse striation of its plasma, especially on the ventral side.
The cuticle may be moulted as in the Dinoflagellates. As a prelude to
fission the external differentiations disappear, the nucleus divides in
the plane of the oral groove, and a meridional constriction parts the
two halves, the new external organs being regenerated. Conjugation
occurs also, the two organisms fusing by their oral region; the
locomotive organs and pharynx disappear; the conjoined cytoplasms
unite to form a sphere, and the nuclei fuse to form a zygote or
fertilisation nucleus. This conjugation is followed by sporulation or
brood-formation.[146]

Fig. 48.—Noctiluca miliaris, a marine Cystoflagellate. (From Verworn.)

The nucleus passes towards the surface, undergoes successive

fissions, and as division goes on the numerous daughter-nuclei
occupy little prominences formed by the upgrowth of the cytoplasm
of the upper pole. The rest of the cytoplasm atrophies, and the
hillocks formed by the plasmic outgrowths around the final daughter-
nuclei become separate as so many zoospores (usually 256 or 512);
each of these is oblong with a dorsal cap-like swelling, from the edge
of which arises a flagellum pointing backwards; parallel to this the
cap is prolonged on one side into a style also extending beyond the
opposite pole of the animal.[147] In this state the zoospore is, to all
outward view, a naked Dinoflagellate, whence it seems that the
Cystoflagellates are to be regarded as closely allied to that group.
Leptodiscus is concavo-convex, circular, with the mouth central on
the convex face, 1-flagellate, and attains the enormous size of 1.5
mm. (1⁄16") in diameter.

The remarkable phosphorescence of Noctiluca is not constant. It

glows with a bluish or greenish light on any agitation, but rarely when
undisturbed. A persistent stimulus causes a continuous, but weak,
light. This light is so weak that several teaspoonsful of the organism,
collected on a filter and spread out, barely enable one to read the
figures on a watch a foot away. As in other marine
phosphorescence, no rise of temperature can be detected. The
luminosity resides in minute points, mostly crowded in the central
mass, but scattered all through the cytoplasm. A slight irritation only
produces luminosity at the point touched, a strong one causes the
whole to flash. Any form of irritation, whether of heat, touch, or
agitation, electricity or magnetism, is stated to induce the glow. By
day, it is said, Noctiluca, when present in abundance, may give the
sea the appearance of tomato soup.

The earliest account of Noctiluca will be read with interest. Henry

Baker writes in Employment for the Microscope:[148]—"A curious
Enquirer into Nature, dwelling at Wells upon the Coast of Norfolk,
affirms from his own Observations that the Sparkling of Sea Water is
occasioned by Insects. His Answer to a Letter wrote to him on that
Subject runs thus, 'In the Glass of Sea Water I send with this are
some of the Animalcules which cause the Sparkling Light in Sea
Water; they may be seen by holding the Phial up against the Light,
resembling very small Bladders or Air Bubbles, and are in all Places
of it from Top to Bottom, but mostly towards the Top, where they
assemble when the Water has stood still some Time, unless they
have been killed by keeping them too long in the Phial. Placing one
of these Animalcules before a good Microscope, an exceeding
minute Worm may be discovered, hanging with its Tail fixed to an
opake Spot in a Kind of Bladder, which it has certainly a Power of
contracting or distending, and thereby of being suspended at the
Surface, or at any Depth it pleases in the including Water.'"
"The above-mentioned Phial of Sea Water came safe, and some of
the Animalcules were discovered in it, but they did not emit any
Light, as my Friend says they do, upon the least Motion of the Phial
when the Water is newly taken up. He likewise adds, that at certain
Times, if a Stone be thrown into the Sea, near the Shore, the Water
will become luminous as far as the Motion reacheth: this chiefly
happens when the Sea hath been greatly agitated, or after a Storm."
Obviously what Mr. Sparshall, Baker's correspondent, took for a
worm was the large flagellum.

The chief investigators of this group have been Huxley, Cienkowski,

Allman, Bütschli, and G. Pouchet, while Ischikawa and Doflein have
elucidated the conjugation.

