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Thermofluids
Thermofluids
From Nature to Engineering
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own
safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-90626-5
For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at
https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Part 1
Introduction
1. Thermofluids 3
1.1 What is Thermofluids? 4
1.1.1 Thermodynamics 4
1.1.2 Fluid mechanics 6
1.1.3 Heat transfer 8
1.2 Thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer 9
1.3 Dimensions and units 10
1.4 Organization of the book 14
Problems 15
References 16
3. Moving fluids 33
3.1 What is a fluid? 34
3.2 The continuum fluid 36
3.3 Nature thrives in moving fluids 37
3.4 What is viscosity? 37
3.5 Newtonian fluids 40
3.6 A classification of fluid motions 43
3.6.1 Fluid viscosity 43
vii
viii Contents
Part 2
An Ecological View on Engineering
Thermodynamics
5. The four laws of ecology 69
5.1 What is ecology? 69
5.2 The four laws of ecology 72
5.3 Animal thermoregulation 75
5.4 Learning from intelligent designs 78
5.4.1 Natural-convection-enabled air transport 78
5.4.2 Wearing polar bear hair 79
5.4.3 Ecological buildings 79
5.4.4 Intelligent designs are complex and integrated 80
Problems 80
References 81
Part 3
Environmental and Engineering Fluid Mechanics
8. Fluid statics 135
8.1 What is pressure? 136
8.2 Fluid statics 137
8.3 Hydrostatic pressure 140
8.4 Measuring pressure 144
8.5 Hydrostatic force on a surface 147
8.5.1 Curved two-dimensional surfaces 152
8.6 Buoyancy 153
8.6.1 Immersed bodies 155
8.6.2 Floating bodies 156
Problems 157
References 158
Problems 194
References 196
Part 4
Ecophysiology-flavored Engineering Heat Transfer
13. Steady conduction of thermal energy 255
13.1 Fourier’s law of heat conduction 256
13.2 From electric resistance to thermal resistance 260
13.3 One-dimensional heat conduction in cylindrical coordinates 261
Contents xi
Index 395
Textbook Cover Photo
xiii
List of figures
Fig. 1.1 A simplified illustration of the cycle of life sustained via the orderly
transfer of energy originating from the sun (created by S. Akhand). 5
Fig. 1.2 An illustration of the relative sizes and survival water depths of a giant
squid, a dolphin and a human (created by Y. Yang). 7
Fig. 1.3 A giraffe’s big heart versus a fist-sized human heart (created by Y. Yang).
William Hazlitt stated that, “The seat of knowledge is in the head, of
wisdom, in the heart.” 8
Fig. 1.4 A fennec fox equipped with fan-like ears abounding in heat-transferring
blood vessels to stay cool in the Sahara Desert (created by S. Akhand).
There are many blood vessels bringing warm blood to the big ears and
returning cooler blood after dissipating heat through the extended surface
area into the ambient air. 9
Fig. 1.5 Height versus length (created by Y. Yang). Dr. JAS measures a lamp post
to the desired length and asks T.-E. Baru to cut off the excess length. T.-E.
Baru sees “height” but not “length.” 11
Fig. 2.1 A living human body is a heat engine (created by O. Imafidon). Food
provides the fuel to generate work and heat. The unused energy from the
excess food is stored as fat for future usage. 21
Fig. 2.2 Comparing the quality of electrical, mechanical, and thermal energy
(created by O. Imafidon). The ease in transforming the form of energy to
other forms indicates the quality of the energy. 24
Fig. 2.3 A hierarchy of food energy chain (created by O. Imafidon). Consuming
the food of the lower level is more efficient and environmentally friendly
because 90% losses are compounded up the pyramid. 26
Fig. 3.1 Fluids versus solids (created by F. Fashimi). Fluids cannot sustain a shear
force, that is, a fluid continues to move under a shear force. A solid
deforms under a shear force to a certain amount and stops. 34
Fig. 3.2 The moving fluid with a stable vortex ring above a flying dandelion seed
(created by X. Wang). The appropriate porosity, shape, density, or weight
and its distribution, and dimensions furnish the right conditions for a
stable vortex ring above the seed, empowering the seed to travel far and
wide riding on the omnipresent atmospheric wind. 38
Fig. 3.3 A blackfly larva capitalizing on flow vortices and flow-induced vibrations
to scoop up food and convect it into its cephalic fans (created by Y. Yang).