CHAPTER VI

PROTOZOA (CONTINUED): INFUSORIA (CILIATA AND SUCTORIA)

IV. Infusoria.
Complex Protozoa, never holophytic save by symbiosis with plant
commensals, never amoeboid, with at some period numerous short cilia, of
definite outline, with a double nuclear apparatus consisting of a large
meganucleus and a small micronucleus (or several),[149] the latter alone
taking part in conjugation (karyogamy), and giving rise after conjugation to the
new nuclear apparatus.

The name Infusoria was formerly applied to the majority of the

Protozoa, and included even the Rotifers. For the word signifies
organisms found in "infusions" of organic materials, including
macerations. Such were made with the most varied ingredients,
pepper and hay being perhaps the favourites. They were left for
varying periods exposed to the air, to allow the organisms to develop
therein, and were then examined under the microscope.[150] With
the progress of our knowledge, group after group was split off from
the old assemblage until only the ciliate or flagellate forms were left.
The recognition of the claims of the Flagellates to independent
treatment left the group more natural;[151] while it was enlarged by
the admission of the Acinetans (Suctoria), which had for some time
been regarded as a division of the Rhizopoda.

I. Ciliata
Infusoria, with a mouth, and cilia by which they move and feed;
usually with undulating membranes, membranellae, cirrhi, or some of
these. Genera about 144: 27 exclusively marine, 50 common to both
sea and fresh water, 27 parasitic on or in Metazoa, the rest fresh
water. Species about 500.

We divide the Ciliata thus:[152]—

(I.) Mouth habitually closed,

opening by retraction of its
circular or slit-like margin; cilia
uniform Order 1. Gymnostomaceae.
Lacrymaria, Ehrb.; Loxodes, Ehrb.; Loxophyllum, Duj.;
Lionotus, Wrez.; Trachelius, Schrank; Amphileptus, Ehrb.;
Actinobolus, St.; Didinium, St.; Scaphiodon, St; Dysteria,
Huxl.; Coleps, Nitzsch.; Dileptus, Duj.; Ileonema, Stokes;
Mesodinium, St.
(II.) Mouth permanently open,
usually equipped with one or
more undulating membranes,
receiving food by ciliary action
(Trichostomata, Bütschli)
(a) Cilia nearly uniform, usually Order 2. Aspirotrichaceae.
extending over the whole
 body, without any special
adoral wreath of long cilia
or membranellae; mouth
with one or two undulating
membranes at its margin
or extending into the short
pharynx.
Paramecium, Hill; Colpoda, O. F. Müll.; Colpidium, St.;
Leucophrys, Ehrb.; Cyclidium, Cl. and L.; Lembadion,
Perty; Cinetochilum, Perty; Pleuronema, Duj.; Ancistrum,
Maup.; Glaucoma, Ehrb.; Uronema, Duj.; Lembus, Cohn;
Urocentrum, Nitzsch; Icthyophtheirius, Fouquet.
(b) Strong cilia or
membranellae forming an
adoral wreath, and
bounding a more or less
enclosed area, the
"peristome," at one point
of which the mouth lies.
(i.) Body more or less
equally covered with
fine cilia; adoral
wreath an open spiral Order 3. Heterotrichaceae
Spirostomum, Ehrb.; Bursaria, O. F. Müll.; Stentor,
Oken; Folliculina, Lamk.; Conchophtheirus, St.;
Balantidium, Cl. and L.; Nyctotherus, Leidy; Metopus,
Cl. and L.; Caenomorpha, Perty; Discomorpha,
Levander; Blepharisma, Perty.
(ii.) Body cilia limited in
distribution or absent;
peristome anterior,
nearly circular,
sinistrorse. Order 4. Oligotrichaceae.
Halteria, Duj.; Maryna, Gruber; Tintinnus, Schrank;
 Dictyocystis, Ehrb.; Strombidium, Cl. and L. (=
Torquatella, Lank.).
(iii.) Peristome extending
backwards along the
ventral face, which
alone is provided with
motile cirrhi, etc.;
dorsal cilia fine,
motionless. Order 5. Hypotrichaceae.
Stylonychia, Ehrb.; Kerona, O. F. Müll.; Oxytricha,
Ehrb.; Euplotes, Ehrb.; Stichotricha, Perty;
Schizotricha, Gruber.
(iv.) Body cilia reduced to
a posterior girdle, or
temporarily or
permanently absent;
peristome anterior,
nearly circular, edged
by the adoral wreath,
[153] bounded by a
gutter edged by an
elevated rim or collar. Order 6. Peritrichaceae.
Lichnophora, Cl.; Trichodina, Ehrb.; Vorticella, L.;
Zoothamnium, Bory; Carchesium, Ehrb.; Epistylis,
Ehrb.; Opercularia, Lamk.; Vaginicola, Lamk.;
Pyxicola, Kent; Cothurnia, Ehrb.; Scyphidia,
Lachmann; Ophrydium, Bory; Spirochona, St.

The Ciliata have so complex an organisation that, as with the

Metazoa, it is well to begin with the description of a definite type. For
this purpose we select Stylonychia mytilus, Ehrb. (Fig. 49), a species
common in water rich in organic matter, and relatively large (1⁄75" =
⅓ mm.). It is broadly oval in outline, with the wide end anterior,
truncate, and sloping to the left side behind; the back is convex,
thinning greatly in front; the belly flat. It moves through the water
either by continuous swimming or by jerks, and can either crawl
steadily over the surface of a solid or an air surface such as an air
bubble, or advance by springs, which recall those of a hunting
spider. The boundary is everywhere a thin plasmic pellicle, very
tender, and readily undergoing diffluence like the rest of the cell.
From the pellicle pass the cilia, which are organically connected with
it, though they may be traced a little deeper; they are arranged in
slanting longitudinal rows, and are much and variously modified,
according to their place and function. On the edge of the dorsal
surface they are fine and motionless, probably only sensory (s.h.);
except three, which protrude well over the hinder end (c.p.), stout,
pointed, and frayed out at the ends, and possibly serving as oars or
rudders for the darting movements. These are distinguished from
simple cilia as "cirrhi."

Fig. 49.—Ventral view of Stylonychia mytilus. a.c, Abdominal cirrhi; an, anus
discharging the shell of a Diatom; c.c, caudal cirrhi; c.p, dorsal cirrhi; cv,
contractile vacuole; e, part of its replenishing canal; f.c, frontal cirrhi; f.v,
food vacuoles; g, internal undulating membrane; l, lip; m, mouth or pharynx;
mc, marginal cirrhi; N, N, lobes of meganucleus; n, n, micronuclei; o,
anterior end; per, adoral membranellae; poc, preoral cilia; p.om, preoral
undulating membrane; s.h, sense hairs. (Modified from Lang.)
At the right hand of the frontal area there begins, just within the
dorsal edge, a row of strong cilium-like organs (Fig. 49, per); these,
on careful examination, prove to be transverse triangular plates,
which after death may fray into cilia.[154] They are the "adoral
membranellae." This row passes to the left blunt angle, and there
crosses over the edge of the body to the ventral aspect, and then
curves inwards towards the median line, which it reaches about half-
way back, where it passes into the pharynx (m). It forms the front
and left-hand boundary of a wedge-shaped depression, the
"peristomial area," the right-hand boundary being the "preoral ridge"
or lip (l), which runs nearly on the median line, projecting downward
and over the depression. This ridge bears on its inner and upper side
a row of fine "preoral cilia" (poc) and a wide "preoral undulating
membrane" (p.om), which extends horizontally across, below the
peristomial area. The roof of this area bears along its right-hand
edge an "internal undulating membrane" (g), and then, as we pass
across to the left, first an "endoral membrane" and then an "endoral"
row of cilia. In some allied genera (not in Stylonychia), at the base
and on the inner side of each adoral membranella, is a "paroral"
cilium. All these motile organs, with the exception of the preoral cilia,
pass into the pharynx; but the adoral membranellae soon stop short
for want of room. There are some seventy membranellae in the
adoral wreath.