The cephalic fans dance in harmony with the organized flow structures
that sweep up food, and synchronously conveying the food to the fans. 39
Fig. 3.4 A rotational rheometer for measuring fluid viscosity (created by F.
Fashami). With known gap, dgap = Ro – Ri , inner radius, Ri , inner
cylinder length, L, the torque, Tq , required to spin the inner cylinder at a
prescribed speed, Srpm , yields the fluid viscosity, μ. 39
Fig. 3.5 Shearing a rubber block versus a Newtonian fluid, of width W (created by
Y. Yang and D. Ting). The rubber block, being a solid, deforms, while
water, being a fluid, moves continuously. 41
xv
xvi List of figures
Fig. 3.6 Shear stress versus shearing strain rate for typical Newtonian fluids
(created by O. Imafidon). The slope corresponds to the viscosity. With
increasing temperature, from 20°C to 30°C, the slope corresponding to
water decreases. In other words, the viscosity of most Newtonian fluids
decreases with increasing temperature. 43
Fig. 3.7 Laminar steady versus unsteady wake downstream of a square cylinder
(created by X. Wang). The local flow is steady when its features do not
change with respect to time, and it is unsteady if the flow characteristics
vary with time. The two counter-rotating vortices remain stationary
behind the cylinder at a Reynolds number of 45. These vortices shed
alternatively at a slightly higher Reynolds number of 50. 45
Fig. 3.8 Rising incense smoke changing from laminar to transition, to turbulent
flow as it rises (created by X. Wang). 47
Fig. 4.1 Creating disorder by melting and evaporating ice cubes with heat in a
frying pan (created by X. Wang). Ice is more rigid and thus orderly than
water, and water is more orderly than steam. The progressively more
energetic H2 O is driven by temperature, the higher the temperature, the
more disorder are the H2 O molecules. 52
Fig. 4.2 H2 O molecules become progressively more disordered from ice to water
to steam, with increasing temperature (created by M. Abbasi). A unique
feature about H2 O is that the molecules are more loosely packed in the
solid phase, ice, than in the liquid phase, water. At the same time, the
molecules are more rigidly held together in ice than in water. The
crystalline lattice in ice is dominated by a regular array of hydrogen
bonds, spacing the molecules farther apart than they are in liquid water.
Liquid water contains the intermolecular force, that is, the hydrogen bond
occurs between the partially negative oxygen of a water molecule and the
partially positive hydrogen on a neighboring water molecule. 53
Fig. 4.3 A drinking bird operates as a heat engine (created by A. Raj). The ambient
air supplies the heat to operate this heat engine. A portion of this supplied
heat is utilized to evaporate water from the head, causing the liquid to rise
up via the inner stem to the head. The remaining heat is wasted, for
example, by heating the head when the bottom end of the stem is opened
up above the liquid surface, or by heating the other parts of the bird’s body. 54
Fig. 4.4 Modulating temperature via sea breeze and land breeze (created by A.
Raj). The high heat capacity of water buffers and dampens temperature
fluctuations in near-water neighborhood. During the day, the land, due to
its lower heat capacity, is heated up faster than the waters, by the rising
sun, as the hot air rises on land, the cooler air above the waters breezes
and cools the land. After sunset, the lower heat capacity land cools off
faster than the higher heat capacity water, and the wind circulation
reverses into land breeze. 55
Fig. 4.5 Specific heat capacity of air at constant volume versus constant pressure
(created by F. Kermanshahi). For compressible fluid like air the specific
heat capacity at constant pressure is larger than the specific heat capacity
at constant volume by the expansion work of pushing the system
boundary such as a movable piston. 57
Fig. 4.6 The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the surface area available
for heat transfer and the (negative) temperature gradient (created by F.