The rest of the ventral surface is marked by longitudinal lines, along

which the remaining appendages are disposed. On either side is a
row of "marginal cirrhi" (mc.), which, like the membranellae, may fray
out into cilia, but are habitually stiff spine-like, and straight in these
rows; these are the chief swimming organs. Other cirrhi, also
arranged along longitudinal rows, with so many blank spaces that
the arrangement has to be carefully looked for, occur in groups along
the ventral surface. On the right of the peristome are a group which
are all curved—the "frontal cirrhi" (f.c.). Behind the mouth is a
second group—the "abdominal cirrhi" (a.c.), also curved hooks; and
behind these again the straight spine-like "caudal" or "anal" cirrhi
(c.c), which point backwards. These three sets of ventral cirrhi are
the organs by which the animal executes its crawling and darting
movements. Besides the mouth there are two other openings, both
indistinguishable save at the very moment of discharge; the anus
(an) which is dorsal, and the pore of the contractile vacuole, which is
ventral.

The protoplasm of the body is sharply marked off into a soft, semi-
fluid "endoplasm" or "endosarc," and a firmer "ectoplasm" or
"ectosarc." The former is rich in granules of various kinds, and in
food-vacuoles wherein the food is digested. The mode of ingestion,
etc., is described below (p. 145). The ectoplasm is honeycombed
with alveoli of definite arrangement, the majority being radial to the
surface or elongated channels running lengthwise; inside each of
these lies a contractile plasmic streak or myoneme. The contractile
vacuole (cv) lies in this layer, a little behind the mouth, and is in
connexion with two canals, an anterior (e) and a posterior, from
which it is replenished.

The nuclear apparatus lies on the inner boundary of the ectoplasm; it

consists of (1) a large "meganucleus" formed of two ovoid lobes (N,
N), united by a slender thread; and (2) two minute "micronuclei" (n,
n), one against either lobe of the meganucleus.

Stylonychia multiplies by transverse fission, the details of which are

considered on pp. 144, 147.

The protoplasm of Ciliata is the most differentiated that we find in the

Protista, and we can speak without exaggeration of the "organs"
formed thereby.

The form of the body, determined by the firm pellicle or plasmic

membrane, is fairly constant for each species, though it may be
subject to temporary flexures and contractions. The pellicle varies in
rigidity; where the cilia are abundant it is proportionately delicate,
and scarcely differs from the ectoplasm proper, save for not being
alveolate. In the Peritrichaceae it is especially resistant and proof
against decay. In Coleps (Gymnostomaceae) it is hardened and
sculptured into the semblance of plate-armour, and the prominent
points of the plates around the mouth serve as teeth to lacerate
other active Protista, its prey; but, like the rest of the protoplasm, this
disappears by decay soon after the death of the Coleps. Where, as
in certain Oligotrichaceae, cilia are absent over part of the body, the
pellicle is hardened; and on the dorsal face and sides of Dysteria it
even assumes the character of a bivalve shell, and forms a tooth-like
armature about the mouth.

From the pellicle protrude the cilia, each of which is continued

inwards by a slender basal filament to end in a "basal granule" or
"blepharoplast." The body-cilia are fine, and often reversible in
action, which is exceptional in the organic world. They may be
modified or combined in various ways. We have seen that in
Stylonychia some are motionless sensory hairs. The cirrhi and setae
sometimes fray out during life, and often after death, into a brush at
the tip, and have a number of blepharoplasts at their base. The
same holds good for the membranellae and undulating membranes.
They are thus comparable to the "vibratile styles" of Rotifers (Vol. II.
p. 202) and the "combs" or "Ctenophoral plates" of the Ctenophora
(p. 412 f.).[155]

Fig. 50.—Ectosarc of Ciliata. a-f, from Stentor coeruleus; g, Holophrya discolor.

a, Transverse section, showing cilia, pellicle, canals, and myonemes; b,
surface view below pellicle, showing myonemes alternating with blue
granular streaks; c, more superficial view, showing rows of cilia adjacent to
myonemes; d, myoneme, highly magnified, showing longitudinal and
 transverse striation; e, two rows of cilia; f, g, optical sections of ectosarc,
showing pellicle, alveolar layer (a), myonemes (m), and canals in ectosarc.
(From Calkins, after Metschnikoff, Bütschli, and Johnson.)

The ectosarc has a very complex structure. Like other protoplasm it

has a honeycombed or alveolate structure, but in this case the
alveoli are permanent in their arrangement and position. Rows of
these alveoli run under the surface; and the cilia are given off from
their nodal points where the vertical walls of several unite, and
wherein the basal granule or blepharoplast is contained. Longitudinal
threads running along the inner walls of the alveoli of the superficial
layer are differentiated into muscular fibrils or "myonemes," to which
structures so many owe their marked longitudinal striation on the one
hand, and their power of sudden contraction on the other. The
appearance of transverse striation may be either due to transverse
myonemes, or produced by the folds into which the contraction of
longitudinal fibrils habitually wrinkles the pellicles, when it is fairly
dense (Peritrichaceae); circular muscular fibrils, however,
undoubtedly exist in the peristomial collar of this group. Embedded in
the ectosarc are often found trichocysts,[156] analogous to the
nematocysts of the Coelenterata (p. 247), and doubtless fulfilling a
similar purpose, offensive and defensive. A trichocyst is an oblong
sac (4 µ long in Paramecium) at right angles to the surface, which on
irritation, chemical (by tannin, acids, etc.) or mechanical, emits or is
converted into a thread several times the length of the cilia (33 µ),
often barbed at the tip. In the predaceous Gymnostomaceae, such
as Didinium, the trichocysts around (or even within) the mouth are of
exceptional size, and are ejected to paralyse, and ultimately to kill,
the active Infusoria on which they feed. In most of the Peritrichaceae
they are, when present, limited to the rim around the peristome,
while in the majority of species of Ciliata they have not been
described. Fibrils, possibly nervous,[157] have been described in the
deepest layer of the ectosarc in Heterotrichaceae.

The innermost layer of the ectosarc is often channelled by a system

of canals,[158] usually inconspicuous, as they discharge continuously
into the contractile vacuole; but by inducing partial asphyxia (e.g.
by not renewing the limited supply of air dissolved in the drop of
water on the slide under the cover-glass), the action of the vacuole is
slackened, and these canals may be more readily demonstrated.
The vacuole, after disappearance, forms anew either by the
coalescence of minute formative vacuoles, or by the enlargement of
the severed end of the canal or canals. The pore of discharge to the
surface is visible in several species, even in the intervals of
contraction.[159] The pore is sometimes near that of the anus, but is
only associated with it in Peritrichaceae, where it opens beside it into
the vestibule or first part of the long pharynx, often through a
rounded reservoir (Fig. 60, r) or elongated canal.

The endosarc, in most Ciliates well differentiated from the ectosarc,

is very soft; though it is not in constant rotation like that of a
Rhizopod, it is the seat of circulatory movements alternating with
long periods of rest. Thus it is that the food-vacuoles, after
describing a more or less erratic course, come to discharge their
undigested products at the one point, the anus. In a few genera
(Didinium, for instance) the course from mouth to anus is a direct
straight line, and one may almost speak of a digestive tract. In
Loxodes and Trachelius (Fig. 56) the endosarc, as in the Flagellate
Noctiluca (Fig. 48, p. 133), has a central mass into which the food is
taken, and which sends out lobes, which branch as they approach
and join the ectoplasm. The endosarc contains excretory granules,
probably calcium phosphate, droplets of oil or dissolved glycogen,
proteid spherules, paraglycogen grains, etc.

The nuclear apparatus lies at the inner boundary of the ectoplasm.