Kermanshahi). Note that heat transfer spontaneously from high to low
temperature, that is, in the negative-temperature-gradient direction. 60
List of figures xvii
Fig. 4.7 The heat transfer of barbequing fish fillets (created by X. Wang). To put it
concisely, heat is conducted from the hot grill to the fish as witnessed by
the beautiful grill lines. Heat is convected from the fire to the fish via
mostly invisible energetic hot plumes of different sizes. At the same time,
heat is radiated from the sooty fire and the hot inner surfaces to the
respective fish surface that is in view. 62
Fig. 5.1 A cold-blooded frog adjusting itself to its surroundings (created by S.
Akhand). The left figure shows that the body temperature of the frog is
low because it is in a cool autumn environment. The right figure exhibits
that the body temperature of the frog is high because its surroundings is
hot, during a hot summer day. 71
Fig. 5.2 An illustration of the “Boiling Frog” fable (created by S. F. Zinati). If we
put a live frog into a pot of hot water, it will jump out immediately. On the
other hand, if we place it in a pot of room-temperature water, and heat it
up slowly, the frog will adjust its body temperature to that of the slowly
increasing water temperature. According to the “Boiling Frog” narrative,
if the rise in water temperature is sufficiently slow, the frog will eventually
be boiled to death without realizing the water is too hot for it to stay. 71
Fig. 5.3 The simplified food chain (created by S. Akhand). A fallout of the second
law of thermodynamics is that even the mighty eagle, the king of the sky,
dies and decomposes. It takes the always-giving sun to transform the
compost back into all kinds of hearty plants that provide high quality food
and/or energy. Note that food web is a more accurate description that
illustrates the complexity involved, as most organisms have a more diverse
appetite than one food. 73
Fig. 5.4 Ectotherms survive changes in their environment primarily via behavioral
thermoregulation (created by S. Akhand). A lizard takes advantage of the
ground, shade, and the sun appropriately to achieve a comfortable thermal
condition. 77
Fig. 6.1 The different forms of energy include mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, electrical, chemical, and nuclear (created by S. Akhand).
Not included in the illustration are kinetic energy and potential energy. 87
Fig. 6.2 Thermodynamic systems (A) open system, (B) closed system, and (C)
isolated system (created by X. Wang). Both mass and energy can enter or
leave an open system. Only energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system. Nothing can enter or exit an isolated system. 91
Fig. 6.3 The conservation of energy between potential and kinetic energy of a
frictionless skateboarder is analogous to that of a pendulum (created by
Y. Yang). In the ideal frictionless situation, the sum of potential energy
and kinetic energy is a constant. 95
Fig. 6.4 Moving-boundary work of a piston-cylinder closed system (created by
F. Kermanshahi). Note that work is a path-dependent transient process,
where a different path leads to a different amount of work. Expansion
along Path A leads to more work than along Path B and Path C. 99
Fig. 6.5 The Carnot engine cycle (created by Y. Yang). Isothermal heat addition of
amount QH at the higher temperature, TH . Adiabatic (Q=0) expansion,
decreasing pressure as the volume increases. Isothermal heat rejection of
amount QL at the lower temperature, TL . Adiabatic compression process
back to its initial state. 103
Fig. 7.1 The four laws of thermodynamics illustrated (created by O. Imafidon).
The zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium. The first law is about the
conservation of energy. The second law is concerned with the natural flow
xviii List of figures
Quelle idée!
Puis ce fut à Julien à placer une petite tirade qui avait fait beaucoup
d'effet à la dernière répétition.
Elle en fit moins ce jour-là. On entendit comme la veille
l'applaudissement résolu de Madame Jehon. Mais l'assemblée ne
suivit pas, et même il y eut des défections parmi les gens du
château, dont la plupart se rallièrent au silence indifférent de la
grande majorité.
Julien était un peu désemparé. Mais il eut le temps de se remettre,
car c'était à Jacques de parler pendant quelques instants. Jacques
fit deux ou trois effets dans le courant de la scène. Puis Julien prit
congé:
Jacques de Delle:
Et Julien, s'inclinant:
Il me reste l'espoir!