The "meganucleus" may be ovoid, elongated, or composed of two or
more rounded lobes connected by slender bridges (Stentor,
Stylonychia). The "micronucleus" may be single; but even when the
meganucleus is not lobed it may be accompanied by more than one
micronucleus, and when it is lobed there is at least one micronucleus
to each of its lobes.[160] The meganucleus often presents distinct
granules of more deeply staining material, varying with the state of
nutrition; these are especially visible in the band-like meganuclei of
the Peritrichaceae (Figs. 51, 60). At the approach of fission it is in
many cases distinctly fibrillated.[161] But all other internal
differentiation, as well as any constriction, then disappears; and the
ovoid or rounded figure becomes elongated and hour-glass shaped,
and finally constricts into two ovoid daughter-meganuclei, which,
during and after the fission of the cell, gradually assume the form
characteristic of the species. The micronuclei (each and all when
they are multiple) divide by modification of karyokinesis (or "mitosis")
as a prelude to fission: in this process the chromatin is resolved into
threads which divide longitudinally, but the nuclear wall remains
intact. If an Infusorian be divided into small parts, only such as
possess a micronucleus and a fragment of the meganucleus are
capable of survival. We shall see how important a part the
micronuclei play in conjugation, a process in which the old
meganuclei are completely disorganised and broken up and their
débris expelled or digested.

The mouth of the Gymnostomaceae is habitually closed, opening

only for the ingestion of the living Protista that form their prey. It
usually opens into a funnel-shaped pharynx, strengthened with a
circle of firm longitudinal bars, recalling the mouth of an eel-trap or
lobster-pot ("Reusenapparat" of the Germans); and this is
sometimes protrusible. In Dysteria the rods are replaced by a
complicated arrangement of jaw- or tooth-like thickenings, which are
not yet adequately described. We have above noted the strong
adoral trichocysts in this group.

In all other Ciliates[162] the "mouth" is a permanent depression lined

by a prolongation of the pellicle, and containing cilia and one or more
undulating membranes, and when adoral membranellae are present,
a continuation of these. In some species, such as Pleuronema (Fig.
57), one or two large membranes border the mouth right and left. In
Peritrichaceae the first part of the pharynx is distinguished as the
"vestibule," since it receives the openings of the contractile vacuole
or its reservoir and the anus. The pharynx at its lower end (after a
course exceptionally long and devious in the Peritrichaceae; Figs.
51, 60) ends against the soft endosarc, where the food-particles
accumulate into a rounded pellet; this grows by accretion of fresh
material until it passes into the endosarc, which closes up behind it
with a sort of lurch. Around the pellet liquid is secreted to form the
food-vacuole. If the material supplied be coloured and insoluble, like
indigo or carmine, the vacuoles may be traced in a sort of irregular,
discontinuous circulation through the endosarc until their remains are
finally discharged as faeces through the anus. No prettier sight can
be watched under the microscope than that of a colony of the social
Bell-animalcule (Carchesium) in coloured water—all producing food-
currents brilliantly shown up by the wild eddies of the pigment
granules, and the vivid blue or crimson colour of the food-vacuoles,
the whole combining to present a most attractive picture. Ehrenberg
fancied that a continuous tube joined up the vacuoles, and
interpreted them as so many stomachs threaded, as it were, along a
slender gut; whence he named the group "Polygastrica."

Fig. 51.—Carchesium polypinum. Scheme of the path taken by the ingested food
in digestion and expulsion of the excreta. The food enters through the
pharynx and is transported downward (small circles), where it is stored in
the concavity of the sausage-shaped meganucleus (the latter is recognised
by its containing darker bodies). It remains here for some time at rest (small
crosses). Then it passes upward upon the other side (dots) and returns to
the middle of the cell, where it undergoes solution. The excreta are
removed to the outside, through the vestibule and cell mouth. The black line
 with arrows indicates the direction of the path. (From Verworn, after
Greenwood.)

We owe to Miss Greenwood[163] a full account of the formation and

changes of the food-vacuoles in Carchesium polypinum. The
vacuole passes steadily along the endosarc for a certain time after
its sudden admission into it, and then enters on a phase of
quiescence. A little later the contents of the vacuole aggregate
together in the centre of the vacuole, where they are surrounded by
a zone of clear liquid; this takes place in the hollow of the
meganucleus, in this species horseshoe-shaped. The vacuole then
slowly passes on towards the peristome, lying deep in the endosarc,
and the fluid peripheral zone is absorbed. For some time no change
is shown in the food-material itself: this is the stage of "storage."
Eventually a fresh zone of liquid, the true digestive vacuole, forms
again round the food-pellet, and this contains a peptic juice, of acid
reaction. The contents, so far as they are capable of being digested,
liquefy and disappear. Ultimately the solid particles in their vacuole
reach the anal area of the vestibule, and pass into it, to be swept
away by the overflow of the food-current. The anus is seated on a
transverse ridge about a third down the tube, the remaining two-
thirds being the true pharynx.

Fission is usually transverse; but is oblique in the conical

Heterotrichaceae, and longitudinal in the Peritrichaceae. It involves
the peristome, of which one of the two sisters receives the greater,
the other the lesser part; each regenerates what is missing. When
there are two contractile vacuoles, as in Paramecium, either sister
receives one, and has to form another; where there is a canal or
reservoir divided at fission, an extension of this serves to give rise to
a new vacuole in that sister which does not retain the old one. In
some cases the fission is so unequal as to have the character of
budding (Spirochona). We have described above (p. 144) the
relations of the nuclear apparatus in fission.
Several of the Ciliata divide only when encysted, and then the
divisions are in close succession, forming a brood of four, rarely
more. This is well seen in the common Colpoda cucullus. In the
majority, however, encystment is resorted to only as a means of
protection against drought, etc., or for quiet rest after a full meal
(Lacrymaria).

Maupas[164] has made a very full study of the life-cycles of the

Ciliata. He cultivated them under the usual conditions for
microscopic study, i.e. on a slide under a thin glass cover supported
by bristles to avoid pressure, preserved in a special moist chamber;
and examined them at regular intervals.

Fig. 52.—Paramecium caudatum, stages in conjugation. gul, Gullet; mg.nu,

meganucleus; Mg.nu, reconstructed meganucleus; mi.nu, micronucleus;
Mi.nu, reconstructed micronucleus; o, mouth. (From Parker and Haswell,
after Hertwig.)

The animals collect at that zone where the conditions of aeration are
most suitable, usually just within the edge of the cover, and when
well supplied with food are rather sluggish, not swimming far, so that
they are easily studied and counted. When well supplied with
appropriate food they undergo binary fission at frequent intervals,
dividing as often as five times in the twenty-four hours at a
temperature of 65-69° F. (Glaucoma scintillans), so that in this period
a single individual has resolved itself into a posterity of 32; but such
a rapid increase is exceptional. At a minimum and a maximum
temperature multiplication is arrested, the optimum lying midway. If
the food-supply is cut off, encystment occurs in those species
capable of the process; but when there is a mixture of members of
different broods of the same species, subject to the limitations that
we shall learn, conjugation ensues. Under the conditions of Maupas'
investigations he found a limit to the possibilities of continuous
fissions, even when interrupted by occasional encystment. The
individuals of a series ultimately dwindle in size, their ciliary
apparatus is reduced, and their nuclear apparatus degenerates.
Thus the ultimate members of a fission-cycle show a progressive
decay, notably in the nuclear apparatus, which Maupas has aptly
compared to "senility" or "old age" in the Metazoan. If by the timely
mixture of broods conjugation be induced, these senile
degenerations do not occur.[165] In Stylonychia mytilus the produce
of a being after conjugation died of senility after 336 fissions; in
Leucophrys after 660.

Save in the Peritrichaceae (p. 151) conjugation takes place

between similar mates, either of the general character and size of
the species, or reduced by fissions, in rapid succession, induced by
the same conditions as those of mating. The two mates approach,
lying parallel and with their oral faces or their sides (Stentor)
together, and partially fuse thereby; though no passage of cytoplasm
is seen it is probable that there is some interchange or mixture.[166]

Fig. 53.—Diagram of conjugation in Colpidium colpoda. Horizontal line means

degeneration; parallel vertical lines, separation of gametes; broken lines